ANIMAL NUTRITION NOTES FOR CAHP Co. 2013.

LITA MPWAPWA-MABUKI

INTRODUCTION:

Definition:

Animal nutrition is both science and art devoted to the determination of animal
nutrient requirement both quantitatively and qualitatively to meet animal’s body
requirements (i.e. for both maintenance and production).

 Nutrition deals with providing the right nutrients in the right amounts in the diet.
 It also deals with the nutrients needed, their metabolism, feeds that supply them,
and feeding systems to provide them.

Nutrient is defined as a chemical or chemical compound that aids in the support of life,
and is essential for the normal function, growth and reproduction of the animal.

Importance of animal nutrition:

 Allows maximum exploitation of the productivity of the animal based on its
genetic potential.
 Combats nutritional and other disorders associated with poor nutrition.
 Enables optimum utilization of agricultural and industrial by-products which
would otherwise have been wasted.
 Allows proper understanding of animal nutritional requirement for ration
formulation using available resources.
 Allows an individual to understand the limitations of feedstuff and methods of
overcoming them.

Classes/ nutrients composition found in feedstuffs:

 There are 6 Classes/composition of Nutrients:

– Water
- Carbohydrates
– Fats
– Proteins
– Vitamins
– Minerals
 Classes of feedstuffs from which different nutrients are obtained:

- Roughage, Concentrates, Supplements, Feed additives

CARBOHYDRATES
Sources of carbohydrates:
- Almost all crops and their by-products are good sources of carbohydrates.

Examples:
- Tuber and root crops like potatoes, yams, cassava.
- Cereal grains like maize, sorghum, millet, wheat, rice, barley, oats and bran.
- Energy concentrates like molasses.
- Forages like grasses.

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Functions of carbohydrates in the animal body:
(i) Provision of energy in the body which is required for various body processes.
(ii) Products of carbohydrates metabolism acts as organic catalysts or promote
oxidation reaction, hence assist the breakdown of other feeds.
(iii) Carbohydrate metabolites are used as starting materials for synthesis of various
biological components e.g synthesis of fatty acids.
(iv) Serve as structural components of important organic compounds such as
glycolipids, glycoprotein’s etc.
(v) Contribute to metabolic water during their metabolism in animal cells.
(vi) Serve as energy reserve in the body i.e animal carbohydrates (glycogen) which are
produced from excess glucose in the blood and is stored in the liver and muscles.

Dietary deficiency symptoms of carbohydrates:

Dietary deficiency of carbohydrates has the following effects:-
(i) General body weakness which is due to low energy. Fats will be oxidized to
produce energy to supplement the small amount of energy produced from
carbohydrates.
(ii) Proteins will be oxidized whenever there is shortage of energy sources. This
will result in emaciation.
(iii) Growth may be retarded.
(iv) Excessive deficiency results into more ketone bodies production in the body
which leads to a disease called ketosis.

PROTEINS
Sources of proteins:
(i) Plant origin: Legume seeds and cakes from oil seeds like cotton seed cake,
sunflower seed cake etc.
(ii) Animal origin: fish-meal, blood meal, meat meal and milk
(iii) Other sources: Non-protein nitrogen supplements like urea, poultry litter.

Functions of proteins:
(i) Structural constituents of body cells. Protein is involved in replacement and
repair of worn out cells and tissues e.g muscles, hair and skin.
(ii) Involved in formation of spermatozoa and control of oestrus cycle.
(iii) All enzymes are made up of proteins which act as catalysts in various body
reactions.
(iv) Many, but not all hormones are proteins which help to regulate various body
processes.
(v) Give buffering effect to body fluids.
(vi) Make antibodies in the animal body which inactivate foreign proteins that
invade the organism during an infection.
(vii) Some proteins, like haemoglobin is involved in oxygen transportation in the
animal body.

Dietary deficiency symptoms of proteins:

(i) Stunted growth in young animals.
(ii) Reproduction is affected; there will be poor fertility, delayed puberty
attainment.
(iii) Poor production performance of eggs, milk and weight gain.
(iv) Oedema (accumulation of body fluids) in areas subject to gravity.
(v) Anaemic problems.

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(vi) Change of normal blood colour.

VITAMINS
Definition:
- Vitamins are organic compounds which are required in small amounts for normal
growth, maintenance and various metabolic processes of animal life.

- Vitamins A, D, E and K which are fat soluble are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, while the B vitamins and C are made up of the same plus Nitrogen,
suphur and cobalt → These are water soluble vitamins.

Sources of vitamins:
(i) Sources of fat-soluble vitamins include:
- Green and yellow plants which are good sources of carotene, the precursor of
provitamin of vitamin A.
- Vitamin D can be obtained from sun cured forages, milk, fish liver oils, synthetics,
irradiating skin sterol with ultraviolet light.

(ii) Sources of water soluble vitamins include:

- Animal and fish products especially vitamin B 12 (cobalimin) which is the only
water soluble vitamin which cannot be obtained from forages.
- Other sources includes, green forages, yeast, fermentation products, milk by-
products, oil seed meal.

Functions of vitamins:
General functions of vitamins are many but all are mainly involved for metabolism of
cells and transfer of energy.

Functions of specific vitamins include:

(i) Vitamin A: is involved in the transmission of light stimuli from the eye to the
brain. Also vitamin A protects mucous membranes and the structure of
developing bones by participating in the formation of mucopolysaccharides.
(ii) Vitamin D: facilitate deposition of calcium and phosphorus hence preventing
rickets in young animals and oesteomalacia in adults.
(iii) Vitamin E: involved in preventing reproduction failure in some animals.
(iv) Vitamin K: involved in preventing delayed blood clotting.
(v) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): prevents loss of appetite, emaciation, muscular
weakness, progressive dysfunction of nervous system which are obvious in
pigs and chicks.
(vi) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): prevents loss of appetite, poor growth, improves
hatchability of eggs in breeding hens.
(vii) Nicotinamide:
- Prevents retarded growth and skin disorders in pigs.
- Prevents tongue and mouth disorders in poultry.
(viii)Vitamin B6: - prevents loss of appetite and anaemia.
- prevents Jerky movements in chicks and improves egg
hatchability and production.
(ix) Pantothenic acid:- promotes growth
- prevents loss of hair, scaliness of skin, goose stepping gait.
(x) Folacin: prevents nutritional anaemia and promotes growth.
(xi) Biotin: prevents dermatitis and loss of weight.

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(xii) Choline: - promotes growth, fat filtration of the liver in chicks and pigs.
- prevents slipping of tendons in chicks.
(xiii) Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalimin):
- promotes growth, feathering in young animals.
- Prevents high mortality rates in young animals.

(xiv) Vitamin C: Its function is not very much clear in farm animals.

Deficiency symptoms of vitamins:

(i) Delayed clotting of blood due to lack of vitamin K.
(ii) Reproduction failure may occur due to vitamin E deficiency.
(iii) Loss of appetite due to deficiency of vitamin B complex.
(iv) Poor growth rate can result due to deficiency of most vitamins.
(v) High mortality rates and poor feathering can be observed in animals under
diet deficient in vitamin B12.
(vi) Decreased ability to see in diem-light (night-blindness), roughened hair and
scaly skin, Infertility in breeding animals due to vitamin A deficiency.
(vii) Rickets, a condition whereby bones become bowed in young animals,
swollen knees and hock, also arching of the back.
- Osteomalacia – is abosorption of bone already laid doen which is common
in adults as a result of vitamin D deficiency.
(viii) Disorders like anaemia due to deficiency of cynanocobalamin (B12) and folic
acid may occur.
- Dermatitis, nerve disorders may occur due to niacin deficiency; curled toe
paralysis due to deficiency of riboflavin.

NB: - Overdose of vitamins to animals is not desired as it causes a condition called

hypervitaminosis.
This is a pathological condition resulting from the overdose of vitamins especially when
synthetic vitamins are added to rations.

e.g. (i) Excessive intake of vitamin A leads to impaired growth, emaciation, bone
fractures and anaemia.
(ii) Excessive intake of vitamin D leads to high level of calcium and phosphorus in the
blood.

MINERALS

Minerals:
- Are grouped into major (macro) and trace (micro) elements.
- Major elements include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur
and magnesium.

- Trace (micro) elements include iron, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, cobalt,
molybdenum, fluorine, selenium and chromium.

Sources of minerals:
General sources include forages, milk, meat meal, blood meal, bone meal, fish meal,
mineral licks which can be natural like Limestone and rock phosphate or can be artificial
like super maclick blocks.

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Functions of minerals:
(i) Constituents of bone and teeth which give rigidity and strength to the skeletal
structure e.g calcium, phosphorus and magnesium.
(ii) Constituents of some organic compounds e.g proteins and lipids which make
the muscle organs, blood cells and other soft tissues.
(iii) They play role in enzyme system of the animal body.
(iv) Serves as soluble salts in the blood and other body fluids to maintain the
body pH and osmotic pressure.
(v) Mineral elements have an ionic interrelationship e.g a certain balance
between calcium, sodium and potassium in the fluid which bathes the heart
muscle is essential for the normal relation and contraction which constitutes
its beating.
However, each essential mineral element has various specific function in the
animal body.

MINERALS DEFICIENCY SYMMTOMS:

(i) Poor teeth and bone formation whereby in young animals bowed legs
(rickets) can occur and fractures due to osteomalacia in adults mainly caused
by deficiency of calcium and phosphorus.
(ii) Diseases like milk fever due to lowered calcium level in blood of high milk
yielder and goiter due to lack of Iodine.
(iii) Abnormal apetite (pica) especially when the diets are deficient in phosphorus,
animals can get to the extent of chewing wood, bones and other foreign
materials.
(iv) Poor body growth and general body weakness especially in chicks.
(v) Nutritional anaemia due to lack of iron and copper.

LIPIDS
Lipids:
- Lipids are organic compounds made up of glycerol and fatty acids which are
sparingly soluble in water but considerably soluble in organic solvents.
- Generally, Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but with
different atomic ratio when compared to that of carbohydrate.

Sources of lipids:
(a) Plant sources – Oil seeds, cereal grains have relatively low qualities, avocados.
(b) Animal sources – Animal fresh from adipose tissues, milk, marine products and
insects.

Functions of lipids:
(i) Provision of energy. Lipids contribute about 2.25 times energy when
compared to the same amount of carbohydrates.
(ii) Important source of fatty acids on metabolism of lipids.
(iii) Source of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K. The vitamins are closely associated
with lipids in nature.
(iv) Important constituents of cell membranes hence maintains integrity of body
cells e.g control of cell permeability, entry of nutrients into the cell, removal of
excretory products from cells.
(v) Some amino acids can be synthesized from fatty acids during sub-optimal
intake of proteins.

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 (vi) Responsible for regulation of body heat as they are poor conductors of heat;
subcutaneous fats are responsible for acting as a barrier against excessive
environmental temperature.
(vii) Act as a protective cushion around dericate internal organs such as kidneys
and heart.

Lipids deficiency symtpoms:

(i) Uneven feathering, especially in chicks
(ii) Poor meat quality
(iii) Low butter fat content in milk
(iv) Poor body heat regulation
(v) Body looks emaciated
(vi) Can cause oedema in some body organs like the heart and lung.
(vii) Body skin becomes hard, dry with irregular scales and sometimes skin
lesions.
(viii) Poor body growth and immunity.
(ix) Lack of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
(x) Poor protection of vital internal body organs e.g heart and kidneys.

WATER

Functions of water:
(i) Structural functions – water is involved in actual construction of the body
cells, water gives turgidity and elasticity to facilitate cell shape and form.
(ii) In cerebrospinal fluid, water acts as a cushion for nerves rendering a
protective medium.
(iii) Solvent action – water acts as a universal solvent for both intercellular and
extra cellular chemical reactions.
(iv) Water helps to keep the eye ball in shape by maintaining the tension and acts
as a refractive medium in the eye vision process.
(v) Respiration function – Both carbon dioxide and oxygen are only slight soluble
in water which is important in the gaseous exchange of the body.
(vi) Thermoregulation – water maintains body temperature despite changes in
environmental temperature due to its high specific heat and latent heat of
vaporization.
(vii) Water facilitates transportation of almost all physiological products like
nutrients, filtrates from kidney tubules and hormones.
(viii) Lubricating – water acts as a lubricant in body joints and prevents friction and
rubbing e.g in pleura, conjunctiva. About 90% of synovial fluid is water.
(ix) Hydrolytic action – water plays role in the digestion process, as it introduces
H+ and OH- when large feed molecules are degraded to smaller ones.

Sources of water:
(i) Drinking water – This is water from the drinkers, springs, dams, lakes and
other sources which is drunk voluntarily by the animals.
(ii) Water contained in the feed – this is the moisture proportion of the feed.

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 (iii) Water contained on the feed – this is that water contained on feed as dew or
resulting from washing the feed.
(iv) Metabolic water – this is water produced in animals cells due to metabolic
processes of the absorbed nutrients (energy and proteins).
(v) Bound water – this is the combined water which is associated with cell
protoplasm either physically or chemically which is commonly used during the
water stress time.

Water deficiency symptoms:

- Usually in farm animals water is not considered to be a problem, but there are
parts of the country where water supplies are more restrictive than feed supplies
either because of lack of surface or well water.

The result of restricted water supply to the animal include:

(i) Reduced feed intake by the animal.
(ii) Reduced productivity.
(iii) Urine and faecal water excretion drops markedly.
(iv) Weight loss may occur in case of severe water restriction due to dehydration.
(v) Poor quality of end products of the animal.

FEED PROCESSING:
Definition:
The method of making alterations to a feed ingredient before it is fed to the animals
either by physical, chemical, thermal or any other treatment.

Reasons for processing animal feeds:

(a) Isolation of specific feed parts.
(b) Improve palatability.
(c) Improve digestibility.
(d) Alter nutrient composition
(e) Detoxification of some feeds.
(f) Improve feed intake.
(g) Facilitate transportation
(h) Facilitate storage.

Common methods of processing animal feeds:

(a) Cutting and / or chopping:
- This method is commonly used for roughage, root and tuber crops.
- Hand knives, pangas, sickles, mowers or other farm machinery are used to cut or
chop herbage into smaller or shorter pieces which are then fed directly to usually
confined animals or this process is common for ensiling materials.

(b) Chemical treatment:

- This method involves use of chemicals to improve utilization of low quality feedstuffs
e.g crop residues. The chemicals used include alkali compounds e.g sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), urea, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOs). The roughage is stuck together and an
alkali poured to it and then covered with a plastic which is well tacked around. The
reaction time depends on ambient temperature and the reaction is to reduce the
hemicollulose and lignin so that the roughage exhibits a higher digestibility than before
treatment also intake is improved.

(c) Drying: Drying means reducing moisture content of a feedstuff to the desired level.

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Drying systems:
(a) (i) Natural drying – This is also known as thin layer drying in the sun on clean
floors, mats, polythene sheets or any other material.
(ii) Artificial drying – This involves the use of fans which help to move artificially
heated air through the feed to be dried.
Drying improves storage and slightly increases feed intake provided the feeds are
not over dried. For example, hay from grasses (with moisture content of 60 – 75%)
and legumes (moisture content 70 – 75%) must be dried to 15% moisture content to
maintain their quality and storage.

(d) Direct heat treatment: This can either be through boiling/cooking or frying (toasling).
Heat destroys both antinutritional and toxic factors in feeds like soya (antitrypsin and
hemaglutinins) and cassava (prussic acid). It also softens the feed and improves intake
and digestion.

(e) Grinding: This method involves reduction of mainly cereal grain sizes. Coarsely
ground grains are more favoured by ruminants than finely and dusty meals which are
favoured by monogastrics. Roller and hammer mills are commonly used.

(f) Pelleting: Polluting usually follows grinding of feed material and then forcing the
material through a thick die with the use of rollers which compress the feed into the
holes in the pellet die.
- Animal like this physical nature of pellets more than meals. Pellets can be made into
different diameter, lengths and hardness.

(g) Steam rolling: This is common for grains. The steam is passed through a tower
above the roller mill for a short time (3 – 5 minutes) prior to rolling for seed to soften.
This give larger particles than dry rolling.

(h) Flaking: Grains are subjected for a longer time (15 – 30 minutes) to high moisture
steam treatment than for ordinary steam rolling. The grains are then rolled to produce
rather flat flakes.

(i) Soaking: This is common for cereal grains and root crops like cassava. Soaking
grains sometimes with heat, softens and make them swell, resulting in a product that is
readily acceptable to most animals.

(j) Ensiling and baling: Refer to pasture and Range manual.

FEED STORAGE:
Feed are stored to ensure good quality in terms of nutritive value, appearance and
palatability.

Reasons for storage:

(a) Seasonality of feed products make a farmer store some feeds for gradual use until
the next harvest.
(b) Price fluctuations make farmers store some feeds to await better prices, also feed
millers store feeds to avoid unexpected price rises.
(c) Some feeds like cereals are stored as seeds for the next planting season.
(d) Feeds are stored to maintain their quality and protect them from damage.
(e) Feeds are stored to protect them from adverse weather conditions which can
accelerate the rate of deterioration.

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Sources of feed deterioration (spoilage):
(i)Biological agents – these include insects, microorganism or rodents that feed on
stored feeds.
(ii)Improper handling and / or use of improper tools e.g hooks can cause tears and
losses of bagged feeds or it can predispose to spoilage e.g of premixes or other
sealed products.
(iii) Physical or chemical agents that are likely to cause changes in feed composition
e.g excess heat and toxic chemicals.
(iv) Inadequate or improper processing of raw materials e.g poorly dried cereals with
high moisture content.

Factors to consider during storage:

(a) Environmental (ambient) temperature and relative humidity (RH) – These
determines the chemical changes, growth of pests, fungi and affect the quality of
vitamins and fats in animal feeds.

(i)Temperature effect: The optimum temperature for survival of most pests and other
destructive agents is 28oC which is common in tropics, therefore proper storage is of
utmost importance.
(ii) Relative humidity (RH): The RH of over 18% increases the softness of cereals
and makes it easy for insects to attack the grains.

(b) Microorganisms – these have a heating effect on stored products, they increase the
moisture content and accelerate spoilage. They can be controlled by having good
(ventilation) well dried feed stuffs, dry storage area, use of chemicals like propionate
and gentian violet against mould.

(c) Insects – mostly cause wastage and accelerate deterioration by lowering the quality
of stored feeds. Heavily insect infested feed materials must be fumigated and isolated.

(d) Rodent infestation – these cause spoilage of stored products and a lot of loss can
occur through wastage. They can also lower the quality of the stored products e.g by
feeding on maize germ and leaving the endosperm.
E5r
Storage methods:
1. Bins – These can be stainless steel, wooden, plastic or any other suitable materials
e.g empty clean oil drums.
(a) Advantages: (i) Durable (steel ones)
(ii) Easy to handle and use.

(b) Disadvantage: (i) Not easily available

(ii) Expensive.

2. Bag storage – This is the most widely used method and it employs either sisal or
synthetic bags which can be stored in buildings or in open spaces covered with
tarpaulin or plastic sheets. Bags should be placed on pallets to prevent moisture from
the floor to the feeds.

Bag storage management:

- Put on raised free standing platform with rate guards or pallets.
- Put off wall to prevent dampness.
- Stock bags well for optimum space use, case of cleanliness, counting and
inspection of bags.

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(a) Advantages of bag storage: (i) Flexibility of storage
(ii) Low capital costs.
(iii) Easy to inspect

(b) Disadvantages: (i) Partly mechanized

(ii) Slow and iodius handling
(iii) Considerable spillage can occur
(iv) High operation costs as insecticides have to be used for
prolonged
storage.

Bulk method: (includes silo storage).

The feed is usually heaped on concrete floor.

(a) Advantages: (i) Easily mechanized (filling and emptying)

(ii) Little spillage
(iii) Low operation cost
(iv) Rapid handling.

(b) Disadvantages: (i) inflexible storage

(ii) High capital cost
(iii) Difficult to inspect

FEED INSPECTION:
It is important to make regular inspection of stored feeds in order to minimize spoilage
and ensure good quality products.

During inspection the following should be noted:

(a) General appearance of the products e.g colour, texture and smell.
(b) Evidence of wetness.
(c) Growth of mould.
(d) Presence of insects or rodents of any other contaminants like dirt, dangerous
chemicals, metal scraps.

Routinely, representative samples should be taken and sent to the laboratory for quality
control because spoiled feeds cause problems to animals.

Problems associated with spoiled feeds include the following:-

(a) Loss of appetite, resulting in low feed intake, retarded growth, low
production and poor body condition.
(b) Abnormalities in the faeces e.g some blood tinge, diarrhea or dysentery.
(c) Unusual behaviour especially where the toxins produced by micro-
organisms affect the central nervous system (CNS).

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 RATION FORMULATION:

Nutritional requirements of farm Livestock.

Farm livestock require nutrients first for maintenance and then for other physiological
functions like growth, production and reproduction.

Definitions:
(a) nutrient requirement – Is the minimum amount of that nutrient which will support
growth and production and at the same time prevent deficiency symptoms when all
other nutrients are supplied in adequate amounts.
(b) Feeding standards – are statements or quantitative description of the amount of one
o more nutrients needed by animals. The amounts are expressed on a daily basis (e.g
g/day or kg/day) or as a percent in the feed.

Feeding standard tables are available for various animal species and for each species
there are tables for the various categories or age groups.
Example: (i) For cattle there are tables for calves, heifers, beef and dairy cows.
(ii) For poultry there are tables for layers, broilers and breeders.

These tables are published by various councils and boards e.g National Research
Council (NRC, USA), Agriculture Research Council (ARC, UK) and Tanzania Bureau of
Standards (TBS).

Factors to consider before formulation a ration:

(a) Nutrient requirements of the animal for the desired level of growth and production –
this information is available from feeding standard tables such as National Research
Council: (NRC, USA), Agricultural Research Council (ARC, UK) and Tanzania Bureau
of Standards (TBS).

(b) Availability of the feed ingredients and their abundancy, alternative sources must
also be identified.

(c) Cost of feeds must be reasonable with low price, fluctuations between on and off
season. The aim should be to formulate rations that meet requirements at the lowest
possible cost.

(d) Physical composition – whether the feed needs processing in order to improve its
nutritive value.

(e) Chemical composition – whether the feed contains the necessary nutrients and the
potential availability.

(f) Presence of ant nutritional or toxic factors that can impair animal performance and
the means of inactivating such factors.

(g) Type of ration, whether it is to be used as a complete feed (e.g layers mash) or as a
supplement (e.g dairy meal) to a basal feed.

(h) Expected level of feed consumption to meet the level of production.

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Types of rations:
Rations are formulated either as complete feeds or as supplementary feeds.

Complete feed is one which is used to supply all the required nutrients and can be fed
as the sole ration without any supplement except water.
These are fed either on free choice (ad-libitum) or on a restricted basis mostly in
monogastric animals.
Supplementary feeds for herbivores such as ruminants are fed over and above the
basal feed (roughage) to meet the required nutrient demand.

There are several types of rations for different animal species and classes as
outlined below:-
(a) Poultry rations:
(i) Broiler starter: This is for meat-type birds from 0 – 5 weeks. It has a high
concentration of digestible nutrients with a crude protein content of 20 – 23% to cater
for the rapid growth of the chicks.

(ii) Broiler finisher: This is for meat-type birds from 5 weeks to marketing (8 weeks). It
has slightly lower concentration of digestible nutrients with a relatively higher energy
concentration and slightly lower protein content of 18 – 20%.

(iii) Chick and duck mash: Usually meant for layer chicks from 0 – 8 weeks. It has
relatively high concentration of digestible nutrients although slightly less than for broiler
chicks and the crude protein content is about 20% as the growth rate of layer chicks is
lower than for broiler chicks.

(iv) Grower’s mash: Meant for pullets from 8 to 20 weeks. It has relatively lower
concentration of digestible nutrients with a crude protein content of 14 – 16%.

(v) Layers complete ration: This is for layers and is supposed to meet maintenance and
egg production requirements. It has relatively high calcium content (between 3 – 4.5%)
for egg shell formation. It has a protein content of between 15 to 17%.

(vi) Breeder’s: This is meant for parent stock for producing layers or broiler chicks.
Essentially it should meet requirements for good egg production just as the
ordinary /.m,layer’s ration and on top it should meet requirements for production of
fertile, viable eggs and of good-hatchability thus it has a relatively higher concentration
of critical micronutrients.

(b) Swine Rations:

(i) Sow and weaner ration: This is meant for lactating sows, gilts and weaners. It
contains about 15% CP and fairly high concentration of digestible energy.
(ii) Creep feed: This is for early weaned piglets (4 – 5 weeks). It contains about 18% CP
and high digestible energy concentration and relatively low crude fibre content of about
3%.
(iii) Growers and finisher meal: This is used to raise pigs from 5 months onwards. It
contains 12 – 15% crude protein and normally the percentage decreases with
increasing growth. The energy content should be as high as that of sow and weaner
meal.

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(c) Dairy Cattle Rations:
(i) Calf pellets or calf starter concentrate mix: Contains 16 – 18% crude protein with a
very small amount of crude fibre of less than 5%. It has a relatively high concentration
of energy, calcium and phosphorus. The ration is used to raise young calves from the
time they are introduced to concentrate feeding at 2 to 3 weeks up to weaning.

(ii) Dairy Meal: This ration is meant for lactating dairy cows whose main source of food
is roughages. The ideal concentration of nutrients in the dairy meal will depend on the
quality of the roughages and level of production. On average it should contain a crude
protein content of 14 – 16%, calcium content of 0.5 to 0.6% and energy content of 67%
to 75% TDN. The amount of the ration to be fed per cow per day will depend on the
level of production. On average 1 kg of the ration is required for every 2 kgs of milk
produced, above the roughage expected production.

Home made versus commercial made ration:

Home made rations are ones compounded by the farmer himself using ingredients
produced on his own farm and others purchased elsewhere.

Commercial made rations are ones produced commercially by companies and

institutions specialized in ration formulation. Such companies in Tanzania include
TAFCO, NMC, Interchick, Kijenge Animal Products etc.

Home made rations:

(a) Merits:
(i) They can easily be made at home using locally available materials.
(ii) They are often cheaper than the commercial rations per unit dry matter basis.
(iii) They are made according to convenience (i.e when needed).

(b) Demerits:
(i) They are normally not as well balanced as the commercial rations. Individual farmers
are not in position to get all the required ingredients. Some may need to be imported.
(ii) They are normally not as well mixed as the commercial rations. Commercial
companies unlike individual farmers have proper mixing equipment. to ensure that
ingredients required in very small quantities like trace minerals and vitamins are
uniformly incorporated in the rations.
(iii) Incorporation of feed additives such as antibiotics and drugs may be difficult in
home made rations due to lack of expertise and proper mixing equipment.
(iv) Some farmers may fail to observe the limitations of using certain feedstuffs such as
cotton seed cake in monogastric rations.

Commercial made Rations:

(a) Merits:
(i) They are normally better balanced than the home made rations. Commercial
companies are in better positions to acquire all the required ingredients than individual
farmers.
(ii) They are normally well mixed because the commercial companies have proper
mixing equipment ensuring that even the ingredients required in very small quantities
are uniformly incorporated.
(iii) Incorporation of feed additives such as antibiotics and drugs is easy in commercial
made rations because they have the expertise and proper mixing equipment.
(iv) All the required precautions such as limitations of using certain feedstuffs can easily
be observed.

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(b) Demerits:
(i) They are normally more expensive than the home made rations.
(ii) Sometimes they may not be readily available when required.
(iii) Incase the ration is not well balanced it creates a lot of problems to the users as
correction becomes difficult.

Advice for farmers making own rations:

(a) Extra care should be taken when compounding rations for monogastric animals as
any deficiencies resulting from improper balancing or poor mixing will affect
monogastric animals more severely than ruminants.
(b) Amounts or proportions of ingredients to be used should be determined basing on
cost, availability and suitability.
(c) Limitations on the use of certain feedstuffs due to toxicity, palatability, high fibre
content or spoilage should be considered.
(d) Mineral mixture and vitamin mixtures should be added up to the level of 3% to
safeguard against mineral and vitamin deficiencies.
(e) The mixing procedure must be thorough. Ingredients required in very small amounts
need to be premixed to ensure uniform incorporation of the ingredients in the ration.
The ration mixture should be turned over at least 3 times for uniform mixing.

Methods of formulating rations:

(a) Pearson square – Is one of the easiest methods which is ideal for balancing a few
nutrients of a time e.g protein, energy and minerals.
(b) Algebraic method – Is similar to Pearson square and uses simple equations for
balancing single nutrients of simultaneous equations for balancing more than one
nutrient.
(c) Deviation method – Is ideal for balancing a single nutrient.
(d) Trial and error method – this is ideal for balancing several nutrients at the same
time, however, it is time consuming and laborious.
(e) Least cost ration formulation – Is a method that can balance several nutrients at the
same time; it considers the price of the individual ingredients to produce a balanced
ration at a minimum cost. This method is mostly computerized.

FEED INTAKE:
Definition:
Voluntary feed intake is the Amount of feed eaten by an animal when the feed is given
to it without restriction.
Different types and classes of animals have different feed intakes which may vary from
one day to another as are affected by animal factors, feed factors and environmental
factors.

FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE:

1. ANIMAL FACTORS:
(i) Physiological state of the animal: The physiological state o an animal will affect feed
intake according to energy demand. An animal with physiological higher demand for
energy will have higher appetite and therefore higher feed intake. For example a
lactating animal has a higher demand for energy than a dry one and will therefore eat
more of a given feed.
(ii) Growth: growing animals eat more feed per unit body weight than adult animals.
(iii) Fatness: Fatness reduces feed intake in animals because:
(a) Fat animals have physiologically less demand for fattening energy than
similar thin animal, such an animal (fat) will have comparatively lower
appetite hence lower feed intake.

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 (b) Fat animals will have excess fat in their abdominal cavity which may
reduce the volume into which the rumen or stomach may extend. This will
physically reduce bulky feed intakes like roughage.
(iv) Effect of sex hormones: Males are capable of faster growth than females, therefore
they have higher feed intake due to higher physiological energy demand.
(v) Pregnancy: This has two opposing effects influencing feed intake:-
(a) The increased demand for nutrients for the foetus development will
physiologically
tend to increase feed intake.

(b) Towards the end of pregnancy, the increased, size of the foetus may reduce
the
effective volume of abdomen for extension of the rumen or stomach, this may
physically
reduce intake of bulky feeds.
(vi) Genetic factors: Animals with high genetic potential for production will have higher
physiological demand for nutrients and therefore will have higher appetite and feed
intake than genetically inferior animals.
(vii) Age of the animals: Factors like condition of the teeth and strength of the jaws
which deteriorates with age may affect feed intake. There is evidence that frequency of
jaw movement during chewing is reduced in older animals which may lead to reduced
rate of cellulose bacterial breakdown in the rumen-leading to reduced feed intake.
(viii) Health of the animal: Loss of appetite is characterized by number of diseases both
metabolic and infectious or parasitic.
Healthier animals generally have higher appetite than sick ones.
(ix) Body weight: There is a direct relationship between feed intake and body weight.
The heavier the animal the higher the feed intake and vice versa.
(x) Stomach fill: An animal with an empty stomach has a higher feed intake than one
with a filled stomach.

2. FEED FACTORS:
(i) Palatability of the feed: Palatability is defined as the overall acceptance and level of
willingness with which an animal eats its feed. This is normally determined by several
factors, the main ones being sight; taste, odour, smell and freedom from contamination.
(ii) Nutrients concentration (Nutritive value) of the feed:
- Nutrients imbalance is known to reduce feed intake in animals. For examples,
protein deficiency has been shown to reduce roughage intake in ruminants due
to the reduction of microbial digestion of cellulose.
- Deficiency of vitamins A, D and E reduces feed intake in ruminants. In
monogastrics, normally, the higher concentration of energy the lower the feed
intake and vice versa.

(iii) Digestibility of the feed: Feeds with a low digestibility e.g low quality roughage are
consumed in smaller quantities due to their slow rate of passage through the gastro-
intestinal tract (G.I.T). For example, legume-grass mixtures are consumed in greater
quantities than straws.
(iv) Physical form or texture of the feed:
- Grinding will increase intake of low quality roughage due to increased rate of
fermentation and passage through the digestive tract than unground low quality
roughage.
- Dusty feeds are loss acceptable than when water is added.
(v) Roughage: Concentrate ratio in mixed rations.

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- Concentrate supplementation may reduce roughage intake. Supply of small quantities
of concentrates may improve the intake of low quality roughage like straw due to
additional nitrogen and energy supplied by the concentrates.
- On the other hand, depression of roughage intake can occur as a result of high level
of supplementation due to inhibition of cellulose digestion by rumen microorganisms.
This results from lowered rumen pH common with high concentrate rations.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
(i) Temperature
- Feed intake decreases at high temperatures and increases at low temperatures. This
is because carting produces heat and this increases heat stress on the animal hence
reduce feed intake.
- Above 40oC, temperate breeds of cattle cease to eat all together.
Note: Animals will not eat very hot or very cold feeds.

(ii) Rainfall: Casual observation of grazing cattle, suggests that eating is reduced during
heavy rain period.

(iii) Relative humidity: Relative humidity will increase heat stress of the animals and
therefore feed intake will be reduced.

(iv) Stresses (other than parasites and diseases): Some stressing conditions are known
to reduce feed intake in farm animals e.g overcrowding, noises, disturbances and
excessive handling of animals will keep the animal excited and may reduce feed intake.

(v) Design of feeders and drinkers: Poorly designed feeders and drinkers may add to
contamination of feed and water leading to the rejection of the feed and water by the
animal.

(vi) Adequacy of water supply: Normally there is a direct relationship between dry
matter intake and voluntary water intake. If water intake is restricted, dry matter intake
will be reduced.

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METABOLISM:
1. Definition:
Metabolism is defined as the process by which complex compounds are synthesized
from simpler substances (anabolism) or as degradation of complex compounds to
simpler materials (catabolism).

2. Digestion:
Digestion is the process whereby large food molecules are broken down into simpler
compounds before they can pass through the mucous membrane of the alimentary
canal into the blood and lymph.

Digestion in Ruminants:
- Ruminants, also called polygastrics are animals with four chambered stomachs
comprising of the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums (true stomach),

- Ruminants are capable of ruminating thus making use of fibrous feeds with the
aid of micro-organisms (usually bacteria and protozoa) in their fore stomachs e.g
cattle, sheep and goats.

(a) Carbohydrates digestion:

The carbohydrate digestion in ruminants is achieved by:

(i) Mechanical process – this involves mastication, swallowing and muscular contraction
of digestive tract, physically breaking down the food into smaller particles.

(ii) Microbial digestion – this is brought about by microorganisms, especially bacteria

and protozoa in the fore stomachs i.e rumen, reticulum and omasum.

(iii) Host enzymatic breakdown of complex carbohydrates to simple sugars.

Microbial digestion:
Complex carbohydrates are fermented by enzymes produced by the microorganisms,
leading to the production of the following products:

(a) Volatile fatty acids – these are short chain fatty acids, which includes
mainly acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and rarely lactic acid.

(b) Gases – these include methane and carbon dioxide. These gases are
eliminated from the body by the process of belching.

(c) The process also releases heat energy and water.

The microbial enzymes involved, include cellulase which act on cell wall components
especially cellulose to produce various products.

Also part of soluble carbohydrates are hydrolysed down to carbon dioxide, water and
heat.

Note that even the microorganisms have no enzymes which can act on lignin.

The amounts and proportions of volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced vary with physical
and chemical composition of feed given to the animals.

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For example, concentrates will give higher proportion of proportion of propionic acid
and lactic acid than when fed roughage.

Usually, high fibrous feed take longer time to ferment with relatively higher proportion of
acetic acid.

Concentrates take shorter time to ferment with relatively higher proportion of propionic
acid when compared to roughage. Roughage based diets, will therefore favour the
production of acetic acid .

The volatile fatty acids are absorbed through the walls of fore stomachs and later
undergo various metabolic pathways of different end products.

(a) Enzymatic digestion:

Enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates occurs in both ruminants and non-ruminants
(monogastrics). However, most carbohydrate digestion in ruminants is by microbial
breakdown in the rumen.

Non-ruminants depend solely on enzymatic digestion, with an exception of pseudo

ruminants (horses, rabbits and donkeys) where some microbial digestion takes place in
the hind gut.

In the mouth:
Saliva is secreted from three pairs of salivary glands, namely parotid, submaxillary and
sublingual glands. Saliva contains alpha amylase and lysozyme.

The alpha-amylase partially breaks down starch to maltose. The lysozyme proceeds to
the rumen where it breaks down dead microbial cells.

The saliva acts as a lubricant due to the presence of mucus and has a buffering effect,
protecting the rumen from decreasing pH.

In the abomasums (true stomach):

This chamber acts as a storage organ. The action of salivary alpha-amylase continues
in the abomasums.

The abomasums produces gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid (HCI), pepsinogen
(precursor of enzyme, pepsin), inorganic salts and mucus. Gastric juice has no
carbohydrate digesting enzymes.

In the small intestine:

There are four secretions namely pancreatic juice, duodenal, succus entericus and bile.
Pancreatic juice and succus entericus contain higher concentration of –amylase which
continues to hydrolyse starch to maltose.

Succus entericus contains alpha-amylase and sucrase which converts sucrose to

glucose and fructose (Note: sucrase is not present in ruminants). Maltase converts
maltose into glucose molecules. Lactase converts lactose into glucose and galactose.

In the large intestine:

There is no enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates in the large intestine. Water
absorption takes place in large intestine.

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(b) Protein digestion:
Food proteins are hydrolysed to peptides. Some amino acids are further degraded to
organic acids, ammonia and carbon dioxide.

The ammonia (NH3) produced, with some peptide and free amino acid (FAA) are
utilized by rumen microorganisms (RMO) to synthesize microbial proteins.

The microbial protein later becomes available to the animal in the lower gut.

Note: Microorganism are able to synthesize both essential and non-essential amino
acids.

50 – 90% of the protein reaching small intestine is microbial protein, the remainder is
food protein which has escaped (by passed) ruminal degradation.

Post-ruminal digestion of protein continues in the abomasums where there is gastric

juice which produces pepsinogen that is converted to pepsin. Pepsin hydrolyses
peptide bonds to produce simple amino acid and peptide.

Gastric juice also contains rennin which helps to coagulate milk protein, in the
abomasums of young animals.

After passing through the abomasums, proteins are further hydrolysed in the small
intestine.

The pancreatic juice which is produced by pancreas contains proteolytic enzymes

trypsinogen, chymotrypsionogen and carboxylpepitidase which when activated in the
intestines convert protein and partly hydrolyse proteins into peptides and amino acids.

(c) Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) digestion:

- The digestion of NPN like urea (46% N) takes place in the rumen. The NPN is
hydrolysed to ammonia and carbondioxide.

The ammonia is then rapidly incorporated into microbial proteins which are utilized later
after digestion in the lower gut of the host.

The production of ammonia in the rumen depends on the rumen pH. The ammonia
production is higher when the rumen pH is high which can lead to toxicity and is low
when the pH is low which is common when fed together with readily available source of
energy e.g molasses.

Also, a readily available energy enhances incorporation of ammonia into microbial

protein.
- Normally NPN feeds are not fed to monogastrics.

(d) Lipids digestion:

In ruminants, some of the lipids are hydrolysed by bacterial lipases in the rumen to
produce fatty acids and glycerol. The unsaturated fatty acids are hydrogenated
(hardened). Long chain fatty acids are not absorbed in the rumen, instead they move
down to the lower gut for further digestion.

In the small intestine, bile from the liver emulsifies fats and activates lipases, which
continue to hydrolyse lipids.

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2. Digestion in monogastrics (Non-ruminants):
Non-ruminants depend solely on enzymatic digestion unlike in ruminants from the
mouth to the small intestine.

UTILIZATION OF END PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION.

1. Carbohydrates in Ruminants:
Volatile fatty acids are acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and lactic acid.
These may be used in the animal body for the following:-
(a) Production of energy through metabolic pathways like glycolysis, Kreb’s
cycle.
(b) Production of glucose (blood sugar) which in turn is used for various body
functions.
(c) Synthesis of milk sugar (lactose).
(d) Synthesis of fatty acids and fats.
(e) Production of carbon skeletons for the synthesis of non-essential amino
acids.

2. Glucose:
This can be obtained from volatile fatty acids (VFAs) especially propionic acid, or from
enzymatic digestion of sucrose, maltose, lactose and starch.

Functions of glucose:-
(a) Oxidized to produce energy for various body functions.
(b) Used for synthesis of fatty acids and other compounds.
(c) Excess glucose can be stored as glycogen in liver and muscles.

3. Gases: Carbon dioxide and methane produced in the rumen are eliminated from the
rumen by belching as waste fermentation products.

4. The heat produced during fermentation process in the rumen is useful to raise body
temperature when the ambient temperature is low but is a burden to the animal when
the environmental temperature is high.

Carbohydrates in Non-ruminants:
The end product of carbohydrates in non-ruminants is mainly glucose. This is used as
outlined for ruminants.

Proteins in Ruminants:
Proteins are hydrolysed to amino acids and ammonia.
(a) – Some of the amino acids are used for the synthesis of microbial proteins in the
rumen.
- The ammonia may also be used to synthesize microbial proteins.
- Excess ammonia in the rumen may be absorbed through the ruminal wall to the
liver
where it is converted to urea. The urea may be excreted in urine or recycled
back to the
rumen via the saliva.

(b) In the abomasums and intestines the amino acids are absorbed and used to
synthesize proteins; others are delaminated and used as a source of energy.

Proteins in Non-ruminants:
The end products of protein are amino acids .

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5. Lipids in Ruminants:
(a) The end products of lipids digestion are long chain fatty acids and glycerol. The
glycerol is converted into glucose. Some lipids after metabolism are used as structural
parts of ruminal microorganisms.

(b) In small intestines the fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed and used as follows:-
(i) Sources of energy.
(ii) Provide carbon skeleton for synthesis of other body organic compounds.
(iii) Excess fatty acids are stored as body fat.

6. Lipids in Non-ruminants:-
The end products of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol which are absorbed and utilized.

The partition of food energy in the animal:

Gross energy of feed (GE)

( = Heat of combustion)

Faecal energy Digestible energy (DE)

Urine Methane Metabolisable energy (ME)

Energy energy

Heat increment Net energy (NE)

Used for Used for

Maintenance production
(Energy retention or balance)

Total heat production

Of the animal

The gross energy of a feed is the total chemical energy contained in the feed. Gross
energy is measured as heat produced as a result of complete oxidation (or combustion)
of the feed.

Gross energy (GE) does not indicate the amount of useful energy to the animals which
can be obtained from the feedstuff, e.g cellulose and starch have almost the same
values of GE but starch has more useful energy to the animal.

Digestible energy (DE) is the total GE less energy lost in faeces. Faecal energy,
presents the greatest energy lost from a feedstuff. Faecal energy depends upon
digestibility.

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Metabolizable energy (ME) is DE less the energy lost as urinary and methane energy.
The energy lost as methane energy varies with chemical composition. For instance,
methane production is higher for roughage than that of concentrates.

Net energy (NE) is ME less the energy lost as heat increment. The NE is the energy
available for useful processes in the animal body i.e for maintenance and production.

Some systems of Expressing feed energy for livestock feeding.

(i) Total digestible nutrients (TDN):
- This is defined as the sum of digestible organic constituents converted into digestible
carbohydrate equivalent.
i.e the sum of DCF + DNFE + DCP + (2.25 DEE).

- TDN assumes that DCP, DNFE and DCF have equal energy values and DEE has
2.25 limes as much energy value as digestible carbohydrate.

(ii) Digestible energy (DE) is the total gross energy of a feed less total energy lost in the
faeces expressed either in joules or calories per unit weight of the feed dry matter.
1 calorie = 4.18 joules.

(iii) Metabolizable energy (ME):

This is the digestible energy (DE) less the energy lost as methane and urinary energy.
ME is expressed as calories or joules per unit weight of feed dry matter.

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