MIS 6th Edition Bidgoli Solutions

Manual
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-6th-edition-bidgoli-solutions-manual/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

MIS 6th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-6th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/

MIS 7th Edition Bidgoli Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-7th-edition-bidgoli-
solutions-manual/

MIS 5 5th Edition Bidgoli Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-5-5th-edition-bidgoli-
solutions-manual/

MIS 9th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-9th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/
MIS 8th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-8th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/

MIS 7th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-7th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/

MIS 5 5th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-5-5th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/

MIS 4 4th Edition Bidgoli Test Bank

https://testbankdeal.com/product/mis-4-4th-edition-bidgoli-test-
bank/

Experiencing MIS 6th Edition Kroenke Solutions Manual

https://testbankdeal.com/product/experiencing-mis-6th-edition-
kroenke-solutions-manual/
 1

Chapter 6
Data Communication: Delivering Information
Anywhere and Anytime

Learning Objectives

• Describe major applications of a data communication system.

• Explain the major components of a data communication system.
• Describe the major types of processing configurations.
• Explain the three types of networks.
• Describe the main network topologies.
• Explain important networking concepts, such as bandwidth, routing, routers, and the
client/server model.
• Describe wireless and mobile technologies and networks.
• Discuss the importance of wireless security and the techniques used.
• Summarize the convergence phenomenon and its applications for business and personal
use.

Detailed Chapter Outline

I. Defining Data Communication

Data communication is the electronic transfer of data from one location to another. An
information system’s effectiveness is measured in part by how efficiently it delivers information,
and a data communication system is what enables an information system to carry out this
function. By using the capabilities of a data communication system, organizations are not limited
by physical boundaries. They can collaborate with other organizations, outsource certain
functions to reduce costs, and provide customer services via data communication systems. E-
collaboration is another main application of data communication.

A. Why Managers Need to Know About Data Communication

Data communication applications can enhance decision makers’ efficiency and effectiveness
in many ways. For example, data communication applications support just-in-time delivery of
goods, which reduces inventory costs and improves the competitive edge. Data
communication systems also make virtual organizations possible, and these can cross
 2

geographic boundaries to develop products more quickly and effectively. It also enables
organizations to use e-mail and electronic file transfer to improve efficiency and productivity.
Following are some of the ways data communication technologies affect the workplace:
• Online training for employees can be provided via virtual classrooms.
• Internet searches for information on products, services, and innovation keep employees
up to date.
• The Internet and data communication systems facilitate lifelong learning, which will be
an asset for knowledge workers of the future.
• Boundaries between work and personal life are less clear-cut as data communication is
more available in both homes and businesses.
• Web and video conferencing are easier, which can reduce the costs of business travel.

Managers need a clear understanding of the following areas of data communication:

• The basics of data communication and networking
• The Internet, intranets, and extranets
• Wired and wireless networks
• Network security issues and measures
• Organizational and social effects of data communication
• Globalization issues
• Applications of data communication systems

E-collaborations and virtual meetings are other important applications of data communication
systems for managers. These applications are cost effective and improve customer service.

In-Class Activity

Have students make a list of different methods that they have used to communicate data from
one point to another. Students should select the most effective and most reliable method for
data communication from this list.

Discussion Question

Why is an efficient data communication system critical to an organization? List some of the
ways data communication technologies affect the workplace.

II. Basic Components of a Data Communication System

A typical data communication system includes the following components:

 3

• Sender and receiver devices

• Modems or routers
• Communication medium (channel)

Basic concepts in data communication include:

• Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another in a
certain time period, usually one second.
• Attenuation is the loss of power in a signal as it travels from the sending device to the
receiving device.

Data transmission channels are generally divided into two types: broadband and narrowband. In
broadband data transmission, multiple pieces of data are sent simultaneously to increase the
transmission rate. Narrowband is a voice-grade transmission channel capable of transmitting a
maximum of 56,000 bps, so only a limited amount of information can be transferred in a specific
period of time.

Before a communication link can be established between two devices, they must be
synchronized, meaning that both devices must start and stop communicating at the same point.
Synchronization is handled with protocols, rules that govern data communication, including
error detection, message length, and transmission speed.

A. Sender and Receiver Devices

A sender and receiver device can take various forms:

• Input/output device, or “thin client”—used only for sending or receiving information; it
has no processing power.
• Smart terminal—an input/output device that can perform certain processing tasks but is
not a full-featured computer.
• Intelligent terminal, workstation, or personal computer—these serve as input/output
devices or as stand-alone systems.
• Netbook computer—a low-cost, diskless computer used to connect to the Internet or a
LAN.
• Minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers—these process data and send it to
other devices or receive data that has been processed elsewhere, process it, then transmit
it to other devices.
• Smartphones, mobile phones, MP3 players, PDAs, and game consoles—smartphones
are mobile phones with advanced capabilities, such as e-mail and Web-browsing, and
most have a built-in keyboard or an external USB keyboard. A video game console is an
electronic device for playing video games.
 4

B. Modems

A modem (short for “modulator-demodulator”) is a device that connects a user to the Internet.
Dial-up, digital subscriber line (DSL), and cable access require modems to connect to the
Internet. In today’s broadband world, DSL or cable modems are common. Digital subscriber
line (DSL), a common carrier service, is a high-speed service that uses ordinary phone lines.
With DSL connections, users can receive data at up to 7.1 Mbps and send data at around 1
Mbps, although the actual speed is determined by proximity to the provider’s location. Cable
modems, on the other hand, use the same cable that connects to TVs for Internet connections;
they can usually reach transmission speeds of about 16 Mbps.

C. Communication Media

Communication media, or channels, connect sender and receiver devices. They can be
conducted (wired or guided) or radiated (wireless). They can be conducted (wired or guided)
or radiated (wireless).

Conducted media provide a physical path along which signals are transmitted, including
twisted pair copper cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optics. Twisted pair copper cable consists
of two copper lines twisted around each other and either shielded or unshielded. Coaxial
cables are thick cables that can be used for both data and voice transmissions. Fiber-optic
cables are glass tubes (half the diameter of a human hair) surrounded by concentric layers of
glass, called “cladding,” to form a light path through wire cables. Fiber-optic cables have a
higher capacity, smaller size, lighter weight, lower attenuation, and higher security than other
cable types; they also have the highest bandwidth of any communication medium.

Radiated media use an antenna for transmitting data through air or water. Some of these
media are based on “line of sight” (an open path between sending and receiving devices or
antennas), including broadcast radio, terrestrial microwave, and satellite. Satellites link
ground-based microwave transmitters/receivers, known as Earth stations, and are commonly
used in long-distance telephone transmissions and TV signals. Terrestrial microwave systems
use Earth-based transmitters and receivers and are often used for point-to-point links between
buildings.

A communication medium can be a point-to-point or a multipoint system. In a point-to-point,

only one device at a time uses the medium. In a multipoint system, several devices share the
same medium, and a transmission from one device can be sent to all other devices sharing the
link.
 5

In-Class Activity

Ask students to research the latest advancements in communication media and present their
findings in class.

Discussion Question

Discuss the different types of communication media.

III. Processing Configurations

Data communication systems can be used in several different configurations, depending on

users’ needs, types of applications, and responsiveness of the system. During the past 60 years,
three types of processing configurations have emerged: centralized, decentralized, and
distributed.

A. Centralized Processing

In a centralized processing system, all processing is done at one central computer. The main
advantage of this configuration is being able to exercise tight control over system operations
and applications. The main disadvantage is lack of responsiveness to users’ needs, because the
system and its users could be located far apart from each other. This configuration is not used
much now.

B. Decentralized Processing

In decentralized processing, each user, department, or division has its own computer
(sometimes called an “organizational unit”) for performing processing tasks. A decentralized
processing system is certainly more responsive to users than a centralized processing system.
Decentralized systems have some drawbacks, including lack of coordination among
organizational units, the high cost of having many systems, and duplication of efforts.

C. Distributed Processing

Distributed processing solves two main problems—the lack of responsiveness in centralized

processing and the lack of coordination in decentralized processing—by maintaining
centralized control and decentralizing operations.
 6

Some of the advantages of distributed processing include:

• Accessing unused processing power is possible
• Distance and location are not limiting
• Fault tolerance is improved because of the availability of redundant resources.
• Reliability is improved because system failures can be limited to only one site.
• The system is more responsive to user needs.

The disadvantages of distributed processing include:

• There may be more security and privacy challenges.
• There may be incompatibility between the various pieces of equipment.
• Managing the network can be challenging.

D. Open Systems Interconnection Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a seven-layer architecture for defining
how data is transmitted from computer to computer in a network. Each layer in the
architecture performs a specific task:
• Application layer—serves as the window through which applications access network
services. It performs different tasks, depending on the application, and provides services
that support users’ tasks, such as file transfers, database access, and e-mail.
• Presentation layer—formats message packets.
• Session layer—establishes a communication session between computers.
• Transport layer—generates the receiver’s address and ensures the integrity of messages
by making sure packets are delivered without error, in sequence, and with no loss or
duplication.
• Network layer—routes messages.
• Data Link layer—oversees the establishment and control of the communication link.
• Physical layer—specifies the electrical connections between computers and the
transmission medium; defines the physical medium used for communication.

In-Class Activity

Ask students to identify instances where each type of processing configuration is used.
Have them cite both the advantages and disadvantages of each configuration within the
scope of the example. Then, have students discuss their examples in class.
 7

Discussion Question

Describe the task performed by each layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.

IV. Types of Networks

There are three major types of networks: local area networks, wide area networks, and
metropolitan area networks. In all these networks, computers are usually connected to the
network via a network interface card (NIC), a hardware component that enables computers to
communicate over a network. A NIC, also called an “adapter card,” is the physical link between
a network and a workstation, so it operates at the OSI model’s Physical and Data Link layers.

A. Local Area Networks

A local area network (LAN) connects workstations and peripheral devices that are in close
proximity. Usually, a LAN covers a limited geographical area, such as a building or campus,
and one company owns it. Its data transfer speed varies from 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

LANs are used most often to share resources, such as peripherals, files, and software. They
are also used to integrate services, such as e-mail and file sharing. In a LAN environment,
there are two basic terms to remember: Ethernet and Ethernet cable. Ethernet is a standard
communication protocol embedded in software and hardware devices used for building a
LAN. An Ethernet cable is used to connect computers, hubs, switches, and routers to a
network.

B. Wide Area Networks

A wide area network (WAN) can span several cities, states, or even countries, and it is
usually owned by several different parties. The data transfer speed depends on the speed of its
interconnections (called “links”) and can vary from 28.8 Kbps to 155 Mbps. A WAN can use
many different communication media (coaxial cables, satellite, and fiber optics) and terminals
of different sizes and sophistication (PCs, workstations, and mainframes); it can also be
connected to other networks.

C. Metropolitan Area Networks

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) developed specifications for a
public, independent, high-speed network that connects a variety of data communication
 8

systems, including LANs and WANs in the metropolitan areas. This network, called a
metropolitan area network (MAN), is designed to handle data communication for multiple
organizations in a city and sometimes nearby cities as well. The data transfer speed varies
from 34 Mbps to 155 Mbps.

In-Class Activity

Ask students to list the different types of networks that they have used, and to describe their
experience (data transfer speed) with each type of network.

Discussion Question

Why does the data transfer speed of different networks vary? What are the factors affecting the
data transfer speed?

V. Network Topologies

A network topology represents a network’s physical layout, including the arrangement of

computers and cables. Five common topologies include: star, ring, bus, hierarchical, and mesh.

A. Star Topology

The star topology usually consists of a central computer (host computer, often a server) and a
series of nodes (typically, workstations or peripheral devices). The host computer supplies the
main processing power. If a node fails, it does not affect the network’s operation, but if the
host computer fails, the entire network goes down.

Advantages of the star topology include:

• Cable layouts are easy to modify.
• Centralized control makes detecting problems easier.
• Nodes can be added to the network easily.
• It is more effective at handling heavy but short bursts of traffic.

Disadvantages of the star topology include:

• If the central host fails, the entire network becomes inoperable.
• Many cables are required, which increases cost.

B. Ring Topology
 9

In a ring topology, no host computer is required because each computer manages its own
connectivity. Computers and devices are arranged in a circle so each node is connected to two
other nodes: its upstream neighbor and its downstream neighbor. Transmission is in one
direction, and nodes repeat a signal before passing it to the downstream neighbor. If any link
between nodes is severed, the entire network is affected, and failure of a single node disrupts
the entire network. A ring topology needs less cable than a star topology, but it is similar to a
star topology in that it is better for handling heavy but short bursts of traffic.

C. Bus Topology

The bus topology (also called “linear bus”) connects nodes along a network segment, but the
ends of the cable are not connected, as they are in a ring topology. A hardware device called a
terminator is used at each end of the cable to absorb the signal. Without a terminator, the
signal would bounce back and forth along the length of the cable and prevent network
communication.

Advantages of the bus topology include:

• It is easy to extend.
• It is very reliable.
• The wiring layout is simple and uses the least amount of cable of any topology, which
keeps costs down.
• It handles steady (even) traffic well.

Disadvantages of the bus topology include:

• Fault diagnosis is difficult.
• The bus cable can be a bottleneck when network traffic is heavy.

D. Hierarchical Topology

A hierarchical topology (also called a “tree”) combines computers with different processing
strengths in different organizational levels. Traditional mainframe networks also use a
hierarchical topology. The mainframe computer is at the top, front-end processors (FEPs) are
at the next level, controllers and multiplexers are at the next level, and terminals and
workstations are at the bottom level. A controller is a hardware and software device that
controls data transfer from a computer to a peripheral device (examples are a monitor, a
printer, or a keyboard) and vice versa. A multiplexer is a hardware device that allows several
nodes to share one communication channel.

The hierarchical topology offers a great deal of network control and lower cost, compared to a
 10

star topology. Its disadvantages include that network expansion may pose a problem, and
there could be traffic congestion at the root and higher-level nodes.

E. Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology (also called “plex” or “interconnected”), every node (which can differ in
size and configuration from the others) is connected to every other node. This topology is
highly reliable. Failure of one or a few nodes does not usually cause a major problem in
network operation, because many other nodes are available.

In-Class Activity

Ask students to draw the layout of the different topologies mentioned in the text—star, ring,
bus, hierarchical, and mesh. The drawings would help the students differentiate between
these topologies.

Discussion Question

What are the factors that affect the selection of a type of network topology?

VI. Major Networking Concepts

A. Protocols

Protocols are agreed-on methods and rules that electronic devices use to exchange
information. Some protocols deal with hardware connections, and others control data
transmission and file transfers. Protocols also specify the format of message packets sent
between computers.

B. Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry-standard suite of

communication protocols. TCP/IP’s main advantage is that it enables interoperability—in
other words, it allows the linking of devices running on many different platforms. Two of the
major protocols in the TCP/IP suite are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which operates
at the OSI model’s Transport layer, and Internet Protocol (IP), which operates at the OSI
model’s Network layer. TCP’s primary functions are establishing a link between hosts,
ensuring message integrity, sequencing and acknowledging packet delivery, and regulating
 11

data flow between source and destination nodes.

IP is responsible for packet forwarding. An IP address consists of 4 bytes in IPv4 or 16 bytes

in IPv6 (32 bits or 128 bits) and is divided into two parts: a network address and a node
address. Computers on the same network must use the same network address, but each
computer must have a unique node address.

C. Routing

Packet switching is a network communication method that divides data into small packets and
transmits them to an address, where they are reassembled. A packet is a collection of binary
digits—including message data and control characters for formatting and transmitting—sent
from computer to computer over a network.

The path or route that data takes on a network is determined by the type of network and the
software used to transmit data. The process of deciding which path that data takes is called
routing. Routing is similar to the path one takes from home to work. A packet’s route can
change each time a connection is made, based on the amount of traffic and the availability of
the circuit. The decision about which route to follow is done in one of two ways: at a central
location (centralized routing) or at each node along the route (distributed routing). In most
cases, a routing table, generated automatically by software, is used to determine the best
possible route for the packet. The routing table lists nodes on a network and the path to each
node, along with alternate routes and the speed of existing routes

In centralized routing, one node is in charge of selecting the path for all packets. This node,
considered the network routing manager, stores the routing table, and any changes to a route
must be made at this node. All network nodes periodically forward status information on the
number of inbound, outbound, and processed messages to the network routing manager. The
network routing manager, therefore, has an overview of the network and can determine
whether any part of it is underused or overused.

Distributed routing relies on each node to calculate the best possible route. Each node
contains its own routing table with current information on the status of adjacent nodes so
packets can follow the best possible route. Each node also sends status messages periodically
so adjacent nodes can update their tables. Distributed routing eliminates the problems caused
by having the routing table at a centralized site. If one node is not operational, routing tables
at other nodes are updated, and the packet is sent along a different path.

D. Routers
 12

A router is a network connection device containing software that connects network systems
and controls traffic flow between them. Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI
model and handle routing packets on a network. Cisco Systems and Juniper Networks are two
major router vendors.

A router performs the same functions as a bridge but is a more sophisticated device. A bridge
connects two LANs using the same protocol, and the communication medium does not have
to be the same on both LANs. Routers can also choose the best possible path for packets
based on distance or cost. A router can also be used to isolate a portion of the LAN from the
rest of the network; this process is called “segmenting.”

There are two types of routers: static and dynamic. A static router requires the network
routing manager to give it information about which addresses are on which network. A
dynamic router can build tables that identify addresses on each network. Dynamic routers
are used more often now, particularly on the Internet.

E. Client/Server Model

In the client/server model, software runs on the local computer (the client) and
communicates with the remote server to request information or services. A server is a remote
computer on the network that provides information or services in response to client requests.

In the most basic client/server configuration, the following events usually take place:
• The user runs client software to create a query.
• The client accepts the request and formats it so the server can understand it.
• The client sends the request to the server over the network.
• The server receives and processes the query.
• The results are sent to the client.
• The results are formatted and displayed to the user in an understandable format.

The main advantage of the client/server architecture is its scalability, meaning its ability to
grow. Client/server architectures can be scaled horizontally or vertically. Horizontal scaling
means adding more workstations (clients), and vertical scaling means migrating the network
to larger, faster servers.

To understand client/server architecture better, one can think of it in terms of these three
levels of logic:
• Presentation logic: This is the top level, which is concerned with how data is returned to
the client.
• Application logic: This is concerned with the software processing requests for users.
 13

• Data management logic: This is concerned with data management and storage
operations.

The real challenge in a client/server architecture is how to divide these three logics
between the client and server.

Two-Tier Architecture

In the two-tier architecture, a client (tier one) communicates directly with the server (tier
two). The presentation logic is always on the client, and the data management logic is on
the server. The application logic can be on the client, on the server, or split between them,
although it is usually on the client side. This architecture is effective in small workgroups.
Because application logic is usually on the client side, a two-tier architecture has the
advantages of application development speed, simplicity, and power. On the downside, any
changes in application logic, such as stored procedures and validation rules for databases,
require major modifications of clients, resulting in upgrade and modification costs.

N-Tier Architectures

In a two-tier architecture, if the application logic is modified, it can affect the processing
workload. An n-tier architecture attempts to balance the workload between client and
server by removing application processing from both the client and server and placing it on
a middle-tier server. The most common n-tier architecture is the three-tier architecture.
Improving network performance is a major advantage of n-tier architecture.

In-Class Activity

Ask students if they have used a router or have one at home to connect to the internet.
Have them identify if the router is a static or a dynamic router and also its manufacturer.

Discussion Question

In the context of networking, what do you understand by protocols? Discuss the functions
of Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.

VII. Wireless and Mobile Networks

A wireless network is a network that uses wireless instead of wired technology. A mobile
 14

network (also called a “cellular network”) is a network operating on a radio frequency (RF),
consisting of radio cells, each served by a fixed transmitter, known as a “cell site” or “base
station.”

Wireless and mobile networks have the advantages of mobility, flexibility, ease of installation,
and low cost. These systems are particularly effective when no infrastructure (such as
communication lines or established wired networks) is in place. Drawbacks of mobile and
wireless networks include the following:
• Limited throughput—throughput is similar to bandwidth. It is the amount of data
transferred or processed in a specified time, usually one second.
• Limited range—the distance a signal can travel without losing strength is more limited in
mobile and wireless networks.
• In-building penetration problems—wireless signals might not be able to pass through
certain building materials or might have difficulty passing through walls.
• Vulnerability to frequency noise—interference from other signals, usually called “noise,”
can cause transmission problems.
• Security—wireless network traffic can be captured with sniffers.

There are various definitions of mobile and wireless computing. Mobile computing might simply
mean using a laptop away from the office or using a modem to access the corporate network
from a client’s office. Neither activity requires wireless technology. Wireless LANs usually refer
to proprietary LANs, meaning they use a certain vendor’s specifications.

Wireless networks have many advantages. For example, healthcare workers who use handheld,
notebook computers or tablets (such as the iPad) with wireless capabilities are able to get patient
information quickly. Because the information can be sent to and saved on a centralized database,
it is available to other workers instantly.

A Wireless Technologies

In a wireless environment, portable computers use small antennas to communicate with radio
towers in the surrounding area. Satellites in near-Earth orbit pick up low-powered signals
from mobile and portable network devices. Wireless technologies generally fall into two
groups:
• Wireless LANs (WLANs)—like their wired counterparts, WLANs are characterized by
having one owner and covering a limited area.
• Wireless WANs (WWANs)—these networks cover a broader area than WLANs and
include the following devices: cellular networks, cellular digital packet data (CDPD),
paging networks, personal communication systems (PCS), packet radio networks,
broadband personal communications systems (BPCS), microwave networks, and
 15

satellite networks.

B. Mobile Networks

Mobile networks have a three-part architecture:

• Base stations send and receive transmissions to and from subscribers.
• Mobile telephone switching offices (MTSOs) transfer calls between national or global
phone networks and base stations.
• Subscribers (users) connect to base stations by using mobile communication devices.

Mobile devices register by subscribing to a carrier service (provider) licensed for certain
geographic areas. When a mobile unit is outside its provider’s coverage area, roaming occurs.
To improve the efficiency and quality of digital communications, two technologies have been
developed: Time Division Multiple Access and Code Division Multiple Access. Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) divides each channel into six time slots. Each user is
allocated two slots: one for transmission and one for reception. Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) transmits multiple encoded messages over a wide frequency and then
decodes them at the receiving end.

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is the analog mobile phone standard developed by
Bell Labs and introduced in 1983. Digital technologies, however, are more widely used
because of higher data capacities, improved voice quality, encryption capabilities, and
integration with other digital networks. Many businesses use wireless and mobile networks to
improve customer service and reduce operational costs.

In-Class Activity

Prior to class, divide students into two groups and ask each group to carry out a survey on
which mobile technology consumers prefer—Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Have each group focus on the features, advantages,
and disadvantages of each technology. Finally, have each group present their findings in class.

Discussion Question

What are the benefits and limitations of using wireless and mobile networks over wired
technology?

VIII. Wireless Security

 16

Security is important in any type of network, but it is especially important in a wireless network,
because anyone walking or driving within the range of an access point (AP), even if outside the
home or office, can use the network. An AP is the part of a WLAN that connects it to other
networks. There are several techniques for improving the security of a wireless network:
• SSID (Service Set Identifier)—all client computers that try to access the AP are required to
include an SSID in all their packets. A packet without an SSID is not processed by the AP.
• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)—a key must be manually entered into the AP and the
client computer. The key encrypts the message before transmission.
• EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)—EAP keys are dynamically generated based on
the user’s ID and password. When the user logs out of the system, the key is discarded.
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)—this technique combines the strongest features of WEP
and EAP. Keys are fixed, as in WEP, or dynamically changed, as in EAP. However, the
WPA key is longer than the WEP key; therefore, it is more difficult to break.
• WPA2 or 802.11i—this technique uses EAP to obtain a master key. With this master key, a
user’s computer and the AP negotiate for a key that will be used for a session. After the
session is terminated, the key is discarded.

In-Class Activity

Ask students to use a Wi-Fi enabled phone to scan for WLAN hotspots in their surrounding
area. Students would be able to see a list of WLAN networks after the scan. Students
should now determine the type of security used for the networks in this list. Security type
could be SSID (Service Set Identifier), WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), EAP (Extensible
Authentication Protocol), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), WPA2 or 802.11i, or none.

Discussion Question

List the different techniques for improving the security of a wireless network.

IX. Convergence of Voice, Video, and Data

In data communication, convergence refers to integrating voice, video, and data so that
multimedia information can be used for decision making. Convergence requires major network
upgrades, because video requires much more bandwidth. This has changed, however, with the
availability of high-speed technologies, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Gigabit
Ethernet, 3G and 4G networks, and more demand for applications using these technologies.
Gigabit Ethernet is a LAN transmission standard capable of 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps data transfer
 17

speeds. The ATM is a packet-switching service that operates at 25 Mbps and 622 Mbps, with
maximum speed of up to 10 Gbps. The 3G network is the third generation of mobile networking
and telecommunications. It has increased the rate of information transfer, its quality, video and
broadband wireless data transfers, and the quality of Internet telephony or Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP).

More content providers, network operators, telecommunication companies, and broadcasting

networks, among others, have moved toward convergence. Convergence is possible now because
of a combination of technological innovation, changes in market structure, and regulatory
reform. Common applications of convergence include the following:
• E-commerce
• More entertainment options as the number of TV channels substantially increases and
movies and videos on demand become more available
• Increased availability and affordability of video and computer conferencing
• Consumer products and services, such as virtual classrooms, telecommuting, and virtual
reality

As a tool for delivering services, the Internet is an important contributor to the convergence
phenomenon.

In-Class Activity

Prior to class, ask students to make a Skype call to their friends using different technologies
such as 2G, 3G, and 4G. Students should share their experience in the class. Students
should observe the audio and video quality while using each technology and point out if
there was a lag during the call.

Discussion Question

How can an organization benefit from convergence? What are the applications of
convergence?

Key Terms

Data communication is the electronic transfer of data from one location to another. (P. 115)

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another in a certain
time period, usually one second. (P. 117)
 18

Attenuation is the loss of power in a signal as it travels from the sending device to the receiving
device. (P. 117)

In broadband data transmission, multiple pieces of data are sent simultaneously to increase the
transmission rate. (P. 117)

Narrowband is a voice-grade transmission channel capable of transmitting a maximum of

56,000 bps, so only a limited amount of information can be transferred in a specific period of
time. (P. 117)

Protocols are rules that govern data communication, including error detection, message length,
and transmission speed. (P. 117)

A modem (short for “modulator-demodulator”) is a device that connects a user to the Internet.
(P. 117)

Digital subscriber line (DSL), a common carrier service, is a high-speed service that uses
ordinary phone lines. (P. 118)

Communication media, or channels, connect sender and receiver devices. They can be
conducted or radiated. (P. 118)

Conducted media provide a physical path along which signals are transmitted, including twisted
pair copper cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optics. (P. 118)

Radiated media use an antenna for transmitting data through air or water. (P. 119)

In a centralized processing system, all processing is done at one central computer. (P. 119)

In decentralized processing, each user, department, or division has its own computer
(sometimes called an “organizational unit”) for performing processing tasks. (P. 120)

Distributed processing maintains centralized control and decentralized operations. Processing

power is distributed among several locations. (P. 120)

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a seven-layer architecture for defining how
data is transmitted from computer to computer in a network, from the physical connection to the
network to the applications that users run. It also standardizes interactions between network
computers exchanging information. (P. 120)
 19

A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component that enables computers to

communicate over a network. (P. 121)

A local area network (LAN) connects workstations and peripheral devices that are in close
proximity. (P. 122)

A wide area network (WAN) can span several cities, states, or even countries, and it is usually
owned by several different parties. (P. 122)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to handle data communication for multiple
organizations in a city and sometimes nearby cities as well. (P. 123)

A network topology represents a network’s physical layout, including the arrangement of

computers and cables. (P. 123)

The star topology usually consists of a central computer (host computer, often a server) and a
series of nodes (typically, workstations or peripheral devices). (P. 123)

In a ring topology, no host computer is required because each computer manages its own
connectivity. (P. 124)

The bus topology (also called “linear bus”) connects nodes along a network segment, but the
ends of the cable are not connected, as they are in a ring topology. (P. 124)

A hierarchical topology (also called a “tree”) combines computers with different processing
strengths in different organizational levels. (P. 125)

A controller is a hardware and software device that controls data transfer from a computer to a
peripheral device (examples are a monitor, a printer, or a keyboard) and vice versa. (P. 125)

A multiplexer is a hardware device that allows several nodes to share one communication
channel. (P. 125)

In a mesh topology (also called “plex” or “interconnected”), every node (which can differ in size
and configuration from the others) is connected to every other node. (P. 125)

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry-standard suite of

communication protocols that enables interoperability. (P. 125)
 20

A packet is a collection of binary digits—including message data and control characters for
formatting and transmitting—sent from computer to computer over a network. (P. 126)

Routing is the process of deciding which path to take on a network. This is determined by the
type of network and the software used to transmit data. (P. 126)

A routing table, generated automatically by software, is used to determine the best possible
route for a packet. (P. 126)

In centralized routing, one node is in charge of selecting the path for all packets. This node,
considered the network routing manager, stores the routing table, and any changes to a route
must be made at this node. (P. 126)

Distributed routing relies on each node to calculate its own best possible route. Each node
contains its own routing table with current information on the status of adjacent nodes so packets
can follow the best possible route. (P. 127)

A router is a network connection device containing software that connects network systems and
controls traffic flow between them. (P. 127)

A static router requires the network routing manager to give it information about which
addresses are on which network. (P. 127)

A dynamic router can build tables that identify addresses on each network. (P. 127)

In the client/server model, software runs on the local computer (the client) and communicates
with the remote server to request information or services. A server is a remote computer on the
network that provides information or services in response to client requests. (P. 127)

In the two-tier architecture (the most common type), a client (tier one) communicates directly
with the server (tier two). (P. 128)

An n-tier architecture attempts to balance the workload between client and server by removing
application processing from both the client and server and placing it on a middle-tier server. (P.
128)

A wireless network is a network that uses wireless instead of wired technology. (P. 129)

A mobile network (also called a cellular network) is a network operating on a radio frequency
(RF), consisting of radio cells, each served by a fixed transmitter, known as a cell site or base
 21

station. (P. 129)

Throughput is similar to bandwidth. It is the amount of data transferred or processed in a

specified time, usually one second. (P. 129)

To improve the efficiency and quality of digital communications, Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA) divides each channel into six time slots. Each user is allocated two slots: one
for transmission and one for reception. This method increases efficiency by 300 percent, as it
allows carrying three calls on one channel. (P. 132)

To improve the efficiency and quality of digital communications, Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) transmits multiple encoded messages over a wide frequency and then decodes
them at the receiving end. (P. 132)

In data communication, convergence refers to integrating voice, video, and data so that
multimedia information can be used for decision making. (P. 135)

End of Chapter Solutions

Reviews and Discussions

1. List three reasons that managers should know about data communication.

Students’ answers will vary. However, some students may mention that managers should
know about data communication because of the following reasons:
• Data communication applications support just-in-time delivery of goods, which
reduces inventory costs and improves the competitive edge.
• Data communication systems enable organizations to use e-mail and electronic file
transfer to improve efficiency and productivity.
• Data communication systems make virtual organizations possible, and these can
cross geographic boundaries to develop products more quickly and effectively.

2. Are modems always needed in a data communication system?

No, not all Internet connections require a modem.

3. What are three types of processing configurations?

The three types of processing configuration are: centralized processing, decentralized

processing, and distributed processing.
 22

4. What are five types of network topologies?

The five types of network topologies are: star topology, ring topology, bus topology,
hierarchical topology, and mesh topology.

5. Among the three types of networks (LAN, WAN, and MAN), which is the fastest?

LAN is the fastest network.

6. What is the function of a router?

A router is a network connection device containing software that connects network systems
and controls traffic flow between them. Routers can prevent network jams that delay
packet delivery, and they can handle packets of different sizes. A router can also be used to
isolate a portion of the LAN from the rest of the network.

7. What are protocols in a data communication environment? Why are they needed?

Protocols are rules that govern data communication, including error detection, message
length, and transmission speed. They are agreed-on methods and rules that electronic
devices use to exchange information. People need a common language to communicate,
and the same is true of computer and other electronic devices. Some protocols deal with
hardware connections, and others control data transmission and file transfers. Protocols
also specify the format of message packets sent between computers.

8. What is a two-tier client server architecture?

In the two-tier architecture, a client (tier one) communicates directly with the server (tier
two). The presentation logic is always on the client, and the data management logic is on
the server. The application logic can be on the client, on the server, or split between them,
although it is usually on the client side.

Projects

1. A newly established Internet company with 40 employees needs your advice. They are
looking for a collaboration tool and have narrowed their choices to GoToMeeting, WebEx,
and My Web Conferences. After reading the information presented in this chapter and other
sources, prepare a two-page document that includes two advantages and two disadvantages
of each tool. Which one is your final recommendation? Why did you choose that tool over
 23

the other two?

Students’ answers will vary.

2. Cisco and Polycom are two major vendors of telepresence products. After reading the
information presented in this chapter and other sources, write a one-page paper that
identifies one top-of-the-line product from each company. Which product would you
recommend to the company mentioned in Project 1? What are you basing your
recommendation on? What are two advantages of using a telepresence system compared to
a face-to-face meeting? What are two disadvantages?

Students’ answers will vary.

3. Mobile and wireless devices are being increasingly used in the health care industry. After
reading the information presented in this chapter and other sources, write a two-page paper
that outlines five applications of these devices in this industry. Also, identify three mobile
apps that could be used by medical personnel to increase their productivity.

Students’ answers will vary.

4. After reading the information presented in this chapter and other sources, write a two-page
paper that identifies five mobile apps that could be used in the banking industry. How do
these apps increase the productivity of the bankers and their customers? Do you see any
drawbacks involved in using these apps?

Students’ answers will vary.

5. After reading the information presented in this chapter and other sources, write a one-page
paper that includes a six-item bulleted lists for improving the privacy and security of your
smartphone. Generally speaking, are iOS devices more or less secure than Android
devices?

Students’ answers will vary.

6. After reading the information presented in this chapter and other sources, write a two-page
paper that describes five business applications of convergence. Which industries are
expected to gain the most from the convergence trend?

Students’ answers will vary. E-commerce, entertainment, videos on demand, video and
computer conferencing, virtual classrooms, telecommuting are just a few examples.
 24

Are You Ready to Move On?

1. Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another in a
certain time period, usually one second. True or False?

Answer: True

2. Communication media, or channels, connect sender and receiver devices. True or False?

Answer: True

3. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is an eight-layer architecture for defining
how data is transmitted from computer to computer in a network. True or False?

Answer: False

4. All of the following are among the advantages of bus topology except?
a. It is easier to extend.
b. It is very reliable.
c. It handles steady (even) traffic well.
d. Fault diagnostic is easy.

Answer: d

5. All of the following are among the advantages of wireless and mobile networks except?
a. Limited throughput
b. Mobility
c. Flexibility
d. Ease of installation

Answer: a

6. Which of the following network topology is the most reliable type?

a. Star
b. Ring
c. Mesh
d. Bus

Answer: c
 25

Case Studies

Case Study 6-1: Data Communication at Walmart

1. How has Walmart improved its data communication systems for suppliers?

Students’ answers will vary. Walmart has made several changes in data communication
systems to improve its suppliers’ access to sales and inventory data. For example, the
company added a customized Web site for suppliers, such as Mattel, Procter & Gamble,
and Warner-Lambert.

2. What are some typical data communication applications in Walmart?

With Walmart’s network, suppliers can access sales, inventory, and forecasting data over
extremely fast connections. To ensure confidentiality of data, a sophisticated security
system has been implemented to prevent suppliers from accessing data about one another’s
products.

3. What are some of the applications of wireless technology at Walmart?

Walmart uses the latest in wireless technology in its operations for warehouse management
systems (WMS) to track and manage the flow of goods through its distribution centers.
Another application of wireless technology is for controlling and monitoring forklifts and
industrial vehicles that move merchandise inside its distribution centers.

4. What are some of the features and capabilities of the VMS?

The Vehicle Management System (VMS) is the latest application of data communications
in Walmart. Among other features, the VMS includes a two-way text messaging system
that enables management to effectively divert material handling resources to where they
are needed the most. (The VMS works effectively with RFID systems.) According to
Walmart, the VMS has improved safety and has also significantly improved the
productivity of its operations.

Case Study 6-2: Protecting the Security and Privacy of Mobile Devices

1. What are some examples of security risks associated with a mobile device?

Some examples of security risks associated with a mobile device are: malware, premium
 26

SMS billing, e-mail and SMS phishing, spyware, and malicious Web sites.

2. How can these devices automatically track a user’s location?

These devices automatically track a user’s location because of their GPS capabilities.

3. What are a couple of recommendations for protecting your mobile device against these
threats?

Students’ answers will vary. Some students may suggest that one should never leave one’s
mobile device unlocked or unattended. Additionally, one should always protect it with a
password.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Cuareim River with Quarahim, Brazil, and its Great Southern
Railway running northward. At Salto there is considerable
interchange of traffic with Argentina through Concordia opposite, an
important railway junction and city. At Cabellos connection is made
with the Uruguay Northern, another road running to the Brazilian
Boundary, the terminus San Eugenio.
The Uruguay East Coast Railway with 78 miles of road, starting
from Olmas on the Central Uruguay runs to Maldonado. Much of the
traffic is to the seaside resorts, Puente del Este and Piriápolis; there
is also considerable freight for the Montevideo market, of agricultural
and pastoral products and fish. An extension northward from San
Carlos to Rocha is authorized. The road has been purchased by the
Government. A line from Durazno on the Central to Trinidad, begun
by the Farquhar-Pearson Syndicate as part of a line designed to
cross the country diagonally from Colonia to the Brazilian border,
was taken over by the Government, which has in view the securing
of a system of State railways. Besides building the 31-mile line from
San Carlos on the East Coast Railway it intends purchasing the 23-
mile line from Rocha to the port Paloma. Further needed
construction is planned by the Government as soon as may be
practicable.
Aeroplane service is to be installed by a British company from
Montevideo to Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco, and aerial postal
service is planned for the interior.

Resources and Industries

Stock raising is by far the leading industry, as is evident from the

fact that in 1917 nearly 98 per cent of the exports were of stock
products. Of the 44 million acres devoted to livestock and agriculture
the latter occupies hardly 5 per cent. In 1603, 100 cattle and two
herds of horses were brought into the country; the cattle increased
so rapidly that at one time they were killed for their hides, as more
recently in Paraguay. Since 1860 when Durham bulls were imported
and stock breeding began, much advance has been made in quality.
Herefords, Devon, a few Polled Angus and others have also been
imported; some for dairy purposes, as Swiss and Flemish. In 1917
the cattle numbered about 8,000,000. The best estancias have
sheds to house pedigreed stock, they plant trees and have cattle
dips. Societies encourage scientific breeding and the Government
subsidizes agricultural shows. One estancia of 60,000 acres has
15,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, some horses, and pays dividends of
16-25 per cent on a capital of £120,000. Another company with
40,000 acres and a capital of £40,000 pays dividends of 14-20 per
cent. At least 20,000 acres are devoted to dairy farming; 50,000
pounds of butter are made monthly, and both butter and cheese are
exported. The best of apparatus is employed.
Sheep, imported from Argentina in 1608, flourish to the number of
11,700,000; the varieties of Merino, Lincoln, Romney Marsh are
found among others, the English breeds being preferred.
Horses of good quality are raised, 570,000, both light and heavy,
but few in comparison to the cattle. There are 300,000 pigs, a few
mules, 16,000, and 12,000 goats.
Meat Packing. In 1754 the first meat salting plant was established
but the true pioneer dates from 1786. Others followed. There are
now 13 besides seven factories for preserving meat and two
frigorificos. The slaughter season is from November to January. The
meat for saladeros is separated from the bones, dried 4-6 days in
the sun, and then salted. It is arranged in four grades according to
fat or lean; the fat meat is sent to Brazil, the lean to Cuba and
elsewhere.
Of frigorificos the Swifts own one, and exported to Europe in 1915
and 1916, each, over 700,000 frozen quarters of beef and 100,000
chilled; also mutton and lamb. The Frigorifica Uruguaya shipped
nearly 44,000,000 pounds of beef to Europe in 1916 and over
2,000,000 pounds of mutton. The total export of animal products
shipped in 1916 was worth $73,000,000. A model slaughter house
and cold storage plant is in prospect. A new one for wool washing
has a capacity of 132,000 pounds daily. Saving in freight cost and
immunity from deterioration are thereby attained.
 The Liebig Extract of Beef Company, with extensive holdings in
and near Fray Bentos and with a total capitalization of £2,000,000
usually pays 20 per cent dividends on the ordinary shares; 5 per cent
in 1916. They use the best of meat, and their Oxo capsules and
Lemco have a world-wide reputation. They own and rent in Uruguay,
Argentina, and Paraguay 1,120,000 acres.
In spite of strikes and labor troubles the livestock industry has
brought prosperity to the country, with record prices for beef, mutton,
hides, and wool, thus greatly increasing land values. The cattle are
pastured on the natural long thick grass, very little alfalfa being
cultivated. Hogs, hens, bees, and silkworms are raised. The seal
industry and fisheries are important.

Agriculture

The agricultural products are insufficient for the use of the country
although 2,000,000 acres are in cultivation. About 900,000 acres are
in wheat, 700,000 in corn, 128,000 in flax, 100,000 oats, some
barley and canary seed. In 1916 agricultural exports were valued at
$1,500,000. Among other crops are tobacco, which is especially
promising, linseed, alfalfa, sugar cane, some cotton, potatoes, etc.
Viticulture is quite extensive, American grapes growing better in the
south, and French and Italian in the north. Other fruits, oranges,
olives, apples, pears, cherries, peaches, and melons flourish.

Forestry

Forestry is encouraged so far as planting is concerned; about

1,000,000 acres are in natural forest land. Millions of trees have
been planted on land not otherwise useful. The supply of wood in
future will be greatly increased and there may even be export.

Minerals

Minerals are of some importance and may become of more. The

country is believed to contain considerable wealth in gold, silver,
coal, marble, jasper; and in other minerals and semi-precious
stones, including amethyst and topaz. There is little export save
sand, stone for paving, and similar articles.
Gold. The chief gold fields are in the Department Rivera near
Cuñapiru not far from the Brazilian border. A district 35-40 miles long
and 7 wide contains auriferous reef with gold 5 ounces to the ton; if
deep the prospect is limitless. A modern English plant is now getting
out gold. Bars worth $4000 were exported in 1915. Four hundred
mines have been denounced in the Department. Enormous
quantities of manganese are in the neighborhood. Gold is found also
in Minas, Salto, and Tacuarembó.
Copper exists in quantity in Cerro Largo, Maldonado, Minas,
Paysandú, and Salto. Iron, silver, slate, gypsum, asbestos, lead, etc.
may be exploited later. Even greatly needed coal of fair quality has
been found in Montevideo, Santa Lucía, and especially in Cerro
Largo where it seems promising, though no working of minerals is
sufficiently developed to present decisive results. Indications of
petroleum have been noted at the north, the strata coming in from
Brazil.

Manufactures

Naturally manufacturing save for home consumption is of slight

importance, except of products of the pastoral industry, as of dairies
and of meat extract. For home use there are 115 flour mills, 45
others, as of hardware, soap, macaroni; 1 sugar factory, 3 starch, 1
cement, 4 breweries. Many of these are in Montevideo. The
Government proposes the construction of chemical factories for the
production of sulphuric, nitric, carbolic, and acetic acid, glycerine,
benzol, alcohol, sulphuric ether, etc., and a powder and explosive
factory; these to cost over $2,000,000, material and machinery to
enter free of duty.
An important project of the Government is the development of
water power from the cataracts of the Uruguay River, which will be
equivalent to 3,000,000 tons of coal per annum. Two dams are
planned, one movable and one fixed, with canals by which 419 miles
of river will be open to navigation from the lower section. Irrigation is
included in the project, and 37,000 acres near Montevideo are to be
irrigated as an illustration. Fifteen cities have authorized work in
connection with this project.

Investments

Aside from the development of hydro-electric power and the

construction of public works of various kinds including railways, it is
probable that agriculture and fisheries present the most favorable
openings, with good possibilities also in manufacturing industries,
stone cutting, and mining. Stock raising is already pretty well
developed.
 CHAPTER XLV
BRAZIL: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.

The country of Brazil, largest of the South American Republics, has also
a greater area than the United States without Alaska, and is more than
three-fourths the size of all Europe. It cannot therefore be considered as a
whole so easily as the other Republics. It is essential to differentiate
between the various regions and States; for the dissimilarity is not confined
to climate and productions; or to the character of the people, by reason of
some being indigenous and others of European descent. It arises in part
from the long coast line and the difficulty of land communication; in part
from the fact that in some districts the population is almost entirely of
European descent while in others there is a large percentage of negro
blood; as well as from differences in physical and climatic conditions. Thus
the Capital is not so markedly the centre of the Republic as in Argentina,
and the States are more loosely bound together than in the other
Republics. The States and the character of the people may be said to
differ as much among themselves as the countries of the West Coast from
each other, a point of importance to notice in commercial relations.

Area, Population, Boundary

Area. Brazil covers a surface of 3,112,453 square miles. Its length, 2750
miles, is about that of Chile; its extreme width, 2560 miles, is ten times at
great. The coast-line is much longer, 4140 miles. A considerable portion of
this immense area is still but superficially explored.
Population. According to the cabled report of the census of 1920, Brazil
has 30,553,509 inhabitants. Its population, therefore, exceeds that of any
other South American Republic even more largely than its area.
Boundary. The boundary of the country, though familiar from that of the
others, may be rehearsed. On the north we find Colombia, Venezuela, and
the three Guianas with the Atlantic beyond; on the east and southeast the
Atlantic only, on the south Uruguay, a speck of Argentina, Paraguay,
Bolivia, a bit of Peru; on the west a small corner of Argentina, Paraguay,
Bolivia, and Peru. The only countries of the continent not touching its
border are Ecuador and Chile. However, a few writers mention Ecuador on
the west, as the southeast boundary line of that country is still
undetermined.

History

The first of the South American countries to be discovered after

Colombia and Venezuela, it was to the region of Brazil that the name
America was first applied. It is therefore especially unbecoming for us to
appropriate to ourselves in any exclusive sense the title of Americans;
though having no other name, with apologies to the others, it may be
pardonable for us to employ it when necessary.
In the year 1500 the first landing on this part of the continent was made
by Pedro Alvares Cabral, then on his way from Portugal to the West
Indies. In commemoration of that event, May 3rd is a Brazilian national
holiday and the date of the assembling of Congress. As soon as the news
was received in the home country, an expedition was sent out under
Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the coast from its eastern extremity
almost to La Plata, nearly 2000 miles. Fifteen Captaincies, each 150 miles
along the coast, were later allotted and settlements were begun. The
earliest of these which rose to importance were São Vicente in the
neighborhood of Santos, and Pernambuco; a little later, Bahia and Rio de
Janeiro. These were the first agricultural colonies to be founded in South
America, gold and silver being the attraction elsewhere. The French also
had an eye to this country, making a settlement at Rio de Janeiro; the
Dutch as well, who about a century later captured Bahia and Pernambuco;
but both were ultimately expelled, the whole country remaining in the
hands of the Portuguese. Conflicts with the Indians took place, at first with
some who were unfriendly, and afterwards through attacks made by the
invaders upon those Indians who had been christianized by the Jesuits.
Their settlements were destroyed, 300,000 are said to have been
slaughtered, and the rest were driven by the Paulistas from the region of
the upper Paraná.
As Philip II of Spain in 1581 became ruler of Portugal, during the 60
years following, the expansion of Brazil to the west in territory which had
been assigned to Spain was permitted, and such possession remained
permanent. At other times conflicts occurred with the Spaniards at the
south, but in 1777 peace was made with the boundaries as at present.
In 1807, Prince João, fleeing from Napoleon, came with his court to
Brazil. He soon opened the five chief ports to commerce, he encouraged
science, education, literature, art, and the immigration of foreigners, thus
inaugurating a development of permanent value. On his return to Europe
in 1821, the Prince, in view of the revolts of the Spanish colonies, hinted to
his son whom he left in charge the advisability of himself assuming the
crown, if a disposition towards independence became manifest.
Accordingly in 1822, the son was crowned Emperor of Brazil; but having
alienated his supporters, in 1831 he abdicated in favor of his infant son,
Pedro. In 1889, the old Emperor, Dom Pedro II, who for many years had
ruled wisely and well, was expelled on 24 hours’ notice; after a brief interim
a Republic was established in 1891. Extravagance, insurrections, and
financial distress followed, but since 1900 the country has made rapid
advancement in wealth and in varied lines of development.

Government

The government is a federalized republic with the usual branches, the

States more loosely bound together than with us, or than in any other
South American Republic. They may even fix export taxes, and levy stamp
duties. The President, with a Vice President, is elected for four years and
is ineligible for a succeeding term. He has a Cabinet of seven Ministers.
Congress is composed of a Senate with 63 members and a Chamber of
212 Deputies. There are 20 States, a Federal District, and the Territory of
Acre. The last is composed of three Prefectures, with capital cities where
government is administered by Government appointees. The States have
their own administrative bodies, some with one house of legislation, some
with two; and with a Governor or President as chief executive, a slight
confusion possibly arising at times where the latter term is employed. All
male citizens over 21 may vote except illiterates, soldiers, beggars, and
members of monastic orders subject to vows of obedience, a wise
prescription. The list of States precedes, with the usual figures, as
accurate as obtainable, the areas from the latest Government survey. The
list begins at the northwest, goes down the coast, and follows with the
interior.
States Area, Population Capitals Population Altitude,
in in feet
square
miles
Amazonas 645,940 435,000 Manaos 60,000 131
Pará 399,000 992,300 Belem 250,000 23
Maranhão 150,830 853,000 Maranhão 40,000 198
Piauhy 89,850 548,250 Therezina 35,000
Ceará 62,160 1,436,300 Fortaleza 65,000
Rio Grande 15,925 552,000 Natal 20,000 25
do Norte
Parahyba 22,548 785,100 Parahyba 20,000
Pernambuco 38,570 1,975,440 Recife 200,000
Alagôas 10,400 990,000 Maceió 40,000
Sergipe 8,983 535,000 Aracajú 30,000
Bahia 206,990 3,373,000 São 300,000 147
Salvador
Espirito 16,860 479,200 Victoria 20,000
Santo
Rio de 16,408 1,502,000 Nictheroy 30,000
Janeiro
São Paulo 101,890 4,823,000 São Paulo 510,000 2,510
Paraná 73,465 674,300 Curityba 50,000 2,980
Santa 43,168 633,000 Florianopolis 30,000
Catharina
Rio Grande 92,350 2,138,800 Porto Alegre 125,000
do Sul
Minas 227,238 5,789,000 Bello 35,000 3,081
Geraes Horizonte
Goyaz 284,000 529,000 Goyaz 18,000 1,577
Matto 554,400 274,100 Cuyabá 32,000 953
Grosso
Territory of 67,712 104,000
Acre
Federal 450 1,150,080 Rio de 1,150,080
District Janeiro

Population
 The population, by the recent census 30,553,509, is of a more varied
character than that of Uruguay and Argentina at the south. Some figures
given are 52 per cent white, 26 mixed, 13 Indian, and 9 per cent negro.
The original settlers were Portuguese, and at first immigration was from
the mother country. In the early days many negroes were imported from
Africa as slaves, yet there was little color prejudice so that the number of
mulattoes and lighter as well as of negroes in some sections is very large.
During the last hundred years over 3,000,000 immigrants have arrived,
of whom the Italians formed the larger proportion; next in number were the
Portuguese, half as many Spaniards; those of other nationalities included
100,000 Germans, and a small colony from our Southern States, who left
in disgust in 1867. The negroes, freed in 1888 and endowed with suffrage,
were less qualified for it than in the United States. While some have made
good advancement others have relapsed into a worse condition, being
able in many parts of the country to exist on almost nothing. Indolence is a
failing among many of all complexions, as is natural in tropical regions; on
the other hand many Brazilians even in the warmer sections are
characterized by great activity and industry. In the large cities culture and
elegance are noticeable and aristocracy of birth is cherished. In some
regions the inhabitants are less pretentious, live more simply, and practise
the homely virtues; the most primitive section according to Oakenfull is
between the São Francisco River and Maranhão. Women in general are
more secluded than in some of the other Republics. The Brazilians have
much literary and artistic taste and as a rule are punctilious in courtesy,
though exceptions may be noted.

Education

Education is highly regarded in Brazil. Primary and secondary are free

and secular, generally provided by the States and Municipalities. The
Federal Government administers several Professional Schools as of
Medicine, Law, Engineering, etc., and many of Agriculture in various parts
of the country. With some of these, local schools are affiliated, as Schools
of Law, of Applied Science, at Rio of Social Science, at Recife
Engineering, etc. The different States spend 4-21 per cent of their revenue
on primary education, averaging above ten. The Federal District spends 28
per cent. There are also private schools in different cities, several English
or American; the American Mackenzie College at São Paulo is affiliated
with the University of the State of New York.
 Press, Religion, etc.

The Press is influential and of high quality, the leading papers of Rio,
São Paulo, and other cities comparing well with those of cities of
corresponding size in other parts of the world.
Religion. In Brazil there is entire separation of Church and State and
absolute religious freedom. Civil marriage alone is recognized.
Post and Telegraph. Brazil has 3700 Post Offices.
Telegraph wires (over 26,000 miles) are in part national; other lines
belong to the railways; there are submarine cables, and one up the
Amazon. Wireless stations have been installed at many points on the
coast and in the interior, including the Amazon district, as at Manaos and
beyond. Telephones are to be found in all cities of any considerable size,
about 80 systems.
Money is more complicated and bothersome than in any of the other
countries, the unit being of 1000 instead of 100 parts, as is usual. Thus the
milreis, written 1$000, equals 1000 reis as the name indicates. The milreis
of gold is equal to 54.6 cents, but exchange varies, and the paper in
common use varies from its ordinary value, 33.3 cents, to half that or even
less in disturbed conditions. A conto of reis, a term often used, is 1000
milreis, and is written with a colon, thus: 5 contos, 20 milreis, and 300 reis
would be written 5:20$300.
The Metric System is legal and compulsory, but in some places, the old
Portuguese measures persist; these differ from the Spanish. A vara in
Peru is less than a yard, but in Brazil it is 1.111 metre, or 1.215 yard. A
libra is 4.695 kilos; an alquiere varies from 24 to 160 litres. Other variety
exists in the same or in different places.
 CHAPTER XLVI
BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Brazil presents in physical characteristics more variety than is

generally supposed. As the great Amazon Basin is in striking
contrast to the immense Andean Range, the entire country is thought
of as hot. Since it extends from 5° 10′ N. Lat. to 33° 45′ S. Lat. with
the widest part near the equator, the greater portion of the territory is
evidently in the torrid zone, 11° only in the temperate, with more than
twice that in the tropics. However, in this comparatively low country,
there is happily a variation in altitude sufficient to affect the climate
and to give rise to variety in productions; to which diversity the 11° in
the temperate zone also contribute. The territory may be considered
as in four general sections: the Amazon Basin, the Plata (the two
almost connected over low elevations), the Coastal Belt, and a mass
of mountains and highlands along the coastal states, extending also
at a lower level across to Bolivia. In addition there are the Guiana
Highlands at the north.

The Coastal Belt

The coastal section is largely a low-lying sandy tract, varied by

swamp lands overgrown with palms or other verdure, and slopes
covered with dense tropical vegetation. Without deep indentations in
the form of gulfs and bays there is a considerable number of good
harbors. In the far south two large lakes have been created which
are connected with the ocean. The coastal strip varies in width from
one to 100 miles.

The Guiana Highlands

Of the mountainous regions, the range forming the boundary line

with Venezuela and Guiana on the north with its offshoots and the
country between has attracted little interest and been but slightly
explored. From Mt. Roraima, 8500 feet, at the corner of Venezuela
and British Guiana, the range lowers toward the East, the highest
point on the French frontier being about 2600 feet. South of this are
broken ranges and deep river courses on the Brazilian plateau,
which with an altitude of 2000 feet slopes south and east. Excepting
the part near the coast, this section called Brazilian Guiana is semi-
arid, on account of the mountains extracting the moisture from the
northeast trade winds. Inhabited by a few roving bands of Indians
and in the east visited by white mining adventurers, it has been
deemed one of the least attractive parts of the Republic. Recent
exploration, however, has reported an extent of valuable forest lands
and immense areas of open country suited to cattle ranges. A
railway from British Guiana is talked of to render this district
accessible to the outside world.

The Plateau and Mountain Region

An important part of Brazil is the plateau region (altitude 1000-

3000 feet) south of the Amazon, especially that portion extending
along the coastal states. The greater part of the central section was
once covered with a thick sandstone sheet, now deeply eroded by
numerous rivers which have left high flat ridges between the lower
basins. The true mountain systems which rise from the plateau are
parallel ranges following the coast, and the Central or Goyana
system. An almost continuous range, the Serra do Mar, stretches
from Rio Grande do Sul to Cape Frio, just east of Rio de Janeiro;
beyond this, farther from the coast, broken sections extend well
towards Cape St. Roque in Rio Grande do Norte. The highest point
in the Serra do Mar or Coast Range is 7223 feet in the Organ
Mountains near Rio, as the capital city is often called for short and
may be so understood when here used.
A second parallel range runs from Eastern São Paulo northeast
and north to the point where the São Francisco River turns east in
Bahia; Itatiaiá, 9823 feet, in Rio de Janeiro State, is its culminating
point in Brazil. West of the São Francisco River is the Central or
Goyaz Range, also in two branches, running from the southern part
of Goyaz northeast, one branch across western Minas Geraes, the
other in Goyaz with highlands extending far north separating the
Tocantins Basin from the São Francisco, and in the south separating
it from the Paraná. The highest point is near the city of Goyaz, Mt.
Pyraneus, 7750 feet. How the great table-land has been broken
down by rivers is shown by the Tocantins-Araguaya Basin excavated
northward for 700 miles. From 100 to 500 miles wide, it is from 10 to
1500 feet deep.
The eastern margin of the plateau is near the Atlantic where it
breaks off suddenly with an average height of 2600-3200 feet. This
plateau is the best part of the country, the Atlantic slope heavily
wooded, the more gradual west slope with many grass covered
plains. A fertile soil, rich forests, and regular rainfall make this a
favored region. Farther north than Minas Geraes, the section has
less rain, is thinly wooded in places, with large areas suited to
grazing but subject to drought. The plateau extends across Brazil
north of Paraguay abruptly breaking down from a height of 2600-
3000 feet towards the Paraná and Paraguay Basins. It has a gradual
slope towards the Amazon, the parts excavated by the rivers having
lowland characteristics.

The Amazon Basin

The section of the Amazon Basin is indeed immense. The whole

drainage area with that of the Tocantins, generally included though
not strictly a component part, spreads over 2,700,000 square miles,
much of it as we have already seen outside of Brazil, and occupying
two-fifths of South America. This area is greater than the basins of
the Mississippi, Missouri, Danube, and Nile, all combined. The
course of one tributary to the sea is 3200 miles. Of the 55 largest
rivers in the world, it is said that 33 are mainly if not wholly in Brazil.
Twenty-seven thousand miles of navigable rivers are found in the
country, the greater part connected with the Amazon, which is itself
navigable for ocean steamers to Iquitos, Peru, a distance of 2300
miles, and 486 miles farther for vessels of 14 feet draft. The true
mouth of the Amazon is west and north of the Marajos Island which
is greater in area than Holland or Belgium, while the Pará River at
the south and east is the mouth of the Tocantins. This, however, is
the usual entrance for Amazon steamers even when they do not
wish to call at Pará, for this river is connected by natural channels
among islands with the greater stream, and the northern entrance
has too strong a current to be desirable for navigation. As a matter of
convenience the Tocantins is generally included with the Amazon in
descriptions. The depth of the estuary is 90-900 feet, averaging 150.
The Tocantins River is a great artery of Brazil flowing from south
to north a distance of 1600 miles, with a west affluent, the Araguaya,
almost its equal in size and 1000 miles long above the union. Both
rivers receive many tributaries. The flat broad valleys are overlooked
by steep bluffs. The cataracts and rapids which occur on nearly all of
the rivers as they come down from the plateau greatly interfere with
navigation, but in their lower courses many are navigable for
hundreds of miles, the Tocantins for 130.
The Xingú, the next river, with a length of 1260 miles is the first
true tributary of the Amazon on the south. This also flows nearly
north with many rapids and at last a fall, Itamaracá, at the head of
navigation, 105 miles from its mouth. Near this the river expands into
a great lake which communicates with the Amazon by many natural
channels.
The Tapajós, 1158 miles long, entering the Amazon about 500
miles above Pará, rises near Diamantino on the plateau, and flows
through a long, hot, unhealthful valley. One hundred and eighty-eight
miles are navigable, the lower 100 of these being 4-9 miles wide and
throughout much of its course very deep. Along the lower river valley
are bluffs 300-400 feet high.
The Madeira, entering 870 miles above Pará, almost rivals the
Amazon in volume. In the rainy season, during which it rises 50 feet,
the largest ocean steamers may ascend 665 miles to the falls of
Santo Antonio and the Madeira-Mamoré Railway; from June to
December it is navigable for vessels of 5-6 foot draft only. Tributary
to the Madeira on the east is the river formerly called the Duvida, first
completely traversed by Colonel Roosevelt and his party and now
named in his honor Rio Roosevelt. The Madeira which has 90
tributaries and a basin of over 600,000 square miles is formed a little
higher up by the junction of the Beni and Mamoré, both of which
streams rise close to the head waters of the Paraguay. From Santo
Antonio south, the Madeira-Mamoré is obstructed for 263 miles by a
series of rapids and cataracts, the Madeira Falls, where the Beni
comes in, presenting a vast display of whirlpool and boiling torrents.
Above Santo Antonio the drainage is received of the southwest slope
of the State of Matto Grosso, the north slope of the Chiquitos
Sierras, and the northeast slope of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la
Sierra in Bolivia to Cuzco in Peru. The most important of the
affluents are the Guaporé, Baurés, Itonamas, Mamoré, Beni, and
Madre de Dios. The almost level Mojos and Beni plains are said to
rival if not to exceed in fertility the Nile Valley; they are the most
healthful and most inviting grazing and agricultural regions in the
Amazon Basin, which has an area about equal to that of France and
Spain. However, 35,000 square miles are flooded 2-3 feet, three or
four months every year.
The Purús, over 2000 miles in length, is a very sluggish stream
parallel to the Madeira, in the great depression between the Brazilian
plateau and the Andes. A peculiar feature is five parallel canals
coming into it from the Amazon northwest at almost regular intervals,
making five low islands; and nearer to the great river are three more.
The Purús is navigable for light steamers 1648 miles five months in
the year; for 800 miles its depth is not less than 45 feet. The lands
are subject to inundation, the river at times rising 50 feet.
The Juruá is a similar river, navigable for 1133 miles.
The Javary, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is
navigable for craft 260 miles. The region is occupied by savages.
The Trombetes. On the north side of the Amazon there are fewer
important rivers, the Trombetes, the first from the east, which is
navigable 135 miles, comes from the Guiana Highlands.
The Negro, 900 miles from Pará, 1500 miles long, is navigable for
450 miles forming midway a succession of lagoons, and overflowing
its banks, often for a width of 20 miles. The rivers farther west have
been sufficiently described.
 The average depth of the Amazon is 50 feet, the current is three
miles an hour. Beginning to rise in November the river is fullest in
June, then falling to November. The Madeira, which rises and falls
two months earlier, is in places 4-6 miles wide. The width of the
Amazon is 20-60 miles, while in periods of inundation the forest is
partly submerged for a width of 400 miles.

The Plata Basin

A much smaller portion of Brazil lies in the basin of La Plata; this,

at least for the moment, is the best and richest part of the entire
country, containing the greatest population outside of the coastal
fringe.
The Uruguay. At the south the several rivers forming the Uruguay,
which rise in the Serra do Mar, drain Rio Grande do Sul and part of
Santa Catharina, while from there up to the north end of São Paulo
and into Goyaz only a narrow coast region is outside the Paraná
Basin.
The Paraná. The most remote source of the Paraná, that of the
branch Paranahyba, is in the Serra Pyreneos in Goyaz, while the Rio
Grande branch rises in the Serra da Mantiqueira near the peak
Itatiaiá, so to say, in sight of Rio. Many affluents are received from
the States of São Paulo and Paraná, these generally flowing
northwest or west; the Paraná itself flows southwest forming the
western boundary of those States. A branch, the Tiété, in São Paulo,
700 miles long, is broken by 54 rapids and two falls. The
Paranapanema in Paraná, 600 miles long, is navigable for 30 miles.
The Iguassú, rising in the Serra do Mar in Santa Catharina and
flowing west is hardly navigable for canoes.
Twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Tiété the course of the
Paraná is interrupted by the Falls of Urubupungá. From here to the
Guaira or Sete Quedas Falls, 400 miles, there is unobstructed
navigation. At this point the river forms a lake 4¹⁄₂ miles long and 2¹⁄₂
wide before cutting through the Serra de Maracajú. Then after
rushing through a deep and narrow gorge for two miles, it plunges
down a long cañon hardly 200 feet wide in a series of rapids or falls
called the Sete Quedas, Seven Falls. It is reported as able to supply
over a million horse power, probably the most of any cataract in the
world. Again the river is navigable from a little below the falls, and
with regular service it forms an outlet for the State of Paraná to the
ocean.
The Paraguay. The River Paraguay rises near Diamantino in
Matto Grosso receiving a number of tributaries from that State, one
of which, the Cuyabá, called the São Lourenço lower down, has its
source close to that of the Tapajós branch of the Amazon.

Coast Rivers and Lakes

Other rivers flow directly into the Atlantic, several of some

importance. North of the Amazon a few small rivers are called
auriferous, the Araguary of considerable length. South of the
Amazon Delta, some rivers flow north and northeast among the
mountain ridges, others directly to the ocean. Of the former the most
important are the Parnahyba, 900 miles long, navigable in sections,
and farther south the São Francisco, the largest river of the coastal
region, navigable 192 miles from the coast to the fine Paulo Affonso
Falls, and above these for a much greater distance. The
Jequitinhonha, 500 miles long, has 84 miles navigable. The most
important river south of the São Francisco is the Parahyba do Sul,
658 miles long, rising in the State of São Paulo and flowing across
Rio. It is navigable from its mouth a distance of 57 miles and 90 in its
upper course.
The Ribeira de Iguapé. The only coast river of economic
importance south of Cape Frio is the Ribeira de Iguapé which rises
on the table-land of Paraná and after receiving several affluents
breaks through the mountains near the boundary of São Paulo.
Besides a navigable channel of 118 miles it communicates with an
inland waterway called the Iguapé or Mar Pequeno, extending many
miles along the coast. In Rio Grande do Sul, where the coastal plain
extends half across the State, several rivers partly navigable flow
into the important Lagôa dos Patos, with which is connected by a
navigable channel, 61 miles long, the Lagôa Mirím.
Lakes. The Lakes of Brazil are few in comparison with the rivers.
Those in the Amazon Basin are reservoirs from the overflow of the
rivers and rise and fall with these. The coastal section has lagoons
and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches; they are usually
shallow and some, as in Bahia, are associated with swamps; but on
the Alagôas coast the lakes are long, narrow, and deep. The largest
coastal lakes are the two in Rio Grande do Sul already mentioned,
separated by broad sand beaches from the ocean, with which they
communicate by a channel 42 miles long at the south end of the
Lagôa dos Patos. This lake is 140 miles long and 30 wide; the Mirím
is 78 miles long and at the most 25 wide. Both are navigable, though
shallow and with many sand bars.

Climate

This great country of Brazil presents considerable diversity of

climate, as already observed. The forest covered Amazon Basin is
hot, with slight variation throughout the year, and with heavy rainfalls;
but while the average temperature is over 80°, ranging from 65° to
95°, some locations are decidedly preferable to others. The regular
rainy season is from November to March, a second of less degree
from August to October; also the rainy season is said to last nine
months. On the upper Amazon there is a short dry season in
January and February. There is a flood time November, December,
and higher water from March to June. The average rainfall is about
78 inches, the rise of the river 45 feet. There are east winds, warm
and moisture laden, the deflected trades, and colder winds from the
west and southwest.
The coast region as far south as Santos is generally warm and
humid (except for a stretch at the northeast), with a wet and dry
season, though it rains also in the latter, except on the arid northeast
coast. A variation occurs in Pernambuco where it rains from March
to August, the dry and cooler season in Rio. Here on the edge of the
tropics the annual temperature is 5° lower than on the Amazon. At
Santos rainfall is heavy and the place is hot, but farther south it is
cooler with a wider range of temperature and a more even
distribution of rain. In Rio Grande do Sul the mercury ranges from
20° to 80°. Cold southwest storms from the Argentine pampa,
occasionally as far as Rio, create discomfort for two or three days at
a time. The highest temperature in Rio is 98.7°.
The Brazilian plateau is very different. As a rule the days are
hotter and the nights cooler, the air drier, than on the coast at the
same latitude. With mean temperature 68° there is occasional frost.
Brazilian Guiana is hot and arid, though with more rain at the east
and west than in the centre. South of the Amazon from Piauhy to
southern Bahia is another semi-arid section with a rainless season
from June to December, when streams are dry and fields are burned
bare. With heavy rains from January to May, the country is covered
with verdure; when these fail, sometimes for successive years, the
droughts are destructive to agriculture and cattle. The plateaus of
Minas, São Paulo, and Rio have a climate which is modified by
luxuriant vegetation, south winds, and their altitude; though Minas
Geraes, having forests only along the rivers and at the south, is
hotter by day, but with always cool nights. The open lands of São
Paulo also have higher daily temperature; the annual mean is
68°-77°. In south Minas and São Paulo frosts occasionally occur. In
the State of Rio there is a delightful climate in the high valleys of the
Serra do Mar, temperature 45°-90°. The table-lands farther south,
Paraná, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate
climate with abundant rain, occasional frost, but no snow. The
northern valleys of the Paraná River are sub-tropical, the mean
annual temperature of Goyaz City being 77°.
The country over a large extent may be considered healthful; the
yellow fever which once afflicted Rio and some other cities has been
exterminated by rigid sanitary measures, and the conditions of life on
the eastern plateau and in the temperate south are agreeable. The
Amazon Valley is of course malarial, though some sections are far
better than others. It would seem that the lower parts which are
subject to inundation can hardly be made suitable for residence
whatever precautions are taken; but the higher lands may be to