SAR Englis Pepartment Ngityet sa ae —RaaeeasCology = 20) Endeavour (v)| Make effort stresses the implication of exertion and difficulty. Essay (v) Make effort | implies difficult but also suggests tentative trying or experimenting. Strive (v) Make effort implies great exertion against great difficulty and specially suggests | persistent effort. When we analyze the semantic features of words in the above set we find that there is no identity in all their semantic features. The five words have some common feature (or the denotative component) but one word in the set has only this feature while others have some additional features also. A further illustration will be supplied by a group of synonymous nouns: hope, expectation, and anticipation. They are considered to be synonymous because they all three mean “having something in mind which is likely to happen”. There is strongly pronounced difference in their shades of meaning. Expectation may be either of good or of evil. Anticipation, as a tule, is a pleasurable expectation of something good. Hope is not only a belief but a desire that some event would happen. The stylistic difference is also quite marked, The Romance words anticipation and expectation are formal literary words used only by educated speakers, whereas the native monosyllabic hope is stylistically neutral. Moreover, they differ in idiomatic usage. Only hope is possible in such set expressions as: to hope against hope, to lose hope, to pin one’s hopes on something. - CLASSIFICATION OF SYNONYMS General speaking, synonyms can be classified into five types: 1. Ideographic synonyms (words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning, i. between which a semantic difference is statable) For example, Lonely as compared with alone is emotional as is easily seen from the following sentences: “Tim just a lonely boy, /onely and blue, I'm all alone with nothin’ to do. Tve got everything you could think of. But all I want is someone to love.” (Lonely Boy - Paul Anka) -84- Scanned with CamScannerHANU - English Department_Nguyén Manh Hiing, M.A. - Lexicology = 2013 Both words denote being apart from others, but lonely besides the general meaning implies longing for company, feeling sad because of the Jack of sympathy and companionship. Alone does not necessarily suggest any sadness at being by oneself If the difference i in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion or the emotion expressed, as was the case in the groups discussed above, the synonyms \are classified as ideographic synonyms, and the opposition created in contrasting them may be called an ideographic opposition. The opposition is formulated with the help of a clear definitive statement of the semantic component present in all the members of the group. Also, in analyzing the group consisting of the words glance n., ‘look n, and glimpse n. we state that all three denote a conscious and direct ‘endeavor to see, the distinctive feature is based on the time and quickness of the action. A glance is “a look which is quick and sudden” and a glimpse is quicker still, implying only momentary sight. 2, Stylistic synonyms (words which, without explicitly displaying semantic difference, are distinguished stylistically) eg — begin— commence build — construct Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to the neutral style. @.g., examination —exam, — laboratory—lab nie Among stylistic synonyms we can point to a special ‘group of words which are called euphemisms. cg, the late—dead, perspire — sweat In a stylistic opposition of synonyms, the basis of comparison is again the denotational meaning and the distinctive feature is the presence or absence of a stylistic coloring which may also be accompanied a difference in emotional coloring. J. Absolute synonyms (words that coincide in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics) If two words have identity in all their semantic features they are called absolute synonyms. The occurrence of absolute synonyms not only depends on the lexical meaning but also on the distributional characteristics of the words. How to find out the absolute synonyms? One common test 285- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department Neuyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 applied to know whether two lexical items are absolute synonyms or not is the test of interchangeability and substitution. Two lexical units can be absolute synonyms if and only if they are interchangeable for one another in all contexts without the slightest change in their meaning. But this is rarely found, if we do not say, it is almost impossible to get complete synonyms in a language. To quote Ullmann “absolute synonymy is an extremely rare occurrence, a luxury that a language can ill afford”. (After Lyons 1968, 437). However, absolute synonyms are found only in a few monosemantic words which have technical meanings. But here again the terms are not used by the same writer or school. They are used by different schools. eg. Spirant —fricative Flexion ~ inflerion ‘There are some very rare cases where we may find cases of absolute synonyms. e.g, Very Important Person: VIP, Vice Chancellor : VC. 4, Contextual synonyms Contextual synonyms (words that are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. For example, the verbs bear, suffer and stand are semantically different and not interchangeable except when used in the negative form; can’t stand is equal to can’t bear in the following words of an officer: “I’ve swallowed too much of the beastly stuff: I can't stand it any longer. I’m going to the dressing-station.” (Aldington, 1958) 5. Dominant synonyms A dominant synonym is a “central” word of a group of synonyms expressing the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information. as to the ‘manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent. It can easily be shown, on the evidence of examples, that each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is the most general term of its kind potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members” of the group, as, for instance, in the series leave, depart, quit, retire, clear out, the verb leave, being general and both stylistically and emotionally neutral, can stand for each of the other four terms. The other four can replace Jeave only when some specific semantic component must prevail over the general notion. When we want to -86- Scanned with CamScannerHANU - English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 stress the idea of giving up employment and stopping work, guit is preferable because in this word this particular notion dominates over the more general idea common to the whole group. “Other dominants are, for instance, get, a verb that can stand for the . verbs obtain, acquire, gain, win, earn; also ask, the most general term of its group, viz. inquire, question or interrogate. The noun piece is the synonymic dominant in the group slice, lump, morsel. The verb look at is the synonymic dominant in.the group /o stare, to glance, to peep. The adjective red is the synonymic dominant in the group purple, scarlet, crimson. : The synonymic dominant should not be confused with a generic term. A generic term is relative. It serves as the name for the notion of the genus as distinguished from the names of the species. For instance, animal is a generic term as compared to the specific names wolf, dog or mouse (which are-not synonymous). Dog, in its turn, may serve as a generic term for different breeds such as bull-dog, collie, poodle, etc. A more modem and a more effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations. It seems convenient to classify connotations by which synonyms differ rather than synonyms themselves. Scanned with CamScannerANTONYMY WHAT ARE ANTONYMS? Antonyms may be defined as two (rarely more) words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech with contradictory meaning. e.g. alive — dead, love —hate, useful — useless Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ in style, emotional” coloring or distribution. The same word may have different antonyms when used with different words: single ticket — return ticket, she is single — she is married. The adjective cold may be said to have warm for its second antonym, and sorrow may be very well contrasted with gaiety. On the.other hand, a polysemantic word may have an antonym (or several antonyms) for each of its meanings. So, the adjective dull has the antonyms: + interesting, amusing, entertaining for its meaning of deficient in interest, -93.- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department _Neuyén Manh Hitng, M.A. - Lexicology ~ 203 - clever, bright, capable for its meaning of deficient in intellect, - active for the meaning of deficient in activity, etc. DISTRIBUTION OF ANTONYMY Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives which is only natural because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted: high-low, wide-narrow, strong-weak, old-young. Verbs take second place, so far as antonymy is concemed. Yet, verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number. Here are some examples of them: to live-to die, to open-to close, to weep-to laugh. Nouns are not rich in antonyms, but even so some examples can be given: ‘ Sriend - enemy, joy - grief, good - evil, heaven — earth, Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into two groups: 1, adverbs derived from adjectives: merrily — sadly, loudly — sofily, 2. adverbs proper: here — there, ever — never, in-out; Prepositions also find their presence in antonymy: Up—down, into — out off under — over, from — to LASSIFICATION OF ANTONYMS Antonyms can be classified into two main types: 1. Rootword (absolute) antonyms Rootword antonyms are those words which are completely different in sound and form. For example, in - out here Lotigparg thin — fat big = small” give -. take remember forget joy ~- grief war = aoe -94- Scanned with CamScannerANU - English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 Rootword (absolute) antonyms can be subdivided into 3 subtypes: a. Antonyms proper: According to the relationship between their meanings proper (absolute) antonyms may be characterized as contrary. They are polar members of.a gradual opposition which may have intermediary elements and always imply comparison which is clear from context. e.g. beautiful — pretty - good-looking — plain — ugly. b. Complementary .antonyms: Complementarity is a binary opposition; it may have only two members. The denial of one member “means the assertion of the other. e.g. not male means female, not true means false. c. Relational antonyms (converses). The relationship between the pairs is reciprocal, Converses denote one and the same subject as viewed from different points of view (e.g, subject and object, family and social relations, space and time relations, etc), e.g. borrow — lend, husband — wife, before — after. 2. Derivational antonyms Derivational antonyms are words which are formed by derivation (they originate from the same root), For example, decisive - indecisive . proper ‘ — improper code ~ decode connect — disconnect known — unknown correct — incorrect ‘The affixes in derivational antonyms deny the quality stated in the stem. ‘There are typical affixes that form these derivational, antonyms. The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: Jim-/in-fir and wn, Other negative prefixes occur in this functi . occasionally, Modern English prefers to form an antonym with the prefix wn-; the suffix -less is old and not productive anymore. In the oppositions like hopefidl “hopeless, useful -useless the suffix less is contrasting to the suffix -fu, not to the stem (otherwise the antonyms would be: hope — hopeless), e.g. selfish — unselfish, not selfish —“selfishless”. only 952 Scanned with CamScannerie e can be 5 complet j ogical- 1 expressions as well, EOUped iy, 3 i se : 10Ses jeonce ina while Scanned with CamScanneringlish Department _Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 UNIT7 EUPHEMISMS WHAT IS EUPHEMISM? Euphemism is the substitution of a mild, indirect or even a vague word or expression for an offensive, direct or unpleasant one. ‘The word euphemism comes from the Greek: word euphemia, meaning “the use of words of good omen” which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu, “good/well” + pheme “speech/speaking”. The eupheme vwas originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud. The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning “to keep a holy silence” . When talking or writing about subjects that we find embarrassing or unpleasant especially, when it comes to words that are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite we instinctively avoid. As the “offensive” referents, for which these words stand, must still be alluded to, they are often described in‘a round-about way, by using substitutes called euphemisms. For example, ‘Mr. Milton gets up from the table, explaining that he has to go to the little boy’s room or see the man about the dog. ‘The secretary complains that her boss has pain in the derriere. ‘The undertaker (or mortician) asks delicately where to ship the loved one. Rather than say that somebody has died, we might say that he/she “has passed away”. Some hospitals have “Special Clinics”, where sexually transmitted infections are treated. CHARACTERISTICS OF EUPHEMISM As an important part of language, Euphemism has its own characteristics which include: 1. Fuzziness In order to not to “call a spade a spade” people, in many cases, use semantic obscurity, that is, they use fuzzy expressions to conceal the truth. For example, -98- Scanned with CamScannerBlind > visually impaired ot sight-deprived Poverty — reduced circumstances Prison > correctional facility Lie — economical with the truth 2, Universality Euphemism can be found in any language in the world. Most cultures, whether it is English, French, American, Japanese or Vietnamese, seem to have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly. The use of euphemism is therefore always encouraged in many “contexts. That the English word W. C can be seen on the doors of public ollets in $0 many countries can be proof of this. _ 3, Localization Different societies have customs, beliefs, values and different ways of thinking and expressing their thoughts. Each may have its own things: that they consider taboo and therefore they have their own ways to refer to them. Besides, all these differences also create differences in the choice of language for the same thing that the people in different countries consider taboo. ‘Thus, condom might be called French letter by the English people and rubber by the American. ‘The term restroom is an Americanism rarely used outside the United States, while washroom is a,Canadian euphemism. The abbreviation "W.C." was previously quite popular in the United - Kingdom, but is passing out of favor there, while becoming more popular in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Hungary as the Pome term of choice 4. Contémporaneity “Social changes take place all the time. So does langtiage.: What was * once considered improper to say is now acceptable and vice versa. Many euphemistic words become neutralized dnd new euphemisms are created. For example, Poor, homeless was referred. to as underprivileged and now becomes disadvantaged Lover was referted to as partner and now become boyfriend, girlfriend. Lt us take a look at the’ different cuphemistic expressions’ for “pregnant” to better understand this point: 99 - Scanned with CamScannerHANU - English De; ent _Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 — She has cancelled all her social engagements. (1855) — She is in an interesting condition, (1880) — She is in delicate condition, (1895) —+ She is knitting little bootees, (1910) + She is in a family way. (1920) —+ She is expecting. (1935) + She is pregnant. (1956) A similar progression occurred with the following terms for persons with physical handicaps being adopted by some people: lame + crippled + handicapped —+ disabled —> physically- challenged —+ differently-abled TYPES OF EUPHEMISMS According to Rawson (1995), there are two types of euphemisms: positive and negative. 1. Negative euphemisms include “those that deflate and diminish. They are defensive in nature, offsetting the power of tabooed terms and otherwise eradicating from the language everything that People prefer not to deal with directly.” This type of euphemisms can also be called narrowing Euphemisms. ‘They are extremely ancient. Thus, tiger can be euphemized as striped one; whore becomes working girl; wrong attack on one's own troops.is alluded to as friendly fire, etc. 2. Positive euphemisms include “those that inflate and magnify, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more important than they really are”, For example: hair-dressers, hospital nurse, postman ot howsewife becomes beautician, angel in white, messenger in green ox domestic engineer, respectively. EUPHEMISMS IN USE Euphemisms are used in every aspect of life. We are so familiar with euphemistic expressions that sometimes we cannot recognize them. -100- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department Neuyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lextcology - 2013 Euphemisms in daily life, I'ma bit slow on my feet. + My feet hurt, I can hardly walk. To answer the call of nature. + Go to the WC He needs sympathy; his family is less privileged than us. + He really needs help; his family is so poor, You are not the best cook in the world. > You are a terrible cook. “Jove you” might be expressed in very many different ways: You waken up my days. Things won't be the same without you. You are the apple of my eyes. You make me feel light in the darkness. You give me wings to fly. You are the answer to my lonely prayer. You are an angle from above, Iwas so lonely till you came to me, ~ Sanitary facilities have, naturally, prodiced many euphemisms. lavatory, powder room, washroom, restroom < retiring room, (public) comfort station, ladies" (room), gentlenien's (room) water-closet; w.c; public conveniences nee and even windsor castle (which sa comical phrase for “deciphering” w.c). ° Pregnancy is another topic for “delicate” references. Pregnant becomes inan interesting condition, in a delicate condition inthe family way, (big) with child, expecting bun in the oven (sl,), knocked up (vulgar) Eating is also regarded as unrefined by some minds. Hence, many substitutes have been employed: =101- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department _Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicolo, to partake of food (of refreshment) to refresh oneself, to break bread. There are words which are easily targets for euphemistic substitution. Thes¢ include words associated with drunkenness, The adjective drunk, for instance, has a great number of such substitutes, some of them “delicate”, but most comical. - intoxicated (form), - tipsy, mellow, fresh, high, merry, flustered, overcome, full (coll), - drunk as a lord (coll,), drunk as an owl (col), - boiled (sh), fried (sL), tanked (sl), tight (sh), - stiff (1), picked (sl), soaked (sl, - three sheets to the wind (31), = high as a kite (5), half-seas-over (cl), etc. The following brief quotation from P.G Wodehouse (1978) gives two more examples of words belonging to the same group: “Motty was under the surface. Completely sozzled.” “From Right-Ho, Jeeves by P.G Wodehouse) Euphemisms in Business For chief of a department, to be dismissed isto resign for personal reason. For workers “dismissed” is dehired, surplused, rightsized, excessed, etc. = When a company has to reduce their staff, they say they have ‘“jiorkforce adjustrient”, - When they transfer workers to another factory or production lines they say they have to apply “vocational relocation”. - The “losses” a company suffered are referred to its corporate annual report as “negative cash flow”, “deficit enhancement”. ~ John was out of game means he went bankrupt -102- Scanned with CamScannerHANU - English Department Nguyén Manh Hitng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 WHY IS EUPHEMISM? Euphemisms may, of course, be used due to genuine concern to unveil unpleasant things, to be more polite or not to hurt someone’s feeling For instatice, * War may be referred to as conflict, dispute A liar can be described as a person who does not always strictly tell the truth. And a stupid man can be said to be not exactly brilliant. Profoundly deafis used for deaf mute, ‘The disabled or the differently-abled for the crippled. More people want to work as custodian than guard or janitor Euphemisms prove to be very necessary in many situations. It is certainly more pleasant to hear someone ask where the bathroom or the Jadies’/gentlemen’s room is than where the WC is. Euphemisms are used to avoid the so-called taboo — what is seen as inappropriate. Three kinds of taboos can be mentioned here namely, social, superstitious and political taboos. Social taboos The use of euphemisms to avoid social taboos is inspired by social convention, customs or common practices. For example, children born with a certain genetic disability used to be called Mongoloid idiots. Today these children are more objectively referred to as people with Down's syndrome. a retarded ot mentally handicapped person is <éilled ‘learning- disabled, a slow learner and a failing student becomes an ae fat person is not obese or overweight but heavy, plumb, chubby, big boned, well-built, zafig, dumb is replaced by mute, deaf by hearing-impaired. People who were seen as “handicapped” and “disabled” now take on new labels for themselves: they are in fac plysicaly challenged, differently-abled and handi-capable. Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department_Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicolo; O13 Mental diseases also cause the frequent use of euphemisms. A mad person may be described as insane, mentally unstable, unbalanced, unhinged, not (quite) right (coll), not all there (col), offone's head (coll.), wrong in the upper storey (coll.), crazy as a bedbug (sl), loony (6h), a mental case, a mental defective, etc. A clinic for such patients can also be discreetly referred to as, for instance, an asylum, sanitarium, Sanatorium, (mental) institution, and, less discreetly, as a nut house (sl,), booby hatch (sl), loony bin Gl), etc. In the story by Evelyn Waugh (1979) “Mr, Loveday’s Little Outing” a clinic of this kind, treating only very rich patients, is described as large private grounds suitable for the charge of nervous or difficult cases. This is certainly the peak of euphemistic “delicacy”. The great number of humorous substitutes found in such groups of words proves particularly tempting for writers who use them for comical ‘purposes. ‘Sex for many reasons has been too delicate a subject to talk about. Words describing physical acts become taboos, So, instead of engaging in sexual intercourse, people; - go to bed (with sb), sleep (with sb) ~ contact (with sb), couple - enjoy each other, possess sb ~ have carnal knowledge (of sb), go all the way There are many euphemisms for birth control devices, sometimes even propagated by the manufacturers: = 104- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 Condoms are known as rubbers, sheaths, love gloves, diving suits, raincoats, Johnnies (in Ireland and to a lesser degree Britain), etc, The birth ‘control pill is known simply as “The Pill”, and other methods of birth control are also given generalized euphemisms like The Patch, The Sponge, Shots et. : ‘The use of contraceptive devices becomes be safe, be careful, take preventive measures, take precautions, wear a raincoat. The brothel is euphemistically referred to as bordello, house of prostitution , disorderly house, house of ill repute, house of pleasure, Joy house, shagging house, knocking house, massage parlor, red-light district. ‘Superstitious taboos Superstitious taboos gave rise to the use of another type of euphemisms. The reluctance to call things by their proper names is also typical of this type of euphemisms, but this time it is based on a deeply- rooted subconscious fear. Stperstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind when people believed that there was a supernatural link betweén a name and ‘the object or creature it represented. Therefore, all the words denoting evil-spirits, dangerous animals, or the power of nature were taboo. If uttered, it was believed that unspeakable disasters would result not only: for the speaker but also for those near him. That is why’all creatures; objects and ‘phenomena threatening danger were referred to ina round-about descriptive way. So, a dangerous animal might be descril bed, as the one- Turking-in-the- ‘wood anda ‘mortal. disease as the Black Deatl The proveib Speak of ‘he devil and he will ‘appear. must have teen used and taken quite literally when it was first used, and the fear of calling the devil by name was certainly inherited from ancient superstitious. beliefs. 5 So, the word devil became taboo, and a number of euphemisms were substituted for it: the Prince of Darkness, the black one, the evil one, dickens (coll,), deuce (coll.), Old Nick (coll.). -105- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 The Christian religion also made certain words taboo. Euphemisms for God and Jesus, such-as gosh and gee, are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which many believe would violate one of the Ten Commandments. The word god, due to some considerations, had a great number of substitutes which can still be traced in such phrases: Good Lord! By Heavens! (My) Goodness! Gracious! Gracious me! Good Heaven! A religious person may say “God” and “Jesus” with respect, not for showing anger, strong emotion or for cursing another person. It is a blasphemy. Some people find a softer way of swearing by using words of similar sounds with the name of God: Gee Whiz! Jeepers! Jesus Heck! 4 Hell Go to heck! Go to hell! Christmas! Jiminy Cricket! Jesus Christ! Golly! Gosh! God! For crying out loudl For Christ's sake! Even in our modem emancipated times, old superstitious fears still lurk behind words associated with death and fatal diseases. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word “death” was to invite death; where to “draw Death's attention” is the ultimate bad fortune — a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English — speaking cultures for precisely this reason. It may be said that one is not dying, but fading quickly because the end is near. People who have died are referred to as having passed away or passed or departed. Kick the bucket seems innocuous until one considers an explanation that has been proposed for the idiom: that a suicidal hanging victim must kick the bucket out from under his own feet during his suicide. Deceased is a euphemism for “dead”, and sometimes the deceased is said to have gone to a better place, but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of Heaven. Was taken to Jesus implies salvation specifically for Christians, but met his maker may imply some judgment, content implied or unknown, by God. = 106- Scanned with CamScannerHIANU - English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A, - Lexicology - 2013 Some Christians often use phrases such as gone to be with the Lord or called to higher service to express their belief that physical death is not the end, but the beginning of the fuller realization of redemption. Orthodox Christians often use the euphemism fallen asleep ot fallen asleep in the Lord, which reflects Orthodox beliefs concerning death and resurrection. Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful. Someone who has died is said to have passed on, checked out, bit the big one, kicked the bucket, bitten the dust, popped their clogs, pegged it, carked it, snuffed it, turned their toes up, bought the farm, cashed in their chips, fallen off their perch, croaked, given up the ghost, — gone south, gone west, gone to California, shuffled off this mortal coil, run down the curtain and joined the Choir Invisible, or assumed room temperature. When buried, they may be said to be pushing up daisies, 3 sleeping the big sleep, taking a dirt nap, checking out the grass from underneath or six feet wer: There are hundreds of such expressions in use. The dead body entices many euphemisms, some Polite and some profane, such as dear départed, loved one, decedent, last remains, worm food, or dead meat, croaker, goner, stiff (sl) -107- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Department Neuvén Manh Hing, MA. - Lextcology - 2013 Grave becomes final resting place, last home, memorial par, bone orchard, cold storage (sl.) Political taboos In many countries, people do not always treat all others fairly. There has been unifaimess shown to racial, ethnic and religious minorities, as well as unfaimess to women, people with physical differences, gay people, children and the elderly. Some unfaimess is in the law. Some unfairness is in the people’s hearts. Our history is full of change. This change came from groups of activists who organized to work together to change the laws. They worked to have people become more tolerant of those who are different from themselves. Some groups of these people took new names for themselves. The old names seemed offensive and hurtful because they identified people by their differences and set them apart from “normal” people. A considerate person sill no longer use these words because in some context it could be as dangerous as using vulgar language. Speakers and writers are encouraged to use the new politically correct terms. The following are some major changes that are occurring in the English language. If you listen to different people speaking you will hear some using the politically correct terms, other using the traditional terms. For example, Politically incorrect Politically correct When the gender of the person is not known he "he or she; ste or he him him or her; her or him his his or her; her or his When referring to the entire human race Man hurtans, human beings mankind Iuuman beings, humankind When writing to an unknown person Dear Sir: Dear Sir or Madam: Dear Person: - 108- Scanned with CamScannerHANU- English Veyu sguyell Manh Hing, M.A, - Lexicotogy - 2013 Various occupation names have been changed so that they may refer to either men or women, fireman > firefighter policeman > police officer mailman => — letter carrier salesman > salesperson chairman => — chairperson Bureaucracies such as the military and large corporations frequently Spawn cuphemisms of a more deliberate .nature. Organizations coin doublespeak expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem. neutral. or inoffensive. For example, a term used in the past for contamination by radioactive isotopes was Sunshine units Military organizations Kill--people, .sometinies deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called neutralizing the target ot Employing Kinetic Effects and the second collateral damage, Violent destruction of non-state enemies may be'teferred to as pacification. Two common terms when a soldier is accidentally killed (buys the farm) by their own side are friendly fire or blue on blue (BOBbing). HOW TO CREATE EUPHEMISMS Refinement and Politeness are the very essence of euphemism. To help avoid communication breakdown the following principles. are suggested: 1 Foreign words Foreign words or terms often sound finer. Using foreign words is a good way to refer to something without being worried about’ hurting the listeners’ feeling. It always seem to be appropriate for speakers and writes of English to express any thought, any idea they wish, as long as the more rude parts of their speech are expressed in another language. For example, cemetery for “graveyard” is a borrowing from Greek, affair, ariout, liaison(Fr.) brassiere, lingerie (Fr.) boss (Dutch) copulation, urination (Lat.) = 109- Scanned with CamScannerHANU - English Department Nguyén Manh Hing, M.A. - Lexicology - 2013 2. Abbreviations Unpleasant words when contracted become more acceptable. One knows what words are abbreviated but no one seems to be offended because the taboo word is not uttered. BS (bullshit), SOB (son of a bitch) BM (bowel movement), BO (bad body odor), Big C, big H, big A, TB, STD 3. Abstractions ‘Abstractions, being quite unclear and meaningless, make ideal cover- up words. Casting ideas in the most general terms could reduce the strength of particular taboos. For example, it, problem, situation, and thing may refer to anything under the sun or any indecent topic. the child who keeps playing with it problem days, problem drinking economic thing may be recession, depression or turmoil ‘going to the other side for death do it ot come together in reference to a sexual act, tired and emotional for drunkenness, 4 Indlrection t Topics and terms that are too touchy may be alluded to in a variety of ways, most often by mentioning one aspect of the subject, a circumstance involving it, a related subject, or even by saying what it is not. In this way, indirect language is used -....For example, the punishment of criminals with death is euphemized as capital punishment new life hamlet (refugee camp) break off contact (retreat) fee for product testing (bribery) industrial action (strike) active defense (attack) -110- Scanned with CamScanner5. Onderstatemenl Understatement is a statement that expresses the idea weaker or less than it really is, It expresses things which are worse than their apparent meaning. In some. cases, a euphemism, though acknowledges part of the truth, conceals the extent of its whole grimness. Therefoee, understatement can reduce risks in communication. For example, a nuclear reactor that is said to be above critical is actually out of control. Close personal friend ot constant friend is adultery, pre-owned, reconditioned ot second hand things are used or old ones not exactly thin for “fat”, not completely truthful for “lied”, not untike cheating for “an instance of cheating”, and so on. 6. Lengthy expressions Since euphemism is, by definition, a mild, roundabout word or expression, it follows logically that euphemisms (with very few exceptions) are longer than words they replace. They have more letters, more syllables and frequently, two or more words will be effectively deployed in place of a single one. adjustment downward. (lay off) deficit enhancement, negative contribution to, profit (loss) at this point in time (tow) Middte East dancing (belly dancing) 7. Phonetic distortion Phonetic distortion tefers the changing of sounds within-words or between words. This is an effective way that many people choose to employ when they feel it impropriate to use certain words. For example; Gee Whiz! Jeepers! is used in place of Jesus Heck is used for Hell; coffee shop for coffin shop. Tea leafis used for thief - Goldarnii, dadgummit, ete, 8. Slang Slarig is also employed in many cases to form euphemisms. For example, pot for cannabis, laid for having sexual intercourse, brass for money, rip-off for overcharge and so on. “I~ Scanned with CamScanner