MABUKI CAMPUS

P.O BOX 352

MWANZA

2014

1.0 Module: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

 2.0 Code: AHT 04104

3.0 Credits: 11

INTRODUCTION

ANATOMY: Is the branch of biological science that deal with the form and structure of organisms.

PHYSIOLOGY: IS the branch of biological science dealing with the functions of the body of organisms.

PHYLOGENY: This refers to the ancestral history of the species constituted by evolutionary changes

it has undergone as disclosed by geological records.

ONTOGENY: This is study of the entire development of an individual.

EMBRYOLOGY: Is the study of changes which organisms undergo during their development usually

in their early phases when tissues and organs are formed.

CATEGORIES OF ANATOMY

I. MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY.

This is the branch of anatomy that deal with body parts which can be touched by hands and seen by naked eyes .e.g
tissues and organs.

Macroscopic anatomy is also called Gross anatomy.

II. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY.

This is the branch of anatomy which the study of body parts that can’t be seen by naked eyes except with the aid of
microscope . e.g cells.

Microscopic anatomy is also called Histology.

BRANCHES OF ANATOMY.

I. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

Is the branch of anatomy that deal with description and comparison of the structures of animals.

Note: Comparative anatomy forms the basis of classification.

II. SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY

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Is the branch of anatomy that deal with different body systems of an individual.

Note: The body consist of system of organs (apparatus) which are associated in the performance of certain

functions.

DIVISION OF SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY

 I. Osteology

II. Syndesmology/ Athrology

III. Myology

IV. Splanchnology

V. Endocrinology

VI. Neurology

VII. Angiology

VIII. Dermatology

IX. Esthesiology

TOPOGRAPHICAL TERMS

Are the terms used to indicate (show) the pricise (exact) position and direction of the body parts.

These are:

Dorsal: Refer to the surface towards the sky.

Ventral: Refer to the surface toward the plane of surface (ground).

Cranial/anterior: Refer to the head end of the body.

Caudal/posterior: Refer to the tail end of the body.

Lateral/external: Refer to the organ or structure furthest from the median plane.

Medial/internal: Refer to the structure nearest to the median plane.

Median plane: This is the plane dividing the animal body into two equal halves longitudinally.

Transverse plane: Is the plane which cuts the long axis of the body perpendicular to the median plane.

(cranial and caudal parts)

Frontal plane: Is that plane perpendicular to median and transverse planes.

Sagittal/paramedial plane: Is the plane which runs parallel with the median plane.
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Diagram: Location of planes on the body of an animal.

 OTHER TERMINOLOGIES

Proximal and distal

Reflects relative distance of the parts from the long axis such as limbs

Proximal: Upper part

Distal: Lower part

Dorsal and palmar

Reflects to below the carpus in fore limbs

Dorsal: Front part of the limb (carpus)

Palmar: Back part of the limb (carpus)

Dorsal and plantar

Refers to below the tarsus in hind limbs

Dorsal: Front part of the limb (tarsus)

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Plantar: Back part of the limb (tarsus)

Superficial and profundus

Reflects the relative distance from the surface of the body

Superficial: Closest organ to the surface

Profundus: Deepest organ to the surface

 SALIENT POINTS

The salient points on the body of an animal includes:

i. Loin

ii. Hump

iii. Rump

iv. Crop

v. Hock

vi. Tail

Diagram: Location of body parts and salient points

SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

Systematic anatomy refers to the study of anatomy system by system. In systematic anatomy every system of the
body will be discussed separately. Under this part, systems of interest to be discussed are:
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S/N SYSTEM NAME OF STUDY CHIEF STRUCTURES

1.0 Skeletal system Osteology Bones, cartilages

2.0 Articular system Syndesmology/athrology Joints

3.0 Muscular system Myology Muscles

4.0 Digestive system Splanchnology Stomach, intestines

5.0 Respiratory system Splanchnology Lungs, trachea, air passage

 6.0 Urinary system Splanchnology Kidney, urinary bladder

7.0 Reproductive system Splanchnology Ovaries, testes, uterus, penis

8.0 Endocrine system Endocrinology Ductless glands

9.0 Nervous system Neurology Brain, spinal cord, nerves

10.0 Circulatory system Cardiovascular/angiology Heart, blood vessels, blood

11.0 Integumentary system Dermatology Skin

12.0 Sensory system Esthesiology Eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose

1.0 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (OSTEOLOGY)

Osteology is the study of bones.

BONES
A bone is the hardest tissue in the body
Fresh dead bones are coloured yellow, when boiled(macerated)and bleached they become white
Bones are hard and resistant to pressure
The density of bones is I.9
COMPOSITIO OF BONES
I. Gelatin 33.30 parts
II. calcium phosphate 57.35 parts
III. calcium carbonate 3.85 parts
IV. magnesium phosphate 2.05 parts
V. sodium carbonate and chloride 3.45 parts
Total 100.00 parts

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classified into classes depending on their shapes and functions
I.LONG BONES (OSSA LONGA)
They are elongated
They are cylindrical
Have enlarged extremities
Occur in limbs

Examples: Femur, humerus

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Function: Act as supporter column and levers

NOTE: The cylindrical part of the bone is called shaft
II. SHORT BONES (OSSA BREVIA)
They are short
Have almost equal dimensions
They act shock absorbers (diffusing concussions)
Example: Carpus, tarsus
Functions: Change direction of tendons
Increase lever action to muscles/tendon
III.FLAT BONES (OSSA PLANA)
They are flat
 Have two expended extremities

The two layers of compact bones with intervening spongy bone and marrow.

Example: Bones of skull, scapula

Function: Protects the organs they cover

Gives enough area for muscles attachment

Note: The spongy layer in the skull is called diploe

IV. IRREGULAR BONES

They have undefined shape

They are not paired

Occurs in the median

Example:bones of the cranial bose, vertebrae

Function:various not as mentioned above

PROPERTIES OF BONES

Physical properties

Dry bones are made up of organic and inorganic matter in the ratio1:2

Bones are tough and strong due to presence of organic matter

They are very hard due to the existence of inorganic matter like mineral salts

Bones contain water

Chemical properties

Decalcification(removal of calcium)make the bones soft and pliable but the form is not affected

Heat do not change the bone but reduces weight and the bone become fragile

When the organic matter is boiled it form gelatine which contains protein

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF BONES

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I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

This is formed by the series of bones called vertebrae

It has the median, unpaired irregular bones from the skull extending to the tail end.

In adults some vertebrae are fussed and they are known as fixed/false vertebrae.

The non fixed are called movable/true vertebrae

The vertebral column is divided into five divisions: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral and Coccygeal
regions
 Diagram: Parts or regions of the vertebral column.

A TYPICAL VERTEBRA

A typical vertebrae has three parts; The body, Arch and Processes

Diagram: Structure of typical vertebrae

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The body (corpus vertebrae)

It is more or less cylindrical mass where other parts are constructed

The cranial part (cranial extremity, extremitas cranialis, caput vertebrae) and the caudal part (caudal extremity,
extremitas caudalis, fossa vertebrae) are attached to the adjacent vertebrae by the intervertebral discs (which are
fibrocartilaginous). The cranial part is convex and the caudal part is concave
 The dorsal surface is flattened and enters into formation of vertebral canal and ventrally is bounded laterally in
relation to viscera and different muscles. In thoracic region the body have two pairs of facets (foveae costales) in the
extremities for articulation with the head of two pairs of ribs.

The arch

It is constructed on the dorsal part of the body.

The arch have originally two lateral halves each having ventral pedicle and dorsal lamina.

The pedicle forms lateral part of the arch and is cut into cranially and caudally by vertebral notches (incisura
vertebralis, cranialis and caudalis)

The notches of the adjacent vertebrae form intervertebral foramina for the passega of spinal nerves and other
nerves. In some vertebrae there complete foramina instead of nutches.Lamina are plates completing the arch
dorsally,meeting with aech other medially at the roof of spinous process. Their borders are rough to attach the
ligaminta flava.

The body and arch forms a fony ring that enclose vertebral foramin. Then the vertebral rings and ligaments uniting
them enclose the vertebral canal which contain spinal cord with its covering and vessels.

The articular processes

Two cranial and two caudal artcular processes (processu articulares craniales and caudales) projects from the
border surface adapted for those of adjacent vertebrae and remaining surface is roughened for muscles or ligament
attachment

(a). Spinous process

It is single and projects dorsally from the middle of the arch, varying in size, shape and direction in different
vertebrae

It is essential for muscles or ligament attachment

(b). Transverse process

They are two in number and projects laterally from side of the arch or junction of the arch and the body. In cervical
region the transverse process of the 3rd to 6th vertebra presents the cranial and caudal portion

The cranial part is called costal process.

The caudal part (true) transverse process arises from the vertebral arch caudal to transverse foramen
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The transverse process is pierced by the transverse foramen which in the first six vertebrae gives passage for
vertebral artery and plexus of sympathetic nerves.

(c). Mamillary process.

Are found in animals mostly in the caudal thoracic and cranial lumbar vertebrae between the transverse and cranial
articular process.

(d). Accessory process

When present are between transverse and caudal articular process. The bodies of vertebrae articulate by means of
fibrocartilaginous intervertebral discs.
 II. RIBS (COSTAE)

They are elongated long bones

They form the skeleton of the thoracic wall (axial skeleton)

Ribs are arranged in pairs corresponding to the number of vertebrae

They have a shaft and two extremities

Anatomically ribs designate the bony part and morphologically include the cartilaginous part

Ribs vary in length, curvature and other characteristics

Dorsally it articulates with two vertebrae and continued ventrally by costal cartilage to articulate with
sternum.

Diagram: A typical rib

TYPES OF RIBS

Sternal ribs (costae verae)

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These articulate ventrally with sternum by means of costal cartilage. They are sometimes called true ribs.

Asternal ribs (costae spuriae)

These are the rest of the ribs which do not articulate to the sternum. Also they are called false ribs.

Floating ribs (costae fluctuantes)

These are the ribs which have their ventral parts (end) free and not attached to adjacent cartilages.

Note: The space (interval) between ribs is referred to as intercostals space.

 Diagram: The structure showing types of ribs

III. COSTAL CARTILAGE

Are the bars of hyaline cartilage continues from the distal part of the rib.

The costal cartilage of sterna ribs articulate to the sternum while those of asternal ribs are joined by
elastic connective tissues forming a costal arch.

The costal cartilage of floating ribs are not attached anywhere.

IV. STERNUM (BREAST BONE)

Is the median segmental bone which complete the skeleton of thorax ventrally and articulate with the
cartilage of sternal ribs laterally.

It is made up of bone segments called sternabrae connected by intervening cartilage in young subjects.

The cranial extremity is called presternum (manubrium sterni). In animals with clavicle bone like man,
the presternum is broad, strong and articulate with the clavicle bone. When the clavicle is absent like in
horse and dogs, the manubrium is small and laterally compressed, the cartilage of first pair of ribs
articulate with it.
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The middle part is called body (meso- sternum/corpus sterni). On lateral part at sternabrae junction has
concave facets (incisura costales) for articulation with the cartilage of sterna ribs.

The caudal extremity is called last sternabrae (metasternum). It has a xiphoid cartilage process, a
cartilaginous plate (cartilage xiphoidea) which extend caudally from xiphoid cartilage.

Diagram: The sternum

 V. THORAX

The skeleton of the thorax is made up of thoracic vertebrae dorsally, the ribs and costal cartilage
laterally and the sternum ventrally.

To make a thoracic cavity in shape of truncated cone, laterally being compressed especially cranially and
dorsal wall (roof) being longer than the ventral wall (floor)

The cranial aperture (inlet) is made by the 1st thoracic vertebrae (dorsally), 1st pair of costae and costal
cartilage (laterally) as well as the manubrium of sternum (ventrally).

The caudal aperture (outlet) is bounded by the last thoracic vertebrae, last pair of ribs (costae), costal
arch and cranial part of xiphoid cartilage.

Note: Diaphragm dividing the thoracic and abdominal cavity do not follow the costal arches in its caudal attachment
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so the caudal ribs also form the abdominal wall.

Diagram: Skeleton of the thorax

 VI. BONES OF THORACIC LIM B (OSSA MEMBRI THORACICI)

It consists four segments; shoulder girdle, arm, fore arm and manus.

Diagram: Thoracic limb

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THE SHOULDER GIRDLE (CINGULUM MEMBRI THORACICI)

This is made up by scapula (shoulder blade),coracoids (in chicken),and clavicle(collar bone). In domesticated
animals, the scapula is large, flat, well developed and the coracoids (small element) is fused with it. Since there is no
clavicle or just small rudiment embedded in brachiocephalic muscle, then articulation between shoulder and axial
skeleton is not possible.
 THE ARM (ANTEBRACHIUM)

It is made up of single large long bone called humerus(arm bone). The distal part has humeral condyles; medial and
lateral epicondyles. The capitulum humeri is the small lateral articular aspect of the distal end articulating with head
of the radius.Trochlea humeri is a larger medially located articular surface.The humeral condyles means articular
areas, olecranon fossa and radial fossa (coronoid fossa) since head of radius enters this depression.

THE FORE ARM (ANTEBRACHIUM)

It has two bones; radius and ulna. The radius is cranially placed and is a weight supporting bone. Ulna is well
developed on its proximal part acting as the lever for extensor muscles of elbow and is attached to the caudal
aspect of radius

Note: In horse and ox (cattle) the bones are fused together and the distal part of the limb is placed in

Pronation .But in dogs, ulna is well developed and permits slight movement.

THE MANUS

This is analogous to the hand in man. It consists; carpus, metacarpus and phalanges (digits)

Carpus: Are made up of groups of short bones (ossa carpi) one for each digit and are numerically named Proximal
and distal.The proximal row is named from radial to ulna side (medial to lateral) called radial,
intermediate, ulna and accessory carpal bones. The distal row is named numerically from medial to lateral as 1st ,2nd
,3rd and 4th carpal bones.

Metacarpus: Consists of five bones (ossa metacarpalia) one for each digit and are numerically named from radial to
ulna side. Metacarpus are long bones. In dogs the 1st metacarpal is smallest, 2nd and 5th are somehow reduced. In
ruminants (artiodactyls) the 3rd and 4th are chief metacarpals, well developed and are fused in sheep and ox. In
horse (perisodactyls) the 1st and 5th metacarpals are absent and the 3rd is the largest supporting bone carrying a
single digit where the 2nd and 4th are much reduced.

Phalanges (digits): Are homologous to fingers in man and are five in number. Digits are named numerically from
radial to ulna side in correspondence with metacarpus (full number in dogs). In ox and pigs the 3 rd and 4th are well
developed and support weight while 2nd and 5th are reduced. Modern horses has a single digit (the 3rd digit for his
pentadactyl ancestor). The fully developed digit consist of three phalanx and certain sessamoid bones.

These include:

i. The proximal phalanx (first) articulates with the metacarpal bone proximally and the middle (second)
phalanx distally.
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ii. The middle phalax (second) articulates proximally with 1st(proximal) phalanx and distally with the 3rd (distal)
phalanx.

iii. The distal phalanx (third) is enclosed in the hoof (claw) and modified to comform to the hoof articulate
dorsally with the second phalanx.

Sessamoid bones are enclosed capsules of joint or tendons where there is increased pressure.Two proximal
sessamoids occur at flexor side of the metacarpophalangeal joint and form pulley for flexor tendons.The distal
sessamoid place between deep digital flexor tendon and the joint between the middle and distal phalanges(absent
in dogs) which are on extensor side of metacarpophalangeal joint and often at the proximal interphalangeal joint.
 Diagram: The manus

VII. BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB (OSSA MEMBRI PELVINI)

Consists of the following segments; pelvici girdle, thigh, and leg and pes.
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Diagram: Pelvic limb

 PELVIC GIRDLE (CINGULUM MEMBRI PELVINI)

Is made up of oss coxae (hip bone) joining its opposite pair at pelvic symphysis articulating firmly with the sacrum
dosally. Two coxal bone, sacrum and first few caudal vertebrae make bony pelvis. The dorsal wall is made by sacrum
and first few caudal vertebrae,the ventral wall is made by pubci and ischial bones and the lateral walls are made up
by ilia and the acetabular part of Ischia.The cranial aperture (pelvis inlet) is bounded by the brim (terminal line)
composed of base of sacrum dorsally, arcuate lines (iliopectinead) laterally and pectin ossis pubis ventrally.

Oss coxae (hip/innominate bone)

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Is the largest flat bone with three parts; the ilium, ischium and pubis which meet to form acetabulum a cotyloid
cavity that articulate with head of the femur.

THE ILIUM

It is divided into two parts; the body (corpus ossis ilii) and the wing (ala ossis ilii). The body enter to formation of
acetabulum and it continues with pelvic surface of ischium and pubis bones. The wing is an expanded portion
presenting two surfaces, crest and two spines. The surfaces are:-

External or gluteal (facies glutea) which is smooth, concave and bounded by crest and spine (dorsal and ventral)
and it has several gluteal lines depending to species.
 Internal pelvic surface (facie sacro pelvina) of the wing is bounded by crest, arcuate line and spines (dorsally and
ventrally).

The external part of the pelvic surface is smooth and crossed by vascular grooves where internal part is roughened
and uneven presenting articular surface (facies articularis) the part is ear shaped and is the ventral portion of the
bone that articulate firmly with similar surface in sacrum. The dorsal part is called iliac tuberosity. It is elevated,
rough and attaches scroiliac ligament. The crest of ilium is arch shaped curved (concave or convex) depending on
species. Example in horses and ox it is concave whereas in dogs, man and pigs (porcines) it is convex.

In dogs the crest connect coxal and sacral tubers but in cats the sacral tuber is separated into cranial and caudal
dorsal iliac spines.

THE ISCHIUM (ISCHII)

It forms the caudal part of the hip bone (os coxae) and enters into formation of acetabulum, obtulator foramen and
pelvic symphysis. It is divided into body and ramus. The body (corpus ischii) enter into formation of acetabulum and
is lateral to obtulator foramen. Tabula is a flat portion caudal to the body and ramus. The tuberosity of ischium is
rough and triangular swelling.

THE PUBIS

Is divided into body and cranial and caudal ramus. It extends from ilium and ischium laterally to opubic symphysis
medially and borders cranial part of obtulator foramen. The body (corpus ossis pubis) is thick and forms
acetabulum. Cranial ramus extends from body to the median plane where it meets its fellow of the other opposite
side forming the pubic symphysis. The caudal ramus pass caudally from the medial portion of cranial ramus
becoming narrow to join ramus of ischium. Acetabulum is a cup shaped cavity (cotyloid cavity) which articulates
with the head of femur, it faces ventrolaterally and has articular as wellas non articular surfaces. The articular part is
crescent shaped and cut into internally by the non articular part which is a rough depression called acetabulum
fossa, where the medial part of rim is cut into by the acetabular notch.

THE SKELETON OF THE THIGH (SKELETON FEMORIS)

Is made of femur (thigh bone) which articulate with the acetabulum proximally and distally with patella (knee cap)
and the tibia. Tibia is the bone articulating with the trochlea of distal end of femur and is held in tendons of
quadriceps femoris muscle.

THE SKELETON OF THE LEG

Is made up of two bones, tibia and fibula. Tibia is large, prismatic in shape and supports weight. It articulates with
talus (tibia tarsal bone) distally and fibula is along the lateral border of tibia separated from it by interosseous
space. Fibula is slender than tibia, do not articulate with femur except in swine and dogs it is long with complete
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shaft and two extremities but much more reduced in ox and horse.

THE SKELETON OF PES (SKELETON PEDIS)

In man it is homologous to foot and has three divisions; tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges.

Tarsus (hock): Made of short bones (oss tarsi) numbering from five to seven in different animal species and are
arranged in rows. The proximal row has two bones; talus and calcaneous (tibia and fibula tarsals). The talus is at
medial (tibial) side, has trochlea to articulate with the distal end of tibia. The calcaneous is at lateral (fibula) side, has
calcaneal (tuber) process projecting proximally and plantary to attach muscles that extend hock joint. The distal row
has four bones designated as 1st, 2nd tarsals etc and the central tarsal is interposed between rows.
 Metatarsals and Phalanges (digits): Resemble those of the fore limb but in some species differences can be noted in
digits.

The skull

This protects the brain, organs of special senses (ears, eyes, nose, tongue), opening of food passage, air passage,

jaws and teeth for mastication. Most of the skull bones are flat, developed in membranes where those of the cranial
base are irregular bones developed in cartilages. Only two bones form the movable joint with other parts of the
skull the mandible and temporal bones. The mandible (lower jaw) forms synovial joint with temporal bone and
hyoid bone is attached to the temporal bone by bars of cartilage. Immovable joints located in between bones of the
skull are called sutures. Sutures are irregular line like in appearance in young animals but disappear in adults by
osseous fusion between adjacent bones. The skull has also numerous foramina, canal and fissures where cranial
nerves and blood vessels enter or leave the skull.

FUNCTIONS OF BONES

I. Provide muscular attachment

II. Protects internal organs (lungs, heart, brain and spinal cord)

III. Produce blood cells (RBC from bone marrow)

IV. Produces haemoglobin, granular white cells and platelets

V. Enables movement (act as levers where muscles are attached)

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

These are tissues connecting other tissues, giving forms, strength, protection and leverage of organs. They include:-

 Yellow elastic tissue

 Collagen (white fibrous) tissue

 Reticular (net like) tissue

 Adipose (fat) tissue

 Cartilage (gristle) tissue

 Bone tissue

 Blood tissue
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YELLOW ELASTIC TISSUE

They are made up of kinked fibers which tend to regain their original shape after distortion. Mostly they are found
in ligamenum nuchae (support of head from spinous process), ligament flava (covers the spinal canal), elastic
arteries and other tissues where elasticity is needed.

COLLAGINOUS TISSUE

They are found through out the body in different forms and are made up of cells that produce collagen fibers of
considerable tensile strength. They can be dense regular or irregular and alveolar connective tissues.
 Dense regular connective tissues: The bundles of fibers are parallel forming cords of considerable strength. They are
found in tendons (connecting muscle to bones) and ligaments (connecting bone to bone)

Dense irregular connective tissues: The fibers are thick mats with fibers running in all directions.They are found in
skin (dermis) protecting it from tearing but still flexible to move body surfaces.

Alveolar (loose) connective tissues: These are found all over the body for cushioning and flexibility. Like in blood
vessels allowing them to move and offers protection, under the skin attaches to muscles. If the skin lacks this tissue
bones become adherent to skin hence no movement. The tissue attaches the skin with muscles allowing to move
freely.

RETICULAR TISSUE

These are produced by star like cells, making a flamework of lymphatic tissue, spleen and bone marrow. It also make
the interstitial tissue of various organ allowing movement and shifting of organ.

ADIPOSE TISSUE

These are fats taken by tissue cells for storage as inclusion. As the cell is filled up, the nucleus is displaced aside and
become spherical. This acts as storage in animal body.

CARTILAGE TISSUE

This is a firm tissue than fibrous tissue but not harder as bones. It is made up of cells called condrocytes (cartilage
cells) and between condrocyte there is a fluid called matrix.

TYPES OF CARTILAGES

There are three types;

Hyaline cartilage

Is glass like covering of bones with joints making it smooth and reduces friction between them to allow easy
articulation. It is also found in extremities of growing bones in young animals as epiphysial plate.

Fibrous cartilage

Consist of a mixture of cartilage and collagen fibers forming a semi elastic cushion of considerable strength. It is
found in vertebral chain as intervetebral disc. As it consists fibers and cartilages, fibrous cartilage is also referred to
to fibrocartilage.

Elastic cartilage
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Consists of mixture of cartilage substance and elastic fibers. Mostly elastic fibers are found in the external ear. It can
be folded and return to its original shape or form.

BONE TISSUE

This is formed by bone forming cells called osteoblasts which produces osteoid tissue which later calcify to form
bones. When the bone is formed, osteoblasts are embedded on bone substances to form osteocytes. The bone
formed may be cancellous or compact.

TYPES OF BONE TISSUE

There are two;

 Cancellous (spongy) bone

Is when the bone is arranged as spicules (small spikes) and flat plates forming spongy like networks. Cancellous
bones are found in extremities of long bones where resistance to compression without excessive weight is required.
In the skull between compact bones the arrangement is referred to diploe.

Compact bone

This is when the bone is laid down in form of laminated cylinders (harvesian system) closely packed together to
form compact bones. In harvesian system is where the volkmann’s canal containing nerves and blood vessels go
into system at right angles (900) and are connected to a thin layer covering the bone (periosteum) found in shafts of
long bones.

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

I. Acts as connectors of other connective tissues eg. Ligaments, tendons.

II. Protect the body from diseases eg. Blood cells, lymph cells.

III. Forms the framework of the body eg. Bones give rigidity of the body.

IV. Help to remove waste products from body tissues via blood as sweat.

V. Give shapes to different animal species eg. Bones form the framework of an individual.

VI. Provide leverage and permits movement eg. Bones, ligaments,tendons, cartilages.

THE SKELETON

This is a framework of the animal body where all organs are supported.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SKELETON

It is classified into three:

i. Axial skeleton

ii. Appendicular skeleton

iii. Viscera skeleton

AXIAL SKELETON

It is made up of the bones of vertebral chain extending from the skull to tail end. There are five distinct regions
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specialized to perform different functions. These are: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions.

Cervical region

 The vertebrae are found just after the head to allow head movement

 Have well developed articular process

 The first two vertebrae are specialized for dorsoventral and lateral movements (atlas and axis)

 The articular surface of atlas permits dorsoventral movement, the joint called yes joint made by occipital
bone and atlas.
  The articular surface of axis permits lateral movement, the joint called no joint (atlantoaxial joint) made by
atlas and axis.

 All cervical vertebrae including atlas and axis has large transverse foramina each located in transverse
process arranged sequentially to form interrupted transverse bony canal containing vessels and nerves
important to deep organs of the head and neck.

Diagram: Structure of a cervical vertebra.

Thoracic region

 The vertebrae are specialized for attachment of ribs. In mammals each rib articulate with two thoracic
vertebrae.

 Ventrally caudal, most of the ribs are interconnected by cartilaginous costal arch on each side where these
costal arch connects ventrally to the sternum which also has cartilaginous articulation with all more cranial
ribs.

 All together the thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum and related cartilages make up the thorax (rib cage) which
provide protection for the vital organs like the heart, lungs and large vessels. Also it attaches important
breathing muscles like diaphragm and muscles of the fore limb like serratus ventralis.

 Thoracic vertebrae can be distinguished by their relatively large dorsal spinous process providing
attachment for large muscles of the back and two essential ligaments; the dorsal spinous ligament and the
nuchal ligament.

Diagram: Structure of a thoracic vertebra

Lumbar region

 The vertebrae has well developed transverse process analogous to ribs serving for the attachment of
muscles of breathing and abdominal muscles.

Diagram: Structure of a lumbar vertebra

Sacral region

 The vertebrae are fused into a composite bone called sacrum, on each side bearing large flattened process
for articulation with ilium of the pelvic girdle.

Diagram: Structure of a sacrum

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Coccygeal region

The vertebrae are progressively reduced and serve as site for insertion of muscles of tail.]

Diagram: Structure of coccygeal bones

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

This is made by bones of the fore and hind limbs.

Pectoral girdle
 The fore limb is attached to the rest of the body by the pectoral girdle made up of scapula, clavicle bones, and
coracoid bones all of which are present in fowls and in other species the clavicle and coracoid bones remain as
prominences (remnants)

Pelvic girdle

The hind limb is connected to other parts of the body by the pelvic girdle made up of ilium, ischium and pubis
forming oss coxae in one side. The complete pair of bones (left and right) is then called oss coxarum.

THE PECTORAL (FORE) LIMB

It is made up of humerus, radius and ulna, carpus, metacarpus and phalanges (digits)

Diagram: Structure of a fore limb

Scapula.

 It is triangular flat bone with its base on the dorsal aspect

 The medial surface is flat while the lateral surface has a vertical spine varying in different species called
scapula spine running along the bone.

 The spine divides the scapular into cranial supraspinous fossa and caudal infraspinous fossa. (the
depressions are essential for muscle attachments)

 In bovines (cattle) the distal end of scapula spine bears acromium process (remnant of clavicle bone) and
posses glenoid cavity which is an articular surface with the head of humerus making humeral (shoulder)
joint.

 Above the glenoid cavity there is a large bony prominence called supraglenoid tubercle, on medial side of
the later occurs coracoid process a remnant of coracoids bone.

Diagram: Structure of a scapula

Humerus

 It is a long bone with two expanded extremities.

 The shaft of humerus is twisted half a turn forming a groove (depression) into which brachialis muscle
attaches and radial nerves run.

 The proximal extremity has tuberosities on both lateral and medial side for the attachment of muscles from
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the scapula helping to keep the round head of humerus in glenoid cavity of the scapula and form shoulder
joint.

 The distal end carry rounded surface called condyles which articulate with radius and ulna making elbow
joint. On the cranial part of the distal end of humerus there is radial fossa and on caudal part it carries
olecranon fossa.

Diagram: Structure of a humerus.

Radius and ulna.

Radius .
  It is among the long bones.

 It is located on cranio-medial aspect of the fore arm.

 The radius is cranially to ulna hence ulna looks to be caudal of it.

 The proximal and caudal extremities of radius are broader than the shaft and bears articular surfaces.

 On the proximal extremity there are rough remnants on lateral and medial aspects for the attachment of
ligaments that support elbow joint formed by humerus, radius and ulna.

 It also bears radial tuberosity on the cranial part of proximal tuberosity for muscular attachment.

 On the distal extremity, the radius broadens laterally and medially to provide articular surface for the carpal
bones.

Ulna

 It differs with species, with variable development and less developed in fowls than radius.

 The ulna posses olecranon process which projects caudally above elbow joint.

 The shaft of ulna may be fused with radius for its greater part of length in cattle, sheep, goat and pigs and it
runs far distally to the distal end of radius except in horses where it disappears half way (below middle) to
distal end of radius.

 Radius is the supporting bone carrying the weight of an animal unlike ulna which is important because of
olecranon process which provides attachment of muscles extending elbow joint.

Diagram: Structure of radius and ulna

Carpus (carpal bones)

 These are small bones arranged in two rows; proximal and distal rows.

 The proximal row articulate with radius and ulna and is composed of radial, intermediate and ulnar carpal
bones.

 The distal row articulate with metacarpal bones and has four bones named numerically as 1, 2, 3 and 4

 The accessory bone is positioned behind the carpal bone articulating with ulnar carpal bone and end of
radius. It also acts as pulley for tendons which flexes the carpus.

Diagram: Structure of carpal bones

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Metacarpus (metacarpal bones)

 They are located distal to carpus.

 In primitive animals, there are five bones each lying over against the distal of carpus .

 The functional metacarpus in bovine and equine are called canon bones.

 Following revolution there is reduction of number of metacarpus with elongation and growth in size of the
remaining metacarpus.
 S/N ANIMAL SPECIES NUMBER OF METACARPALS PRESENT

1.0 Man 5 (All present)

2.0 Swine 4 (The 1st is absent)

3.0 Ox, Sheep, Goats 2 (Fused 3rd and 4th)

4.0 Horse 1 (Only the 3rd, well developed). The 1st and 5th are lost and the 2nd and 4th are
reduced to thin vestigial bones or splints and fused to 3rd metacarpals.

5.0 Dogs, cats 5 (All present)

Phalanges (digits)

 The number of functional phalanges correspond to the number of functional metacarpus. Three phalanges
are contained in each functional digit viz: Proximal, middle and distal phalanges.

 The proximal phalanx articulate with the distal end of metacarpals proximally.

 The middle phalanx articulate proximally with the distal end of proximal phalanx and the proximal end of
the distal phalanx.

 The distal phalanx is enclosed in the hoof.

 The distal end of metacarpal and the proximal end of proximal phalanx make the proximal
metacarpophalangeal joint (fetlock joint)

 The distal end of proximal phalanx and the proximal part of middle phalanx make the
proximalinterphalangeal joint (pastern joint)

 Between the middle and distal phalanges makes distal interphalangeal joint (coffin joint)

Diagram: Structure of phalanges

THE PELVIC (HIND) LIMB.

This is made up of the femur, tibia and fibula, tarsus (hock), metatarsus and phalanges (digits).

Diagram: Structure of the hind limb

Femur
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 It is connected to the pelvic bone by hip joint.

 It is long, stout bone with expanded ends.

 Proximally it bears a nearly spherical head which fits a cup like acetabulum fossa (oss coxae) to make hip
(pelvic) joint.

 The head of femur is connected to the shaft by a narrow neck.

  Proximally, the shaft has two or three prominences. The largest is more lateral called greater trochanter
with different appearance in different animal species differentiating them. Also provides surface area for
insertion of large gluteal muscles.

 Medially a small prominence called lesser trochanter provide attachment of iliopsoas muscle. In equine a
third trochanter occur more laterally below the greater trochanter and it is a site for attachment of
superficial gluteal muscle well developed in equines.

 Distally the femur posses condyles articulating with tibia. On cranial part of the distal end of femur at level
of condyles has well formed groove called trochlea articulating cranially with the largest sessamoid bone
called patella a site for attachment of quadriceps femoris muscle.

 The patella, distal end of femur and the proximal end of tibia make a joint called stifle joint which is also
referred to as knee joint in human.

Diagram: Structure of a femur

Tibia and fibula

Tibia

 It is a long bone, triangular in shape with a reducing diameter distally.

 Proximally has a large proximo-cranial ridge called tibial crest making a distinguishing feature from other
long bones.

 Tibia like in antebrachial bones (presence of radius and ulna) runs together with fibula on lateral side.

 Tibia is the weight supporting bone.

Fibula

 Is analogous to ulna in the fore arm, also reduced.

 Of all common domestic animals, it is a pig having a complete fibula.

 In horses the distal end is completely fused with tibia while the proximal end is attenuated.

 In ruminants the proximal end of fibula is even reduced and fused with tibia while the distal end is a small
separate bone called lateral malleolus.

Diagram: Structure of tibia and fibula

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Tarsus (tarsal bones)

 In domestic animals there are 5-7 short tarsal bones.

 The largest two of these are talus (tibial tarsal bone) and calcaneous (fibula tarsal bone)

 The talus bear a large trochlea for articulation with tibia and calcaneous is more lateral bearing a bony
process called tuber calcis.

 Distally the calcaneous articulate with large 4th tarsal bone present more lateral of the distal row of tarsal
bone.
 S/N ANIMAL SPECIES TARSAL BONES PRESENT

1.0 Pigs 1st, 2nd and 3rd are individually present.

2.0 Ruminants 1st reduced in size, 2nd and 3rd fused central and 4th tarsal one are fused.

Note: In all domestic animals the central tarsal bone is interposed between first three bones of distal row and talus.

Diagram: Structure of tarsal bones

Metatarsus (metatarsal bone)

 They are longer than tarsal bones with similar reduction in number. i.e the hind limb resembles those of fore
limb in each species.

Diagram: Structure of metatarsal bones

Phalanges (digits)

 Refer those of fore limb.

VISCERA SKELETON

This involves bones of visceral organs.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

i. It gives support to the body.

ii. It gives shape of a particular animal species.

iii. It gives protection to vital organs.

iv. It allows movement.

v. It produces blood.

2.0 ARTICULAR SYSTEM (SYNDESMOLOGY/ ATHROLOGY)

Syndesmology is the study of joints.

JOINTS
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A joint is formed when two or more bones or cartilages are united by other connective tissues. Joints can be formed
between bone and bone, or cartilage and cartilage together with ligaments or capsules.

ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

I. FIBROUS JOINT (SYNATHROSIS)

Are joined by fibrous tissue hence prevent movement

They are also called Fixed or Immovable joints since there is no joint cavity.

Suture joints
 Are joints in the skull joined by fibrous tissues with interlocking margins.

Syndesmosis joints

Are joints united by white elastic fibrous tissue. Eg union of metacarpal bones, shafts or attachment of
costal cartilages to each other.

Note: When a joint is joined by fibrous tissue like in radius and ulna then the tissue ossifies to make
synostosis.

Gomphosis joints

Are joints of teeth of the alveolar bone of mandible or maxilla (false joint) . Teeth are not part and parcel
of the skeleton.

II. CARTILAGENOUS JOINT (AMPHIATHROSIS)

Are joined by either cartilage of hyaline, fibrocartilage or both. The amount of cartilage determines
movement.

Synchrondrosis (hyaline cartilage) joints

Is a temporally joint developed in youngs which turns into bone later at adult age. Eg epiphysis and
diaphysis united by cartilaginous epiphysial plate in young animals.

Symphysis (fibrocartilagenous) joints

It is the one called amphiathrosis occurring when articulation of bones are united by fibrocartilage
during some phase of existence. Eg pelvic symphysis,sternabrae, and bodies of vertebrae.

The joint has limited movement that may exist.

III. SYNOVIAL JOINTS (DIATHROSIS)

Are joints with cavities containing synovial membrane in joint capsules. Synovial joints are referred to as
movable or true joints.

Depending on number of articular surfaces the joints are categorized as:

Simple synovial joint

Occur when two articular surfaces are involved in forming a joint. Eg humeral joint

Composite synovial joint

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Occur when several articular surfaces are involved in forming a joint. Eg stifle joint

STRUCTURES PRESENT IN SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Articular surface

Occur especially made up of dense bones.

Articular cartilages

Is hyaline covering over the articular surface of bones, the size depend on pressure and friction.

Articular (joint) capsule

 Is a tube attached around ends of articulating surface, has two layers external and internal fibrous and synovial
respectively

Ligaments

Are strong bands or membranes made of white fibrous tissue binding bones together and are inelastic but some are
elastic. Eg Nuchal ligament.

Articular discs and menisci

Are plates of fibrocartilage or dense fibrous tissue placed between articular cartilage and divides the joint cavity into
two compartments and are made to reduce concussion

Marginal cartilage

Is a ring of cartilage that encircles the rim of articular cartilage.

Vessels and nerves

These supply the cartilage, bones, synovial capsule with blood and sensation.

Synovial fluid

Occur as a clear white fluid in synovial capsule and it reduces concussion.

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS ACCORDING TO MOVEMENT

The movement of joints is called angular movements; which includes:

Flexion

Angle between two bones is reduced

Extension

Angle between two bones is increased

Abduction

Part is moved away from the mid-sagittal plane of the body.

Adduction

Part is moved towards the mid-sagittal plane of the body.

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Circumduction

When bone is made to circumscribe a conical space (note that the base of the cone is the distal part of the bone)

Rotation

Spining of one segment along longitudinal axis of the other segment forming a joint. Eg atlanto-axial joint but
ligaments, muscles, and capsules limits movement.

Generally classification due to movement is as follows:

I. Uniaxial joints
 Have one axis of rotation, also called hinge or gynglimus joints. Eg elbow joint

II. Pivot (Trochoid) joints

Movement is around a longitudinal axis and encircles a pivot. Circumduction movement is possible. Eg
Atlanto-axial joint.

III. Ellipsoid joints

Circumference of a joint resembles an ellipse, articulating surfaces are longer in one direction and at
right angles to each other. Eg antebrachiaocarpal joint.

IV. Saddle joints

The articular surfaces are saddle shaped (concave or convex). Flexion, extension, abduction and axial
rotation is permitted. Eg antebrachiocarpal joint (Thumb in man)

V. Multiaxial joints
Occur when there is movement in more than one plane, hence circumduction and axial rotation is
permitted. Under this there is a ball and socket. Eg hip or shoulder joint.

VI. Plane joints

Occurs when there are joints between flat surfaces. Eg carpal and tarsal joints.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

A. SHOULDER/HUMERAL JOINT

Occur between distal end of scapula and proximal part of humerus.

Articular surfaces

 Glenoid cavity –scapula

 Head of humerus- humerus

B. STIFLE JOINT/HINGE

In man the joint is called knee joint.

Articular surfaces

 Femur trochlea and patella-femoropatella

 Femur trochlea and tibia-femorotibia
Diagram: The structure of stifle joint.
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C. HOCK/TARSAL JOINT

Articular surfaces

 Tibiotarsal (tarsocrural) jointwhich is gynglimus.

 Intertarsal joints which are formed between talus and central tarsal, central tarsal and third tarsal and
calcaneous and talus.
 Tarsal metatarsal joint is formed by third tarsal and metatarsals.
Diagram: The structure of hock joint.

D. ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL JOINT
 It is a gynglimus joint.

Articular surfaces

 Two deep oval cavities- atlas

 Condyles of occipital bone- occipital bone

The joint permits dorsal and ventral movement of the head hence referred to as yes joint.

Atlas and axis forms atlantoaxial joint which permits lateral movement of the head hence called no joint.

E. MANDIBULAR JOINT

The joint is found in the head.

Articular surfaces

 Condylar process of the mandible- mandible

 Articular tubercle of the temporal bone- temporal bone

This joint permits lateral movement of mandibles hence enables chewing.

Note: In crocodiles, it is the maxilla that moves.

FUNCTIONS OF ARTICULAR SYSTEM

i. Joints allow movement

ii. Presence of synovial fluid reduces friction

III.0MUSCULAR SYSTEM (MYOLOGY)

Is the study of muscles.

MUSCLES

These are bunds or bundles of elastic substances in an animal body with ability to contract or relax producing
movement.

They are made up of cells called muscle cells.

MUSCLE CELLS

They are long cells having both contraction and conductivity properties.
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The cytoplasm of a cell can contract in such a way that it reduces the length of the cell.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES

Muscles are classified depending on morphology and functions.

Depending on morphology

I. Smooth muscles.

 They are spindle shaped

  Have weak contractions but sustained rhythmic

 Their actions is not under will.

Location: In blood vessels, spleen, glands and intestines.

Diagram: Structure of smooth muscles

II. Cardiac muscles.

 Has cross striated fibres.

 They are irregularly arranged.

 The end of some fibres contracts side of other fibres.

 Their action is not under will.

Location: Strictly in the heart.

Diagram: Structure of cardiac muscles

III. Skeletal muscles.

 They are made up of bundles of multinucleated fibres.

 Has sarcolema, a thin membrane surrounding each muscle fibre (myofiber) in a matrix called
sarcoplasm.

 Nucleus are many per fibre (polynucleated) and to the periphery.

 The fibre do not extend entire the length of muscles.

 Terminates by attaching to investing connective tissues (bones or cartilages)

Location: on the skeleton.

Diagram: Structure of skeletal muscles

Depending on functions

I. Voluntary muscles.

Muscles that work under the will. Eg. Skeletal muscles

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II. Involuntary muscles.

Muscles that work not under the will. Eg. Cardiac and smooth muscles.

CONNECTIVE TISSUES WITHIN SKELETAL MUSCLES

Endomysium

Connective tissue around each fibre external to sarcolema.

Perimysium
 Connective tissue around a bundle of muscle fibre.

Epimysium

Connective tissue around the entire muscle (bundles of muscle fibre) and they go to all parts where muscles attach.

Diagram: Structure of connective tissues in muscles

Tendons

Connective tissue at the end of muscles (thinner than muscles)

Fascia

This is a connective tissue separating muscles from each other or muscle and skin.

Diagram: Structure of fascia

i. Superficial fascia

Occur just after fascia

ii. Deep fascia

Occur in muscles making muscular septa

iii. Aponeurosis

A thick fascia acting as origin or insertion of muscles

MUSCLES AND INNERVATIONS

Each skeletal muscle is supplied by nerves in deeper and superficial parts from the spinal cord.

The junction between muscle and neuron is called neuromuscular junction. So muscle cells (fibres), axon, and cell
cells of neuron make a motor unit. Due to motor unit and sensory response, muscle with the aid of superficial fascia
moves the skin.

Muscle around openings like anus and urinary bladder are called sphincters while those occurring in tubular organs
like intestines are referred to as constrictor muscles.

MUSCLES ATTACHMENT

Origin
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Is where muscles starts from and it remains fixed (stationary) at time of movement.

Insertion

Is where muscles end.

Origin or insertion of muscles may be bones, tendons or fascia.

MUSCULAR MOVEMENT

Muscles cause changes in bone alignment hence influence angular movements.

  Flexion

 Extension

 Abduction

 Adduction

 Rotation

 Circumduction

TYPES OF MUSCLES ACCORDING TO MOVEMENT

I. Extensor muscle

Occur on side of hinge joint where contractions align bones.

II. Flexor muscle

Occur on side where smaller angle between bones is formed.

III. Synergistic muscle

Works together in performing functions.

IV. Antagonistic muscle

Oppose the function of other muscles.

DIFFERENT MUSCLES ON REGARD TO ORIGIN, INSERTION, LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS.

I. MASSETER MUSCLES

Strong muscle on lateral side of ramus of mandible, its fibres are ventral caudally in arrangement

Origin: Fascial tuber of maxilla bone

Insertion: Ramus of mandible

Location: Lateral side of mandible

Function: To close the jaws and enables lateral movement of mandible in chewing

Veterinary importance: Inspection of cysticercus bovis (bovine) cysticercus cellulosae (porcine)

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II. TONGUE (LINGUA) MUSCLES

Made of styloglossus, hyoglossus and genioglossus muscles, The tongue continues caudally and forms a
groove when muscles act.

Origin: Chin angle (ventral mandible)

Insertion: Intrinsic muscles

Location: Retraction or protrusion of the tongue

 Veterinary importance: Inspection of cysticercus bovis

III. STERNOCEPHALICUS MUSCLES

There are two in number,superficial and deep.

Origin: Manubrium (sternum) and first costal cartilage

Insertion: Ventral mandible

Function: To flex the head or neck

IV. BRACHIOCEPHALICUS MUSCLES

Extends alongside the neck from the head to the brachium (arm)

Origin: Occipital bone or nuchal ligament

Insertion: Crest of humerus ventral of deltoid tuberosity

Function: When the head is fixed it pulls limb forward.

Veterinary importance: Makes a groove for easy tracing of jugular vein, also site for injection.

V. TRICEPS BRACHII

Fills the angle between caudal border of scapula and humerus.

Origin: Body of humerus and scapula.

Insertion: Olecranon.

Function: Flex shoulder joint and extends elbow joint.

Importance: Permits movement.

VI. BICEPS BRACHII

Occur on cranial part of humerus.

Origin: Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula

Insertion: Radial tuberosity of radius

Function: Flexes elbow joint.

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Veterinary importance: Inspection of cysticercus bovis.

VII. DIAPHRAGM MUSCLE

Separates the thoracic and abdominal cavity.

Attachments:

 Sternal part is attached to xiphoid cartilage

 Costal part is attached to ribs and 8th costal cartilage

  Lumbar part is attached to lumbar vertebrae

Function: Enables inspiration and expiration also helps during defication (abdominal press)

Veterinary importance: Inspection of Cysticercus bovis

VIII. LONGISMUS DORSI

Erector muscle of the spines

Origin: Thoracic, lumbar vertebrae and sacrum

Insertion: Ribs and cervical vertebrae.

Function: Elevate the neck and extend dorsum.

Veterinary importance: Estimation of body condition.

IX. GLUTEAL MUSCLES

Fills the space between tuber coxae and greater trochanter

Origin: Cacroiliac ligaments, coxal tuber and sacrotuberal ligament

Insertion: Greater trochanter of femur.

Function: Extends hip joint.

Veterinary importance: Site for injection.

X. BICEPS FEMORIS

Origin: Sacral spines, ischiatic tuber and gluteal fascia.

Insertion: Lateral patella ligament, calcaneal tuber and patella tibia.

Function: Extends hip or stifle joint as well as hock joint.

Veterinary importance: Inspection of Cysticercus bovis.

XI. SEMITENDINOSUS

Fuse form and long fresh muscle

Origin: Ischiatic tuber.

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Insertion: Medial of tibia, calcaneal tuber.

Function: Extends hip, hock and flexes stifle joint.

Veterinary importance: Site for injection.

XII. SEMIMEMBRINOSUS

Long thick fresh muscle

Origin: Ischiatic tuber.

 Insertion: Medial epicondyle of femur.

Veterinary importance: Site for injection.

XIII. QUADRICEPS FEMORIS

Has four heads

 Rectus femoris

 Vastus medialis

 Vastus intermedius

 Vastus ladialis

Origin: Around head of femur and oss coxae.

Insertion: All to patella and patella ligaments.

Location: Cranial, lateral, medial of the thigh.

Function: Extends stifle joint.

Veterinary importance: Inspection of Cysticercus bovis.

XIV. INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES

There are two:

 Intercostal externii

 Intercostals internii

Origin: Cranial or caudal border of ribs.

Insertion: Cranial or caudal border of ribs.

Location: Between costae.

Function: Aids expiration.

Veterinary importance: Inspection of Cysticercus bovis.

XV. ABDOMINAL MUSCLES

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Includes:

 Obliquus externus abdominis

 Obliquus internus abdominis

 Rectus abdominis

 Traverses abdominis

 Preputialis cranialis
  Preputialis caudalis

Function: Archs dorsum, retract ribs and viscera abdominal press resulting into micturation and

defication.

Veterinary importance: Site for caesarean section.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES

i. Provide heat during exercise

ii. Act as levers from various body parts causing locomotion

iii. Have ability to contract or relax hence allow blood flow in vessels

iv. Following rhythmic contractions in tubular organs cause flow of food

Enables inspiration and expiration

4.0 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (SPLANCHNOLOGY)

The digestive system consist of musculomembranous tube extending from the mouth to the anus called alimentary
canal. The major functions of this system is ingestion, grinding, digestion, absorption of food nutrients and
elimination of the solid wastes.

Digestion is the process of breaking down food substances into smaller particles that are easily absorbed by
intestine for body use.

There two types of digestion:

i. Physical digestion

This is the breakdown of food by using teeth the process known as mastication. In this process food is
mixed with saliva secreted from salivary glands for lubrication and antibacterial effect.

ii. Chemical digestion

This is hydrolytic process carried out by enzymes which are very specific to types of food. The digested
food results to a specific type of end product.

Mouth

This is the first part of the digestive system. It is bounded by cheeks on lateral sides, dorsally by palates, ventrally by
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mandibles and mylohyidei muscle caudally by soft palate. The mouth cavity (oral cavity) is divided into two parts;
the oral cavity vestibule (cavity outside teeth) and oral cavity proper (cavity within teeth and encloses the tongue).
The mouth communicates caudally with the pharynx.

Tongue (lingua)

Is situated on the floor of mouth between ramus of mandible and the root is held by hyoid bone, pharynx and soft
palate. The tongue is made to take the shape of the oral cavity proper, its tip (apex) is free and spatula shaped. The
ventral part is connected to thin membrane called frenulum. The major functions of the tongue include;

 Licking
 The tongue helps the animal to lick different materaials especially feed substances. Also after delivery some
animal species use their tongue to lick their offspring.
 Grasping food
Animals normally use their tongue to take food material into the mouth.
 Tasting food
The tongue of an animal is equipped with all important taste modalities such as sweet, sour, bitter and salt.
 Mixing food
During chewing of the food materials in the mouth the tongue is used to mix it thoroughly with saliva and
make some small boli for easy swallowing.
 Isolation of solid particles in food.
The animal uses its tongue to identify foreign materials rather than food in the mouth and isolate it before
swallowing.
Lips

Appears rostrally the mouth. In goats, horses and sheep are soft aiding to pick food. The lips of dogs and cattle are
very stiff and immobile serving little more less than closing the jaws.

Jaws

They are closed by powerful masseter, temporal, pterygoid muscles and opened by digastricus, occipito-
mandibularis and sterno- mandibularis muscle. The pterygoid muscle contribute to grinding movement by
protruding the jaws and moving it side to side

Cheeks

These are muscular structures covered with skin lined with mucous membrane, aiding the tongue to position food
between teeth when chewing. In cattle there are numerous conical papillae lining the cheeks.

Palates

There are two in number; the hard palate and soft palate. The hard palate form the roof of the mouth and
continues caudally as the soft palate separating the mouth from the pharynx.

Pharynx

This is a common passage of food and air lined by mucous membrane and surrounded by muscles. Openings into the
pharynx are the mouth, two posterior nares, two Eustachian tubes (auditory), oesophagus and the larynx (voice
box).

Teeth
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A tooth consist of a crown projecting above the alveolus, a root contained within the alveolus and the neck an area
of union between the root and crown. Internally the tooth posses a cavity containing soft structures like nerves and
blood vessels called pulp cavity.

The tooth have three surfaces; free (table, occlusal) surface is on top of the tooth, vestibular surface facing
vestibular cavity and lingual surface which face the tongue.

Structure of the teeth

 The principal tooth materials are enamel and dentine. Enamel is hardest part in the body forming tooth surface, it is
made of carbonate apatite and calcium phosphate. The rest of the tooth is made of dentine that is similar in
composition to bone. Cementum covers the root of the tooth and is the part that hold firm the tooth in alveolar.

Diagram: The structure of a tooth.

Types of teeth

There are two

i. Milk ( deciduous/ temporary/ baby) teeth

These are teeth which appear first following birth, the deciduous incisor and canine teeth resemble
permanent teeth that replace them but are smaller than permanent teeth. Mammals are born without
teeth or with only few erupted while carnivores and primates are born completely without teeth and in
carnivores take several weeks to erupt.

ii. Permanent teeth

These are teeth which replace the milk teeth. Incisors are most rosral followed by canines, premolars
and molars. Premolars and molars are all together called cheek teeth. Teeth are designated by letters as:

 Incisors (I)

 Canines (C)

 Premolars (PM)

 Molars (M)

Dentition

Is the form and arrangement of teeth in the oral cavity of an animal.

Dental formula in different animal species (Assigniment-Read)

S/N SPECIES DECIDUOUS TEETH PERMANENT TEETH

1 Cattle

2 Sheep

3 Goat
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4 Pig

5 Dog

6 Cat

7 Rabbit

8 Horse

9 Donkey
 10 Man

Salivary glands

These are three pairs of large glands on sides of the face near to the neck. They include; parotid gland located near
to ear just caudal to the mandible empting its secretions into the vestibular cavity, mandibular gland which extends
from atlantal fossa to basihyoid bone and is covered partly by the parotid gland and lower jaw and sublingual gland
is situated beneath the mucous membrane of the mouth between the body of tongue and ramus of mandible most
of time it appears to have glandular lobes and empties in sublingual recess.

Note: The secretion of salivary gland is saliva and is empted into the oral cavity.

Functions of salivary gland

i. Lubrication of food for swallowing

ii. Contain enzymes important for digesting food substance (amylase enzyme)

iii. Acts as antibacterial effect reducing number of bacteria by using lysosome enzyme

iv. It leaves the oral cavity wet avoiding it from drying.

Esophagus

Is a musculomembraneous tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. In its course shows deviations to the
left in the neck to the right of aortic arch and dorsal to the bifurcation of trachea.

Stomach

Is the large dilatation of the alimentary canal caudal to diaphragm which occurs between esophagus and small
intestines. The stomach stores food temporary and digest it further chemically (using enzymes). The structure of a
stomach differs to species according to feeding habits. Eg horses, pigs, carnivores and man have simple stomach
while ruminants have complex stomach.

The stomach of carnivore is covered by glandular mucosa and at first part in ruminant, pig and horse is covered by
glandless mucosa and this part varies in size from small zone around cardia in pig to three large compartment in
ruminants i.e. rumen, reticulum and omasum called fore stomach.

Simple stomach

Has greater curvature and small curvature, the lesser curvature makes the cardia and pylorus to be very close.
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Cranially the stomach is connected to oesophagus at cardia and the flow of food is controlled by cardiac sphincters.
The cardia continues as fundus which proceeds as pylorus becoming narrow at a part called antrum where flow of
food is controlled by muscular sphincters called pyloric sphincter after which the small intestine called duodenum
starts. Simple stomachs are found in horse, pigs, human, dogs and cats.

Compound (complex) stomach

It is found in ruminants, made of compartments each differs in structure. The compartments are rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasums.

Rumen
 It is the biggest in size connected to esophagus and receives food from it. Externally it is divided into dorsal and
ventral ruminal sac by left and right longitudinal grooves, caudally it is divided by left dorsal and ventral coronary
and right dorsal and ventral coronary grooves making caudo-dorsal and caudo-ventral sacs. Internally the grooves
correspond to the pillars, the inner mucosa is covered by papillae making it appear towel like in structure.

Reticulum

It is most cranial lying on the diaphragm muscle and the surface in contact with this part is called diaphragmatic
surface. The other surface face and is in contact with rumen is called visceral surface. Reticulum presents two
curvatures; the greater and lesser curvature. Lesser curvature face right side dorsally and the greater curvature face
to the left and ventrally lying on the diaphragm.

Reticulum receives food ingesta from rumen through rumino-reticular orifice and it is connected to the omasum via
reticulo-omasal orifice. Internally reticulum is lined by papilla arranged in folds that present five to six sided cells
making the compartment appear horney combed in shape.

Omasum

It is ellipsoidal in shape compressed between parietal and visceral surface. Parietal surface lies obliquely to the
diaphragm and liver, the visceral surface face to the left side and is in contact with rumen, reticulum, and
abomasums. The dorsal curvature face dorsally, caudally and to the right. Internally omasum is made of folds called
laminae arranged in pages like in a book hence referred as to have book pages structure.

Abomasums

It is an elongated sac lying on the abdominal floor. Its cranial end is fundus lying on xiphoid cartilage, middle part is
the body lying ventral to rumen and omasum and more to left of median plane. Pylorus is the caudal part that
continues as duodenum. The parietal surface is in contact with abdominal floor and the visceral surface relate to
omasum and rumen.

The greater curvature give attachment to the superficial wall of greater omentum and lesser curvature give
attachment to lesser omentum passing over parietal surface of omasum to be attached to the liver. Internally the
abomasums is a glandular stomach covered by glandular mucous membrane appearing as ridges called ruggae.

Gastric groove

This is a groove used in young ruminants to send fluidy food like milk to the abomasums for digestion and
absorption. It is divided into two; reticular groove and omasal groove.

Reticular groove

It is the first part of the gastric groove that begins from cardia and passes ventrally on the right wall of atrium
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ventriculi and reticulum to reticulo-omasal orifice and is made of left, right lips and floor.

Omasal groove

Is the second part of gastric groove, it passes from reticulum to abomasums. The space between the groove and free
borders of laminae is omasal canal a direct passage of ingesta from rumen and reticulum to abomasums.

Digestion in the stomach

It is done either mechanically (mechanical digestion) or chemically (enzymatic digestion)

Mechanical digestion
 This is done by peristaltic movement initiated by presence of food causing contractions of the stomach muscles that
break up food particles.

Chemical digestion

This is done by enzymes in the stomach. The gastric juice is released to digest the food in stomach. The juice is
released by stimulation in three ways:

a. Cephalic phase

This is due to presence of food in the mouth and its impulses are carried by vagus nerve causing 40-50%
secretions.

b. Gastric phase

This occur due to presence of food in the stomach (distension of stomach) causing release of gastrin
hormone in stomach which stimulate release of gastric juice. This releases 30-40% secretion.

c. Intestinal phase

This occur when the mixture of gastric juice and food (chime) goes into the small intestine (it is nervous and
hormonal) releasing 10-20% of the gastric juice.

Contents and functions of gastric juice

Gastric juice contains pepsin, rennin and lipase which are important in digestion of protein and fats (lipids). Pepsin is
produced from pepsinogen that is hydrolyzed by HCl to pepsin which initiates hydrolysis of protein, rennin is for milk
protein digestion in young animals and lipase digests fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Small intestine

It is made of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine measures 20x in ox, and 25x in shoats with average
diameter of 5-6cm in ox and 2-3cm in shoats.

Duodenum

This is the continuation of pylorus curving dorsally to the visceral side of the liver to form an S shape. It is attached to
the colon by duodenocolic ligaments. The common bile duct enters the second curve of sigmoid flexure where the
pancreatic duct enters duodenum just caudal to bile duct in ox while in shoats the pancreatic duct joins the bile
duct.

Jejunum
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This forms numerous close coils like festoons around border of mesentery just before union to the ileum. It forms a
U shape series of loops on extension of mesentery. The jejunum lies between duodenum and ileum.

Ileum

This is the terminal part of the small intestine whose cranial part is adherent to the caecum and colon. It enters the
junction of caecum and colon obliquely forming ileocecocolic junction.

Note: absorption of nutrients take place in the small intestine.

Large intestine
 It starts from the termination of ileum and is made up of colon, caecum and rectum.

Caecum

Is a blind sac with opening into beginning of colon, it forms with colon and ileum the iliocecocolic junction.

Colon

It begins at cecocolic and terminates at rectum in the pelvic cavity inlet. The colon has proximal loop which is a
continuation of caecum at the ileocecal orifice that continues to make centripetal gyri (centripetal coils) which turns
at the central flexure and continues as centrifugal gyri (centrifugal coils) making distal loop of colon that later turn
around the cranial mesenteric artery as transverse colon and continues as a descending colon.

Rectum and anus

Consist of cranial part largely covered by peritoneum, it extends from pelvic inlet to anus which is the terminal
opening through which the undigested materials pass out as faeces. The anus is located just below the tail base (root
of the tail) and is highly supplied with sebaceous gland and is closed by external and internal anal sphincters.

Accessory organs of the digestive system

This are organs that work together with the digestive system to accomplish the functions of it.

Pancreas

It is on dorsal wall of the abdomen, pinkish in color and normally found attached on the flexure of duodenum acting
as an endocrine and exocrine gland. As endocrine gland the pancreas produces insulin and glucagon hormones for
sugar control while as exocrine gland it produces pancreatic juice for fat, protein and carbohydrate digestion.

Liver

Is the largest gland in the body situated obliquely on abdominal surface of diaphragm hold in position by pressure of
other visceral organs and attachment to diaphragm. It is covered by an external serous and deeper fibrous coat.
The liver is divided into lobes by blunt depressions called fissures.

The lobes present in the liver include; left lobe, quadrate lobe and caudate lobe. The left lobe is marked from
quadrate and caudate lobe by presence of falciform ligament that attach the liver to diaphragm. The caudate lobe is
between the vena cava and left branch of portal vein where the quadrate lobe is between left branch of portal vein
and ventral border of the liver.

The liver on its parietal surface is smooth and on its visceral surface carries gall bladder a pear shaped sac regarded
as diverticulum of bile duct that produces bile except in horses is absent hence bile in horses is produced from the
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liver tissues. Within the liver parenchyma it is perforated by bile ducts that unite to form hepatic duct.

Large blood vessels of the liver i.e vena cava, portal vein and hepatic artery are on visceral surface running parallel to
the bile duct.

Functions of the liver

i. Secretion of bile for fat emulsification (fat digestion)

ii. Storage of starch and glycogen

iii. Stores fats and protein

 iv. Removes toxic substances(urea and uric acid) through kidneys

v. Acts as blood reservoir

vi. Detoxifies all toxic materials in the body

vii. Convert lactic acid in muscles into glycogen

viii. Produces plasma protein

ix. Stores vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and minerals like Fe, Cu and K.

x. Regulates the content of amino acid in the body

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

i. Prehension of food substances

ii. Mechanical digestion (mastication)

iii. Chemical digestion (enzyme actions)

iv. Absorption of food nutrients

v. Detoxification

vi. Emulsification

vii. Lubricating food substances and bolus

5.0 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (SPLANCHNOLOGY)

Respiration is the process of exchanging gases i.e carbon dioxide from the lungs to atmosphere and oxygen from
atmosphere to the lungs.

The respiratory system is made of lungs contained in the thorax, trachea in the neck and complex air passages
(bronchus, bronchioles and air sacs) found within the lungs.

Parts of the respiratory system

Nose (nasus)

It is located in the skeleton of the face and do not project out as in man, extending from transverse level of eyes the
following are observed: dorsally; dorsal part of the nose, laterally; lateral region of the nose, rostrally; tip (apex) of
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the nose carrying two nostrils. The most outer layer of the nose is the skin at its tip with short hairs, the middle
layer is made of bone tissues where the rostral part is cartilaginous.

The dorsal wall is made by nasal and frontal bones, laterally is covered by maxillary, lacrimal, and zygomatic bones.
The rostral part of the nose in sheep, goats, dogs and cats have a median groove dividing the upper lip called
philtrum. Internally the nose is divided into two halves by a nasal septum which is cartilaginous rostrally. The cavity
made by the nose is called nasal cavity.

Nasal cavity
 This cavity is found in the head separated from the oral cavity by palatine bone. It extends from nostrils (openings
into the nasal cavity) to choana (rostral opening of the pharynx). The nasal cavity is covered by the frontal bone
dorsally, incisive, maxillary and partly lacrimal and malar bones laterally.

Within the nasal cavity there are three soft bones called conchal bones (endoturbinate bones) referred to as dorsal,
middle and ventral conchal bones making three meatus (nasal passages) named dorsal meatus (between roof of
the cavity and dorsal conchae), middle meatus (between dorsal and ventral conchal bones) and ventral meatus
(between floor of the cavity and ventral conchae). The major functions of turbinate bones is to humidify air, filter
air, warmth air and olfaction (sense of smell). They have specialized epithelium for olfaction that is important in
pheremone detection.

Pheremone is a chemical substance produced by one animal and sensed by another animal and is important in
territory marking as well as sexual behaviour. This is more seen associated with flehemen where male animal curls
the upper lip and extend the head. It is identified as pre copulatory behaviour.

Note: in some text books the middle nasal conchal bone is called great ethmoturbinate bone.

Pharynx

Is the cross opening of digestive and respiratory tract. It is divided into two parts; oropharynx ventrally and
nasopharynx dorsally separated by the soft palate an extension of cartilaginous hard palate. In breathing, epiglottis
overlaps the soft palate opening and oesophagus is closed by muscle contraction so that air directly crosses
nasopharynx from the nasal cavity.

Larynx (voice box)

This is short tubular organ connecting pharynx to trachea preventing foreign materials to enter trachea. Apart from
preventing foreign materials it is essential for voice production. The larynx is made of cartilages articulating with
each other moved by pharyngeal muscles.

Cartilages of the larynx

 Thyroid cartilage

Surrounds other cartilages and it is incomplete dorsally, shield shaped and in layman language is called
Adams’ apple.

 Cricoids cartilage

This articulates caudally the thyroid cartilage and it is signet ring like in structure with thicker dorsal part
and thinner ventral part.
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 Arytenoids cartilage

Occurs cranial to cricoids clearly seen as dorsal to thyroid cartilage with ladle shape.

 Corniculate cartilage

Is goats’ horn in shape, attached to arytenoids cartilage and it curves caudally dorsally.

 Epiglottis cartilages

It is covered by mucous membrane and occur just caudal to the root of the tongue having a tensile strength.
 It extends from the cranial opening of larynx and within the larynx there are two left and right vocal folds
making the narrowest point of larynx called glottis.

 Cuneiform cartilage

This occur in horses and dogs.

Trachea (wind pipe)

It starts caudal to larynx and continues caudally into the thorax (thoracic cavity) and bifurcates into left and right
principal bronchi. Trachea is divided into cervical and thoracic parts, made up of series of circular tracheal cartilages
that are incomplete dorsally and this dorsal opening is closed by inner tracheal muscle.

The cervical part of the trachea is bounded by longus colli dorsally, thyroid gland, sternothyroidius, carotid artery,
jugular vein and oesophagus laterally. Ventrally it is bounded by carotid artery, pulmonary trunk and the right
pulmonary artery.

Lungs

These are two lower respiratory organs (left and right) contained in the thoracic cavity which is made up of thoracic
vertebrae dorsally, ribs laterally and the sternum ventrally. They are coloured pale pink (pinkish) and they are
covered by pleura sac which serve as capsule extending between the lobes of the lung. The left lung has two lobe;
the left apical lobe (cranial and caudal) and diaphragmatic (caudal) lobe while the right lung has four lobes; the
right apical lobe (cranial and caudal), middle (cardiac), accessory (intermediate) and diaphragmatic lobe.

Note: in all domesticated animals the left lung has two lobes; the apical and diaphragmatic lobes and the right lung
has four lobes; apical, middle, accessory and diaphragmatic lobes except horses has only three lobes on the right
lung where the middle lobe is missing..

In the lungs the place where bronchi, blood vessels enter the lung tissue is called hilus and the space between the
lungs is called mediastium. The pleura covering this part is named mediastinal pleura, the one covering
diaphragmatic is named diaphragmatic pleura as well as that covering ribs is called costal pleura.

Pleura is a thin membrane covering the lungs. It is slippery so that it can make the lungs slip easily at time of
respiration.

The brochial tree.

This is the bifurcation of bronchus into bronchi ventilating the lobes of lungs. In right lung, cranial to tracheal division
the tracheal bronchus pass laterally ventilating the right apical lobe which further divides into cranial and caudal
tracheal bronchi to ventilate the cranial and caudal lobes respectively.
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Caudal to this bronchus the trachea bifurcates giving two principal bronchi right and left. The right principal
bronchus enters the right lung giving a bronchus called middle lobar to ventilate the middle lobe and it further
divides to dorsal and ventral segments.

At almost the same level, it gives another bronchus called accessory lobar to ventilate accessory lobe which further
divides into dorsal and ventral segments after which the right principal bronchus continues caudally as

diaphragmatic lobar ventilating the diaphragmatic lobe giving two bronchi to ventilate ventral and lateral basal of
the lobe.
 The left principal bronchus as it enters the lung (left lung) it gives a left apical lobar bronchus to ventilate the apical
lobe branching into two bronchi each ventilating the cranial and caudal apical lobe, then it continues caudally as
diaphragmatic lobar to ventilate the diaphragmatic lobe of the left lung.

Respiration rates of animals

S/n Animal species Respiration rate (cycles/min)

1 Bovine

2 Equine

3 Porcine FUNCTIONS OF THE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
4 Caprine
i. Removes dust inhaled
5 Ovine together with air

6 Canine Due to presence of hair

like structures in the nose
7 Feline
that tend to retain
8 Rabbits foreign materials.

ii. Moistening air

This is done by the turbinate bones found in the nasal cavity.

iii. Removes carbon dioxide and other toxic gases

This occurs due to the presence lungs in the respiratory system

iv. Production of sound

This is enabled by the Larynx or the voice box.

v. Olfaction, important in smell detection.

The conchal bones have specialized epithelium for olfaction that is important in pheremone detection.

6.0 URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
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URINARY ORGANS (ORGANA UROPOETICA)

KIDNEYS (REN)

Are organs for filtrations of plasma and plasma constituents from blood, selective reabsorption of water and
nutrients from the filtrates.

They are two in number, right and left kidneys and are coloured brown.

They are smooth and differs in shape due to differences in animal species.
 In most of the domestic animals the kidneys are been shaped.

Kidneys of cattle are lobulated while the right kidney of a horse is Heart shaped.

Locations: Dorsal part of the abdominal cavity on each side just ventral to the 1st few lumbar vertebrae.

In sheep, goats, and cow with full rumen, the left kidney may be pushed as far as the median plane or beyond
because it is loosely attached.

Kidneys are retroperitoneal (positioned outside the peritoneal cavity) and are attached to the abdominal walls by
fascia, vessels and the peritoneum.

Note: The depression at which blood vessels and nerves enters and ureters and lymphatic vessels leave the kidney is
called renal hilus.

STRUCTURES FOUND IN THE KIDNEYS

i. Renal pelvis
Forms the base of ureters

Receives urine from the collecting tubules of kidneys

ii. Renal crests

Ridge like structures in kidneys of horse, sheep and dogs.

Collecting ducts empty urine in it.

iii. Pyramids
Found in kidneys of cow and pigs

They project into minor calyces which in turn empty in major calyces.

In pigs the major calyces empty into renal pelvis while in cow they empty directly into ureters as there is
no renal pelvis.

Note: Renal pelvis has no relationship with the bone pelvis.

iv. Medulla
Is the portion of kidney surrounding renal pelvis

v. Cortex
Portion soon after the medulla, forming outer portion of the kidney.
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vi. Renal capsules

This is the thin layer covering the kidneys

vii. Nephron
This is a unit structure and function of the kidneys

Diagram: The structure of the nephron.

THE NEPHRON

It is the major part of the kidneys responsible with urine formation.

 Consists of

 Glomerus,
 Bowman’s capsule
 Proximal convoluted tubule
 Distal convoluted tubule
 Loop of Henle
 Collecting duct

Location: In kidneys occupying Medulla and Cortex part.

Diagram: The structure of the nephron.

URETERS

They are two in number, right and left ureters.

A ureter is a muscular tube which conveys urine from renal pelvis(base of ureters) to urinary bladder.

Location: Extends from ren to urinary bladder.

URINARY BLADDER (VESICA URINARIA)

It is a hollow muscular organ, pear shaped in structure with thick walls.

It varies in size depending on the amount of urine contained.

Location: Floor of the bony pelvis.

URETHRA

It is the passage of urine from the bladder to external environment.

Caudally it forms the neck of the bladder with sphincters controlling the passage of urine into it.

BLOOD VESSELS

There are two

 Renal arteries (two in number) supplying blood to the kidneys right and left respectively.
 Renal veins (two in number) draining the kidneys right and left respectively.

Note: Expulsion (giving out) urine from the bladder via urethra to external environment is termed as Micturation
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(urination)

Diagram: The structure of the kidneys.

FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS/ URINARY SYSTEM

I. Urine formation
II. Excretion of urea components
III. Maintains homeostasis
IV. Conserves Na+ due to presence of aldosterone hormone

7.0 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (SPLANCHNOLOGY)

 Reproductive system is the one used by living organisms for its perpetuation. There is Male and Female
reproductive system.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Found in male animals and composed of organs like testes, epidydimis, vas deferens, penis and prepuce

Scrotum

It is a skin sac in which male testis is carried. In horses it is hairless ad wrinkled, in ruminants is smooth, long and
pendulous covered with fine hairs while in cats, dogs and pigs are smooth and located on the perineal region.

Testes

Vary in shapes, size and location from species to species. Generally they are oval shaped, covered by tough fibrous
tissue called tunica albugnea, they are made up of seminiferous tubules which produce male reproductive gametes
and male sex hormones called progesterone. Testicles are contained in a sac called scrotum.

Epidydimis

It is a tubular structure that transports spermatozoa to outside from the testicles also it serves as the site for
maturation of spermatozoa before fertilization. The eidydimis is attached along the caudal border of the testicle and
is divided into three portions; the head present on the dorsal part, the body on the caudal lateral of testicle as well
as the tail present on the ventral aspect of the testicle.

Spermatic cord (Funiculus spermaticus)

It begins at the deep inguinal ring, where its constituent parts come together, extend obliquely ventrally through
the inguinal canal, passes over the side of the penis and terminates at the attached border of testicles.

Ductus deferens (Vas deferens)

It is a long tubular organ extending from the epidydimis and opens into urethra, forming the continuation of
epidydimis tail and it is very flexuous passing along the caudal border of testicle and becomes straight and caudal to
the spermatic cord. In fast ejaculators the vas deferens forms ampullae prior to joining prostatic urethra. It is
essential for carrying sperms to the urethra and finally to external environment of the male genitalia.

Accessory genital glands

These are sexual glands present in the male animal producing semen that carries and provide nutrients to
spermatozoa. They include:

 Ampullae
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Is aglandular enlargement of terminal part of vas deferens, well developed in ruminants and horse while
small in dogs and absent in boars.

 Vesicular gland (seminal vesical)

They are paired, very large at the neck of urinary bladder followed by prostate gland.

 Prostate gland

This is unpaired, occur just after vesicular gland and surrounds the urethra. It produces alkaline fluid which
gives smell of semen.
  Bulbourethral (Cowpers)

Is a small gland, paired and located on either sides of the pelvic urethra more caudal to other accessory
glands. It produces fluid to flush urethra prior to ejaculation for lubrication before intromission.

Prepuce

Is an invagination fold of skin surrounding the glans penis. Its outer surface is typical skin while the inner part is
lined by prepucial layer with fine hairs on the opening. In boar it has a diverticulum (pouch) dorsal to prepucial
orifice that accumulates secretions and dead cells contributing to characteristic smell of mature boar. In man this is
regarded as the fore skin that is circumcised.

Penis

This is the organ for copulation. It is composed of the root, body and glans. In dogs the cranial part of the penis have
a bone os penis which in large dogs it is about 10cm or more in length. Ventrally it is grooved for urethra, dorsally is
convex and cranially it becomes smaller and has a curved fibrous prolongation. The glans is very long extending over
the entire length of the os penis.

Urethra

In male animals the urethra is essential for both spermatozoa and urine passage. Its first part extends from the
urinary bladder and is enclosed in the prostate

Diagram: The structure of the ovum and spermatozoa

Functions of the male reproductive organs.

i. Produces sperms that are used to fertilize female gametes for life perpetuations

ii. Give development of male secondary sexual characteristics

iii. Makes libido a desire to mate due to testosterone hormone

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

It is composed of the following organs:

Ovaries

These are primary organs of reproduction in females. They are paired glands behind the kidneys in the abdominal
cavity having an oval shape except in sows appear lobulated because of numerous follicle on the surface. Ovaries
have two functions; production of female gametes (ova) ie. Cytogenic and production of female hormones
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(estrogen and progesterone) ie. Endocrine gland.

Uterine tubes/ fallopian tubes /Oviducts

These are paired convoluted tubes that transport ova from the ovary to the horn of uterus. They act as sites for
fertilization of ova by spermatozoa. They have three parts namely:

 Infundibulum

A funnel like structure with finger like projections called fibriae that receives the ovum.

 Ampulla
 A narrow portion of uterine tube where fertilization occur

 Isthmus

A thicker part which transports the fertilized egg into the uterine horn (Horn of uterus)

Uterus

Is divided into three parts; the cervix (neck), corpus (body) and two cornua (two horns)

 The uterine horns

Are connected to the uterine tube cranially and caudally to uterine body, ruminants horns are coiled like
the rams’ horns, in pigs are very long can be confused to small intestines and in the mare, cats and dogs are
straight.

 The body

Cranially connected to horns and caudally to vagina, the body is always closed by cervix except in heat
periods. In ruminants the left and right horn are held by intercornual ligament and internally carries
coruncles that are connected to cotyledons of the foetus to make placentoms that holds the foetus for
nutrients and gaseous exchange with the dam (mother)

 The cervix

This is a stopper or closer of uterus. It is made up of tough muscles and heavy mucus plug that always is
closed except during oestrus and parturition. In ruminants and swine is arranged in series of circular ridges
called annular folds.

Note: The cervix can not be seen from outside but can be felt by palpations (feeling)

Vagina

It is caudal to uterine body and cranial to vulva, its cavity is separated from uterine cavity by cervix. It is found
within the pelvic cavity. This canal (vagina) is projected by cervix forming the angle of projection called fornix. The
vagina is glandless with stratified epithelium except in cow there are mucous glands. Vagina functions as an
acceptance for penis during copulation and birth canal during delivery

Vestibule.

Is a tubular portion of the reproductive tract between vagina and labia of vulva.

Vulva
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It is the external portion of female genitalia caudal to vagina. The junction of vulva and vagina is marked by
projection named vestibular-vaginal muscle a point where there is a vestigial hymen that interferes with
copulation. In humans the existence of hymen indicates virginity.

The labia in domestic animals are simple as compared to human who have labia minor and labia major. The vulva
have dorsal and ventral commisure

Clitoris
 It is concealed in the ventral commisure, made up of erectile tissues well supplied with sensory nerve endings. The
clitoris has three parts as the penis. Viz; the crura ( root ), the body and glans clitoris. It is also from the same origin
as the penis.

Diagram: The structure of the female reproductive organ

FOLLICULAR DEVELOPMENT

Oogenesis is the production of one final gamete i.e ovum or egg cell from primary Oocyte which divides mitotically
and meiotically. In mitosis primary Oocyte result into sister cells and then sister cells divide meiotically by meiosis I
to produce two sister chromatids which further divide to produce one ovum and three polar bodies which dies
before maturation and can not be fertilized leaving only the larger ovum as the final product of Oogenesis.

Diagram: The structure of the ovum

The production of one egg cell via Oogenesis normally occur only once a month. After ovulation if no fertilization in
animals the egg dies and the uterine contents are reabsorbed back where as in the primates like human the egg
comes out with blood as menstral blood.

Ovulation

This is the rupture of ovarian (graafian) follicle to release an ovum occurring at the end of oestrus in most species.

Prior to ovarian rupture the follicular wall and that of ovary become very thin and intra follicular pressure in the
follicle increase due to luteinizing hormone resulting to rupture of the follicular wall and release of follicular fluid
and ovum.

Following this rupture, the ovary leave a cavity called corpus haemorrhagicum that is filled with blood which later is
transformed to corpus luteum that produces progesterone hormone. The corpus luteum (yellow body) then
transforms to corpus albicans (white body) if fertilization do not take place. If fertilization occurs the corpus luteum
persists through out gestation producing progesterone hormone that maintain pregnancy.

TYPES OF OVULATION

i. Spontaneous ovulators

They ovulate without external stimuli e.g cattle, horse, human, goats e.t.c

ii. Reflex ovulators

These are animals by which ovulation is initiated by coitus. i.e stimulation by neuroendocrine reflex e.g dogs,
cats, rabbits, ferret, mink
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES

S/N HORMONE ORIGIN EFFECTOR FUNCTIONS

ORGAN

1 Estrogen Ovary Female sex  Development of female sex

organs organs

 Sensitization of libido
(oestrus/heat) in females
  Development of female
secondary characters

2 Follicle stimulating Pituitary gland Ovarian  Stimulate development of

hormone (anterior lobe) follicles follicles for ovum
development

3 Luteinizing Pituitary gland Ovary  Stimulate increase intra

hormone (anterior lobe) (graafian follicular pressure resulting
follicle) into ovulation

4 Progesterone Corpus luteum Uterus  Maintenance of pregnancy

hormone and placenta to term in gestation

THE OESTRUS CYCLE

Is the interval between one heat to next heat.

The oestrus cycle is controlled by the pituitary gland hormones like Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing
hormone.

Oestrus

This is the period when the female animal accepts the male animal (standing heat). Or it is a cyclic ovarian activity in
non pregnant female mature animals associated with secretion of hormones.

In human being the estrus is termed as “Menstruation” and it occurs monthly in normal body condition. The onset
and termination of this phase is used as the baseline in determination of oestrus length.

Length of oestrus

Heifers 18-22 days

Cows 18-24 days

Does 18-21 days

Ewe 15-19 days

Sow
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Mare

Bitch

Duration of estrus

Heifers 16-17 hours

Cows 18-19 hours

Does 24-36 hours

Ewe 18-24 hours

 Sow

Mare

Bitch

PHASES OF THE OESTRUS CYCLE

The estrus cycle is divided into five phases:

I. Pro-estrus

 An immediate phase proceeding estrus

 There is rapid follicular growth due to increase in estrogen

 Corpus luteum of the previous cycle regress

 Uterus, vagina and uterine tubes increase in size

II. Estrus

 This is a period of high sexual desire (Male acceptance by the female). The male animal will mount and do
intromission and ejaculate.

 Ovulation occur in this phase.

 The female animal stand still to be mounted

 Follicle stimulating hormone decrease while Luteinizing hormone increase.

III. Metaestrus

 The phase succeeding estrus

 Corpus luteum is formed

 Progesterone level increases to prevent functions of F.S.H and Follicle development.

 Fertilization occurs

 Implantation of the fertilized egg take place.

Note: If fertilization occurred then progesterone from corpus luteum prepares for pregnancy.
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IV. Diestrus

If fertilization occurred:

 Corpus luteum is formed

 Progesteron hormone is formed

 Cervix become constricted

Note: If fertilization did not occur at this phase the uterus involutes to resting state and reversal of progesterone
and estrogen secretion starts as smaller ovarian follicle grow and corpus luteum regress.
 V. Anestrus

 Is a prolonged period of sexual rest

 Ovarian and tubular genitalia are suspended

 There is no follicular development

 The corpus luteum regress and become non functional

Note: This phase occurs at the end of bleeding season in season bleeders like sheep in temperate regions.

SIGNS OF HEAT (EOSTRUS)

i. The animal is restless and very noisy

ii. Feed intake is reduced (anorexia)

iii. The animal stands to be mounted

iv. The animal mounts others

v. The vulva becomes edematous and hyperaemic

vi. Clear discharge from the vulva are observed

vii. The tail is slightly raised

viii. Body temperature is slightly elevated

Note: Heat that can not show signs is termed as silent heat.

FACTORS AFFECTING OESTRUS CYCLE

i. Nutrition
Animals which are poorly fed will not come into heat
ii. Season influence
The season of the year may affect direct or indirect the estrus cycle in animals
iii. Environmental temperature
Excessive cold or temperature affects the oestrus cycle in domestic animals
iv. Age of the animal
Young (immature) animals and very old ones can’t come into heat
v. Character of work the animal is subjected to
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Animals subjected to much difficult work will not come into heat normally
vi. Transportation stress
Long distance transportation of the animals particularly by tracking will hinder ovarian activity hence estrus cycle
vii. Systemic diseases
Degenerative disease like TB, Brucelosis, Trichomoniasis and Vibriosis hinders/ affects oestrus
viii. Pathology of uterus
An animal having pathological defect in uterus will not come into heat
ix. Endocrine disturbance
Imparement of hormones affects the normal cycle of heat in domestic animals
 MAMMARY GLANDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Mammary gland is a glandular structure used to produce milk in female animals and in males is just a rudiment. It
differs in location depending on animal species.

Distribution and location of mammary glands in domestic animals

S/n Animal species Location Number of glands Teats

1 Man and Elephant Pectoral (chest) 2 2

2 Equines Inguinal 4 2

3 Sheep and goats Inguinal 2 2

4 Cow Inguinal 4 4

5 Sow and Bitch Ventral abdominal 10-18 10-18

wall

N.B: In human and bitches the teats has several orifices (openings) and in ruminants (cow, sheep, and goats ) there
is a single duct.

Macroscopic structure of mammary gland

The functional unit of the mammary gland is alveolus which is spherical in shape made of epithelial layer
surrounding the cavity called alveolar lumen. The gland appears externally to be covered by skin and continues
distally as teat.

Internally the alveoli are grouped into smaller clusters called lobules drained by small ducts. Lobules fuses to form
the lobes drained by large ducts which unites to form gland cistern (lactiferous sinus), the gland cistern drain into
teat cistern (a cavity within teat) and eventually milk passes out through the narrow teat canal (streak canal) at tip
of the teat. The mammary gland is supplied with blood by the external pudendal artery and leaves the udder
through subcutaneous abdominal vein.

Diagram: The structure of the mammary gland

Changes in size of the mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation

During pregnancy the growth of the gland is continuous than cyclic as in oestrus cycle. During the first six months
progesterone cause rapid growth of ducts and lobes alveolar system, at this time no milk secreted and alveoli still
collapsed.
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In the last trimester colostrum is secreted causing alveoli to dilate resulting in rapid enlargement of the mammary
gland and after parturition as the calf suckles creates empty cisterns and this under control of prolactin hormone
still continues to make the gland enlarged due to milk secretion.

Milk ejection (milk letdown)

This is the process of removing milk from the alveolar lumen into the duct after neurohormonal reflex and withdraw
of milk from the cistern and ducts of the mammary gland to outside. Ejection is due to contraction of myoepithelial
cells under influence of oxytocin hormone

Mechanism of milk ejection

 Stimulation occurs in the teat due to suckling, touch, psychological eg seeing kid. The impulses are carried by
nerves to the pituitary gland causing it to release oxytocin into blood which send the hormone to the mammary
gland causing contraction of the myoepithelial cell in alveolus and ducts hence expel milk into cistern of gland and
teat, then milk comes out through teat canal. Oxytocin effect is just transitional for 8-12 minutes and its effect is
complexly neutralized by adrenalin that causes capillaries to constrict the blood with oxytocin does not reach the
myoepithelial cell hence no milk secreted.

FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

i. Sperm ova production

ii. Makes libido

iii. Give development of male and female sexual characteristics

iv. Provides a site for the development of zygote into foetus

v. Provides a site for the passage of an offspring during delivery

8.0 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (ENDOCRINOLOGY)

Endocrinology is the study of glands that secrete contents (hormones) into blood streams and transported to the
target organs.

TYPES OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Ducted glands

These are glands with a duct opening into blood stream through which contents are empted.

Ductless glands

These are glands with no ducts opening into the blood stream.

Characteristics of endocrine glands

 They are slower in actions (Than nervous system)

 When the system works in particular tissue it results into irreversible outcome.

Hormones are chemical substance synthesized by endocrine glands and released direct into blood stream where is
carried to far organs called target organs where it functions.

CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
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I.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

 Steroid hormones (Lipids) eg. Androgens, Estrogen, Progesterone, and Adrenocorticotrophic hormone.

 Protein hormones eg. Growth hormone, Adrenocorticotrophic hormone, Gonadotrophins (Follicle

stimulating hormone, Prolactin, Leutenizing hormone),Thyrotrophic hormone, and Gastrointestinal
hormones (Secretin, Pancreozymin and Gastrin)

 Amino Acids and polypeptides eg. Thyroxine hormones.

 II.HORMONES ACTIVITY TO OTHER HORMONES

 Synergistic hormones

These increase activity of other hormones. Eg. Prolactin and Progesterone. Prolactin and Progesterone
maintains pregnancy also Prolactin sensitizes udder production (milk synthesis)

 Antagonistic hormones

These inhibits the activity of other hormones. Eg Glucagon and Insulin. When glucagon increases the release
of glucose from sgar reserves into blood, insulin reduces the sugar from blood by metabolism.

 Trophic hormones

These act on other glands and cause such glands to release their hormones. Most of these are secreted from
the anterior pituitary (Master) gland. Eg. Gonadotrophic hormone which cause release of Follicle stimulating
hormone (F.S.H) and Leutenizing hormone (L.H) from the gonards.

CONDITIONS THAT OCCUR DUE TO OVERSECRETION OR UNDERSECRETION OF CERTAIN HORMONES.

S/N HORMONE OVERSECRETION UNDERSECRETION

1 Growth hormone Acromegally or Giantism (Mature adult) Dwarfism (In youngs)

2 Thyroxine Increased metabolic rate, nervous and Cretinism (Dwarf), Myxdema, (Retention
exophthalmos (Man) of Na+, Cl- and low blood volume also
goitre)

3 Insulin Diabetes inspedius Diabetes mellitus

4 Parathyroid Soft and weak bones

S/N GLAND HORMONE ACTION/FUNCTION LOCATION

1 Thyroid  Thyroxin  Accelerate metabolic rate Near

Thyroid
 Calcitonin  regulates Ca++ metabolism cartilage of
(Thyrocalcito Larynx
nin)
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2 Adrenal Close

 Cortex  Glucocorticoi  Stimulate conversion of protein to to kidneys

ds carbohydrate (Gluconeogenesis)

 Regulate Na+_K+ metabolism

 Control electrolytes and water

 Mineralocorti
 coids  Augments sympathetic nervous
system, preparation for emergency

 Metabolization of energy
 Medulla

 Epinephrine

3 Pituitary Base of the brain in

(Hypophysis) sellatursica
depression
 Anterior
lobe  Somatotropi  Stimulates growth
n (Growth
hormone)

 Thyrotropin
(Thyroid  Stimulate the thyroid gland
stimulating
hormone)

 Adrenocortic
otrophin
(A.C.T.H)
Stimulates adrenal cortex
 Gonadotroph
ins

i.Follicle stimulating
hormone

 Stimulate ovarian follicle

ii.Luteinizing development in female
hormone
 Stimulate spermatogenesis in male
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 Stimulate ovulation and luteinisation

in female

Luteotropin  Stimulate interstitial cell secretion in

(lactogenic and male
prolactin)

 Maintains corpora lutea

 Intermedi
 Stimulates lactation
 n (M.S.H)

Intermediate  Oxytocin  Regulates pigment cells

lobe

 Antidiuretic  Stimulate uterine contraction and

Posterior lobe hormone or cause milk let down
Vasopresin
(A.D.H)
 Inhibits dieresis

 Stimulates contraction of smooth

muscles of arterioles and conserves
water

4 Parathyroid  Parathyroid  Control calcium and Phosphorus level On the neck near
hormone in blood and urine Thyroid gland

5 Pancreas (Islet of  Insulin  Regulates carbohydrate metabolism At duodenal loop

Langerhans)
 Increase blood sugar

 Glucagon

6 Ovaries Attached at the edge

of uterus in
 Follicle  Estrogen  Regulates female secondary sexual abdominal cavity
characters and sexual behaviour

 Maintains pregnancy and prepares

the mammary gland for lactation
 Corpus  Progesterone
luteum

7 Testes  Androgen  Regulates male secondary sexual In scrotum

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(Testosteron characters and sexual behaviour

e)

8 Placenta  Estrogen  Maintains normal pregnancy Within uterus of

pregnant animals
 Progesterone

 Gonadotropi
n (Chorionic)

 Relaxin
  Relaxes pelvic symphysis at
parturition

9 Stomach mucosa  Gastrin  Stimulates secretion of HCl and Antrum of stomach

Pepsinogen

10 Uterus  Prostaglandi  Regress corpus luteum (Better to be In the abdominal

ns used in synchronization) cavity

GLAND LOCATIONS, HORMONES SECRETED AND THEIR PRINCIPAL ACTIONS

FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Refer the functions of hormones outlined above.

9.0 NERVOUS SYSTEM (NEUROLOGY)

This is the system that controls body functions and their interactions with external and internal environment with
conscious and unconscious activities.

Nerve (neurone)

Is the functional or structural unit of nervous system and is used to transfer sensory impulses from one place to
another of the body.

The neuron or nerve is made up of the cell body, dendrites and axon. Neurones are connected to each other
through a gape called synapse.

Diagram: The structure of the nerve cell

The nervous system is divided into three main divisions:

i. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

ii. The peripheral nervous system (made of cranial and spinal nerves)

iii. Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system)

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

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Brain

Is part of the CNS situated in the cranial cavity. The brain is divided into three parts; Brain stem, cerebellum and
cerebrum.

Brainstem

It is ventral to brain and caudally connected to cranial continuation of spinal cord called medulla oblongata which
connects the brain to spinal cord.

This is a control center of respiration, postural reflex and functions of the digestive system.
 Cerebellum

This is located just caudal to cerebrum and dorsal to medulla oblongata. It is separated from cerebrum by a
transverse fissure. It has an external periphery located grey matter (cortex) and centrally white matter. Cerebellum
has gyri but appear very small as compared to those of cerebrum.

It is a center for sensory, motor coordination (voluntary movement control) and maintains body equilibrium.

Cerebrum

It is folded and has grooves called gyri (grooves). It is divide into two left and right hemispheres separated by
longitudinal fissures. The rostral part of the cerebrum has olfactory bulb that is important in smelling. Cerebrum
has the rostral and caudal pole of hemisphere

Brain ventricles

These are cavities present in the brain containing clear fluid called cerebral spinal fluids (CSF). The ventricles are
lateral ventricle (left and right) in cerebral hemisphere plexus, third ventricle in diencephalon (fore brain) and
fourth ventricle in medulla oblongata.

The third and fourth ventricles are connected to each other by cerebral aqueduct. The cerebral spinal fluid is
produced by choroid plexus made of blood capillaries networks.

Diagram: The structure of the brain

Spinal cord

It is the continuation of the brain from the medulla oblongata at the level of foramen magnum (in occipital bone)
and is contained in the vertebral canal. It is divided into right and left half by dorsal median sulcus dorsally and
ventral median fissure ventrally.

In transverse sections the central part is grey called grey matter, it is H shaped with dorsal and ventral column and
white matter is peripheral divided into three columns; the dorsal, lateral and ventral column.

Meninges

The brain and spinal cord are enclosed in membranes called meninges made up of three layers; the pia matter
which is closest to the CNS containing blood vessels into CNS, the middle layer arachnoid which encloses
subarachnoid space containing cerebral spinal fluid and dura matter is external tough fibrous covering leaving the
epidural space between dura matter and vertebral bones.

Diagram: The structure of the spinal cord

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is the nervous system found far away from the central nervous system. It is divided into two types: Somatic and
Autonomic nervous system.

Somatic nervous system

Concerned with conscious sensation and voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles. It has two fibres, the
sensory fibre (afferent) that carry signals (impulses) to the CNS and motor fibre (efferent) that carry signals to
effector organs away from the CNS.
 Somatic nerve connecting the afferent fibres have no synapse outside CNS and efferent fibres have nerve cell bodies
in ventral horn while the afferent fibre have cell bodies in dorsal horn. Somatic or spinal nerves connect with spinal
cord between each vertebrae from cervical to sacral region.

Autonomic nervous system

This deal with all involuntary organs like visceral organs. It functions automatically. The nerves are divided into two
groups; sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Sympathetic

Connects to the central nervous system at thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.

Parasympathetic

Connects to the central nervous system either in brain (for cranial nerves) and in sacral region.

Functions of Autonomic nerves

Afferent (sensory) nerves

i. Sympathetic:

sensation of visceral pain

ii. Parasympathetic:

Reflex activity of heart rate, respiration, blood and sensation of referred pain; heart
pain (left arm), appendix (umbilical pain), bladder (lower abdomen) and testis (mid abdominal area)

Efferent (motor) nerves

i. Sympathetic:

It works for fight or flight then increases blood flow to skeletal muscles, increase heart rate, slows
digestion and decrease blood flow to the visceral. They are adrenergic producing epinephrine as neural
hormone which works as whole and associated with emergency issues.

ii. Parasympathetic:

It works with activities which are not of emergency status, promotes digestion, slow down heart rate. It
is cholinergic and secretes acetyl cholinergic as neural hormone.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

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i. Sensation of visceral pain

ii. Essential for emergency issues (flight or fight)

iii. Transportation of impulses

iv. Imaginations

v. Reasoning

vi. Controls both voluntary and involuntary actions

 10.0 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (SPLANCHNOLOGY)

This is the system which involves the heart, and blood vessels in transporting fluid tissues in various parts of the
body.

COMPONENTS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

It is composed of

 Heart
 Blood vessels
 Capillaries
 Arterioles
 Venules

STRUCTURE OF VARIOUS PARTS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

i. Pericadium
Is the sac that enclose the heart, it is thin, strong and inelastic. On the base of the heart it is attached to
large vessels and on sternum by sternopericardiac ligaments (horse, ox, sheep) but in dogs it is attached
to diaphragm by phrenopericardiac ligaments.

ii. Heart (Cor)

Is a blood pumping organ, varying in size and shape depending to animal species. It is irregular flattened
cone in shape.

Dorsally the heart bears a base formed by right and left atria. The base is attached by great vessels
(Aorta, Venacava, Pulmonary veins) and the rest part is free in the pericardium.

Laterally there are two auricles right and left respectively. Ventral to atria the heart has two ventricles
right and left respectively.

Centrally dorsal to sternum the apex of the heart is positioned.

The heart occupies middle of mediastinal space (mediasteum is the space between lungs)

Note: The division between atria and ventricles is indicated by coronary groove while that between
ventricles is indicated by interventricular groove.

iii. Atria
There are two in number; right and left atrium.
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 Right atrium.
Forms the right cranial part of the base of the heart, lying dorsally to the right ventricle. The
inner part is covered by a membrane called endocardium and is smooth except in auricles.

 Left atrium.
Forms caudal part of the base of the heart, lying dorsally left ventricle and its cavity is smooth
except in auricles.

Note: The right and left atrium doesn’t communicate each other but works simultaneously and
they are separated by septum called interatrial septae.
 iv. Ventricles
There are two in number; right and left ventricle

 Right ventricle
Makes right cranial part of ventricular mass, forming most of the cranial border of the heart but
do not reach the apex. It is triangular in shape with the base connected to the right atrium by
atrioventricular valves with three membranous cusps hence called tricuspid valves. These
valves are attached at their edges which are irregular by cordae tendineae.

 Left ventricle
Forms left caudal part of ventricular mass, it is more cranial than the right ventricle with thicker
walls except at the apex. The base is largely continues with the left atrium and is connected to it
by atrioventricular valves with two thick membranous cusps referred to as mitral or bicuspid
valves. The cordae tendineae are fewer but larger in size than of right side.

Note: The right and left ventricles doesn’t communicate each other but works simultaneously
and they are separated by septum called interventricular septae.

The left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle because the left one pumps blood to far body organs (systemic
circulation) while right ventricle pumps blood to near organs (pulmonary circulation). When blood leaves left heart
(left ventricle and left atrium) it enters aorta and is supported by left semilunar (aortic) valve to prevent back flow.
Blood leaving right heart is through pulmonary arteries to lungs is supported by right semilunar (pulmonic) valves

PUMPING MECHANISM OF THE HEART (CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM)

Pumping of the heart is self excitory (function like nerve fiber) mechanism done by specialized node called
pacemakers that stimulate the heart muscle to pump. The pacemakers includes;

 Sinoatrial node (SA)

 Atrioventricular node (AV)
 Bundle of His (right and left branches)
 Purkinje fibers

The SA node is stimulated and impulses sent to AV node which carries the message (impulse) to bundle of His. This
also conveys the impulses to Purkinje fibers that spread the impulses to heart ventricular muscle causing contraction
and relaxation of heart muscles hence pumping of blood.

Diagram: The structure of the heart

HEART BEATS (RATES) OF DIFFERENT ANIMAL SPECIES

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S/N SPECIES HEART RATES (BEATS/MINUTE)

1.0 Bovine

2.0 Caprine

3.0 Ovine

4.0 Feline

5.0 Canine
 6.0 Equine

7.0 Porcine

MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS

Pulmonary trunk

This open from the base of the heart forming two big vessels called left and right pulmonary arteries respectively
which carry blood from right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.

Pulmonary vein

This opens just ventral to the pulmonary artery to enter the lungs. It carries oxygenated blood from lungs to left
atrium where blood is pumped to the rest of the body by aorta.

Aorta

This is the biggest vessel that carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body. It opens from the base of the heart
as ascending artery curving caudally giving a branch at the arch called brachiocephalic trunk that supplies the head
and fore limbs, then the aorta continues caudally as descending aorta to supply the body and hind limbs.

Brachiocephalic then turns to be cranial vena cava that collect deoxygenated blood from the head and fore limbs
and descending aorta continues in abdomen as abdominal artery which later divide into two external iliac arteries.
Descending aorta turn to be caudal vena cava that collect deoxygenated blood from body and hind limbs. All vena
cava pour blood into right atrium.

Brachiocephalic trunk

This is the branch of aorta from ascending aorta at the arch of aorta that supplies blood from the head and fore
limbs.

Vena cava

These are two vessels cranial and caudal vena cava which returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the
heart.

Coronary artery

This supplies the heart, the vessel surrounds the heart in the coronary groove that divide the heart externally into
two parts; the upper part called atria and the lower part called ventricles.
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Jugular vein

This return blood from the head to the heart and is located on the lateral sides of the neck. It can be felt through
palpation and offers a site for drawing blood samples as well as administration of intravenous medication.

BLOOD

This is a specialized circulating tissue composed of cells suspended in fluid with no relationship between them as in
other tissues.

Organs forming blood (Haemopietic organs)

 The process of producing blood cells is called haemopoiesis

i. York sac

Form blood in early few weeks of embryonic life.

The blood cells formed are nucleated

ii. Liver

Forms blood during the middle trimester of gestation

It is the major blood forming organ

iii. Spleen and lymphnodes

Forms blood during the middle trimester

iv. Bone marrow

Form blood during the late part of gestation (last or third trimester) and after birth.

v. Digestive tract tissue, thymus and kidney

Forms blood during embryonic life.

Blood compositions

The blood is composed of:-

i. Various cells (solid part)

 Red blood cells (RBC) also called erythrocytes

 White blood cells (WBC) also called leucocytes

 Platelets also called thrombocytes

ii. Fluid components (fluid part)

 Plasma (from whole blood)

It makes 50± 10 of total blood in mammals and is made up of 90% water, protein, electrolytes
(salts), nutrients, hormones, waste products (CO2) and antibodies.
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Functions of blood protein (Plasma)

i. Maintains blood pressure and blood pH

ii. Regulate blood volume

iii. Play role in blood clotting

iv. Manufacture of antibodies

v. Transportation of oxygen eg feritin

vi. Offer protection against disease

  Serum (from blood clot)

It is a supernatant yellow or straw colored fluid containing antigens used in disease diagnosis.

Note: blood appears red due to the presence of haemoglobin pigment (red pigment in RBC)

BLOOD CELLS

Red blood cell

They are found within blood vessels and contains a red pigment called haemoglobin that picks O 2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin a bright red appearance. Haemoglobin without oxygen is called deoxyhaemoglobin and appears
dark blue

Characteristics/ Features

 May be flat, oval, round, or biconcave discoid

 They are anuclear

 They are non motile but flexible

 Their life span is 120 days.

Functions

i. Transport O2 from lungs to tissues

ii. Transports CO2 from tissues to lungs

White blood cell

Moves along sides the blood vessels and are free to go into surrounding tissues through small capillaries where they
act.

Characteristics/ Features

 They are spherical in shape

 They are nearly colourless

 They are nucleated

 They are motile

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Functions

i. Moves to foreign solid particles or bacteria and ingest them (Phagocytic WBC) offering protection

ii. Absorbs pollution particles which arrive via lungs

White blood cells are grouped into two; granulocytes and agranulocytes.

GRANULOCYTES
 Are large cells with a nucleus divided into several segments with granules in the cytoplasm. There are three types of
granulocytes which includes; Basophilic that stain blue, Acidophilic that stain red and Neutrophilic that is stainless
(Faint blue or pink)

AGRANULOCYTES

These are lymphoid cells without granules and the nucleus is not lobed and are of two types; monocytes and
lymphocytes

Monocytes

 Are largest blood cells present in very low number

 Have large nucleus with horse- shoe shape

 The cytoplasm is relatively abundant

 They are phagocytic in function like neutrophils

 Mature monocytes are called macrophage

Lymphocytes

 The number of lymphocytes circulation varies between species

 Small lymphocytes have large, dark staining nucleus with a thin rim of cytoplasm surrounding it

 Large lymphocytes are difficult to differentiate from monocytes .

Platelets

They are smaller than all other blood cells with no nucleus and they are concerned with blood clotting at the site of
injury.

Functions

i. Store adrenalin and serotonin which can constrict small arteries

ii. Contributes to thromboplastin formation (clotting factor)

iii. Responsible for blood clotting at site of injuries.

Functions of the cardiovascular system

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i. Transportation of nutrients and gases in the body

ii. Provide defensive mechanism to the body

iii. Reduce haemorrhages at site of injury by blood clotting

iv. Absorption of pollutant particles arriving from lungs

v. Pumping blood from the heart to body parts

vi. Maintains osmotic pressure of blood

vii. Regulates acid – base balance in the body.

 11.0 INTERGUMENTARY SYSTEM (DERMATOLOGY)

Dermatology is the study of the skin.

Common intergument.

Is the protective covering of the body and it continuous at natural orifices with the mucous membrane of digestive,
respiratory and urogenital tracts. It consists skin and its appendages like hair, horns, feathers, claws and contains
sensory nerves hence it is an important sense organ.

The common intergument also is a principal body temperature regulator by glandular secretions and excretion and
some modifications are used as weapons or prehension organs eg. Claws and horns.

Skin

The skin is attached to the underlying tissue by subcutaneous or subcutis containing elastic fibres and fats. It is
made up of two layers; the superficial epithelial layer called epidermis (non vascular) and deep connective tissues
called corium or dermis (highly vascularised, supplied with nerves, cutaneous glands and hair follicles).

Skin glands

i. Sweat gland (sudoriferous)

Consist of coiled tube that runs parallel to corium and opens at the hair follicle or surface of the skin.
They are found scattered over the animal body but horse sweat readily over the whole body. They
produce sweat which is serous and constituent of aroma important in sexual relation of animals.

ii. Sebaceous gland

They are associated with hairs and open at the follicles. They produce fatty substances called sebum
cutaneum serving as skin moisture and constituent of aroma important in sexual relation of animals.

Appendages of the skin

These are modifications of the epidermis comprising of hairs, hoof, horns, claws etc

Hairs

Covers the entire body of the animal. They are constantly being shade and replaced. Hairs that give color of the
animal are distinguished from hairs present in special places like tactile hair (around lips, nostrils), eye (eyelashes, or
cilia), tragi (on external ear) and vibrissae (around nostrils).

The part of the hair just above the skin surface is the shaft and the root is embedded in the skin called hair follicle.
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Horns

These are bony structures above the skull in ruminants formed over the frontal bone. They are called cornual
process. Horns are made up of corium which envelops the horn core and fuses with periosteum. Horns are very
hard and animals use them as weapons. From the base horns are wider and become narrow and pointed towards
the apex. The process of cutting fully developed horns is called dehorning.

Hoof
 They made of insensitive cornified layer of epidermis covering the distal end of digit (distal phalanx). It is made of
hoof wall which is seen at standing position. Perioplic corium is a thin layer of tubular hoof on proximal portion of
the hoof.

Laminar corium adheres to periosteum over the convex surface of the hoof. The sole is the concave plate that
attaches to the volar surface i.e all ground surface except that occupied by frog which is the sensitive part of the
foot.

Dew claw

They are miniature digits (rudimentary digits) that its covering resembles the hoof of the same animal. Dew claws
represent the digits.

Diagram: The structure of the skin

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN (INTERGUMENT SYSTEM)

i. Regulates body temperature

ii. Protects internal body parts

iii. Protects the body against diseases

iv. Repels away flies due to skin motility

v. Sebaceous gland produce fatty acid that give sexual life relationship

vi. Storage of fats as adipose tissues

vii. Excretion

viii. Reception of stimuli

12.0 SENSORY SYSTEM (ESTHESIOLOGY)

Esthesiology is the study of sensory organs.

Sensory organs

These are organs with specialized sensory receptors associated with cranial nerves and afferent impulses for
reflexes. Sensory organs are important in sensation.

Senses include
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i. Sight

ii. Hearing and equilibrium

iii. Smell

iv. Taste

v. Organic senses (thirst, hunger, bladder fullness and sexual sensation)

SIGHT (VISION)
 This is done by the organ of vision called eye.

Parts of the eye

Orbit

This is the cavity found in the skull. The eye is accommodated in it and determines the route that blood vessels and
nerves go into the eye. The orbit is formed by the frontal, zygomatic, lacrimal, maxilla, sphenoid, paratine and
temporal bones. The ball of the eye is hold by extra ocular muscles. Location of orbit differ depending on animal
species. Eg. In ruminants it is on lateral of the skull and in dogs is rostral lateral.

Eye ball

This is also called the globe. It receives light rays, transfer them to nervous impulses and transmit them to high
centers in the brain. The globe is protected by three layer namely;

i. Outer fibrous layer (cornea and sclera)

ii. Middle vascular layer (uvea; includes: iris, cilliary body and choroid)

iii. Innermost layer (nervous layer consisting retina)

Outer fibrous layers

Sclera

Is made of collagen fibres and some elastic fibres, it covers rest of the globe and serves as point of attachment of
rectus muscles.

Cornea

Is a continuation of sclera, it is transparent where sclera is opaque. The point where sclera and cornea joins is called
corneosclera junction (limbus)

The middle vascular layer of the globe

Lies within fibrous tunic (cornea and sclera). The middle layer consists of choroid which is layer just under sclera
that is made of elastic fibres, two layers of blood vessels and pigmented connective tissue. In between the layers of
blood vessels lies a layer capable of reflecting light that appears metallic green, orange, gold or brown called
tapetum making the eye of an animal to be seen in diminished light.
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Cilliary body

It starts at the border delineating the transformation of sensitive retina and non sensitive retina. It connects the
choroid to iris and have cilliary processes arising from inner surface and reach to the periphery of the lens.

Iris

Is the anterior portion of uvea, it is a diaphragm that extends from cilliary body and lies anterior to lens and it is in
contact with aqueous humour. The cavity between posterior part of iris and anterior of lens is known as posterior
chamber of the bulb.

Retina
 Is the inner most of the globe extending from the entrance of optic nerves to margin of pupil. It is made up of two
types of cells, the cons and rod cells. Cons are for detailed vision and color differentiation (day) and rods are
peripherally arranged for vision in low illumination (night). Ie. Noctunals

Chambers of the eye

The eye has two anterior chambers present in front of iris and caudal to cornea. Those caudal to iris and cranial to
lens are filled with aqueous humour. The vitreous chamber is located caudal to lens and cranial to retina and is
filled with vitreous humour.

The cornea, humour and lens are used to refract light to retina forming image. The lens is biconvex transparent
situated in front the vitreous humour in contact with caudal part of iris and is hold in place by cilliary processes from
cilliary body. Blood is supplied by external ophthalmic artery from the external carotid artery.

Diagram: The structure of the eye

Hearing and balance

The ear is the organ for hearing and equilibrium. It is divided into three parts; external, middle and inner ear.

The external ear

It consists auricle (pinna) and external acoustic meatus, it sends sound to middle ear and offers protection to it as
well as the inner ear. The pinna projects out the head and its major function is to collect sound waves.

Domestic animals have ability to turn the pinna and collect sound from different angles unlike in human. The
external meatus leads inward from bottom of auricle and send vibrations to the middle ear (tympanic membrane)

The middle ear

Is an irregular space in temporal bone that is filled with air, connected from nasal part of the pharynx. It is made of
three bones; malleus (hammer like), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) all of them convey vibrations to inner ear and
are hold in space by ligaments.

The internal ear

It is connected to acoustic nerve called labyrinth because of its complexty in shape. There are two types of
labyrinth; the osseous labyrinth (made of vestibule, semicircular canal and cochlea) filled with perilymph (a clear
fluid) and the membranous labyrinth is bone cavity containing clear fluid called endolymph.

Mechanism of hearing

The sound waves enter the external ear and cause the ear drum to vibrate and cause vibrations to the ossicles. The
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vibration of the inner most ear ossicles (stapes) cause the oval window also to vibrate. This movement set up
pressure waves into perilymph which spread into the endolymph in cochlea. Vibrations in the endolymph cause the
hair cells of basilar membrane to vibrate and send the impulse (message) to the brain through auditory nerve where
it is interpreted as sound.

Sound of high pitch cause the vibration of hair cells nearest to the oval window while low pitched sound cause
vibration further up the cochlear spiral. In this way an animal can hear and distinguish notes (sound) of different
types at the same time.

Diagram: The structure of the ear

 Sense of smell

The sensory endings of smell are located in the nose, they are modified epithelial cells scattered on the dorsal nasal
conchae in the nasal cavity. The organ consist of blind, tubular mucous membrane diverticular lying in the floor of
the nasal cavity on either sides of nasal septum relating to the paratine process of incisive and vomer bones.

Organ of taste

The peripheral taste organs are the taste buds (gustatory caliculi distributed over the tongue. In man there are four
specific taste modalities; sweet, salt, bitter and sour. In animals taste is important in selecting important vitamins
and minerals.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SENSORY SYSTEM

i. Responding to stimuli eg. Light, touch, pain, sound, pressure etc.

ii. Selection of important vitamins and minerals

iii. Helps animals to seek food and escape enemies.

13.0 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This system is made of thin walled vessels that collect lymph from periphery. All systems have the lymphatic system
except the nervous system. This system rely on cerebral spinal fluid for protection.

The lymphatic system is made of organs called lymphnodes which are spread all over the body. Its major function is
to filter lymph by using lymphnodes. Lymph enters lymphnode via afferent lymphatic vessels and leave via efferent
lymphatic vessels

Note: Lymphatic system is essential for production of lymphocytes.

Lymph is a clear fluid present in lymph capillaries, vessels, ducts and sinuses of lymphnodes.

The chemical composition of lymph resembles much that of plasma. In intestinal vessels it looks milky following
digestion and is called chyle.

Tonsils are aggregation of lymphatic tissues in the mouth (Root of the tongue, soft palate and pharyngeal region)

Tonsils have only one efferent vessel and are located adjacent to the lumen of the host organ.

Tonsils assist in early encounter against infectious agents or other antigen and later assisted by the lymphnodes.

Lymphnodes are intercalated in the course of lymph vessels and present accumulation of lymphatic tissues enclosed
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by elastic fibres and smooth muscles.

Diagram: The structure of the lymph node.

LYMPHNODES AND THEIR LOCATIONS IN THE ANIMAL BODY

I. Mandibular lymphnode

At angle of mandible

II. Parotid lymphnode

In the parotid salivary gland

 III. Prescapular lymphnode

Above shoulder joint

IV. Popliteal lymphnode

In between semimembrnosus and semitendinosus (Behind stifle joint ongastrocnemius)

V. Prefemoral/Precrural lymphnode

Cranial of femur just above stifle joint

VI. Suprapharyngeal lymphnode

Dorsal to pharynx

VII. Atlantal lymphnode

Ventral the wing of atlas

VIII. Axillary lymphnode

Medial side of shoulder near brachialplexus

IX. Prepectoral lymphnode

At entrance to thorax on each side of trachea

X. Renal lymphnode

At hilus of kidney on renal artery

XI. Messenteric lymphnode

Along attached border of intestine between layers of mesentery

XII. Splenic lymphnode

At hilus of spleen

XIII. Hepatic/ Portal lymphnode

At hilus of the liver

XIV. Bronchial lymphnode

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On trachea near bifurcation of the main bronchi

XV. Anterior mediastinal lymphnode

Along trachea and oesophagus caudal to thoracic inlet

Spleen

It is the largest lymphnode, highly soft, bright red to dark purple in colour and is located in the left hypogastric
region. Its function is to react immunologically as well as haemopoitecally.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LYMPH VESSELS AND BLOOD VESSELS

 The lymphatic system pours its contents (lymph) in large veins near the heart and the lymphatic system produces
white blood cells which are released into circulation for body defense. The cells produced are lymphocytes,
monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, etc. Which engulf foreign material and bacteria.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

i. Protection against disease by producing antibodies

ii. It produces white blood cells from lymphoid organs (phagocytosis)

iii. It engulfs foreign materials like bacteria that cause diseases

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