Greenhouse effect of SF6

Ways of reducing consumption and emission of potent
greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6)
Project for the Nordic Council of Ministers
By
Per Henrik Pedersen, M.Sc.,

DTI Energy
December 1998
Danish Technological Institute

DTI Energy
Gregersensvej
P.O. Box 141
DK-2630 Taastrup
Tel.: +45 72 20 25 13 (direct)
Fax: +45 72 20 25 00
e-mail: Per.Henrik.Pedersen@teknologisk.dk
Nordic report on potent greenhouse gases
2
DTI Energy
3
Contents
Contents 5
Synopsis 6
Summary 9
1. Introduction 15
1.1 The greenhouse effect and potent greenhouse gases 15
1.2 Measures to reduce emissions in the Nordic countries 16
1.3 Purpose of the project and the participants 18
2. Consumption and emission of HFCs, PFCs and SF6 in the Nordic countries 21
2.1 Denmark 21
2.2 Finland 22
2.3 Iceland 23
2.4 Norway 23
2.5 Sweden 24
2.6 The Nordic countries combined 25
3. Use of HFCs, substitutes and other ways of reducing the emission 27
3.1 Domestic refrigerators and freezers 28
3.2 Commercial refrigeration systems 32
3.3 Air conditioning 35
3.4 Industrial refrigeration systems 36
3.5 Mobile refrigeration systems 37
3.6 Heat pumps 39
3.7 Cryogenic systems 41
3.8 Polyurethane insulating foam 41
3.9 Jointing foam 43
3.10 Flexible polyurethane foam 45
3.11 Extinguishants 46
3.12 Aerosol cans 47
3.13 Other applications 48
4. PFCs 49
4.1 PFC emission during production of aluminium 49
4.2 PFCs in refrigerant mixtures 52
4.3 Other PFC applications 53
5. Use of SF6 55
5.1 Cover gas in light-alloy metal foundries 55
5.2 Insulating gas in power switches 57
5.3 Sound-insulating windows 59
5.4 Other applications 60
References 63
Appendix A: Refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures 65
Appendix B: Commercial refrigeration systems 67
Appendix C: References for ammonia chillers 77
Appendix D: References for hydrocarbon chillers in Sweden 87
4
DTI Energy
Synopsis
The Nordic Cooperation Group’s synopsis of DTI’s project on the “new”, potent
greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol:
Introduction
The Kyoto Protocol covers the six main man-made greenhouse gases. Besides carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which occur naturally, the
Protocol covers three new groups of potent greenhouse gases. The gases in question are
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6),
all of which are synthetic gases that are used industrially.
All three groups of gases have a greenhouse effect that is many times greater than that
of CO2. SF6 is the most potent of them, with a 24,000 times greater Global Warming
Potential (GWP) than CO2. At the same time, SF6 and most of the PFCs have an
extremely long atmospheric life - up to 50,000 years.
The result is a continuous accumulation in the atmosphere of the very potent

greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetime.
In 1997, consumption of potent greenhouse gases in the Nordic countries resulted in an

emission of approx. 7.8 million tonnes of CO2 or around 3.6% of the total CO2 emission
in the Nordic countries. In the EU, consumption of the three potent greenhouse gases in
1995 accounted for around 2% of the CO2 emission. A considerable increase in the
consumption of potent greenhouse gases is expected in both the EU and the Nordic
countries unless steps are taken to reduce their use and emissions.
Table: Emissions and potential emissions of the potent greenhouse gases HFCs, PFCs
and SF6 in the Nordic countries
HFC PFC SF6 CO2- CO2- HFC, PFC,
potential (tonnes) Potential equivalents emission SF6
(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes) (mill. % of CO2
tonnes)
Denmark 902 3 11 1,629,000 59 2.76
Finland 276 0 6,9 708,500 56 1.26
Iceland 14 8 0,23 75,700 2.3 3.29
Norway 119 193 22 2,066,200 41 5.04
Sweden 1005 44.9 67 3,382,020 58 5.83
Nordic 2,316 249 107 7,861,000 216 3.64
countries
combined
Note 1: The figures for Denmark are from 1996 except the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 2: The figures for Finland are from 1997 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 3: The figures for Iceland are from 1997 except for the CO 2-emission, which is from 1995
Note 4: The figures for Norway are from 1996.
Note 5: The figures for Sweden are from 1997 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 6: Most of the emission of PFCs (246 of 249 tonnes) comes from aluminium production.
Although the industrial gases so far account for only a relatively limited percentage of
5
the total emission of greenhouse gases, they – like the other gases – represent a
challenge that must be taken up if the goals of the Climate Convention and the Kyoto
Protocol are to be achieved. At the same time, the three industrial gases are the most
poorly elucidated of the six greenhouse gases.
It is for that reason that the Nordic Cooperation Group on Energy and Environment
under the Nordic Council of Ministers has wished to elucidate the situation, initially in
the form of a technical report on the sources and use of the substances in the Nordic
countries and on the possibilities of reducing emissions and of substitution with
substances without a greenhouse effect.
The report shows that there are possibilities of substitution or reduction in almost all
applications – often at moderate additional cost.
The report gives a good picture of the new potent greenhouse gases in the Nordic
countries, but a number of areas and issues still need clarifying and in some fields there
is a need for amplification. For example, there is a need for improved baseline data,
deeper and broader knowledge of the costs, a more detailed analysis of the barriers to
use of the existing possibilities of reduction, and an analysis to determine the most
suitable control instruments for the various areas. The report also gives examples of the
need for the development of competitive technology.
There seems to be a good possibility of the Nordic countries being able to play a major
role in this area because of their technological strongholds within it, their good
traditions with respect to regulation and their desire for a high level of environmental
protection.
HFC
Consumption of HFCs in the Nordic countries in 1997 amounted to approx. 2,300
tonnes, corresponding to a potential CO2 emission of 3.7 million tonnes. Almost all of
the 2,300 tonnes, namely around 2,000 tonnes, were used in the refrigeration industry.
Of these 2,000 tonnes, approx. 1,700 tonnes were used as refrigerant, while the
remainder was used to make insulating foam for refrigerators etc. Approx. 200 tonnes
were used in the production of polyurethane foam and around 48 tonnes in the
manufacture of fire-extinguishing equipment.
The rise in consumption of HFCs in the Nordic countries from around zero in 1990 to
approx. 2,300 tonnes in 1997 was due in part to the fact that HFCs are to some extent
used to substitute HCFC and other ozone-depleting substances. Consumption has
presumably continued rising since 1997 and is expected to peak around 2000 and 2002,
when HCFC will be banned in a number of countries, including several in the Nordic
countries. In the last few years a new trend has developed towards substitution of
HCFC with other technologies in which neither ozone-depleting substances nor potent
greenhouse gases are used. As shown by many examples in the report, this trend is
particularly clear in the Nordic countries.
PFC
In 1996, atmospheric emissions of PFCs amounted to approx. 250 tonnes,
6
DTI Energy
corresponding to around 1.6 million tonnes of CO2. Aluminium production was

responsible for most of the emissions. However, PFC emissions are falling because of
the introduction of new technology in aluminium production. The emissions vary by a
factor of 40 between the technology with the smallest emissions and the technology
with the largest emissions.
SF6
Consumption of SF6 in the Nordic countries in 1996 amounted to around 107 tonnes,
corresponding to a potential CO2 emission of 2.6 million tonnes. SF6 is used mainly in
the manufacture and maintenance of power switches, production of magnesium and
manufacture of sound-insulating windows. Consumption shows a slightly downward
trend.
Possibilities of substitution and reduction in the Nordic countries

The new, potent greenhouse gases are a new and challenging field in a climate context.
Reducing consumption of these gases could contribute to some reduction in emissions
of man-made greenhouse gases.
The report shows that, in many areas, there is a considerable potential for substitution
and reduction of emissions at moderate extra cost. However, this potential has been far
from fully utilised, and barriers and instruments need to be identified with a view to
ensuring that it is fully utilised. In other areas there is a need for technological
development projects.
The Nordic Cooperation Group on Energy and Environment

12 May 1999
7
Summary
With the growing concern about the effect of man-made greenhouse gases, attention has
concentrated in the last few years on CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), but
also on the synthetic industrial gases: HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (fully
halogenated fluorocarbons) and SF6 (sulphur-hexafluoride). These “new” gases have all
been included in the Kyoto Protocol and must consequently be regulated within the
total reduction targets contained in the Protocol.
Annual consumption or emission of these “new” gases in the five Nordic countries
(Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden) amounts to approx. 2,650 tonnes.
The emission or potential emission of the potent greenhouse gases corresponds to an
emission of approx. 7.8 million tonnes of CO2 or approx. 3.6% of the Nordic CO2
emission.
Table 1: Emission and potential emission of the potent greenhouse gases HFCs, PFCs
and SF6 in the Nordic countries
HFC PFC SF6 CO2 CO2 HFC, PFC,

potential (tonnes) potential equivalents emission SF6
tonnes)
Denmark 902 3 11 1,629,000 59 2.76
Finland 276 0 6.9 708,500 56 1.26
Iceland 14 8 0.23 75,700 2.3 3.29
Norway 119 193 22 2,066,200 41 5.04
Sweden 1005 44.9 67 3,382,020 58 5.83
Nordic 2316 249 107 7,861,000 216 3.64
countries
combined
Note 1: The figures for Denmark are from 1996 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 2: The figures for Finland are from 1997 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 3: The figures for Iceland are from 1997 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 4: The figures for Norway are from 1996.
Note 5: The figures for Sweden are from 1997 except for the CO 2 emission, which is from 1995.
Note 6: By far the greatest part of the emission of PFC (246 of 249 tonnes) comes from aluminium
production.
Annual consumption of HFC in the Nordic countries is approx. 2,300 tonnes and is
growing because HFC is to some extent used to substitute HCFC. The 2,300 tonnes
HFC correspond to a potential emission of approx. 3.7 million tonnes CO 2. Almost all
of the 2,300 tonnes, namely around 2,000 tonnes, are used in the refrigeration industry,
while the remainder is used to make insulating foam for refrigerators etc. Approx. 200
tonnes are used in the production of polyurethane foam, including jointing foam and
flexible polyurethane foam. Approx. 48 tonnes are used in the manufacture of fire-
extinguishing equipment.
The annual atmospheric emission of PFC substances amounts to 250 tonnes,

corresponding to about 1.6 million tonnes CO2. Most of the emission comes from
aluminium production. PFC emission is falling because of the introduction of new
8
DTI Energy
technology in aluminium production.
Annual consumption of SF6 is approx. 107 tonnes, corresponding to a potential

emission of around 2.6 million tonnes CO2. Most of the SF6 is used in the manufacture
and maintenance of power switches, for production of magnesium and in the
manufacture of sound-insulating windows. Consumption shows a slightly declining
trend.
Emission data for the above-mentioned substances are given in chapter 2 of this report,
calculated in accordance with IPCC’s guidelines. Some of the substances are emitted
immediately after use, while others accumulate in products and are released only slowly
over a number of years.
HFC
Consumption of the potent HFC greenhouse gases is rising because they are used as an
alternative to CFC and HCFCs.
Annual consumption of HCFCs in the Nordic countries is approx. 3,900 tonnes, while
use of CFC has been stopped. Use of HCFCs in Denmark, Finland and Sweden must be
phased out before the year 2002, and the entire consumption of HCFCs may ultimately
be replaced by HFCs.
However, another trend can also be discerned:

In this report a wide range of examples are given of how HCFCs and HFCs are being
replaced by completely different technologies in which neither ozone-depleting
substances nor potent greenhouse gases are used.
The examples include use of hydrocarbons in domestic refrigerators and freezers, use of
ammonia in industrial refrigeration systems, use of hydrocarbons and ammonia in
commercial refrigeration systems, use of CO2 and hydrocarbons in insulating panels and
use of CO2 for blowing polyurethane foam.
Good progress is deemed to have been made in the development of competitive

technology that does not use HFCs or other potent greenhouse gases. Examples in this
report show that there are alternatives in almost all areas – in many cases, alternatives
that can compete with HFC technology.
Within jointing foam, hydrocarbon technology is cheaper than HFC technology.
Within fire-fighting, technologies with inert gases and other fire-extinguishing

technologies are competitive compared with HFC technologies. There is no reason for
using potent greenhouse gases in fire-extinguishing equipment except, perhaps, in the
case of aircraft.
Table 2: HFC applications, together with the present situation with respect to
development and implementation of alternative technology. It should be noted that this
is simply a general overview and that more detailed information is given in the
individual sections of the report. It should also be noted that the relative costs are pure
production costs – in other words, they do not include investments in new production
9
plant.
The last column shows the consumption of HFCs in the Nordic countries in 1996/97.
Development and Relative additional Need for Approx.
implementation of costs for develop- consump-
alternative technology – alternative ment tion in
present situation technology projects tonnes/year
Domestic refrigerators and Developed + partially 1% (spec: 10%) 1700
freezers implemented
Commercial refrigeration Developed + start made S: 2-5%. DK, FI, (Yes)
systems on implementation IS, N: 15 – 25%
Air conditioning Developed + partially 10 – 40%
implemented
Industrial refrigeration Developed + partially 0% (large systems)
systems implemented
Mobile Cars Not developed - Yes
refrigeration Containers Not developed - Yes
systems Ships Implementation started -
in Iceland
Aircraft Implemented 0
Trains Implementation started Not notified
in Germany
Heat pumps Developed + start made (0)
on implementation
Low-temp. refrigeration Not developed - Yes
systems
Polyure- Refrigera-tors Developed + partially 0 300
thane foam implemented
District hea- Developed + partially 0
ting pipes implemented
Insulating Developed + partially 0
panels implemented
Containers Not developed. - Yes
Rigid block Dev. + part. impl. 0
foam
Lightweight Not developed - Yes
agg. concrete
blocks
Other foam Dev. + part. impl. 0
insulation
Jointing foam Dev. + part. impl. Cheaper 200
Flexible foam Dev. + part. impl. (0)
Extinguishants Dev. + part. impl. 0 50
Aerosol cans Dev. + part. impl. 0 (or cheaper) 50
Other applications Dev. + part. impl. 0
Within industrial refrigeration, ammonia technology is common and fully competive in large
systems.
In Finland, hydrocarbons are used in the manufacture of insulating panels. These are fully
competitive in relation to panels made with HCFCs or HFCs.
Within domestic refrigerators and freezers, Electrolux and other major European manufacturers
have altered their production to enable use of hydrocarbons. Following this environmental
10
DTI Energy
investment, the price for hydrocarbon refrigerators is about 1% more than for HFC refrigerators
(although in some cases up to 10% more).
Within air conditioning and refrigeration of processes in industry and service, ammonia chillers
are competitive. Appendix C contains a list of several hundred systems installed in the Nordic
countries in recent years.
In Sweden, approx. 75 commercial refrigeration systems with hydrocarbons as the refrigerant

have been set up. These systems are listed in Appendix D. In Sweden, it is standard practice to
use indirect refrigeration, so the additional cost of using hydrocarbons in the future is not very
great (2 to 5%).
In other countries, direct refrigeration is standard. These systems are cheaper and result in
bigger leakages. In those countries, the additional cost of using indirect refrigeration and
hydrocarbons is slightly greater – approx. 15 to 25%.
There are areas in which there are as yet no alternatives. This applies particularly within mobile
refrigeration systems for cars and refrigeration systems for integral reefer containers. However,
alternative technology is being tested.
PFC
Most of the PFC emission in the Nordic countries comes from aluminium production. Great
improvements have been achieved since 1990 thanks to the introduction of new technology that
reduces the emission. Work on reducing the emission is continuing. That may lead to a further
reduction, but that might to some extent be counteracted by new production capacity.
Some PFC is used in a specific refrigerant mixture that is used as a drop-in substitute for CFC-
12 in old refrigeration systems. The consumption is not yet large but is increasing rapidly and
should be monitored. The substance has a very long atmospheric lifetime and is generally
problematical. Such systems should be converted for HFC refrigerant or be scrapped.
Table 3: Emission of PFCs, together with the present situation with respect to the development
of technology. The last column in the table shows the PFC emission in the Nordic countries. In
the case of the refrigerant mixture R-413A, the emission is the potential emission.
Development of Cost of new Emission in

technology – present technology tonnes/year
situation (approx.)
Aluminium production The industry is “Cheaper than 246
(manufacturing) modernising its reducing CO2
production processes emissions elsewhere”
Refrigerant mixture Alternative Cannot be calculated 3
R-413A refrigerants can be because it is a case of
11
used prolonging the life-

time of old CFC-12
refrigeration systems
SF6
The biggest application for SF 6 is in high-voltage switches. There is alternative technology in
the medium-voltage range. The technology is competitive but cannot always be fitted into
existing transformer stations. There is no alternative technology in the high-voltage range. The
leakage rate is very low in the Nordic countries.
Table 4: Consumption of SF6, together with the present situation with respect to the
development and implementation of alternative technology. The last column shows the
consumption of SF6.
It should be noted that there is no information about the specific use of approx. 37 tonnes SF 6
in the Nordic countries. The total consumption is approx. 107 tonnes/year.
Development + Relative Need for Approx.

implementation additional cost develop- consump-
of alternative of alternative ment tion in
technology – technology projects tonnes/yr
present
situation
Cover gas in the light-alloy metal Norsk Hydro is Not notified 20
foundries developing
alternative
technology
Insulating gas Medium voltage Partially 0 40
in power (10 – 30 kV) implemented
switches High voltage (60 Not developed - Yes
kV and over)
Sound-insulating windows Not developed - Yes 10
Consumption of SF6 for magnesium production and casting has been reduced in recent years
thanks to the introduction of new technology. Work is going on to find alternatives.
Consumption of SF6 for sound-insulating windows is also falling slightly. It should be

investigated whether sound-insulating windows can be made without SF 6.
Other recommendations:
It has been difficult to obtain consumption and emission data from all countries. That is
probably due to the fact that entirely new gases have been included in the Kyoto Protocol. The
figures are often calculated in different ways, which has made it difficult to prepare direct
comparisons between the various countries and a complete overview. Not all
consumption/emission is reported.
It must be recommended that the countries continue mapping their national consumption and
emission.
In connection with national figures for the substances, it is difficult to calculate current
12
DTI Energy
emissions when the substances are used in products. For that reason, potential emissions have
been used previously (Tier 1a in IPCC's guidelines), and are also used in this report.
The idea is to use current emissions in the future (Tier 2). However, it is difficult to calculate
these even with the calculation formulae given in IPCC’s guidelines. There is deemed to be a
risk of error in the reporting and the possibility of manipulating data through the complicated
procedures for national reporting of data.
The Nordic Cooperation Group on Energy and Environment should look into the possibility of
preparing a manual for use by national authorities. The manual should set out concrete
procedures for calculating current emissions on the basis of production, import and export of
goods. This will ensure proper reporting procedures in the Nordic countries.
Development and implementation of new technology that does not use potent greenhouse gases
or that reduces the emission of such gases should be encouraged.
In addition, a cost-efficient phase-out of potent greenhouse gases should be encouraged.
A lot of new technology is now being developed within natural refrigerants. That means that
the information given in this report will soon become outdated. New technologies that do not
use potent greenhouse gases are being developed all the time and existing technologies are
being refined to make them more competitive. Therefore, reports giving the current situation
with respect to technology and price should also be prepared in the future.
13
1. Introduction
1.1 The greenhouse effect and potent greenhouse gases

With the growing concern about the effect of man-made greenhouse gases, attention has
concentrated in the last few years on CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), but also on
the synthetic industrial gases: HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (fully halogenated
fluorocarbons) and SF6 (sulphur-hexafluoride). These “new” gases have all been included in the
Kyoto Protocol and must consequently be regulated within the total reduction targets contained
in the Protocol.
The last few years have brought an increase in the consumption of potent greenhouse gases
because HFCs are to some extent being used to substitute CFC and other ozone-depleting
substances in the refrigeration industry etc. In the Nordic countries, consumption of HFCs has
increased from approx. 0 tonne in 1990 to approx. 2,300 tonnes in 1997, and if the whole of
this quantity is emitted to the atmosphere it will result in an increase in the greenhouse effect
corresponding to an emission of 3.6 million tonnes CO 2. Although industrial consumption of
the new gases does not result directly in emission of these gases and some recovery of the
substances from refrigeration systems etc. is expected, it is estimated that most of the quantity
consumed will end up in the atmosphere at some time.
As mentioned, consumption of HFCs is rising at present because we are in the midst of a

process in which ozone-depleting HCFCs are being totally or partially substituted by HFCs.
Consumption of HFCs may therefore rise further still for some time.
In the Nordic countries, consumption of HCFCs reached a figure of approx. 3,880 tonnes in
1996 (Denmark: 1,215 tonnes, Finland: 1,100 tonnes, Iceland: 190 tonnes, Norway: 1,045
tonnes (1997), Sweden: 331 tonnes (1997)). The use of HCFCs is to be phased out before the
year 2002 in Denmark, the year 2000 in Finland, the year 2015 in Iceland, the year 2015 in
Norway, and the year 2002 in Sweden. Ultimately, HCFCs may be substituted altogether by
HFCs.
On the other hand, a new trend is seen in the Nordic countries towards replacement of HCFCs
with completely different technologies that use neither ozone-depleting substances nor potent
greenhouse gases. This report gives many examples of this. There is therefore reason to hope
that the consumption of HFCs will be reduced.
Emission of PFCs comes mainly from aluminium production. Emission of PFCs fell in the
period 1990 to 1996. In 1996, the emission amounted to approx. 249 tonnes, corresponding to
an emission of approx. 1.6 million tonnes CO2.
Consumption of SF6 also fell in the period 1990 to 1996. In 1996, consumption amounted to
approx. 107 tonnes, corresponding to a potential emission of 2.6 million tonnes CO 2. A large
proportion of SF6 is used in products from which it is emitted only slowly to the surroundings.
The new gases account for between 1 and 6% of the greenhouse effect in the individual
countries, so the authorities are naturally interested in them.
HFCs are used mainly as a refrigerant in:

 Domestic refrigerators and freezers
 Commercial refrigeration systems (supermarkets, shops, refrigerated milk tankers etc.)
 Certain industrial refrigeration systems
 Mobile refrigeration systems (reefers, auto air conditioning, etc.)
14
DTI Energy
 Heat pumps
 Air-conditioning systems
 Cryogenic systems
HFCs are used for production of polyurethane foam in:

 Insulating foam
 Flexible polyurethane foam
 Jointing foam
 Other foam
HFCs are also used for:

 Extinguishants
 Propellant in aerosol cans (special products)
 Other
SF6 is used mainly for the following purposes:

 Cover gases in light-alloy metal foundries
 Insulating gas in high-voltage switches
 Sound-insulating double-glazed windows
 Other, including tracer gas
PFCs are used for the following purposes:

 Refrigerant in a special mixture
 Other
PFCs are formed as a by-product during production of aluminium.
1.2 Measures to reduce emissions in the Nordic countries

National targets, political announcements:
In Denmark, the Minister of Environment and Energy, Svend Auken, has said that he wants
HFC and other potent greenhouse gases phased out before 2006, with the possible exception of
special applications for which there are no alternatives. The substances have also been added to
the Danish Environmental Protection Agency’s list of “undesirable substances”. These are
substances that are environmentally problematical and that are going to be regulated. The
Environmental Protection Agency is drawing up a plan for such regulation.
In Finland, a study is being carried out of the use, emission and consumption trends of HFCs,
PFCs and SF6. The possibilities of using alternatives will also be examined. Finnish policy and
measures or restrictions will be decided on the basis of the results of this study.
In Iceland, the authorities have introduced a regulation prohibiting the importation and sale of
HFCs, PFCs and SF6 except for the following purposes:
 HFCs as refrigerant in new systems, for recharging of old systems and for medical sprays
 SF6 in power switches and other electrical equipment for which there are no alternatives
In Norway, the emission of PFC gases from aluminium production has been reduced by
alterations to the production processes. The emission of SF 6 from magnesium production has
also been reduced by this means and by increased recovery.
The Norwegian Government is considering imposing a tax on HFCs, graduated according to the
substances’ global warming potential.
15
In Sweden in 1996, the Environmental Protection Agency sent a proposal to the Swedish
Government concerning regulation of HFCs, PFCs and SF 6. In spring 1997, the Ministry of
Environment obtained the views of around 30 consultation partners and, in that connection,
decided to await the outcome of the climate negotiations in Kyoto in December 1997 before
reaching a final decision on regulation of the gases.
Development of new technologies:

In the Nordic countries, a lot of work has been done, and is being done, to develop new
technologies that reduce the emission of potent greenhouse gases. Some new technologies have
already been implemented – for example:
 In Finland and Norway, a new type of insulating panel has been developed and is
in production; the production process uses hydrocarbons instead of HCFCs or HFCs.
 In Norway and Iceland, the emission of PFCs has been greatly reduced through
the introduction of new technology in the aluminium industry.
 In Norway, new technology is being developed to reduce the emission of SF 6 in
magnesium production.
 In Iceland, ammonia is being used as the refrigerant in new and reconditioned
fishing vessels.
 In Sweden, hydrocarbons have been introduced in commercial refrigeration
systems, thereby reducing consumption of HFC refrigerants.
 In Denmark, both an extinguishant and a jointing foam without potent
greenhouse gases have been developed.
1.3 Purpose of the project and the participants

The purpose is to describe consumption and use in the individual countries and the countries’
specific problems, and to describe within each field of application:
 application and consumption figures in the individual countries

 emission to surrounding environment/accumulation in scrapped products
 alternative technology, development stage and possible implementation in the Nordic
countries or internationally
 qualitative description of costs and other barriers in connection with the introduction of
alternative technology (availability of machinery, safety regulations, standards, quality, etc.)
 need for development of a new technology and description of same.
Information was gathered by contacting authorities and relevant industrial enterprises in the
Nordic countries and internationally and by contacting green organisations. Supplementary
information was gathered by attending technical conferences.
The report is intended to provide the environmental authorities and industry with a sound basis
for evaluation of the practical possibilities – technologically, economically and from the point
of view of safety - of phasing out potent greenhouse gases within different fields of application.
The information will at the same time give the authorities an idea of the areas in which efforts
should be increased to develop new, more environment-friendly technologies. The project will
also be a useful means of identifying the need for further investigations.
The project will provide the individual countries, the Nordic countries and international bodies
with a better basis for decisions on climate work and climate strategies.
Project participants:
The project is being carried out by Per Henrik Pedersen, M.Sc., DTI Energy, Danish
16
DTI Energy
Technological Institute, in cooperation with the national authorities, which are gathered in a
Cooperation Group on Energy and Environment under the Nordic Council of Ministers.
The project is also being carried out in cooperation with a reference group with participants
from each of the Nordic countries.
The reference group is composed as follows:
Maria Ujfalusi, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

Eliisa Irpola, Finnish Environmental Institute
Frank Jensen, Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Thor Tomasson, Environment and Food Agency of Iceland
Fredrik Weidemann, Norwegian Pollution Control Authority
Many other people have also contributed to the project: Rolf Segerström, Electrolux; Hans
Haukås, Hans T. Haukås A/S; Markku Asikainen, Finnish Refrigeration Association; Alexander
Pachai, AirCon; Berit Viig, Hydro Aluminium; Richard Karstensen, Elkem Aluminium; Jaana
Pullola, Finnish Plastic Industries Federation; Bjørn Vik, (consultant in the plastics industry in
Norway); Thorbjørn Laursen, Dansk FireEater; and Maria Widell, ABB.
DTI Energy wishes to thank the reference group, the Nordic Cooperation Group on Energy and
Environment and representatives of industry, who have provided data for the report.
Work on the report commenced in June 1998 and ended in December 1998. The project was
completed within the budget, corresponding to 185 hours.
17
18
DTI Energy
2. Consumption and emission of HFCs, PFCs and SF 6 in the Nordic countries
There are big differences in the degree of detail of the data for the different Nordic countries.
The data are reproduced in the following, with the countries listed in alphabetical order.
It should be noted that the countries have used slightly different methods of calculating the
quantities. Despite this, an attempt is made at the end of this chapter to sum up the
consumption and emission of potent greenhouse gases in the Nordic countries.
2.1 Denmark
The Danish Environmental Protection Agency publishes a yearly report on the consumption of
ozone-depleting substances and greenhouse gases. The latest report (Working Report No. 98,
1997) describes the consumption in 1996.
Table 2.1: Trend in consumption of HFCs in Denmark
Tonnes 1990 1992 1994 1995 1996

HFC-134a 0 20 524 565 740
HFC-152a 0 4 51 47 32
R-404A 0 0 36 119 110
Other HFCs 0 0 1 14 20
Total 0 24 612 745 902
Note: R-404A is a mixture of HFC-125, HFC-143a and HFC-134a (see Appendix A).
The relatively large consumption of HFCs in Denmark is due to a big production of industrial
products that contain HFC and that are exported. The products in question include refrigerators
(439 tonnes in 1996), other refrigeration systems (286 tonnes), jointing foam (100 tonnes) and
other products, including flexible polyurethane foam (77 tonnes).
Table 2.2: Trend in consumption of SF6 in Denmark
Tonnes 1990 1992 1994 1995 1996

SF6 not notified 15 21 17 11
In Denmark, SF6 is mainly used for sound-insulating windows (9.4 tonnes in 1996), high-
voltage switches (approx. 1 tonne) and magnesium production (approx. 0.4 tonne).
Consumption of PFCs is small but increasing. In 1996, consumption of C 3F8 (perfluoropropane)

amounted to approx. 3 tonnes. The substance is used in a specific refrigerant mixture.
Table 2.3: Consumption and thus potential emission of potent greenhouse gases in Denmark in
1996. The figures have been calculated in accordance with the method “Tier 1a” in the IPCC
Guidelines. For comparison, the Danish emission of CO 2 in 1995 was 59 million tonnes.
Consumption in GWP CO2 equivalents Atmospheric

1996 (100 yrs) tonnes lifetime
tonnes years
HFC-134a 740 1,300 962,000 14.6
HFC-152a 32 140 4,480 1.5
R-404A 110 3,260 358,600 36.6, 48.3 and
19
14.6
Other HFCs 20 various (20,000) various
SF6 11 23,900 262,900 3,200
PFCs 3 7,000 21,000 2,600
Total 1,629,000
2.2 Finland
The Finnish Environmental Institute has mapped the importation and consumption of HFCs,
PFCs and SF6. The import figures in detailed form are confidential. The figures without further
detailing are reproduced below:
Table 2.4: Importation of potent greenhouse gases into Finland in 1994, 1996 and 1997. The
potential emission of this quantity has also been calculated (in accordance with Tier 1a).
For comparison, the emission of CO2 in 1995 was 56 mill. tonnes.
Tonnes Consumption Consumption Consumption Potential emission in

in 1994 in 1996 in 1997 tonnes CO2 equivalents
(1997)
HFCs 61 168 276.3 542,00
PFCs 0 0 0 0
SF6 4 5 6.9 165,900
Total 708,500
The Finnish Environmental Institute has also stated that consumption of HFC in the
refrigeration industry in 1997 was approx. 220 tonnes.
According to Finland’s second situation report to the UN’s Climate Secretariat in 1997, more
than 90% of SF6 is used in the electricity industry. There is a production of power switches that
are filled with SF6.
Finland has no aluminium or magnesium production.
2.3 Iceland
Consumption of HFCs in Iceland in 1997 amounted to 14 tonnes. Most of this was used in
refrigeration systems in the fishery industry etc.
A total of 11 tonnes of SF6 is estimated to be installed in electrical equipment, and of that

figure, 0.2 – 0.25 tonne disappears through leakage each year.
The emission of PFCs from aluminium production in 1990 amounted to approx. 45 tonnes.
This was reduced to approx. 8 tonnes in 1995 and to 4 tonnes in 1996. In 1997, the emission
went up again to approx. 8 tonnes due to the start-up of new production.
Table 2.5: Emission of potent greenhouse gases from Iceland in 1995. The figures for HFCs
are the potential emission (Tier 1a).
For comparison, the emission of CO2 in 1995 was 2.28 mill. tonnes.
Emission in Emission in Emission in GWP CO2 equivalents
20
DTI Energy
1995 1996 1997 (100 yrs) (tonnes) 1997

(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
HFCs 10.5 12.8 14 1,300 18,200
PFCs 8 4 8 6,500 52,000
SF6 0.23 0.23 0.23 23,900 5,500
Total 18.7 17.0 22.2 75,700
Note: It is assumed that all HFC is HFC-134a and that all PFC is CF4.
2.4 Norway
The Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT) has published a report, “Greenhouse Gas
Emissions in Norway 1990 - 1996” (Report 98:02), in which the emission of HFCs, PFCs and
SF6 is reported. The figures for HFCs are the potential emission, which is equal to the import of
the raw materials.
As will be seen, Norway has a relatively large emission of PFCs due to a big production of
aluminium.
Norway also has a big production of magnesium, and this accounts for most of the SF 6
emission (approx. 19 tonnes in 1996); SF 6 is used as cover gas.
Table 2.6: Emission of potent greenhouse gases in Norway 1990 - 1996. The figures for HFCs
are the potential emission, based on import figures (Tier 1a).
Emission 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

tonnes
HFCs 3 4 5 32 56 108 119
total
HFC134a 0 1 2 31 40 47 51
HFC125 - - - - 11 31 38
HFC143a - - - - 4 25 25
Other 3 3 3 1 1 5 5
HFCs
PFCs 385 327 253 265 242 218 193
total
CF4 369 313 242 254 231 209 187
C2F6 16 14 11 11 11 9 6
SF6 92 86 29 30 35 24 22
Note: The 5 tonnes “other HFCs” in 1996 comprise 5 tonnes HFC-152a, 0.3 tonne HFC-32 and 0.1
tonne HFC-23.
HFCs are used for refrigeration, air conditioning, extinguishants, and – in modest quantities
(mixed with CO2) - for blowing polyurethane foam.
Table 2.7: Emission of potent greenhouse gases in Norway in 1996. The figures for HFCs are
the potential emissions, which are equal to the import of raw materials (Tier 1a).
For comparison, the emission of CO2 in Norway in 1996 amounted to approx. 41 mill. tonnes
(ref: St. meld (White Paper) No. 29, Ministry of Environment).
21
Emission in 1996 GWP (100 yrs) CO2 equivalents

(tonnes) (tonnes)
HFC-134a 51 1,300 66,300
HFC-125 38 2,800 106,400
HFC-143a 25 3,800 95,000
Other HFCs 5 2,000
CF4 187 6,500 1,215,500
C2F6 6 9,200 55,200
SF6 22 23,900 525,800
Total 334 2,066,200
2.5 Sweden
According to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, emissions of potent greenhouse
gases in 1997 were as follows:
Table 2.8: Emissions of potent greenhouse gases in Sweden in 1997. The figures are from
Sweden’s National Chemicals Inspectorate. The figures for HFCs and SF 6 are the potential
emissions = consumption of raw materials (Tier 1a in IPCC’s guidelines). The PFC emission
comes from aluminium production (44.7 tonnes) and a small import of PFC raw materials (0.2
tonne).
There may also be imports of other PFCs than CF 4 and C2F6, which are not included. For
comparison, the emission of CO2 in 1995 was approx. 58 mill. tonnes.
Consumption in GWP (100 yrs) CO2 equivalents in

1997 (tonnes) tonnes
HFC-134a 861 1,300 1,119,300
HFC-32 14.8 650 9,620
HFC-125 61.4 2,800 171,920
HFC-143a 46.1 3,800 175,180
HFC-152a 15.5 140 2,170
R-407C 7 1,526 10,680
PFCs 44.9 6,500 291,850
SF6 67 23,900 1,601,300
Total 1,118 3,382,020
Of the total of 1,005 tonnes HFCs, most – namely 941 tonnes – is used in the refrigeration
industry, and 818 tonnes of that figure are HFC-134a. The second-largest consumption, 41
tonnes, is used for fire-extinguishing purposes, and 35 tonnes of that figure are HFC-134a.
Most of the PFC emission comes from aluminium production.
The relatively large consumption of SF6 is deemed to be due to a big production of products
containing SF6 that are exported worldwide. The product includes high-voltage switches for
electricity supply systems.
2.6 The Nordic countries combined

In this section an attempt is made to combine the figures for the Nordic countries even though
the data for the various countries are from different years.
22
DTI Energy
Table 2.9: Emissions of the potent greenhouse gases HFCs, PFCs and SF 6 in the Nordic
countries
HFC PFC SF6 CO2 CO2 HFC, PFC,

potential (tonnes) potential equivalents emission SF6
tonnes)
Denmark 902 3 11 1,629,000 59 2.76
Finland 276 0 6.9 708,500 56 1.26
Iceland 14 8 0.23 75,700 2.3 3.29
Norway 119 193 22 2,066,200 41 5.04
Sweden 1,005 44.9 67 3,382,020 58 5.83
Nordic 2,316 249 107 7,861,000 216 3.64
countries
combined
Note 1: The figures for Denmarote 4: The figures for Norway are from 1996.
Note 5: The figures for Sweden are from 1997 except for the CO2 emission, which is from 1995.
It will be seen from Table 2.9 that the emission of potent greenhouse gases corres ponds to approx. 7.9
million tonnes CO2 equivalents on an annual basis. That corresponds to approx. 3.6% of the emission
of CO2 from the Nordic countries.
The figures are based on potential emission figures for HFCs and SF6, which is in practice
equivalent to one year’s consumption of raw mat erials. The actual emission of (particularly)
HFCs is in practice smaller because indust ry only started using these substances on a large scale
at the beginning of the1990s. Most of the raw materials consumption will be accumulated in
such products as refrigeration systems and insulating foam and will be released slowly to the
atmosphere in the next 10 to 50 years.
In some countries HFC, PFC and SF6 in products are regarded as hazardous waste and must be
collected and incinerated. Experience from similar schemes for CFC shows that in practice only
a small part of the consumption is incinerated. Most of it is therefore expected to be emitted to
the atmosphere over a number of years.
It will also be seen that the emission of potent greenhouse gases as a percentage of the
countries’ CO2 emission varies from 1 to 6%.
23
3. Use of HFCs, substitutes and other ways of reducing the emission
HFC (hydrofluorocarbon) is the name used for a number of substances produced by placing a
number of fluoride atoms on hydrocarbons. However, some hydrogen atoms will be left in the
molecule. The most common HFC substances are as follows:
Table 3.1: The most common HFCs
Chemical formula
Normal boiling point (C)
GWP
(100 yrs)
Atmospheric
lifetime (yrs)
HFC-23
CHF3
- 82.1
11,700
264
HFC-32
CH2F2
- 51.7
650
5.6
HFC-125
C2HF5
- 48.4
2,800
32.6
HFC-134a
CH2FCF3
- 26.5
1,300
14.6
HFC-143a
CF3CH3
- 47.5
3,800
48.3
HFC-15
2a
C2H4F2
- 24.2
140
1.5
24
DTI Energy
HFC-227ea
C3HF7
- 17.3
2,900
36.5
The commonly
used “R” in the
designations R-
134a, R-125,
etc. stands for
Refrigerant. The
designation HFA-
134a is also
used. In Norway,
the designation
HFK-134a is
used. It
corresponds to
HFC-134a.
F substances
H C
are often used in
mixtures of
refrigeran
ts, which are assigned R-400 or the R-500 serial numbers. A list of refrigerants and refrigerant
mixtures is given in Appendix A.
HFCs are not produced in the Nordic countries. All the raw materials are imported and are
made by such international chemical groups as DuPont, ICI, Elf-Atochem, Solvay, etc.
HFCs are used mainly as refrigerants in refrigerators and refrigeration systems, and as blowing
agents for insulating foam. HFCs are also used for a number of other purposes, including
production of flexible polyurethane foam, as the propellant in special aerosol cans, for testing
electronics and for special fire-extinguishing purposes.
This chapter is divided into 13 sections. The refrigeration industry is discussed in the first seven
sections, and these are followed by three sections on polyurethane foam. The remaining three
sections are used to discuss extinguishants, aerosol cans and other purposes.
Section 3.1 deals with domestic refrigerators and freezers and covers the use of HFCs both as
refrigerants and for blowing insulating foam for these refrigerators and freezers. This is done
because of the close relationship between these two applications.
25
3.1 Domestic refrigerators and freezers

A large quantity of domestic refrigerators and freezers are made in the Nordic countries.
Electrolux, which has its headquarters in Stockholm, is one of the world’s biggest
manufacturers of these products. However, most of the production takes place outside the
Nordic countries.
There is also a large production of components for refrigerators and freezers, including
thermostats, pipe systems and compressor components. (Danfoss compressors are made in
Flensborg in Germany and elsewhere.)
In Denmark, six manufacturers make around 1.5 million refrigerators and freezers per year. Of
this figure, just over 1 million are made for domestic use and just under 0.5 million for
commercial use, including bottle coolers and ice-cream cabinets. Including subsuppliers, this
industry is estimated to provide employment for about 5,000 people.
In Sweden, Electrolux makes approx. 450,000 refrigerators and freezers per year.
In Finland, Forste Oy makes approx. 60,000 refrigerators and freezers per year.
Neither Norway nor Iceland has any production of domestic refrigerators and freezers.
Ozone-depleting substances used to be used in the manufacture of refrigerators and freezers.

CFC-11 was used for blowing polyurethane foam for insulating refrigerators and CFC-12 as the
refrigerant in the refrigeration system. In a transitional period, different technologies were used
instead of CFC, including HCFCs for blowing polyurethane foam. Companies have pursued
different paths in their development work.
All the manufacturers used HFC-134a as a substitute for CFC-12 in their refrigeration systems
and are still using it in a large part of their production. HFC-134a is also used by some
manufacturers for blowing polyurethane foam. The use of HFC instead of CFC represented a
major environmental improvement.
In 1993, environmental organisations began questioning the environmental impact of HFCs

because these substances (like CFCs and HCFCs) are potent greenhouse gases.
In Germany, Foron, together with environmental organisations, introduced refrigerators with
hydrocarbons. Other manufacturers soon followed suit. In that connection, Electrolux
introduced at an early point of time 35 models with isobutane as the refrigerant and with
cyclopentane in the insulating foam. Danfoss was out early with a complete compressor
programme with isobutane (R600a) as the refrigerant.
Within just a few months, the whole of the German market was forced to use hydrocarbons.
That also applied to foreign manufacturers who wanted to sell in that market.
Many people feared that explosions might occur in some of the refrigerators because there was
some risk of an explosive mixture of hydrocarbons and air developing in the cabinet and of this
mixture being ignited by a spark from the thermostat, door contact or other spark generator.
This problem was solved by placing potential spark generators outside the cabinet and by
preventing leakage of refrigerant inside the cabinet.
At present, more than 20 million years of operating experience have been registered in
Germany. According to available sources of information, no accident has been registered so far.
26
DTI Energy
Furthermore, refrigerators and freezers with hydrocarbons are at least as efficient as HFC
models, and refrigerators with hydrocarbons are less noisy than corresponding HFC models
because of lower pressure in the refrigeration system.
When hydrocarbons are used as the refrigerant, “old-fashioned” mineral oil can be used for
lubricating the compressor. This avoids the use of synthetic ester oil, which has caused some
health problems, e.g. eczema. Ester oil is also water-absorbent, which may be a disadvantage in
certain situations.
EU and Nordic environment labels

Hydrocarbon technology is rapidly gaining ground in Europe and some developing countries,
including China.
In December 1996, it was made a requirement for achievement of the EU's environment label
(“the flower”) that refrigerants and insulating foam used in refrigerators should not contain
potent greenhouse gases. This means in practice that hydrocarbons are necessary to obtain the
label. A similar requirement must be met in order to gain the Nordic environment label (“the
swan”).
Vestfrost has gained the EU’s environment label for a combined fridge-freezer, and as far as is
known, that is the only cabinet to have gained this label.
Greenpeace Denmark has mapped hydrocarbon refrigerators. According to this, more than 165
models are available on the Danish market. Several refrigerators are imported from Germany
and Sweden.
Electrolux states that Germany and its neighbouring countries are completely dominated by
hydrocarbon products. In the Nordic countries, the proportion of hydrocarbon products is
growing. In 1997, hydrocarbons accounted for about 30% of the market in the EU. Many of the
manufacturers who have not yet switched to isobutane will do so when the EU’s directive on
maximum energy consumption enters into effect at the end of 1999. In that connection, many of
the manufacturers will anyway have to redesign many of their products and can use the same
opportunity to change the refrigerants and the blowing agent.
Financial barriers
Hydrocarbon technology exists and has been implemented by the large European
manufacturers, although parallel with this, many of them are using HFC-134a as the refrigerant
in part of their production.
The barriers preventing production without HFCs are thus purely financial. They consist
mainly of investments in factory buildings because rebuilding will often be necessary in order
to create special fire-proof areas in connection with the blowing process and the refrigerant
charging process.
Taking into account the investment in buildings, machines and training of personnel, the cost of
components is approximately the same for hydrocarbon technology and HFC technology. It is
difficult to put an exact figure on the percentage increase in costs due to investments in
explosion-proof production plant. The figure depends on what is included. It is also open to
question what should be included in the comparison since most of the big manufacturers
invested in the necessary alterations 3 to 5 years ago.
27
If one looks only at the extra cost of materials, this is regarded as limited. Sources in the
industry say that there is now no difference in the price of compressors for HFC-134a and the
price of those for isobutane. However, the price of some compressors for large apparatuses may
be slightly higher because a large compressor housing is needed. The difference in the
compressor price varies between DKK 0 and DKK 30. There is no difference in the cost of the
refrigerant. On the other hand, slightly more polyurethane is used in the insulation when
blowing with cyclopentane. However, the additional cost is modest – less than 0.5% of the cost
of manufacturing the refrigerator.
In all, the additional cost is generally modest – around 1% - although for some types of
products, the difference can be as much as 10%.
Special apparatuses
In Denmark, there is some production of DC refrigerators (12 V or 24 V) for lorries, small
boats, etc. and for vaccine chillers that are powered by solar cells (photovoltaic).
There are at present no DC compressors for isobutane or other hydrocarbons. It should be
possible to develop DC compressors for isobutane, but that requires investment by the
compressor manufacturers, which means that there has to be a market potential for these
compressors.
In Denmark, there is a big production of commercial refrigerators and freezers, including bottle
chillers, wine chillers, ice-cream freezers, commercial kitchen appliances, refrigerated
dispensers, etc., all of which are made in almost the same way as domestic appliances.
In Norway, Norcool A/S makes commercial refrigerators.
In Finland, Norpe Oy makes around 15,000 commercial refrigerators and freezers a year for
supermarkets, and Pakkaskone Oy, Pointcool Oy, Pko-Kylmälaitteet Oy, Pallaskylmä Oy and
Suomen Kotikylmiö Oy make about 5,000 commercial kitchen appliances for hotels,
restaurants, bakeries, etc. In addition, Suomen Kotikylmiö Oy makes about 3,000 large
refrigerators and freezers for the home (“Kitchen Cool Centre”).
Up to the present time, compressors for isobutane have not been available in the right size for
commercial appliances. Such appliances usually require larger compressors than domestic
appliances.
In the UK, a large number of appliances with hydrocarbons are made. For these, CFC-12
compress for isobutane have not been available in the right size for commercial appliances.
Such appliances usually require larger compressors than domestic appliances.
In the UK, a large number of appliances with hydrocarbons are made. For these, CFC-12
compressors are used, which are thereafter topped up with a mixture of propane and butane
(Care 30), so that the pressure and temperature conditions match CFC-12.
Various development projects are in progress with the aim of making these appliances with new
compressors for isobutane or other hydrocarbons. According to the present standard
specification, the charge of flammable refrigerants is limited to 150 g in the Nordic countries. It
is estimated that most commercial refrigerators and freezers will have a smaller refrigerant
charge than this. This does not apply, however, to really large appliances.
HFC consumption in the Nordic countries

In Denmark, the consumption of HFCs for the manufacture of refrigerators and freezers
amounted to 439 tonnes in 1996 (Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).
28
DTI Energy
The consumption for this particular application in the other Nordic countries is not known.
Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products

Only a small part of the HFCs used in the manufacture of refrigerators and freezers is emitted
directly to the surroundings (estimated to be less than 5%). The remainder is accumulated in the
product and is gradually released by diffusion from the insulating foam or leakage in the
refrigeration system. At the time of scrapping, most of the HFCs still remain in the products.
Most of the refrigerators with HFCs made in Denmark are exported outside the Nordic
countries.
A small proportion of the HFCs in refrigerators and freezers is presumably collected and
incinerated in connection with collection schemes for old refrigerators. Despite this, however, it
is presumed that almost all of the HFCs will be emitted to the atmosphere in the long run –
through diffusion and leakage during the lifetime of the appliances and in connection with
scrapping.
Situation with respect to alternative technology

HFC-free technology has been developed and partially implemented in the Nordic countries.
3.2 Commercial refrigeration systems

Commercial refrigeration systems are, for example, systems used for refrigeration in
supermarkets, special shops, hotels, restaurants and computer rooms. They can also be small
industrial refrigeration systems.
It is difficult to differentiate clearly between some commercial refrigeration systems, industrial

refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems. A system often has several functions, e.g.
refrigeration of a supermarket and air conditioning.
Despite that, we shall attempt such differentiation here.
Supermarkets
Commercial refrigeration systems are typically used in supermarkets, where direct refrigeration
has been used so far. The refrigeration compressors are placed in a machine-room away from
the sales area and the places of refrigeration. Refrigerant is transmitted in long tubes into the
shop, where evaporation takes place in the heat exchangers of refrigerators and freezers inside
the shop. The refrigerant is sucked back to the compressors in the machine-room.
Previously, CFC or HCFC refrigerants like R-502, HCFC-22 and CFC-12 were used. In recent
years, many systems have been converted for use of HFC based refrigerants like HFC-134a or
R-404a. New systems, built in recent years, are charged with HFC refrigerants as well. In
Sweden, however, several systems have been constructed with hydrocarbons (see later).
Many systems
Commercial refrigeration systems have a very high commercial value because there are so
many of them. Many old systems still use CFC or HCFC refrigerants because it is not worth
converting them for use of HFC based refrigerants. It is mainly fairly recent refrigeration
systems that have been converted.
An attempt was made to convert one particular HCFC-22 system to hydrocarbons, but it was
concluded that this was not a realistic option because it is usually difficult to obtain the
29
documentation required by the authorities for the individual components.
It therefore seems reasonable to allow existing systems to remain in operation but to require
them to be made as leak-proof as possible. In the case of recent CFC or HCFC systems, it may
pay to convert them for use of HFC refrigerants. In the case of old systems, the best solution is
probably to scrap them and replace them with a system that uses a natural refrigerant. The
decision on this is up to the individual owner of the system. When a system is scrapped, the
owner must arrange for collection and incineration of the refrigerant.
Natural refrigerants
Natural refrigerants are substances that are already included in nature’s own cycle, for instance
ammonia, hydrocarbons, CO2, water and air.
In the Nordic countries, there are already some commercial refrigeration systems that use
natural refrigerants.
In Sweden, a company called Bonus Energi has built around 75 refrigeration systems with
hydrocarbon refrigerants in supermarkets and for air conditioning etc. since 1996. At the same
time, a training scheme has been developed for refrigeration engineers to enable them to work
with hydrocarbons in refrigeration systems. In Sweden, clear rules have also been established
for use of hydrocarbons as refrigerants. This represents a technological breakthrough in this
field.
In Denmark, a large refrigeration system that uses ammonia has been installed in one
supermarket. As far as is known, no systems with hydrocarbons have yet been installed owing
to uncertainty about the rules for such systems.
Indirect refrigeration
In Sweden, indirect refrigeration is required in supermarkets. This means that the refrigeration
system cools a liquid (brine), which is a secondary refrigerant. The cooled brine is pumped to
the refrigeration points in the supermarket.
Indirect refrigeration is also required if a hydrocarbon or ammonia is used as the refrigerant.
Financial barriers
Appendix B gives the estimated price of commercial refrigeration systems with hydrocarbons
and ammonia, compared with HFC-based systems.
The figures have been analysed by Hans Haukås (SFT Report No. 97:32) and Bjørn Grødem
(ScanRef 3:98) from Norway. They both estimate that systems with hydrocarbons and ammonia
are slightly more expensive than systems with HFC refrigerants. The systems cost 10-40%
more than chillers with HFC refrigerant. Large ammonia-based systems are competitive,
however.
The higher cost must be attributed to the fact that the technology is relatively new, especially
when hydrocarbons are used, and that economies of scale have not yet been achieved in the
production.
DTI Energy, together with Alexander Pachai, AirCon A/S, has carried out an analysis of the
future costs of using hydrocarbons. The analysis shows that there is only a small difference in
the component prices and the cost of assembling the systems. The difference is about 5 - 6% for
a 14 kW system. The price difference will be even smaller for larger systems. To this must be
added the cost of a refrigerant leakage alarm if the system is placed in a house. However, there
30
DTI Energy
should also be an alarm on HFC-based systems.
Specially trained refrigeration engineers are required for installation of hydrocarbon-based

systems and there must be clear rules for the installation. The engineers must also have the right
equipment, which includes leak detectors and a vacuum pump for hydrocarbons.
The conclusion is that in the future the difference in price between an HFC-based refrigeration
system and one based on hydrocarbons should not be more than 5 - 6%.
However, if indirect refrigeration – in supermarkets, for example – is required at the same time,
the difference in price compared with an HFC-based system with direct refrigeration with R-
404A will be greater – of the order of magnitude of 15 - 25%.
The difference in price between refrigeration systems with HFC and hydrocarbons with indirect
refrigeration will be minimal – perhaps 2 - 6%.
Here, it is in its place to repeat that indirect refrigeration is the norm in supermarkets in
Sweden, whereas direct refrigeration is normally used in the other Nordic countries.
HFC consumption
In Denmark, consumption of HFCs in 1996 was as follows in areas not covered by domestic
refrigerators and freezers: approx.160 tonnes HFC-134a, approx. 106 tonnes R-404A and
approx. 20 tonnes of other HFCs as refrigerant. It is assumed that most of these quantities were
used in commercial refrigeration systems.
Specific data are not available for the other Nordic countries.
Emission to surrounding environment/accumulation in scrapped products

There is always some leakage of refrigerant from commercial refrigeration systems. This
applies, for example, to systems with direct refrigeration in supermarkets, where there are often
several kilometres of pipes with refrigerant and hundreds of connections. The leakage used to
be about 15 – 25% of the charge per year. However, a great deal has been done in the last few
years to reduce the leakage, and this is now around 10% per year. Leakage is compensated for
recharging with refrigerant at regular intervals.
A small amount accumulates in the systems and is still there when the systems are scrapped.
When a system is scrapped, the remaining refrigerant is reused or incinerated. However, a small
amount is emitted in connection with the scrapping of the system.
It is estimated that most of the refrigerant in commercial refrigeration systems is emitted to the
atmosphere during operation.
The situation is different in Sweden, because it is now standard practice to construct systems
with indirect refrigeration. This reduced the amount charged and the leakage rate. According to
Granryd (ScanRef 5:98), the leakage from Swedish HFC-based refrigeration systems in 1996
amounted to around 5.2%.

HFC-free technology has been developed and implementation has started – for example, in
supermarket systems in Sweden.
3.3 Air conditioning

As mentioned in the previous section, there is not always a clear distinction between
commercial refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems.
31
In many office buildings and hospitals, chillers are installed for distributing cold water in the
building. The air in the individual rooms is cooled in heat exchangers by means of the cold
water. Various refrigeration systems are available for this purpose, and previously only
chemical refrigerants were used. Many systems based on HCFC or HFC refrigerants are still
being sold. In the last few years, however, a large number of ammonia-based refrigeration
systems have been installed for this purpose.
Appendix C provides a reference list for ammonia-based chillers installed in the Nordic
countries in the last few years. Several hundred systems have been installed since 1990.
In Sweden, Bonus Energi has installed about 75 hydrocarbon-based chillers, most of which are
designed for air conditioning. A reference list from Bonus Energi is given in Appendix D.
There are also a few systems that use absorption refrigeration (often lithium-bromide water
absorption refrigeration systems). DTI Energy has also developed a system that uses ejector
technology, in which water is the working medium and refrigerant.
Waste water from industrial processes and combined heat and power plants can be used to
advantage in absorption and ejector systems.
Financial barriers
The same considerations apply as in the comparison between ammonia- or hydrocarbon-based
systems and HFC-based systems.
Today, systems based on ammonia or hydrocarbons cost 10 - 40% more than HFC-based
systems. The difference is expected to decrease slightly when hydrocarbon-based systems gain
more ground (cf. Appendix B).
Large ammonia-based systems are competitive.
HFC consumption
Specific data are not available for air-conditioning systems. The consumption for this
application is often included in the consumption of commercial refrigeration systems. In
addition, the consumption of HFC for this application is expected to rise in the short term
because of conversion of HCFC-based systems. In the slightly longer term, the consumption
will probably stagnate and then fall as ammonia and hydrocarbon chillers gain ground.

The systems in question are compact, factory-made systems with a relatively small charge and
limited emission. The emission is presumably 1 - 4% of the charge per year.
With a lifetime of 15 to 25 years, there is some leakage of refrigerant. A large part of the
refrigerant will remain in the system when this is scrapped. It is assumed that this refrigerant
will be collected and reused in other systems. However, a small part of it will be emitted when
the refrigeration system is opened in connection with scrapping.

Alternative technology already exists and has been implemented. Appendices C and D list a
number of ammonia and hydrocarbon chillers that have been installed in the Nordic countries.
Small air-conditioning systems

As far as is known, there is no production of small air-conditioning systems in the Nordic
countries. Although the climate in the Nordic countries does not necessitate air conditioning,
32
DTI Energy
there is a growing tendency to set up small systems – in many cases, systems made in Japan.
The refrigerant is normally HCFC-22, but HFC-based systems have also appeared in the
market.
There are hydrocarbon-based systems on the market. De Longi in Italy has made around 60,000
systems with propane as the refrigerant. IMI in the UK has marketed systems with Care 50 (a
mixture of propane and ethane). These are models for mounting on walls and under ceilings.
Capacities vary between 2 and 10 kW.
3.4 Industrial refrigeration systems

Normally, industrial refrigeration systems are very large systems. They are used for process
refrigeration and cold storage within the food industry and in the chemical/biochemical
industry.
In the Nordic countries, traditional ammonia refrigeration systems are used for these purposes.
Largely all dairies, slaughterhouses, breweries and fishery companies have ammonia
refrigeration systems. There is a 100-year-old tradition for this in the Nordic countries.
However, many industrial refrigeration systems use CFC, HCFC or HFC refrigerants. Many of
them could just as well be ammonia-based refrigeration systems purchased for the purpose.
(One cannot, however, switch from HFC, for instance, to ammonia in existing systems).
The situation in the case of small industrial systems is slightly different. Here, extensive use is
made of HFC-based refrigerants in the same way as in commercial refrigeration systems and in
connection with air conditioning.
There is a growing trend towards use of indirect refrigeration in order to reduce the refrigerant
charge and avoid ammonia in work areas etc.
In the future, water or CO2 will be used as well as ammonia in some industrial refrigeration
systems.
Financial barriers
There are normally no financial barriers to using ammonia as the refrigerant in large industrial
refrigeration systems. In the case of small systems, the situation corresponds to that for
commercial refrigeration systems or air-conditioning systems.

Alternative technology is available, has been implemented and is standard.
3.5 Mobile refrigeration systems

Mobile refrigeration systems should be understood to mean refrigeration systems installed in
cars, trains, aircraft, ships and containers.
Air-conditioning systems in cars

Previously, CFC-12 was used for this purpose, but in recent years HFC-134a has been used.
In the Nordic countries, cars are manufactured in Sweden and Finland. Until recently, most cars
sold in the Nordic countries did not have an air-conditioning system. However, more and more
cars are now being fitted with air conditioning, and an air-conditioning system will probably
become standard in the future.
A number of projects are in progress in which CO2 is being tested as a refrigerant for these
33
systems, but the projects are still at the development stage. Nordic firms and institutions,
including SINTEF in Trondheim, are involved in this work. In cooperation with a number of
car manufacturers, Danfoss has participated in an EU project with the aim of developing a new
compressor.
It should be mentioned that in some countries hydrocarbons are used in car air-conditioning
systems. This is for example the case in Australia and the USA. The refrigerant is a mixture of
propane and butane that can be used as drop-in substitute for CFC-12 in existing systems.
However, DTI Energy does not at the present time recommend use of this mixture in cars that
have not been designed for it.
The risk of fire and/or explosion in connection with use of hydrocarbons in car air- conditioning
systems has been debated. Hydrocarbons could be a natural choice since several kilos of
hydrocarbons in the form of petrol, diesel oil and gas are already present in the car. However, it
is important that the system be designed so that an explosive mixture cannot occur inside the
car.
Barriers: Natural refrigerants for air conditioning in cars are on the way, but for a real
breakthrough for them, the car industry will have to invest seriously in them. It is not possible
at the present time to say anything about the price of the alternative technology.
HFC consumption: There is no specific data on consumption for this application, but the typical
refrigerant charge is 1.0 kg (0.8 – 1.2 kg) for a car, 1.5 kg for a truck and 5 kg for a bus.
Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products: There is a relatively large

leakage of refrigerant from mobile refrigeration systems – in the order of 20 - 30% of the
charge per year. The leakage used to be even bigger. The leakage is due to seals and leaky
hoses but has been reduced in recent years by means of tighter hoses. The leakage rate for new
systems is now 10 - 20% per year.
The relatively large leakage means that almost all the refrigerant used will be emitted to the
atmosphere during the lifetime of the vehicle. The remainder should be collected when the
vehicle is scrapped.
Situation with respect to alternative technology: Alternative technology is being developed but
has not yet been implemented. Implementation probably depends on agreement being reached
on this between the car manufacturers.
Integral reefer containers

The company Mærsk Line is the world’s leading carrier of refrigerated goods and has more than
40,000 reefer containers in traffic on a global level. Previously, integral reefer containers were
equipped with a CFC-12 refrigeration system, and many old containers still use this equipment.
Many new containers that were “born” with CFC-12 have since been converted for use of HFC-
134a.
Since 1993, all new refrigeration systems have been installed with HFC-134a as refrigerant.
Mærsk Container Industry has a considerable production of integral reefer containers in
Denmark.
CO2 has been suggested as a refrigerant in reefer containers, and development projects are on
the way. It is too early to say anything about the price of this technology.
HFC consumption: Specific figures are not available for HFC consumption for this application.
34
DTI Energy
Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products: There is a relatively large

leakage from integral reefer containers because of the violent actions to which these are
subjected in ports and at sea. The leakage rate is of the same order of magnitude as from cars’
air-conditioning systems - probably 20 – 30% of the charge per year. Therefore, most of the
refrigerant used for this purpose will be emitted to the atmosphere. When a container is
scrapped, the remaining refrigerant will be collected, cleaned and reused in another container.
Situation with respect to alternative technology: Alternative technology has not yet been
developed.
Ships
Some ships (in Iceland, for example) were built with a CFC or HCFC refrigeration system and
were later converted for use of HFC refrigerants. Consumption of HFC in Iceland is expected to
increase in the coming century because of this conversion. There is a large leakage of
refrigerant from these ships because of violent physical actions at sea.
Large, new or retro-fitted ships use ammonia as refrigerant, but ammonia cannot be used in old
ships.
In Iceland, about 10 fishing vessels have been built/rebuilt with an ammonia-based refrigeration
system.
There are a number of refrigeration systems with HCFC-22 in the merchant fleet. These can be
converted for use of HFC refrigerants. There are also some systems in which ammonia is used.
Air conditioning in aircraft

For many years cold-air refrigeration systems have been used for cooling passenger cabins in
ordinary airliners. A simple joule process is used, in which air is compressed and cooled by
heat exchange with the surroundings. Afterwards, the air is expanded in a turbine, whereby it
becomes cold. The process is not particularly energy efficient but is used in aircraft because of
the lightness of the components.
Air conditioning in trains

HFC-134a is normally used as the refrigerant in train air-conditioning systems.
In Germany, however, a cold-air refrigeration system has been developed for trains in which, as
in aircraft, air is used as the refrigerant. The project has been successful and approximately 60
units have been made for ICE trains.
3.6 Heat pumps

The function of heat pumps is similar to that of refrigeration systems, in that heat is tapped
from a source (e.g. fresh air, soil, stable air, process water, etc.). At higher temperatures this is
removed to a heat carrier - for example, central heating water.
The following four main types of heat pumps are used in the Nordic countries: domestic heat
pumps, stable heat pumps, industrial heat pumps, and large heat pumps for district heating
systems. In Denmark, heat pumps are almost entirely for use in single family houses, while in
Sweden and Norway, a number of very large heat pumps are connected to large district heating
systems. Domestic heat pumps are used for space heating and for heating of water for domestic
use.
A considerable number of heat pumps are made in the Nordic countries, and some Japanese
units are imported.
35
Synthetic refrigerants (HCFC-22 in particular) have been used up to the present time. However,
several manufacturers (Lodam/Nibe) have developed heat pumps with propane as the
refrigerant. Recently, Lodam won a competition in the Netherlands, and the company has
orders for 400 heat pumps using propane for Dutch customers. The pumps are liquid/water heat
pumps.
Like domestic heat pumps, stable heat pumps are compact units. They utilise surplus heat from
livestock for heating the house and/or for preheating water for cleaning etc. in the stable. It is
generally the same companies that install domestic heat pumps and stable heat pumps.
In Sweden and Norway, in particular, some heat pumps have been installed that use surplus
heat from houses. The surplus heat is often used for heating utility water.
Industrial heat pumps and large heat pumps for district heating systems are made by Sabroe and
Gram, among other companies, using ammonia, for example, as the refrigerant.
Financial barriers
It will be possible to make small heat pumps for propane (liquid/water or air/water) in the
future without major additional costs. Experience from Lodam indicates that compact heat
pumps will have to be equipped with a fan for extraction to the surroundings. The other
components are the same as for heat pumps for synthetic refrigerants. When the necessary
infrastructure and service are in place, the additional cost of propane heat pumps is expected to
be modest.
HFC consumption
There is some consumption of HFC for this application. Up to the present time, HCFC-22 has
been used in small heat pumps and HFC or ammonia in large ones. The actual consumption is
not known, but is included in the individual countries’ statement of refrigerant sales.

The leakage from small heat pumps is estimated to be around 10% per year. Most of the
refrigerant used will therefore be emitted to the surroundings. When a heat pump is scrapped,
the remaining refrigerant should be collected and reused or incinerated.
The leakage from large heat pumps is smaller – usually around 5%.

Heat pumps that use natural refrigerants have been developed, and implementation of these has
commenced in the Nordic countries, Germany and the Netherlands.
3.7 Cryogenic systems

Cryogenic systems have a relatively small area of application. They are used to cool laboratory
specimens and other small specimens to low temperatures.
In Denmark, Heto-Holten makes laboratory equipment, including equipment for freeze-drying

and low-temperature freezers (cryogenic systems) for hospitals etc. The equipment normally
consists of a two-stage refrigeration system, the first stage of which is an R-404a system.
During the first stage of the process, temperatures down to approximately -50/C are reached.
During the second stage, hydrocarbons are used as refrigerants, either ethane (R-170) to
approximately -80 to -90C or ethene (R-1150) to approximately -100 to - 120C.
Some foreign manufacturers use HFC-23 in the lowest stage.
36
DTI Energy
It should be possible to use propane in the first stage. This would hardly be likely to affect
safety since hydrocarbons are used in the second stage.
3.8 Polyurethane insulating foam

A large amount of CFC-11 used to be used as the blowing agent for polyurethane foam for
refrigerators, district heating pipes, sandwich insulating panels for cold stores etc. CFC-11 has a
low thermal conductivity, so polyurethane with CFC-11 in the sealed cells in the foam has a
good insulating capacity – about twice as good as that of mineral wool.
Refrigerators and freezers

CFCs have been banned for this application and alternative technologies have been developed.
As will be seen from section 3.1, the insulation in most refrigerators and freezers in Europe is
now blown with cyclopentane and other hydrocarbons instead of CFC-11. They also provide a
good insulating capacity. However, refrigerators and freezers are still being made with HCFCs
and HFCs in the insulating foam.
For further information concerning refrigerators and freezers, readers are referred to section 3.1.
District heating pipes

More than half the world’s district heating pipes are manufactured in Denmark - by ABB I.C.
Møller, Løgstør Rør, Tarco Energi and Dansk Rørfabrik (Star Pipes).
Approx. 820 tonnes CFC-11 used to be used for this application (1986). At one time, HCFC-
141b and HCFC-142b were used, but nowadays manufacturers use mainly hydrocarbons –
particularly cyclopentane – for this purpose. Some district heating pipes are also made with
CO2 as the blowing agent. Neither ozone-depleting substances nor potent greenhouse gases are
now used for district heating pipes.
In Sweden, district heating pipes are made by Power Pipe near Gothenburg, using CO 2 as the
blowing agent.
In Finland, district heating pipes are made by KWH Tech Ab (Vaasa), ABB Ecopipe Oy
(Saarijärvi) and ArvoPutki Oy (Mynämäki). These manufacturers use hydrocarbons, CO 2 and
HCFC-141b as blowing agents.
In Iceland, district heating pipes are made by Set h.f. (Selfoss), using hydrocarbons as the
blowing agent in the production and CO2 for in-situ connection of the pipes.
Insulating panels
In all five Nordic countries, insulating panels are made for cold stores and other applications.
The panels are sandwich structures that can be assembled to form complete buildings. The
sandwich structure consists of polyurethane foam sandwiched between metal plates.
CFC-11 used to be used for this purpose. In Denmark, HCFCs are used extensively for blowing
the polyurethane foam. This is allowed until the end of 2001. There is also a small production
of CO2-blown panels. The annual consumption of CFC-11 for insulating panels in Denmark
used to be approx. 140 tonnes. The consumption of HCFCs is not known but is presumed to be
of the same order of magnitude.
In Sweden, the use of HCFC-blown panels is prohibited and CO2 is used instead.
In Finland, Huurre Group Oy (Ylöjärvi) and Makroflex Oy (Oitti) have been making sandwich
insulating panels with hydrocarbons since 1994. The Finnish companies Makroflex Oy and
37
SPU-Systems Oy (Kankaanpää) make insulating panels for ordinary homes. These panels are
clad with foil on both sides. They have been made with hydrocarbons since 1994.
Norway has a substantial production of insulating panels, including a special variant with
plasterboard (multi-panels). In Norway, HCFC is used as the blowing agent, but for panels for
export to Sweden, pentane or a mixture of HFC and CO2 is used.
Barriers to the introduction of alternative technology: CO2-blown panels have a poorer

insulating capacity than HCFC-blown panels. The price is approximately the same.
Hydrocarbons can be used, but that calls for investments in fire safety and training of personnel.
Once that investment has been made, the production costs will be approximately the same as
before.
Situation with respect to alternative technology: Alternative technology has been developed,
and alternative technology with hydrocarbons has been implemented in Finland and partially
implemented in Norway.
Integral reefer containers

There is a big production of integral reefer containers in Denmark. HCFC is used for blowing
the polyurethane foam insulation. The exact consumption is not known. Hydrocarbons could be
used instead, but that requires some alteration of the production plant, which must be protected
against the risk of fire.
Barriers to the introduction of alternative technology: The principal barrier to the introduction
of hydrocarbons in the insulation is the associated disadvantages in the form of production
stops, uncertainties about quality in the conversion period, safety in the working environment
and the financial consequences thereof.
Rigid block foam (rigid slab stock)

Many small users of foam insulation buy rigid block foam, which they then cut to the size
required for their specific purpose. The foam is usually only a small part of a complex machine.
Norway has several manufacturers of rigid block foam. One large manufacturer has switched to
pentane as the blowing agent. The other manufacturers use HCFC but can also make foam
without HCFC for specific markets.
Denmark has one manufacturer of rigid block foam. This manufacturer has switched to
isopentane as the blowing agent.
Insulated lightweight aggregate concrete blocks

Norway has a production of lightweight aggregate concrete blocks. The cavities in these are
filled with polyurethane foam, with HCFC-141b used as the blowing agent.
Other insulating foam

Some companies use a small quantity of polyurethane foam for insulating purposes. Many of
these use CO2-blown foam or rigid block foam purchased pre-blown. Others use foam blown
with HFC-134a or HCFC blowing agents.
CO2 and hydrocarbons can be used as an alternative.
Barriers: CO2 results in a slightly poorer insulating capacity, but that may be good enough in
many cases. If insulating capacity is of the essence, polyurethane foam with hydrocarbons can
be used instead. That will necessitate investment in fire-protection measures and training of
38
DTI Energy
personnel. When those investments have been made, the price of the material will be
approximately as before.
3.9 Jointing foam

Jointing foam is used when fitting doors and windows in houses because the foam insulates. In
the Nordic countries, jointing foam is made in Denmark and Finland.
Baxenden Scandinavia A/S in Denmark makes aerosol cans with jointing foam and produces
many different kinds of jointing foam. CFC and HCFCs used to be used as the propellant in
these cans but have now been banned. In 1986, between 575 and 800 tonnes of CFC and HCFC
were used for this purpose.
Baxenden was out early with an alternative can, in which propane and butane were used as
propellants. This system was launched in Scandinavia, and since 1987 only systems operating
on hydrocarbons have been used in this market.
Makroflex Oy in Finland makes one-component jointing foam, using propane/butane as the

propellant.
Barriers
The situation is different in other markets, including Germany. Aerosol cans must not contain
more than 50 g flammable propellants, i.e. max. 50 g propane + butane + HFC-152a. It is
therefore necessary to add some HFC-134a (a 700 ml can normally contains 200 to 250 g
propellant).
This is based on an agreement entered into by the European manufacturers. However,

Scandinavia is exempted from the rule. The agreement applies only in Europe. In other parts of
the world, hydrocarbons are mainly used as the propellant.
Cans with pure hydrocarbon propellants are only supplied to countries in which people are
accustomed to working with this propellant and where safety regulations ensuring adequate
ventilation are observed.
Accidents with hydrocarbon-based cans have occurred in cases in which safety precautions have
not been observed and cases in which the cans have been used in small rooms and a match or a
lighter has been lighted and has ignited a fire. However, this danger also exists for cans with
HFC propellants, as these are also flammable due to the content of hydrocarbon and HFC-152a.
There are approx. 35 manufacturers worldwide, and competition is tough. Baxenden can
therefore not decide the technological trend on its own, but may make cans with HFC
propellants for other countries than the Nordic countries.
Cans with pure hydrocarbon propellants are considerably cheaper than cans with HFC
substances. The propellants have different properties so a comparison based only on price is not
possible. The properties of the jointing foam differ with the propellant.
HFC consumption
Consumption of HFCs for this application in Denmark in 1996 was as follows: approx. 75
tonnes HFC-134a and approx. 25 tonnes HFC-152a. That represents a fall in relation to 1995,
when consumption was 85 and 39 tonnes, respectively.

When the jointing foam forms, all HFC is released. It is initially in the cells of the foam but
39
quickly diffuses out of the foam and into the atmosphere.

Alternative technology has been implemented in the Nordic countries.
3.10 Flexible polyurethane foam

Flexible polyurethane foam is used for upholstering furniture, in mattresses and for backing
carpets. The material is manufactured in all the Nordic countries except Iceland.
CFC-11 and later HCFCs have been the traditional propellants, particularly for soft, lightweight
qualities for the furniture industry.
The heavy qualities are traditionally blown with CO 2.
Today, it is only in Denmark that HFCs are used to produce flexible polyurethane foam. A
mixture of HFC-134a and HFC-152a is used for this purpose.
In Norway and Sweden, CO2 is used instead.
In Finland, Espe Oy (Kouvola) and Suomen Superlon Oy (Rauma) make flexible polyurethane
foam. They have been using CO2 for this purpose since 1989.
In some countries (also within the EU) methylenchloride is used for production of the material.
That would be inconceivable in the Nordic countries for health and safety reasons.
Barriers
A new technology in which liquid CO2 is used for production of flexible polyurethane foam in
these qualities has been developed abroad, and some systems have been installed – in the USA
and Italy among other countries. The main barrier to converting to this technology is the
investment in new machinery.
Danish manufacturers of flexible polyurethane foam say that there is also a barrier with respect
to quality because there seem to have been some quality problems with the new CO 2
technology.
HFC consumption
The exact consumption in Denmark is not known. According to Working Report No. 98, 1997
from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, the consumption in 1996 was 70 tonnes
HFC-134a and 7 tonnes HFC-152a for “other applications (including flexible polyurethane
foam)”.

All HFC is released to the atmosphere during production of flexible polyurethane foam.

Flexible polyurethane foam with a density of more than 23 kg/m 3 can be made without HFCs.
Foam with a density of less than 23 kg/m 3 can be made with new technology that has not yet
been implemented in the Nordic countries.
3.11 Extinguishants
In connection with the global phase-out of Halon, a number of chemical substitutes have
appeared, including one that is based on HFC-227 (e.g. Great Lakes FM-200). These substances
are marketed rather intensively in many countries of the world.
40
DTI Energy
In the Nordic countries, some use is made of HFC-227 (and a mixture of HFC-134a, HFC-125
and CO2).
In Denmark, however, the use of halogenated hydrocarbons for fire-fighting is banned. The
substances Halon-1301 and Halon-1211 were exempted from this, but they are now being
phased-out parallel with the CFCs etc.
Enterprises have developed impressive alternative technologies for fire-fighting – Inergen, for
example, which has been developed by Dansk FireEater. Inergen consists of inert gases, i.e.
argon, nitrogen and some CO2. Inergen can be used for total flooding systems in computer
rooms, control rooms, power stations, engine rooms, etc. Ginge-Kerr, Danmark A/S has a
similar technology called Argonite, which consists of argon and nitrogen. This firm has also
developed a water mist technology.
The technology of using inert gases for fire-extinguishing purposes has become a remarkable
success, internationally as well. Foreign multinationals, such as Wormald, are marketing
Inergen.
There are also other alternatives for chemical extinguishants – CO 2 or foam extinguishers in
machine-rooms in ships, better detectors combined with manual extinguishers, etc. It is beyond
the scope of this report to go into every detail. This entire area has been described in detail in a
report published by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency in 1995: Environmental
Report No. 312: Going towards Natural Extinguishants, Experience from Danish Industry.
Barriers
There are no general financial barriers to using alternative technologies. According to Haukås et
al., the price is the same as for HFC technology. There can be some applications for which
there are no alternatives to chemical extinguishants – for example on board aircraft and for
military purposes, for which Halon is still used.
HFC consumption
HFC consumption for fire-extinguishing purposes in the Nordic countries is as follows:
Sweden: approx. 41 tonnes (1997).
Norway: approx. 5 tonnes (1996).
Finland: approx. 1.8 tonnes (1997).
Iceland and Denmark: 0.

Initially, HFCs remain in the gas cylinders. Some will, however, be emitted to the atmosphere
through leakage and accidental activation and in connection with fires. According to the IPCC
Guidelines, the emission in the case of total flooding systems, the emission is approx. 35% of
the charge per year. However, this leakage rate could be reduced to around 15% per year.

Alternative technology has been developed and partially implemented in the Nordic countries.
3.12 Aerosol cans

In some of the Nordic countries (including Denmark and Iceland), the use of HFCs in aerosol
cans is banned, except in the case of medical applications and “foghorns”.
Medical sprays
CFC-11 and CFC-12 are still used as propellants in medical sprays and especially in asthma
41
sprays.
Alternative products have been available for many years, for instance self-inhaled asthma
powder. Astra in Sweden has developed such a product, called “turbohaler”. This and similar
products have a very large share of the market in Sweden. However, not all asthma patients are
able to inhale themselves.
Asthma sprays with HFC substances as the propellant have been developed and are now on the
market.
Barriers to use of alternative technology: There can be barriers of a medical nature, such as
weak lungs. There is presumably no difference in price.
HFC consumption: As far as is known, there is no production of asthma sprays in the Nordic
countries.
Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products: All HFC is emitted to the

surroundings during use of asthma sprays.
Situation with respect to alternative technology: Alternative products such as powder

preparations are on the market and are used by a large number of patients.
Foghorns
Foghorns with HFC-134a as the propellant are available. The horn is an aerosol can with a
plastic horn that emits a loud noise.
It is believed that foghorns are mainly used by spectators at football matches, but they are also
used on leisure craft to warn other boats.
Non-HFC alternatives are available in Denmark. Several different types are available. In one
type, isobutane is used as the propellant. Another type uses compressed air and can be
recharged at petrol stations or by means of a hand pump. Foghorns operated by means of an
electric compressor are also available. Lastly, manually operated foghorns that are blown by
mouth or activated by means of a rubber ball are also available.
Barriers to use of alternative technology: Foghorns with hydrocarbons can be used provided
there is no naked flame nearby. They should not be used in closed rooms or where there may
otherwise be a risk of fire. Hydrocarbons are deemed to be cheaper than HFC-based foghorns.
Alternatives using compressed air can be used anywhere.
HFC consumption: There is presumably no production in the Nordic countries. Import figures
are not available.
Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products: All HFC is emitted to the

surroundings during use of foghorns.
Situation with respect to alternative technology: Alternative products are available in the Nordic
countries.
3.13 Other applications

HFCs are used to a small extent for detecting faults in electronic products. HFC is stored under
pressure in an aerosol can and cools down when sprayed on an electronic component. This is
used to find faults in electronic products such as television sets.
42
DTI Energy
Products of this type are made in Finland. The consumption of HFC for this purpose is
confidential.
The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency advises that liquid CO 2 is used for this purpose
in Sweden and that AGA supplies systems for it.
43
4. PFCs
The use and production of PFCs in the Nordic region are described in this chapter, together
with possibilities for reducing the emission of these substances.
PFCs are perfluorocarbons, i.e. substances formed on the basis of simple hydrocarbons in
which all hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluoride atoms. As these substances are very
stable, they have a very long atmospheric lifetime. At the same time, they are very potent
greenhouse gases.
Table 4.1 The principal PFCs
Chemical R-number Normal GWP (100 Atmospheric

formula boiling point yrs) lifetime (yrs)
(C)
CF4 R-14 - 127.9 6,500 50,000
C2F6 R-116 - 78.2 9,200 10,000
C3F8 R-218 - 36.8 7,000 2,600
C6F14 + 58 7,400 3,200
4.1 PFC emission during production of aluminium

Several Nordic countries have a large production of hydroelectricity (and in the case of Iceland
also geothermal energy). Aluminium is produced by means of an electrolytic process in which
large quantities of electricity are used. It is therefore attractive to site aluminium works in
countries with an ample supply of electricity.
Aluminium is produced in Norway, Iceland and Sweden.
Aluminium is made from bauxite, which is used to produce pure aluminium oxide – also called
alumina. Metallic aluminium is made in large pots (cells) by means of an electrolytic process
with carbon electrodes. The tank acts as the cathode and carbon blocks act as the anode.
During the production process, alumina (Al2O3) is dissolved in a fluoride melt consisting
mainly of cryolite (Na3AlF6). PFCs are formed through a phenomenon called the anode effect
(AE) when the concentration of alumina is low. The voltage between the anode and the melt is
thereby increased from 4 - 5 Volt to 20 - 50 Volt. PFC gases form in the electrolytic process
during production of aluminium in a reaction between fluorides and carbon, with the carbon
being used as anode/reduction material. It is assumed that PFC gases form only during the
anode effect, which is a rapid increase in voltage in the electrolytic furnace. It occurs when
there is too much aluminium oxide in the bath melt.
The PFC emission increases with the frequency and duration of the anode effect. The anode
effect typically occurs between 0.05 and 3 times per day per cell and usually lasts for 2 to 4
minutes. Source: personal information from Norsk Hydro and Elkem Aluminium.
There are several different kinds of aluminium smelting works. The production process and
thus the emission of PFCs differ with the type. The IPCC Guidelines refer to a study from
1995, in which the global emission of PFC from production of aluminium is estimated to be
approx. 1.4 kg CF4 and 0.2 kg C2F6 per tonne produced aluminium.
Emission data for different cell technologies in aluminium production are reproduced in Table
44
DTI Energy
4.2. It will be seen that there is a big variation in the emission of PFCs. The emission varies by
a factor of 40 between the technology with the smallest emission to the technology with the
biggest emission.
The “modern prebaked” technology has a much smaller emission than the other (older)
technologies – approx. 0.05 kg PFC/tonne Al, compared with 1.0 – 2.0 kg PFC/tonne Al for all
the other types.
Table 4.2: Estimated PFC emission from aluminium smelting works with different cell
technology. Source: Tabereaux, 1995, reported in “UNEP, Reference Manual and Workbook of
the IPCC 1996 Revised Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.”
Cell technology Share of global production Emission in kg/tonne Al

(%)
Modern prebaked 20 0.05
HS Søderberg 11 1.0
Older prebaked 40 1.75
VS Søderberg 29 2.0
Weighted global production 100 1.40
Norsk Hydro advises that the distribution in the western world is: approx. 21% Søderberg (6%
HSS and 15% VSS) and approx. 79% prebake (50% PFPB and 29% SWPB or CWPB).
The above-mentioned UNEP-manual (from the text in Table 4.2) also reports measurements
from Norway (Norsk Hydro, 1996) and Canada (1994). The manual gives measured values for
the emission of CF4 and C2F6 in kg/tonne aluminium. These data are reproduced in Table 4.3.
45
Table 4.3: Measured emissions of PFCs from aluminium production in Norway and Canada.
Values are given for different cell technologies. Same source as Table 4.2.
Norsk Hydro Norsk Hydro Canada, Shiff Canada, Shiff

1996 1996 1994 1994
CF4 C2F6 CF4 C2F4
(kg/tonne Al) (kg/tonne Al) (kg/tonne Al) (kg/tonne Al)
Side Worked - - 1.19 0.067
Prebaked
Horizontal Stud - - 0.82 0.14
Søderberg
Vertical Stud 0.15 - 0.9 0.006 - 0.04 0.4 -
Søderberg
Centre Worked 0.02 - 0.18 0.001 - 0.008 0.045 - 0.53 0.007 - 0.032
Prebaked
Norway
Norway is the largest producer of aluminium in the Nordic countries and one of the world’s
largest producers. There are seven smelting works, four of which belong to Norsk Hydro.
Table 4.4: Emission of PFCs (in tonnes) from Norwegian producers. The trend is clearly
downwards. Source: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Norway, 1990 - 1996, SFT 1998.
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

CF4 369 313 242 254 231 209 187
C2F6 16 14 11 11 11 9 6
It will be seen from Table 4.4 that emissions of PFCs from Norwegian producers of aluminium
fell by about 50% from 1990 to 1996. This is attributed to improved technology and process
control, which resulted in a reduction of PFC emissions from approx. 0.6 to 0.3 kg PFC/tonne
aluminium in the period 1990 - 1996.
Norsk Hydro is Norway’s largest producer. It produces primarily aluminium at four works and
is co-owner of a fifth works in Norway. In addition, Norsk Hydro cooperates with producers in
the USA and Slovakia. In 1997, the company sold a total of 1.58 million tonnes aluminium.
Norsk Hydro wrote in “Environmental Report 1996” that new technology had been installed at
the Karmøy aluminium smelting works. The new technology consists of point-feeders, which
are expected to reduce the emission of PFCs from 80 tonnes to approx. 20 tonnes per year.
Norsk Hydro has been working for many years on modifying the point-feeder technology
(which was originally developed for the modern prebake cells) for the older Søderberg cells.
In connection with the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, Elkem Aluminium wrote in a press
release: “The PFC emission can be reduced by 80 to 90% in relation to the 1990 level through
conversions and improved process control” (www.elkem.com).
It thus looks as though the PFC emission from aluminium production can be reduced still
further.
Iceland
46
DTI Energy
Iceland also has a production of aluminium – in Straumsvik. In 1990, the PFC emission was
estimated to be approx. 45 tonnes. The emission was reduced to approx. 8 tonnes in 1995 and
to approx. 4 tonnes in 1996 through the introduction of new technology in the form of new
control technology.
In 1997, the emission rose to approx. 8 tonnes due to an increase in the capacity of the plant.
With a new production facility on Grundartangi, the emission is expected to rise slightly in
1998. However, it is still expected to be smaller than in 1990, i.e. around 13 tonnes in the year
2000, and to remain at the same level in 2010 and 2020.
Sweden
Sweden also has a large aluminium production. In 1997, the PFC emission from this production
amounted to approx. 44.7 tonnes. According to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency,
the emission is not expected to exceed 45 tonnes in the year 2000.
Agreement with the aluminium industry

In June 1997, the Norwegian Ministry of Environment entered into an agreement with the
Norwegian aluminium industry in the form of Elkem Aluminium ANS, Hydro Aluminium AS
and Sør-Norge Aluminium AS. Under this agreement, the industry undertake to reduce the total
specific emission of climate gases (emission of climate gases per tonne aluminium) by 50% and
55% in the year 2000 and 2005, respectively, in relation to the 1990 emission. Most of the
reduction will be in the form of a reduction in the emission of PFCs.
The cost of reducing the emission

Specific figures are not available for the cost of modernising aluminium production. However,
it appears from SFT’s reports that reduction of the emission of PFCs by the industry is cheaper
than reducing other emissions of CO2 in society. It should be mentioned, however, that the
introduction of new control technology may make it possible to increase production with the
existing production capacity.
4.2 PFCs in refrigerant mixtures

In recent years, PFCs have been used in special refrigerant mixtures, which are used as “drop-
in” substitutes for CFC refrigerants.
A growing consumption of these refrigerants has been registered in several of the Nordic
countries.
The main “drop-in” refrigerant is R-413A, which is also sold under the trade name “Isceon 49”.
It consists of 9% C3F8, 88% HFC-134a and 3% isobutane.
There are also other refrigerant mixtures with PFCs, including R-403A, R-403B, R-412A, R-
508A, R-408B and R-509. However, sales of these mixtures have not been reported. Haukås
states that R-508A has probably been sold for certain low-temperature freezers and R-403B for
freezing systems for road transport in Norway.
The refrigeration industry is generally cautious about using refrigerant mixtures because of
uncertainty about the concentration of the remaining mixture after leakage and because it is
generally not desirable to transport several types of refrigerants in service vehicles.
The refrigerant R-413A contains C3F8. Consumption of the pure substance in Denmark
amounted to 1.5 tonnes in 1995 and approx. 3 tonnes in 1996, and a further increase is expected
in 1997.
47
Consumption in Norway in 1996 amounted to approx. 0.3 tonnes (Haukås in “Kulde”, 4/98).
According to the suppliers, this refrigerant is used for charging old CFC-12 refrigeration
systems and can therefore be used to prolong the lifetime of systems that have been fully
depreciated. That can be financially advantageous.
It is not deemed necessary to use this refrigerant (except perhaps in some transport refrigeration
systems). Instead, the refrigeration system should continue to be operated with CFC-12 until
the time comes to scrap it. The refrigerant should then be collected for incineration through the
national schemes.
Reasonably new CFC-12 systems can be converted for use of an HFC refrigerant.
4.3 Other PFC applications

In Sweden’s second national report to the UN’s Climate Secretariat it was stated that the
emission of PFCs was estimated to be about 60 tonnes in 1996, of which 40 tonnes came from
aluminium production. The remaining 20 tonnes were used in the electronics industry, in
plasma etching and vapour phase soldering, and in the fabrication of modern outdoor clothing
in the textile industry, and a certain amount is used in aircraft industry.
No further information on this is available at the present time.
Small quantities are presumably used for laboratory applications. In Denmark, perfluorohexane
(C6F14) is sold, but sales of the product, which is intended for use as an inactive liquid in the
electronics industry, are not reported.
It should be mentioned that an attempt has been made to sell PFCs as an extinguishant – a
substitute for Halon. However, there are no reports of this application in the Nordic countries.
48
DTI Energy
5. Use of SF6
This chapter describes the use of sulphur-hexafluoride (SF 6) in the Nordic countries, together
with the possibility of using other substances and of reducing the emission of SF 6. SF6 has a
very long atmospheric lifetime and is the gas with the biggest greenhouse effect per unit of
weight.
Table 5.1: Principal data for SF6
Chemical R-number Normal GWP Atmospheric lifetime

formula boiling point (100 yrs) (yrs)
(C)
SF6 R-7146 -63.8 23,900 3,200
The global consumption of SF6 is approx. 7,500 tonnes per year and is still increasing. Most of
it - approximately 6,000 tonnes per year – is used as the insulating medium in heavy-current
installations in connection with the rapid expansion of electricity supply systems in new growth
areas, including Asia. In the “old” industrialised countries this expansion took place some years
ago, and the consumption of SF6 there is relatively low due to reuse of the substance.
The second-largest source of consumption on a global scale is magnesium production

(approximately 500 tonnes per year). Other global fields of consumption include degassing of
aluminium, cleaning of electronic components and pumping-up of car tyres.
5.1 Cover gas in light-alloy metal foundries

SF6 is used in a low concentration in connection with the production of light-alloy metal. It is
used to prevent liquid magnesium from bursting into flames when the metal is cast into bars
and machine components. Liquid magnesium is highly flammable and without cover gas it
would burst into flames on contact with oxygen. SF 6 has been used for this purpose since the
end of the 1970s.
When SF6 is used for this purpose, the gas is emitted to the atmosphere. There is very little or
no chemical decomposition during the process.
Norsk Hydro is the world’s largest producer of magnesium, with a total production capacity of
85,000 tonnes per year. Norsk Hydro has production facilities in Porsgrunn, Norway and in
Canada. Both facilities use hydroelectricity. According to “Environmental Report, Norsk
Hydro, 1996” and “Environmental Report, Norsk Hydro, 1997”, these plants’ consumption of
SF6 has been greatly reduced. In Norway, consumption amounted to about 1.8 kg/tonne
magnesium in 1990 but was down to less than 0.5 kg/tonne in 1997.
Norsk Hydro also advises that it is working to find and test a substitute for SF 6 and is also
assisting customers that want to switch to another cover gas.
The main customers for magnesium are the aluminium industry (in which it is used as a
component in alloys) and the automobile industry, where there is a growing demand for light-
alloy components made with magnesium.
SF6 consumption
Consumption of SF6 for the production of magnesium in Norway amounted to approx. 19
tonnes in 1996.
49
Consumption of SF6 for magnesium casting in Denmark amounted to approx. 0.4 tonne in
1996.

All the SF6 used in the production process is emitted to the surroundings. None of it
accumulates in the products.

Norsk Hydro advises that it is working on the development of alternatives. It is not quite clear,
however, whether these have been implemented.
SF6 in aluminium production

According to Preben Norgaard Hansen, DISA, SF 6 is used for degassing liquid aluminium
before casting. Previously, gases containing chlorine were used for this purpose, but caused
health & safety problems.
SF6 is introduced into the liquid metal in small bubbles, and gas, including hydrogen, diffuses
into the bubbles, which then rise to the surface and are released to the atmosphere.
Globally, there are approximately 20 Disamatic automatic casting machines for aluminium
production. This market is growing steadily with the increasing use of aluminium for car
components.
DISA has tested this technology at its test foundry in Denmark, but is not using SF 6 for this
purpose at present. Per Norgaard Hansen does not know whether SF 6 is being used for casting
aluminium in Denmark.
According to SFT, consumption of SF 6 for this purpose in Norway amounted to approx. 1 tonne
in 1996.
5.2 Insulating gas in power switches

SF6 has a remarkable dielectric value. Because of this, the substance is used as an insulating gas
in certain high-voltage installations. In principle, there are two different fields of application:
 as arc-breaker in power switches
 as insulator in compact distribution systems.
There is a large quantity of SF 6 in electrical installations in the Nordic countries. The emission
is relatively small because the gas is in sealed equipment. When repairs are carried out, the gas
is collected and reused. Emission thus only occurs by accident or through unforeseen leakages.
Production of switches
According to Marja Widell, ABB, ABB Switchgear AB makes both heavy and medium-current
switches with SF6. ABB Switchgear is one of the world’s biggest manufacturers, with about
20% of the global production. ABB in Sweden used approx. 30 tonnes SF 6 in switches in 1997,
with most of the production going for export. ABB also makes switches with SF 6 in Norway
and Finland.
ABB became aware several years ago that SF 6 was a very potent greenhouse gas. It has
therefore developed new routines for reducing leakage to the atmosphere. Leakage during the
production process was reduced from 26% in 1995 to approx. 10% in 1997, and with even
better equipment being set up in the production, there will be further improvements in the
50
DTI Energy
future. All products undergo tightness testing before delivery and have an integral indicator that
shows if there is a leakage.
Use in switches
According to Henrik Weldingh, DEFU (Danish Electrical Research Institute), an electric arc
forms when power is switched off and temperatures may reach extreme values (10,000 -
100,000 K). A substance is needed for breaking the electric arc by rapid and efficient cooling so
that power cut-off is completed by the time the current reaches the zero point of the AC sine
wave. There are several possibilities:
 blasting the electric arc away with heavily compressed air from a cylinder; this
technology is old and is still used in some systems but has the disadvantage that the release of
the compressed air makes a loud noise resembling an explosion;
 breaking the contact in oil, whereby hydrogen is formed; this technology
involves some risk of explosion and has been abandoned;
 switching off the current in a closed vessel containing SF 6; this method works
satisfactorily;
 switching off the current in a vacuum chamber; this technology also works
satisfactorily in the range up to 20 kV.
Power switches are made by large companies such as ABB, Siemens, Group Schneider, etc.
Transformer stations in the 10-20 kV range can be equipped with either SF 6 or vacuum
switches.
The prices are similar and competition is tough. Thus non-SF 6 power switches for 10-20 kV
transformer stations are available. However, space problems may arise when changing to this
type and the entire station may have to be rebuilt.
In the Nordic countries, there are also about 200,000 10 kV/400 V substations. For substations
in this range the equipment can be based on SF 6 both as switching and insulating medium, but
non-SF6 solutions are also available. Because of the large number of substations, such
parameters as reliability, maintenance and small physical size play a decisive role.
There are no alternatives to SF6 in the high-voltage range from 60 kV and upwards.
According to Henrik Weldingh, DEFU, it does not look as though any new technology is on the
way. New semiconductors may be marketed in the future, but a technological breakthrough is
required because energy losses are too high with the known technology.
The other application in the heavy-current field is as insulating gas in compact transmission
cables. As an example, high-voltage cables of 400 kV from the generator and out of the power
plant are carried in pipes (for example, 20 m length), filled with SF 6. This prevents flashover to
the pipe material and thus also short-circuiting of the power cables. Alternatively, the distance
between the cables can be increased, allowing atmospheric air to become the insulating
medium.
SF6 consumption
Consumption in Sweden amounted to approx. 30 tonnes in 1997.
The specific applications in Finland are not known, but most of the total Finnish consumption
of 6.9 tonnes SF6 in1997 is presumed to have been used in the production of switches.
Consumption in Norway in 1996 amounted to 2 tonnes.
51
Consumption in Denmark for servicing switches amounted to 1 tonne in 1996.
Consumption in Iceland for servicing amounted to approx. 0.23 tonne in 1997.

After production, the SF6 accumulates in the products. There is a very small leakage of around
1% of the charge per year. Most of the substance is still in the products when they are scrapped
and should be collected and reused or incinerated.

As far as is known, there is no alternative technology for high-voltage switches. Alternative
technology – vacuum technology – is being marketed for medium-current switches.
5.3 Sound-insulating windows

SF6 is gaseous at normal temperatures and atmospheric pressures. SF 6 is used in some sound-
insulating thermal glazing. It is used in a mixture with argon, among other gases, to fill the
space between the panes of glass. The purpose of this is to damp acoustic pressure waves and
thus protect against noise from outside.
There is a big production of sound-insulating windows in Denmark and thus a large

consumption of SF6. According to the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, consumption
amounted to 13.5 tonnes in 1995 but fell to 9.4 tonnes in 1996. These figures are based mainly
on information from suppliers and importers of SF 6. A large part of the production is sold in
Denmark. There are approximately 30 manufacturers of this type of sound-insulating double-
glazed windows in Denmark.
There is a small production in Norway.
According to Environmental Project No. 342, a direct emission of SF 6 occurs during charging
of the windows. The loss varies between 17 and 66% depending on the equipment and the
procedures used.
Initially, SF6 is accumulated in the windows, but if the windows puncture, the substance leaks
out into the atmosphere.
As there are no schemes for collection or recovery arrangements (which would be difficult to
establish), all the SF6 will probably end up in the atmosphere. As this type of window has been
produced for some years (15 – 20 years), some emission from old windows with SF 6 must be
expected in connection with puncture or scrapping of the windows. Assuming that these
windows have an average lifetime of 20 years, the stage will soon be reached when the real
emission is equal to the consumption of the raw material.
DTI Energy has consulted Peter Vestergaard from DTI Building Technology and
representatives of the manufacturers. They say that:
 the environmental hazards associated with the use of SF 6 come as a big surprise;
they do not think that the purchasers are aware of these hazards;
 they find the size of the consumption astonishing;
 glazing with SF6 has slightly poorer heat insulating properties than standard
double glazing;
 a combination of other measures is always used in sound-insulating windows –
such as glass in different thicknesses and sometimes lamination;
 SF6 makes only a small contribution to noise reduction.
52
DTI Energy
In cooperation with DELTA, Acoustics and Vibrations, DTI Energy is preparing a project on
alternative designs for windows without SF 6.
Barriers
It is not known precisely how alternative sound-insulating windows are supposed to look, how
they will work and what they will cost.
SF6 consumption
Assuming that almost the entire production takes place in Denmark, consumption amounted to
approx. 9.4 tonnes in 1996.

There is some emission during the manufacture of sound-insulating windows. As mentioned
above, the emission is between 17 and 66%. The emission probably depends greatly on the
degree of industrialisation and the biggest emission is expected to occur at small manufacturers.
When sound-insulating windows are made with SF 6 between the two layers of glass, the
substances will be emitted to the surroundings in the event of a puncture or when the glass
breaks when the windows are scrapped.
It is presumed that all the SF 6 will be emitted to the atmosphere.

The situation with respect to alternative technology is at present unclear. It will be clarified
through a national Danish project.
5.4 Other applications

SF6 has a number of minor applications.
Tracer gas
DMU (the National Environmental Research Institute) uses a small amount of SF 6 as a tracer
gas for testing dispersal in the atmosphere. The purpose of these experiments is to test
mathematical models for dispersal in the atmosphere. Tests of this kind form part of the basis
for standards for chimney heights etc. Consumption amounted to 6 kg in 1995. None was used
in 1996, and in 1997 less than 100 g was used.
SF6 is used as a tracer gas because it has a number of special properties that are not found in
other gases. For instance, it can be detected precisely and specifically in very low
concentrations, and the concentration in the atmosphere is very low. DMU says that there are
no useable alternatives, but that the quantity used for tests must be limited and controlled.
Approximately five laboratories (including DTI Energy, which uses approximately 2 kg per
year) are performing ventilation tests. Small amounts of SF 6 are used as tracer gas for indoor
tests.
Medical applications
According to the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority, very little medical use is made of
SF6. One application is inflation of collapsed lungs. The consumption is not known but is
presumed to be very low.
In Finland, a small quantity of SF 6 is used in eye operations.
53
Car tyres
There have been reports that large quantities of SF 6 have been used in Germany for inflating car
tyres. Consumption has been of the order of magnitude of 100 tonnes per year.
An attempt has been made to sell the system in Denmark, but it has never been marketed. The
sales argument was that when mixed with air in the car tyre, the SF 6 molecules, which are
rather large, diffuse into the tyre material and reduce diffusion of air out of the tyre.
It is not known whether the system has been marketed in other Nordic countries.
Shoe soles
However, DTI Energy knows that SF6 is used in the soles of Nike sports shoes. According to a
letter from Sarah Severn, Director for Nike Environmental Action Team to Greenpeace
Denmark (dated September 12, 1997), consumption of SF 6 from April 1, 1996 to March 31,
1997 amounted to 635,760 lb (approximately 288 tonnes). The substance is used in Nike’s Air
models, and the entire production of these soles is located in the USA.
At the same time, Nike announced that it was going to phase out use of SF 6 over a three-year
period and would thus be replacing SF 6 with nitrogen not later than 2001.
54
DTI Energy
55
References
 National reports from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden to the
UN’s Climate Secretariat. The reports are to be found at the following Internet address:
www.unfccc.de
 Ozone-depleting substances and certain greenhouse gases, 1996, Working Report
No. 98, 1997. Danish Environmental Protection Agency (in Danish with English summary).
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Norway 1990 - 1996. Report 98:02, Norwegian
Pollution Control Authority, SFT 1998.
 Follow-up by Norway of the Kyoto Protocol, St. meld No. 29, Norwegian
Ministry of Environment, 1998 (White Paper in Norwegian).
 Reference Manual and Workbook of the IPCC 1996 Revised Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. UNEP 1996.
 Substitutes for potent greenhouse gases; Status Report. Working Report No. 101,
1997, Danish Environmental Protection Agency.
 Going towards Natural Extinguishants, Experience from Danish Industry.
Environmental Report No. 312, Danish Environmental Protection Agency 1995.
 Reduction in consumption of HFC, Measures and Costs, Report 97:32, SFT
1997 (in Norwegian).
 Scandinavian Refrigeration (Scan Ref). No. 3:1998 and 5:98.
 Environmental Report 1996 and 1997. Norsk Hydro.
 Press release from Elkem Aluminium. Can be found on www.elkem.com.
 Kulde (Refrigeration) No. 4:98.
 Letter from Sarah Severn, Director, Nike Environmental Action Team to Tarjei
Haaland, Greenpeace Denmark, dated 12 September 1997.
 Various personal communication with selected industrial companies in the
Nordic countries.
 Various brochures from industrial companies.
56
DTI Energy
57
Appendix A: Refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures
The following table shows the most common refrigerants consisting of single substances.
Substance R-number Chemical ODP value GWP value

formula (100 yrs)
Halon-1301 R-13B1 CBrF3 10 5,600
CFC-11 R-11 CFCl3 1.0 4,000
CFC-12 R-12 CF2Cl2 1.0 8,500
CFC-115 R-115 CClF2CF3 0.6 9,300
HCFC-22 R-22 CHF2Cl 0.055 1,700
HCFC-124 R-124 CF3CHClF 0.03 480
HCFC-142b R-142b C2H3F2Cl 0.065 2,000
HFC-23 R-23 CHF3 0 11,700
HFC-32 R-32 CH2F2 0 650
HFC-125 R-125 C2HF5 0 2,800
HFC-134a R-134a CH2FCF3 0 1,300
HFC-143a R-143a CF3CH3 0 3,800
HFC-152a R-152a C2H4F2 0 140
HFC-227ea R-227ea C3HF7 0 2,900
PFC-14 R-14 CF4 0 6,500
PFC-116 R-116 C2F6 0 9,200
PFC-218 R-218 C3F8 0 7,000
Isobutane (HC- R-600a CH(CH3)3 0 3
600a)
Propane (HC- R-290 C3H8 0 3
290)
Ethane (HC- R-170 C2H6 0 3
170)
Ethene R-1150 CH2CH2 0 3
(Ethylene)
Propylene (HC- R-1270 C3H6 0 3
1270)
Ammonia R-717 NH3 0 0
Carbon dioxide R-744 CO2 0 1
Air R-729 - 0 0
Water R-718 H2O 0 0
58
DTI Energy
The following table shows refrigerant mixtures in the 400 series (zeotropic mixtures). The ODP
and GWP values can be calculated on the basis of the values in the table for single substances,
weighting on the basis of the mix ratio between the individual substances.
R-number Substances Concentration in weight-%

R-401A HCFC-22/HFC-152a/HCFC-124 53/13/34
R-402A HCFC-22/HFC-125/HC-290 38/60/2
R-403A HCFC-22/PFC-218/HC-290 75/20/5
R-403B HCFC-22/PFC-218/HC-290 56/39/5
R-404A HFC-143a/HFC-125/HFC-134a 52/44/4
R-406A HCFC-22/HC-600a/HCFC-142b 55/4/41
R-407C HFC-32/HFC-125/HFC-134a 23/25/52
R-408A HCFC-22/HFC-143a/HFC-125 47/46/7
R-409A HCFC-22/HCFC-142b/HCFC-124 60/15/25
R-410A HFC-32/HFC-125 50/50
R-412A HCFC-22/HCFC-142b/PFC-218 70/25/5
R-413A HFC-134a/PFC-218/HC-600a 88/9/3
R-414A HCFC-22/HCFC-124/HCFC-142b/HC- 51/28.5/16.5/4
600a
R-415A HCFC-22/HFC-23/HFC-152a 80/5/15
The following table shows refrigeration mixtures in the 500 series (azeotropic mixtures):
R-number Substances Concentration in weight-%

R-502 CFC-115/HCFC-22 51/49
R-507 HFC-143a/HFC-125 50/50
R-508A HFC-23/PFC-116 39/61
R-508B HFC-23/PFC-116 46/54
R-509A HCFC-22/PFC-218 44/56
59
Appendix B: Commercial refrigeration systems
Commercial refrigeration systems in shops, supermarkets, restaurants, computer rooms, etc.

are the financially most important area within the refrigeration industry. They are also the area
with the broadest field of application. For that reason this appendix discusses specific factors
relating to prices, energy consumption, refrigerant leakage and TEWI (Total Equivalent
Warming Impact).
Section B.1 contains a comparison of the prices of chillers with R-404A, hydrocarbons and
ammonia. Section B.2 contains a comparison of energy consumption, refrigerant leakage and
TEWI for supermarket systems. Section B.3 gives a detailed calculation of the difference in
price between a conventional refrigeration system and a similar system with a hydrocarbon
refrigerant.
B.1 Comparison of prices of ammonia, hydrocarbon and HFC refrigeration systems

(chillers).
The comparison is based on chillers and includes analyses of price differences and the reasons
for the differences. A forecast is given of the expected future price development.
There are many types of HFC and ammonia chillers on the market today. HFC chillers use
largely the same technology as CFC and HCFC chillers, and ammonia chillers have been made
for more than 100 years. However, ammonia was superseded by synthetic refrigerants in
commercial applications some years ago, but is now finding increasing favour within chillers
for air conditioning etc.
Hydrocarbons, on the other hand, are rather new within commercial refrigeration systems.
Systems are manufactured in Sweden and Germany, where a number of systems have been
installed with propane or propene as the refrigerant. These systems are made in small series and
are still rather costly compared with HFC refrigeration systems. However, they are likely to
become competitive with respect to price very quickly.
Haukås
Hans T. Haukås has written a report for SFT, Norway, (Report 97:32, SFT), which includes a
discussion of the prices of different types of refrigeration systems.
Haukås gives the following prices for systems over 10 kW:

 Refrigeration systems with HFC-134a cost 12.5% more than systems with R-
404A or R-507
 Chiller units with ammonia or hydrocarbons cost 10 - 40% more than chillers
with R-404A or R-507
 In the case of chillers using ammonia or hydrocarbons, there is a price
supplement for machine-room safety.

 Haukås writes that the figures are in the nature of a guide and that there will be
cases that fall outside them at both ends of the scale.
 For large systems, ammonia is directly competitive on price.
 Haukås has not investigated large systems with hydrocarbons.

 Grødem
 Another Norwegian, Bjørn Grødem, writes in an article in ScanRef
(Scandinavian Refrigeration) 3/98 that the price differences are somewhat smaller. Grødem uses
as his basis German studies of refrigeration systems for supermarkets; among other things, he
compares the prices of indirect refrigeration systems with R-404A, ammonia and hydrocarbons.
60
DTI Energy
He also compares the prices with the price of an R-404A refrigeration system with direct
refrigeration.

 Table B.1 Comparison of prices of different types of supermarket refrigeration
systems. According to Grødem, ScanRef 3/98.

Direct with Indirect with Indirect with Indirect with
R-404A R-404A ammonia propane/propene
Pipe system 15% 25 - 30% 25 - 30% 25 - 30%
Refrigeration 45% 45% 45% 45%
cabinets,
evaporators and
fans
Refrigeration 20% 25% 34 - 40% 23 - 28%
system
Refrigerant, oil 2% 2% 2% 2%
and brine
Control, 15% 15% 16% 17%
regulation and (extra for safety) (extra for safety)
electrical
installation
Design 3% 3% 3% 3%
Price 100% 115 - 120% 125 - 135% 115 - 125%

 It will be seen from Table B.1 that systems with direct refrigeration are the
cheapest with respect to procurement cost. It will also be seen that there is little difference
between the prices of the indirect systems; in particular, the difference in total price between an
R-404A system and a hydrocarbon system is only a few per cent.

 Analysis of future prices of hydrocarbon refrigeration systems
 In cooperation with Alexander C. Pachai, AirCon A/S, DTI Energy has analysed
future prices of hydrocarbon refrigeration systems compared with similar HFC refrigeration
systems.

 In the analysis it is assumed that the hydrocarbon systems are made in large
series in the same way as HFC systems are today, with the resulting economies of scale. It is
also assumed that the authorities have established clear rules for the construction of
hydrocarbon refrigeration systems and that engineers have been trained to build them. That is
the case in Sweden but not in the other Nordic countries.

 Components
 Most of the components in a hydrocarbon system are the same as those used in
HFC refrigeration systems and will therefore cost the same. However, there is a difference for
some automation products. The pressure switches, thermostats, terminal boxes, relay and fan
have to be explosion-proof, i.e. IP 44 or higher enclosure class.

 In Denmark, IP 23 components are normally used in commercial refrigeration
systems, but that is not good enough for hydrocarbon systems.

 Section B.3 gives an example of a 14 kW refrigeration system with the prices of
61
the components. There is a price difference of approx. 4.3%. The price difference will be
smaller for larger systems.

 Assembly
 In hydrocarbon refrigeration systems all connections must be soldered. In an
HFC system, soldering can be used or, as is commonly done, screw fittings. Soldering takes
longer, but that is partially made up for by a smaller material consumption (screw fittings). The
additional cost is estimated to be 0 - 1%. The time consumption for leak detection is the same
as for HFC systems.

 Safety
 If the refrigeration system is installed in an indoor machine-room, there must be
a gas detector/alarm at ground level. This is not required if the system is placed outdoors or
under a shed roof. The same actually applies to HFC refrigeration systems; these should also be
equipped with a detector/alarm for refrigerant leakage. A gas detector/alarm and associated
ventilation fan cost around DKK 6,000 (list price).

 Training
 Refrigeration engineers must be qualified to work on refrigeration systems with
hydrocarbons. For that there has to be a training scheme. Sweden is the only Nordic country
with such a scheme.

 Equipment
 Installation firms must have the necessary equipment for work with
hydrocarbons. A leak detector for hydrocarbons costs about the same as a leak detector for
synthetic refrigerants and a pressure gauge for hydrocarbons costs the same as one for HFC
refrigerants. Installation firms will also need an explosion-proof vacuum pump. That costs
around 50% more than an ordinary vacuum pump (list price approx. DKK 7,150).

 In Denmark, there has been some confusion about the requirements concerning
transportation of gas cylinders containing hydrocarbon refrigerant. The Danish Gas Technology
Centre has urged that such gas cylinders be placed in special sections in the service vehicles.
The requirements thus differ from those for other gas cylinders - for example, cylinders
containing acetylene for welding and soldering processes. DTI Energy is trying to get these
matters clarified.

 Conclusion
 It can be concluded that hydrocarbon refrigeration systems are at present
somewhat more expensive than corresponding HFC refrigeration systems. The price difference
varies between 10 and 40%.

 However, there is no reason why the price difference should not be much smaller
in the future. As an example, the components for a small hydrocarbon refrigeration system (14
kW) cost about 5% more than the corresponding components for an HFC refrigeration system.
On top of that, the assembly process costs about 1% more and there will be an added cost if an
alarm is installed.

 However, an alarm should also be installed in the case of HFC systems.

 Refrigeration with hydrocarbons in supermarkets must be indirect refrigeration.


62
DTI Energy
 Analysis of future prices for ammonia refrigeration systems

 Today, ammonia refrigeration systems are competitive in the case of large
systems (larger than 100 kW) but are not yet competitive in the case of small and medium-sized
systems.

 However, that situation can soon change. It is only in the last few years that
manufacturers have begun using ammonia in small and medium-sized systems, and the range of
compressors for ammonia is growing. These compressors are still more expensive than similar
compressors for HFC refrigerants, but prices are likely to fall when the compressors are made
in large numbers. In addition, new methods of assembly are being developed that enable pipes
to be connected with lock-rings or fittings as an alternative to welding.


 B.2 Energy consumption and TEWI for commercial refrigeration systems
with supermarket refrigeration systems as the basis
 The use of CFC refrigerants (CFC-12, R-502 etc.) has been banned since 1
January 1994. The use of HCFC in new refrigeration systems will be banned from 1.1.2000 and
the use of new HCFC for service from 1.1.2002.

 Most recent refrigeration systems in supermarkets and other commercial
refrigeration systems therefore use HFC refrigerants, including HFC-134a, R-404A or possibly
R-407C.

 Direct refrigeration is used in supermarkets in Denmark and Norway, whereas
indirect refrigeration is becoming more common in Sweden, Germany and some other
countries. In Sweden, indirect refrigeration has become a requirement for new supermarket
refrigeration systems. Svensk Kylnorm (the Swedish refrigeration standards body) requires
partially indirect refrigeration for charges of 10 to 30 kg. Normally, indirect refrigeration is
used for refrigeration and direct refrigeration for freezing.

 With charges greater than 30 kg, the system must be completely indirect, i.e.
indirect refrigeration is required for both refrigeration and freezing.

 In a direct refrigeration system in a supermarket, the liquid refrigerant is sent out
through long sections of pipe to the refrigeration points, which are often the refrigerated and
frozen goods counters, milk cabinets, cold stores, etc. The evaporated refrigerant is led back in
other pipes. A medium-sized supermarket may have as many as 30 to 40 refrigeration points
and several kilometres of pipes with hundreds of connections. Some leakage from these
systems is unavoidable. The leakage usually occurs in seals in valves and connections or
directly in the event of a pipe breaking. The leakage rate in these systems used to be very high –
perhaps as much as 20 to 30% of the charge per year.
 The industry has done a lot to improve the quality of new systems, and the
leakage rate is believed to have been greatly reduced. According to IPCC Guidelines 1996, the
average leakage rate is around 17%.

 In practice, it is impossible to make the systems completely tight. Nobody
knows the exact leakage rate, but it is assumed to be of the order of magnitude of 10% per year
for supermarket systems with direct refrigeration.

 It is cheaper to make a refrigeration system with direct refrigeration than with
indirect refrigeration. According to Haukås, the price of an indirect system is 20% higher, and
according to Grødem, approx. 15 - 20% higher. The reason for the difference in price is that the
63
pipe system is slightly more costly because pumps are needed to circulate the secondary
refrigerant, together with extra heat exchangers between the primary and secondary systems. On
the other hand, a system with indirect refrigeration uses much less refrigerant (often 15 - 20%
of the amount used in a direct system) and the leakage rate is much lower (often as little as 2%).

 Energy consumption
 It is difficult to say anything precise about the energy consumption of the
different systems. The energy consumption depends very much on the degree of optimisation of
the system. Bjørn Grødem has, however, suggested some figures in ScanRef 3/98:

 Table B.2 Energy consumption for different supermarket refrigeration systems.
Same source as for Table B.1.

Direct with Indirect with Indirect with Indirect with NH3
R404A R404A propane/propene (ammonia)
Energy consump- 100% 110% 108% 105%
tion, relative


 The energy consumption is slightly higher for indirect systems owing to
thermodynamic losses from the temperature difference in the heat exchanger between the
primary and secondary refrigeration systems and because of the energy consumption for the
pumps. This will be counteracted to some extent by better efficiencies for hydrocarbon and
ammonia refrigeration systems.

 It is believed that it will soon be possible to make hydrocarbon refrigeration
systems in such a way that the energy consumption of indirect systems is no higher than that of
direct systems. That requires the use of components (compressors) that are optimised for the
refrigerant. Up to the present time, R-22 compressors for propane or propene have been used.

 In the future, new secondary refrigerants will be used, including ice slurry, for
refrigeration and CO2 for freezing. With that, indirect systems with ammonia or hydrocarbons
are expected to have a better energy efficiency than direct HFC systems.


 Contribution to the greenhouse effect, TEWI
 Refrigeration systems contribute both directly and indirectly to the greenhouse
effect. The direct contribution comes from leakage of the refrigerant, e.g. R-404A, which has a
GWP (Global Warming Potential) of 3,260, compared with CO2, which has a GWP of 1.

 The indirect contribution comes from the electricity consumption. If the
electricity is produced at coal-fired power stations (as in Denmark, for example) there will be
an emission of CO2 from the power station’s chimney corresponding to approx. 0.8 kg CO 2 per
kWh electricity consumed.

 TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact) is a concept that relates to the direct
and the indirect contribution together.

 TEWI = GWP * M + ALPHA * E

 where
64
DTI Energy
 GWP is the refrigerant’s GWP factor,

 M is the quantity of refrigerant that leaks from the refrigeration system
 ALPHA is the quantity of CO2 that is generated during production of electricity
(kg CO2/kWh)
 E is the refrigeration system’s electricity consumption.

 Example
 Let us take as an example a typical supermarket refrigeration system in a
medium-sized supermarket (Kvickly, Føtex or similar) with a sales area of 1,000 – 1,500 m 2.
 This example is typical in countries in which direct refrigeration is standard.
 The system has a total refrigeration capacity of 100 kW.
 There is direct refrigeration.
 The refrigerant charge is 300 kg R-404A.
 The refrigeration system has an annual energy consumption of 170,000 kWh.
 The leakage rate is 10% of the charge per year, i.e. 30 kg.
 TEWI calculation for one year’s operation of the refrigeration system:
 Direct contribution to the greenhouse effect in one year:
 M * GWP = 30 kg R-404A * 3,260 (kg CO2/kg R-404A) = 97,800 kg CO2 =
97.8 tonnes CO2
 Indirect contribution to the greenhouse effect: ALPHA * E = ALFA * 170,000
kWh

 Table B.3 Contribution to the greenhouse effect from the refrigeration system
used in the example. Refrigerant: R-404A. This example is for direct refrigeration.

ALFA Indirect contri- Direct contribu- TEWI for
(kg CO2/kWh) bution to the tion to the green- one year
greenhouse effect house effect
(kg CO2) (kg CO2) (kg CO2)
Coal-based electr. 0.8 136,000 97,800 233,800
100% hydroelectr. 0 0 97,800 97,800
(or nuclear power)
50% coal-based 0.4 68,000 97,800 165,800
electr. +
50% hydroelectr.


 In the example with 100% coal-based electricity, the direct contribution to the
greenhouse effect (the refrigerant) is approx. 42% of the total TEWI contribution.
 In the example with 50% coal-based electricity and 50% hydroelectricity, the
contribution is approx. 59%.

 In the example with 100% hydroelectricity, the contribution is naturally 100%.

 It should be noted that there may be other environmental problems with
hydroelectricity and nuclear power. Only the greenhouse effect is considered in this example.

 It has often been said that the refrigerant’s share of the TEWI is very limited, but
that does not seem to be the case with supermarket refrigeration systems with R-404A and
direct refrigeration. The refrigerant accounts for a considerable proportion of the TEWI.
65

 With a hydrocarbon or an ammonia refrigeration system, the same supermarket’s
contribution to the greenhouse effect would be much smaller despite the slightly higher energy
consumption. That can be seen from the following table.

 It will be seen from the calculations in Table B.4 that the TEWI is far lower for a
refrigeration system with hydrocarbons (or ammonia) and indirect refrigeration than for an R-
404A refrigeration system with direct refrigeration.






 Table B.4: TEWI for a supermarket refrigeration system with propane and
indirect refrigeration. Compare this with Table B.3. It must be noted that these calculations
concern only contributions to the greenhouse effect and that the example is not necessarily
representative of all commercial refrigeration systems.

ALFA Indirect con- Direct cont- TEWI TEWI
(kg CO2/kWh) tribution to tribution to the (kg CO2) (R290)/
the greenhouse TEWI (R-
greenhouse effect 404A)
effect
Coal-based 0.8 146,880 0 146,880 0.63
electr.
100% 0 0 0 0 0
hydroelectr.
50% coal- 0.4 73,440 0 73,440 0.44
based electr.
+ 50% hydro-
electr.



 B.3 Differences between conventional refrigeration systems and systems for
hydrocarbon refrigerants
 This section deals with the price differences between components for HFC
refrigeration systems and hydrocarbon systems.


 The conventionally equipped system
 Commercial refrigeration systems usually have a very simple construction. In
many cases, a thermostat is used that gives a signal to stop or start the compressor. If the
system is equipped with an air-cooled condenser, a pressure switch is often used to ensure a
suitable condensation pressure in cold periods.

 Most of the parts that can generate a spark have to be enclosure class IP 23 or
similar. The same applies to fans. In many cases, this also applies to the compressor’s terminal
66
DTI Energy
box, which contains the start relay or the relay for the winding protector, which can generate a
spark. There is no requirement in Denmark concerning use of double-diaphragm pressure
switches in connection with synthetic refrigerants, so they are not normally used. They would
help to reduce the emission of potent greenhouse gases, which is why they are used in Germany
and some other countries.


 Difference in price between IP 23 and IP 44
 For hydrocarbon-based refrigeration systems, use of equipment in enclosure
class IP 44 or higher must be regarded as a minimum requirement. IP 54 and IP 55 are
becoming the standard, and for that reason there is usually no problem with procuring products
in this enclosure class. To understand what the enclosure classes mean it is necessary to know a
little about the nomenclature. Briefly, the first digit indicates how dust-proof the enclosure must
be on a scale from 0 to 6. The second digit indicates how watertight the enclosure must be, also
on a scale from 0 to 6. An apparatus in IP 23 is therefore not completely dust-proof and
tolerates only splashes of water. An apparatus in IP 66 can be completely submerged in water
for a specific period and at a specific depth without water penetrating it. It is beyond the scope
of this report to go into further detail about the system, which is described in a European
standard.

 On the basis of the system in the example, the prices with suitable enclosure and
extra safety can be calculated as in the following table.

 Table B.5: Comparison between components for conventional HFC systems and
similar systems for hydrocarbons

Component List price Alternative List price
KP 15 Flare (pressure 483.00 KP 17 W (for 700.00
switch) soldering)
KP 5 Flare (pressure 261.00 KP 7 W (for 474.00
switch) soldering)
KP 73 (2 nos.) 742.00 RT 2 (2 nos.) 1,640.00
(thermostat)
Compressor unit 24,992.00 Same 24,992.00
UAK 500
TAU plate exchanger 4,330.00 Same 4,330.00
Total price 30,808.00 Total price 32,136.00
 Capacity: approx. 14 kW.

 As will be seen from the example, there is small difference in the price of the
complete system. While a few of the components cost twice as much in the higher
enclosure class, the most expensive components in the system do not cost more, which to
some extent eliminate the price difference. It is the same components that are used,
regardless of the size of the system, which means that if the compressor, condenser and
evaporator are several times more expensive and thus also larger, the effect of the extra
cost of the components on the total price will be negligible. In the case in question, the
difference in price for the components alone is only about 5%.

 It should, however, be pointed out that, for supermarkets, customers in the
Nordic countries (with the exception of Sweden) will often have to choose between an
HFC system with direct refrigeration and a system with hydrocarbon and indirect
67
refrigeration. Here, the price difference will be bigger, cf. Table B.1.

 In Sweden, the price difference is smaller because indirect refrigeration is
normally required.

68
DTI Energy
69
 Appendix C: References for ammonia chillers


 In the Nordic countries, ammonia is the traditional refrigerant for
industrial refrigeration systems and large chillers. This appendix gives references for
ammonia chillers installed in the Nordic countries in the 1990s. The purpose is to give
readers an idea of where ammonia chillers can be used to avoid refrigeration systems with
HCFC or HFC refrigerants. The list is probably not complete because it has not been
possible, within the framework for the project, to obtain information on all the relevant
systems.

 The references are given by country in alphabetical order.

 C.1 Denmark
 Ammonia chillers installed by Sabroe in Denmark:
 Installed
Refrigeration
capacity

 Lego A/S, Billund 1990
2,000 kW
 Grindsted Products, Grindsted 1990
470 kW
 Statens Seruminstitut, Copenhagen 1990
125 kW
 The Copenhagen Mail Centre, Copenhagen 1992
800 kW
 Novo Nordisk, Kalundborg + 5 other chillers 1992
2,800 kW
 MD Foods, Troldhede Dairy , Troldhede 1993
55 kW
 MD Foods, HOCO, Holstebro 1993
2,000 kW
 SAS Data, Kastrup 1993
2 x 155 kW
 Panum Institute, Copenhagen University 1993
920 kW
 National Hospital of Denmark, Copenhagen 1993
1,000 kW
 Toyota, Middelfart 1993
360 kW
 Scandinavian Center, Århus 1993
1,000 + 800 kW
 SAS Data, Copenhagen 1994
155 kW
 Danaklon, Varde 1994
520 kW
 Dandy, Vejle 1994
3 x 1,000 kW
 EAC, Head Office, Copenhagen 1994
1,100 kW
 Copenhagen Pectin, Lille Stensved 1994
230 kW
70
DTI Energy
 Novo Nordisk, Kalundborg 1994

340 kW
 SAS Data, Kastrup 1994
2 x 155 kW
 Rødovre Skating Rink, Rødovre 1994
500 kW
 SDC of 1993 A/S, Ballerup 1994
1,600 kW
800 kW
 Danish National Television, Head Office, Cph. 1995
850 kW
 Copenhagen Airport, Copenhagen 1995
1,066 kW
 Magasin (Dept. Store), Aalborg 1995
528 kW
 Schou-Epa (Dept. Store), Roskilde 1995
175 kW
 Lundbech A/S, Lumsås 1995
500 kW
 Løvens Kemiske Fabrik, Ballerup 1995
174 kW
 Faxe Kalk, Fakse 1995
686 kW
 PBS Finans A/S, Ballerup 1995 + 1997 640 kW
 Schouw Packing A/S, Lystrup 1995
397 kW
 Pharmacia, Køge 1995
76 kW
 NKT Project Center, Kalundborg 1995
340 kW
 Aalborg Storcenter (Dept. Store), Aalborg 1995
2,530 kW
 Nordisk Wawin A/S, Hammel 1996
200 kW
 Novo Nordisk, Gentofte 1996
100 kW
 Kastrup Stationsterminal, Kastrup 1996
804 kW
 Novo Nordisk, Gentofte 1996
1,096 kW
 J & B Enterprise A/S, SID Building 1996
162,4 kW
 Novo Nordisk (building 3A-Ba), Bagsværd 1996
370 kW
 Novo Nordisk (building AE-KA), Bagsværd 1996
200 kW
 Danisco Foods A/S, Odense 1996
220 kW
 SDC of 1993 A/S, Ballerup 1996
1,588 kW
 Copenhagen Airports, Copenhagen 1996
71
185 kW
 Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde 1996
1,820 kW
 Codan Gummi A/S, Køge 1996
175 kW
 Magasin du Nord (Dept. Store), Copenhagen 1996
528 kW
 Glent Novenco, Åbyhøj 1996
50 kW
 Superfos Packing A/S, Hårby 1996
495 kW
3,560 kW
 Palsgård Industri A/S, Juelsminde 1996
25 kW
 Aarhus Oliefabrik A/S, Aarhus 1996
406 kW
 Danisco A/S, Copenhagen 1996
270 kW
 H. C Ørsted Institute, Copenhagen University 1996
254 kW
 Eberhart A/S, Engesvang 1996
261 kW
 Danisco Ingredients, Copenhagen 1996
45 kW
 Kastrup Skating Rink, Kastrup 1996
583 kW
 Lundbech A/S, Valby 1997
500 kW
 Hvidovre Hospital, Hvidovre 1997
2 x 2,543 kW
 Nordisk Wavin, Hammel 1997
202 kW
 H.C. Ørsted Institute, Copenhagen University 1997
254 kW
 Novo Nordisk, Bagsværd 1997
200 kW
 Copenhagen Airports (Finger B), Copenhagen 1997
2 x 804 kW
 Copenhagen Airports (Finger West), Copenhagen 1997
900 kW
 Novo Nordisk, Hillerød 1997
3,840 kW
 Delta A/S, Hørsholm 1997
130 kW
 Ishøj Bycenter, Ishøj 1997
1,030 kW
 Unibank, Christianshavn 1997
538 kW
 Copenhagen Pectin A/S, Lille Stensved 1997
530 kW
 Illum A/S (Dept. Store), Copenhagen 1997
72
DTI Energy
1,022 kW
 Scandic Hotel Copenhagen, Copenhagen 1997
359 kW
 Tholstrup Gjesing A/S, Skanderborg 1997
395 kW + 53 kW
 Tjæreborg Champignon, Tjæreborg 1997
1,146 kW
 MD Foods, Troldhede Dairy , Rødkærsbro 1997
240 kW
 Eghøj Champignon A/S, Veflinge 1997
500 kW
 Danisco Distillers, Aalborg 1997
9 kW
 FeF Chemicals A/S, Køge 1997
68 kW
 Novo Nordisk - Building 3BM-Ba, Bagsværd 1997
129 kW
 Phønix Contractors A/S, Vejen 1997
575 kW
 SDC af 1993 A/S, Ballerup 1997
505 kW
 Hørsholm Skating Rink, Hørsholm 1998
370 kW
 Novo Nordisk A/S , Gentofte 1998
1,670 kW
 Søndagsavisen, Copenhagen 1998
80 kW
300 kW
 Nordisk Wavin, Hammel 1998
220 kW
 Schulstad, Holstebro 1998
290 kW
320 + 120 kW
 Birch & Krogboe A/S, Virum 1998
390 + 50 kW
 MD Foods, Bislev, Bislev 1998
1,500 kW
 Albani, Odense 1998
270 kW
 Mejeriernes Produktionsselskab, Esbjerg 1998
400 kW
 Hvide Sande Fiskeriforening, Hvide Sande 1998
100 kW
2 x 214 kW
 Copenhagen Airports, Copenhagen 1998
660 kW
 Novo Nordisk A/S, Kalundborg 1998
100 kW + 2 x 400 kW
 Tulip, Århus 1998
73
70 kW
 Scandinavian Airlines System, Copenhagen 1998
160 kW
 Ørbæk Most, Ørbæk 1998
120 kW
 Danexport, Hobro 1998
650 kW
 Marine Biologisk Institut 1998
2 x 30 kW


 Ammonia chillers installed by Gram in Denmark:

Production Refrigeration
capacity
Force Institutes, Brøndby Process chilling of welding machines 200 kW
Esbjerg Thermoplast, Esbjerg Chilling of plast moulding plant 2 x 187 kW
Sun Chemical, Køge Chilling in chemical industry 235 kW
Magasin Department Store, Cph Water chiller for A/C 2 x 907 kW
Vellev Dairy Process chilling 225 kW
Chr. Hansens Lab., Roskilde Process chilling 407 kW
Tele Danmark, Odense A/C 3 x 232 kW
Danish State Hospital, Cph Central kitchen facilities 52 kW
Magasin Department Store, Aarhus Water chiller for A/C 1,449 kW
Esbjerg City Hall, Esbjerg Water chiller for A/C 540 kW
County Data, Odense Water chillers for A/C 2 x 195 kW
Frederiksberg Hospital, Copenhagen Water chiller for A/C 322 kW
Esbjerg Hospital, Esbjerg Water chiller for A/C 2 x 554 kW
Esbjerg Hospital, Esbjerg Water chiller for A/C 868 kW
Panther Plast, Vordingborg Chilling of plast moulding plant 2 x 602 kW
Printca, Aalborg Process chilling 322 kW
ATP House, Hillerød Water Chiller for EDP cooling 180 kW
Berlingske Newspaper production Water chillers for A/C 2 x 919 kW
H. Lundbeck Pharmaceutical, Valby Process chilling 994 kW
ATP House, Hillerød Water chiller for EDP cooling 564 kW
Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup Water chiller for ventilation 350 kW
Grundfos, Bjerringbro Containerised liquid chiller 25 kW
NeuroSerch A/S, Ballerup Process chilling (pharmaceutical) 400 kW
Technos Schou A/S, Vamdrup Process chilling 175 kW
Jyske Avistryk A/S, Kolding Process chiller (printing machines) 450 kW
P-Industri, Bjæverskov Chiller for plastics industry 240 kW
Sophus Berendsen, Søborg Water chillers for ventilation 284 kW


 C.2 Finland
74
DTI Energy

 Ammonia chillers supplied by Huurre/Morus:

Year Application
City of Porvoo 1990 Bandy
City of Jyväskylä 1990 Bandy
Rural municipolity of Jyväskylä 1990 Ice-rink
Kanjaportti, Jyväskylä 1993 Slaughterhouse
Genecor Jämsänkoski 1993 Process industry
Genecor Hanko 1995 Process industry
Aga Riihimäki 1995 Process industry
Koff, Pietari, Russia 1995 Brewery
Koff, Kerava, Finland 1991 Brewery
Ingman, Sipoo 1994 Ice-cream
Broilertalo Eura 1995 Poultry
Bona-Puola 1993 Dairy
Children’s food factory in Moscow 1994
Saarioninen, Valkeakoski 1995 Food industry
Valio Oy, Helsinki 1992 Dairy
Finnmilk, Tampere 1993 Dairy
McDonald’s Moscow 1990 Beef factory
Esva, Tallinn 1990 Fish industry
Karjaportti, Jyväskylä 1995 Slaughterhouse
Tapola, Tampere 1995 Sausage factory
Metsä-Serla Kirkniemi I 1996 Air cond.
Metsä-Serla Kirkniemi II 1996 Air cond.
Atria, Nurmo 1996 Food factory
Genencor Jämsänkoski 1997 Process industry
Saarioninen Broilertehdas 1997 Poultry
City of Oulu 1997 Bandy
Inex, Espoo 1997 Logistic central
Forssan Liha ja Säilyke 1997 Forssa
Ammonia chillers supplied by Hankkija/Etek/Fläkt

(Stal):
Metsä-Specialty Chemicals, Äänekoski 1992 Process
Metsä-Rauma Oy, Rauma 1995 Process
Enso Gutzeit, Kaukopää, Lranta 1995 Process
Hartwall Areena, Helsinki 1996 Ice-rink
Espoonlahti ice stadium, Espoo 1997 Ice-rink
Ammonia chillers supplied by Sabroe Finland Oy:

Valio Oy, Oulu 1998 Dairy
Joutsenolainen 1998 Air-cond.
Valio Oy, Tampere 1998 Dairy
Dirol, 1998 Chewing gum factory (Russian)
Valio Oy, (under construction) 1998 Dairy
Inex, Espoo (under construction) 1998 Logistic central
Loimaan Jäähalli (under construction) 1998 Ice-rink
Genecor Jämsänkoski, enlargement, (under const.) 1998 Process
Atria Oy Nurmo 1998 Poultry (under construction)
75
Expo -98 Lissabon, Portugal 1998 Artificial ice-rink

Tapiola function house 1998 Espoo ice-rink
Vaasa Ice sports center 1998


 C.3 Island

 Ammonia chillers supplied by Gram:
Production Capacity
Kværner Fisktækni HF, Akureyri Heat pump 1,890 kW
Kværner Fisktækni HF, Akureyri Heat pump 1,850 kW


 C.4 Norway

 Ammonia chillers supplied by Sabroe:
Year Application Capacity
Freia 1993 Process refrigeration 391 kW
Statoil, Rotvoll 1993 Air conditioning 3 x 200
kW
Statsbyg, Universitet 1, Bergen 1994 Heat Pump 1,250 kW
Statsbyg, Universitet 1, Bergen 1994 Heat pump 300 kW
Ewos Agua 1996 270 kW
Bergen Kommune, Holen 1997 Heat pump 350 kW
Bergen Kommune, Holen 1998 Heat pump 300 kW
Freia 1998 Process refrigeration 400 kW
Borregaard Synthesis 1998 Process refrigeration 312 kW
Idun Industri 1998 Air conditioning / 282 kW
Process refrigeration
Raudeberg Fiskeindustri 1998 Cold storage 185 kW

 Ammonia chiller supplied by Gram:
Production Capacity
Skanska, Bergen Brine process chiller 2 x 218 kW
76
DTI Energy
C.5 Sweden
Ammonia chillers supplied by Sabroe

(formerly Stal and Sabroe)
Year Application Capacity
Råby Bro 1993 Heat pump 210 kW
Handelshögskolan, Gothenburg 1993 Air conditioning 240 kW
Astra, Södertälje 1994 Air conditioning 2 x 800 kW
Astra, Södertälje 1994 Air conditioning 400 kW
Kronägg, Helsingborg 1994 Air conditioning 170 kW
PLM, Lidköping 1994 Process refrigeration 545 kW
Stubinen, Stockholm 1994 Air conditioning 740 kW
PLM, Lidköbing 1994 Process refrigeration 350 kW
Fredfors, Bromma 1994 Air conditioning 495 kW
Borohallen, Landsbro 1994 Ice-rink 358 kW
Perstorp AB, Malmö 1994 Process refrigeration 314 kW
Svenska Nestlé, Malmö 1994 Process refrigeration 390 kW
Ericsson Radar Electronics, Gothenburg 1994 Air conditioning 100 kW
Bollnäs Emergency Hospital, Bolnäs 1994 Air conditioning 403 kW
Valbo Ice-Rink, Valbo 1994 Ice-rink 380 kW
Dagab Food Storage, Gothenburg 1994 Food storage 432 kW
Motala Hospital, Motala 1994 Air conditioning 190 kW
Lords Foods, Helsingborg 1994 Food storage 444 kW
Bäckhammars Bruk, Bäckhammar 1994 Process refrigeration 423 kW
Åbro Brewery, Vimmerby 1994 Process refrigeration 216 kW
Vasakronen Länstyrelsen, Örebro 1994 Air conditioning 220 kW
Seco Tools AB, Fagersta 1994 Air conditioning 890 kW
Skandia Fastighet Angered Centrum, 1994 Air conditioning 347 kW
Gothenburg
Marabou, Upplands-Väsby 1994 Air conditioning 211 kW
Lindingö Centrum 1994 Air conditioning 802 kW
ABB Hallen, Ludvika 1995 Ice-rink 449 kW
Luftfartsverket Arlanda, Stockholm 1995 Air conditioning 2 x 806 kW
ABBA, Kungshamn 1995 Process refrigeration 261 kW
ICA Partihandel, Malmö 1995 Process refrigeration 174 kW
Fagerliden, Fagersta 1995 Ice-rink 372 kW
ABB Assist, Ludvika 1995 Process refrigeration 610 kW
ABB, Västerås 1995 Centralised 1,204 kW
refrigeration
ABBA. Kungshamn 1995 Air conditioning 260 kW
Scania, Luleå 1995 Process refrigeration 571 kW
City of Norrköping, Norrköping 1995 Centralised 1,439 kW
refrigeration
Avesta 1995 Ice-rink
Västervik 1995 Ice-rink
Felix Vättern Potato, Öeshög 1995 Process refrigeration
SKF, Gothenburg 1995 Process refrigeration
ABB Stal, Finspång 1995 Process refrigeration
Electrolux, Motala 1995 Process refrigeration
IBM, Kista 1995 Process refrigeration 997 kW
Ulltuna, Vasakronan 1995 Air conditioning
77
GB-Glas, Flen 1995 Process refrigeration

ABBA Bergrum, Lysekil 1995 Process refrigeration
Slagnäs 1995 Skidpan (ice track)
Pååls Bröd (bakery), Gothenburg 1995 Process refrigeration
Stenungsund 1995 Ice-rink
Kastvallen IK Huge 1995 Ice-rink
Krämaren, Ôrebro 1995 District refrigeration
Norrost, Sundsvall 1995 Dairy
ABB Kabeldon. Allingsås 1995 Air conditioning
ABB Stal AB, Ludvika 1995 District refrigeration
ABB, Västeraas 1995 District refrigeration
Lars Jönsson AB, Malmö 1995
Björkhaga Ishall, Bräcke 1996 Ice-rink 342 kW
Motala Lasarett, Motala 1996 Air conditioning 2 x 664 kW
ABBA Seafood AB, Kungshamn 1996 Process refrigeration 174 kW
SSAB, Oxelösund 1996 Process refrigeration 1,070 kW
AB Sandvik Coromant, Sandviken 1996 Process refrigeration 2 x 435kW
SKF Sweden AB, Gothenburg 1996 Process refrigeration 214 kW
Karolinska Instituttet, Solna 1996 Air conditioning 620 kW
RSÖ, Örebro 1996 Air conditioning 3 x 995 kW
Örebro Högskola, Örebro 1996 Air conditioning 500 kW
Gunnar Dafgård AB, Källby 1996 Food storage 630 kW
PLM, Lisköping 1996 Process refrigeration 725 kW
Karolinska Instituttet, Solna 1996 Process refrigeration 250 + 120
kW
Karolinska Instituttet, Solna 1996 Process refrigeration 240 + 120
kW
Karolinska Instituttet, Solna 1996 Process refrigeration 655 kW
Karolinska Instituttet, Solna 1996 Air conditioning 3 x 773 kW
Tingsryds Musteri, Tingsryd 1996 Process refrigeration 535 kW
Malmö Stadsbibliotek, Malmö 1996 Air conditioning 396 kW
Vattenfall AB, Ringhals 1996 Air conditioning 338 kW
Eriksdals Bollplan, Stockholm 1996 Ice rink 354 kW
Sunnebohov Ishall, Ljungby 1996 Ice rink 2 x 265 kW
SCAN, Umeå 1996 Food storage 540 kW
SAAB Scania, Oskarshamn 1997 Paint box line 490 kW
Norrmejerier, Hedenäset 1997 Dairy 196 kW
IKK exhibition unit 1997 Air conditioning 388 kW
Stora Fors AB, Fors 1997 Process refrigeration 657 kW
Ovaco Steel, Hofors 1997 404 kW
Recip AB, Arsta 1997 Process refrigeration 620 kW
Litels Products, Sköllersta 1997 Food process 93 kW
SAAB, Jönköping 1997 Air conditioning 267 kW
Tegner 1997 Air conditioning 479 kW
ABBA Seafood, Kungshamn 1997 Process refrigeration 316 kW
Korsnäs AB, Board Paper Pulp, Gävle 1998 Process refrigeration 405 kW
Enator, Älvsjö 1998 Comfort cooling 3 x 490 kW
Arizona Chemicals, Sandame 1998 Process refrigeration 410 kW
Celcius Tech, Järfälla 1998 Comfort cooling 925 kW
Linköbing Kommun, Linköping 1998 Ice rink 465 kW
Korsnäs AB, Board Paper Pulp 1998 Process refrigeration 967 kW

78
DTI Energy
 Ammonia chillers supplied by Gram:

Production Capacity
Norrköping Energy, Norrköping Central refrigeration supply 500 kW
Rocklunda Ishall, Rocklunda Brine chiller 2 x 422 kW
Spånga, Stockholm Chiller for ice rink stadium 515 kW
Spånga, Stockholm Chiller for ice rink stadium 2 x 692 kW
Skanska Brine process chiller 365 kW

79
80
DTI Energy
 Appendix D: References for hydrocarbon chillers in Sweden


 The following chillers with hydrocarbons as refrigerant have been installed
by Bonus Energi AB in Sweden:
 Installed
Refrigeration
capacity

 Bäckhammars Bruk, Kristinehamn 1996
19 kW
 Vasakronan Real estate, Norrköing 1996
2 x 260 kW
 AG’s Favör, Lund 1996
3 x 192 kW
 AG’s Favör, Lund 1996
2 x 50 kW
 AG’s Favör, Landskrona 1996
2 x 128 kW
 AG’s Favör, Landskrona 1996
25 kW
 Ronneby Real Estate, Bräkne-Hoby 1996
2 x 250 kW
 TA Hydronics, Gothenburg 1996
66 kW
 ABB Real Estate, Enköbing 1996
60 kW
 Pharmacia & Upjohn, Uppsala 1996
40 kW
 The Birgitta Gymnasium, Örebro 1996
10 kW
 Hållstugan Daycare Center, Örebro 1996
38 kW
 Melkers meat processing, Falun 1996
76 kW
 Ljungby Hospital, Ljungby 1996
2 x 298 kW
 Calor Gas, GB 1996
2 x 600 kW
 NWT - Newspaper, Karlstad 1996
2 x 298 kW
 SEAB Gävle, Gävle 1996
20 kW
 Areng Spa, I 1996
3 kW
 Binsell, Uppsala 1996
46 kW
 AG’s Favör, Helsingborg 1997
4 x 120 kW
 AG’s Favör, Helsingborg 1997
3 x 228 kW
 Domus (COOP), Visby 1997
2 x 40 kW
81
 Domus (COOP), Visby 1997

2 x 126 kW
 ASSI Domän, Frövi 1997
95 kW
28 kW
 Edbergs, Örebro 1997
38 kW
 University of Luleå, Luleå 1997
82 kW
 Akzo-Nobel, Ömsköldsvik 1997
91 kW
 Volvo, Köping 1997
6 x 336 kW
 Hällstugan Daycare center, Örebro 1997
38 kW
95 kW
 ASSI Domän, Falum 1997
82 kW
 ABB Atom, Västerås 1997
164 kW
 Pastejköket, Tranås 1997
3 x 216 kW
 SKV, Svängsta 1997
10 kW
 County of Karlstad, Karlstad 1997
2 x 260 kW
 Katedral gymnasium, Skara 1997
111 kW
 IUC-Gymnasium,Katrineholm 1997
20 kW
 Saluhallen, Uppsala 1997
82 kW
 Saluhallen, Uppsala 1997
54 kW
 ICA HQ, Västerås
1997 190 kW
 Volvo Aero, Arboga 1997
48 kW
 Volvo Aero, Arboga 1997
95 kW
 Hospital of Skellefteå, Skellefteå 1997
2 x 260 kW
2 x 56 kW
8 kW
 Swedish Road Adm., Borlänge 1997
2 x 56 kW
41 kW
82
DTI Energy
 Ericsson, Ursviken 1997

2 x 190 kW
 Swedish Army, Visby 1997
111 kW
 County of Gävle, Bollnäs 1997
4 x 520 kW
 County of Gävle, Bollnäs 1997
34 kW
 TA Hydronics, Gothenburg 1997
69 kW
 Real Estate Company, Umeå 1997
2 x 96 kW
 ASSI Domäm, Frövi 1997
20 kW
 Hospital of Lindesberg, Lindesberg 1997
20 kW
 Hospital of Söderhamn, Söderhamn 1997
20 kW
 Swedish Road Adm, Örebro 1997
170 kW
 Electrolux, NL 1997
5 kW
 University of Umeå, Umeå 1997
10 kW
 Swedish Coast Artillery, Stockholm 1997
2 x 56 kW
 Vombverket, Veberöd 1998
2 x 160 kW
 Hospital of Linköping, Linköping 1998
2 x 86 kW
 Swedish Radio, Luleå 1998
122 kW
 Hospital of Sandviken, Sandviken 1998
34 kW
 Country of Karlstad, Karlstad 1998
122 kW
90 kW
 Umeå gymnasium, Umeå 1998
2 x 138 kW
21 kW
 House of Wasa, Örebro 1998
2 x 180 kW
 Nestlé, Malmö 1998
78 kW
 Unikum in Örebro, Örebro 1998
2 x 244 kW
 Kv Sjövik, Stockholm 1998
122 kW
60 kW
83

180 kW
 Sparebanken, Köping 1998
2 x 206 kW
 Kv Harren, Luleå 1998
122 kW
 Expolaris, Skellefteå 1998
38 kW
 University of Karlstad, Karlstad 1998
34 kW
 University of Karlstad, Karlstad 1998
147 kW
 Hospital of Ljungby, Ljungby 1998
147 kW
 Vasakronan Real Estate, Norrköping 1998
122 kW
 TÜV-approval, D 1998
90 kW
 Fire Brigade, Luleå 1998
33 kW
 Sabroe + Søby, DK 1998
90 kW



84

Greenhouse effect of SF6

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Greenhouse effect of SF6

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ways of reducing consumption and emission of potent

greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6)

Project for the Nordic Council of Ministers

Per Henrik Pedersen, M.Sc.,

Danish Technological Institute

The result is a continuous accumulation in the atmosphere of the very potent

In 1997, consumption of potent greenhouse gases in the Nordic countries resulted in an

corresponding to around 1.6 million tonnes of CO2. Aluminium production was

Possibilities of substitution and reduction in the Nordic countries

The Nordic Cooperation Group on Energy and Environment

HFC PFC SF6 CO2 CO2 HFC, PFC,

The annual atmospheric emission of PFC substances amounts to 250 tonnes,

technology in aluminium production.

Annual consumption of SF6 is approx. 107 tonnes, corresponding to a potential

However, another trend can also be discerned:

Good progress is deemed to have been made in the development of competitive

Within jointing foam, hydrocarbon technology is cheaper than HFC technology.

Within fire-fighting, technologies with inert gases and other fire-extinguishing

In Sweden, approx. 75 commercial refrigeration systems with hydrocarbons as the refrigerant

Development of Cost of new Emission in

used prolonging the life-

Development + Relative Need for Approx.

Consumption of SF6 for sound-insulating windows is also falling slightly. It should be

1.1 The greenhouse effect and potent greenhouse gases

As mentioned, consumption of HFCs is rising at present because we are in the midst of a

HFCs are used mainly as a refrigerant in:

HFCs are used for production of polyurethane foam in:

HFCs are also used for:

SF6 is used mainly for the following purposes:

PFCs are used for the following purposes:

PFCs are formed as a by-product during production of aluminium.

1.2 Measures to reduce emissions in the Nordic countries

Development of new technologies:

1.3 Purpose of the project and the participants

 application and consumption figures in the individual countries

The reference group is composed as follows:

Maria Ujfalusi, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

2. Consumption and emission of HFCs, PFCs and SF 6 in the Nordic countries

Table 2.1: Trend in consumption of HFCs in Denmark

Tonnes 1990 1992 1994 1995 1996

Table 2.2: Trend in consumption of SF6 in Denmark

Tonnes 1990 1992 1994 1995 1996

Consumption of PFCs is small but increasing. In 1996, consumption of C 3F8 (perfluoropropane)

Consumption in GWP CO2 equivalents Atmospheric

Tonnes Consumption Consumption Consumption Potential emission in

Finland has no aluminium or magnesium production.

A total of 11 tonnes of SF6 is estimated to be installed in electrical equipment, and of that

Emission in Emission in Emission in GWP CO2 equivalents

1995 1996 1997 (100 yrs) (tonnes) 1997

Emission 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Emission in 1996 GWP (100 yrs) CO2 equivalents

Consumption in GWP (100 yrs) CO2 equivalents in

Most of the PFC emission comes from aluminium production.

2.6 The Nordic countries combined

HFC PFC SF6 CO2 CO2 HFC, PFC,

3. Use of HFCs, substitutes and other ways of reducing the emission

Table 3.1: The most common HFCs

3.1 Domestic refrigerators and freezers

Ozone-depleting substances used to be used in the manufacture of refrigerators and freezers.

In 1993, environmental organisations began questioning the environmental impact of HFCs

EU and Nordic environment labels

In Norway, Norcool A/S makes commercial refrigerators.

HFC consumption in the Nordic countries

Emission to the surroundings/accumulation in scrapped products