Farming System

Farming System
and
Advances in Agriculture
(AGR 411)
B.Sc. Agriculture
th
7 semester
Achyut Gaire
Assistant Professor
By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
IAAS, Rampur Campus
Syllabus
 System and approaches in  Advances in Agriculutre
Agriculture  Emerging challenges in Agriculture
 Determinants of Farming System  Tools and Concept of Modern
Agriculture – Precision Agriculture
 Nepalese Farming Systems
 Yield estimation and Forecasting
 Resource base of Nepalese
 Protected Agriculture and Contract
farming system and their farming
interaction
 Opportunities and Limitations of Using
 Farming System Research modern tools in Nepal
(FSR)

System and its approaches in agriculture
System:
A set of detailed methodology, procedure or routine developed to carry out a
specific activity, duty or solve a problem and achieve desired goal.
Examples of system:
Governance system, Political system, Educational system, Monetary
system, Security system, Social system etc.
System is:
A set or group of components,
Arranged in a definite order,
Operating together as a coordinated/ interrelated parts, and
Responding to external stimuli as a whole.
Example: An educational system
Concept of System
Holism concept: “whole is more than sum of the parts”.
Every system has emergent properties emerged from interaction of its components
So, a system is not just an accumulation or summation of components, rather an arrangement
and interaction among the components, so that the system reacts to the immediate environment
as a whole and give a unique output.
Examples:
Rice based farming system, Computer operating system, Machineries operating system
Rice Production System
Rice is a unique output due to the interaction among the components like -
• Resources (sunlight, air, water, land);
• Inputs (Quality seed, nutrients, irrigation water, -agro-chemicals)
• Enterprises (rice, fish, duck, snail, azolla, sesbania)
• And their management in response to biophysical and socioeconomic factors.
Types of System
Natural system- made by nature, Might be living or non-living. E.g., The
Universe, rock, plants
Artificial system- man made, non-living. E.g., Tractor, computer
Living/Soft/Biological system- are natural system, E.g., plants, animals, human..

• Based on biological principles and behavior is unpredictable
• Mechanism of their functioning is not fully understood
Non-living/Hard/Physical- might be natural or artificial, E.g., Rock, water, tractor

• Based on physical principles and behavior is predictable
 Agriculture system includes both
By Achyut living
Gaire, Asst. Professorand non-living components.
Hierarchy: In a system people or things are arranged at
different levels according to their importance or status.
Homeostasis: Relatively stable state of equilibrium
• Eg. Body temperature: The electron transport system of
human body tends to maintain normal body temperature of
98.6 ∘F.
Characteristics Communication: Exchange of information between or
within systems
of • Eg. Root growth and soil nutrient
System Self-regulation: System have ability to operate/function
or regulate itself
• Eg. Nutrient cycle, Hydrological cycle
Holism: An idea that different parts are all interconnected
and cannot be understood without understanding the entire
whole.
The parameters which makes us understand about the
function of system are the elements.
The elements of farming system are:
Components, Input, Process, Output and Boundry
Components (WHAT the system is made?): Interacting
constituents of system
Elements Input (WHAT goes into the system?): Raw materials

used in a system
of System Process (HOW the system works?): Sequence of

changes occurs in the properties of system which
changes input to output
Output (WHAT comes out of a system?): Product of a
system
Boundary (WHERE does system works?): Immediate
vicinity that separates a system from its environment
System Approach
System approach is a precisely devised
methodology/ tool to solve the problem related
to system based on the holistic concept.
Consider problem/situation as a system made
up of interconnected components.
Changes in one of the components may affects
others and the entire system.
So, be cautious in selecting the approach to
solve problems.
Solution that moderately fits to all of the
components of system

Reductionistic approach
Mono-disciplinary approach
Focus on specific problems but not the system
E.g., study about diseases and pests at laboratory
Pragmatic approach
Deals with problems in practical and sensible way
System Use of available resources, time, energy and money in
sensible way to solve system problem
Approach Holistic approach
Multi-disciplinary approach
Focus on all the components of system while solving
problem
Brings all the disciplines together for discussion and sort out
solution that at least moderately fits to all the components
E.g., study about all factors causing diseases in farm
Concept of
Farming System

Ecosystem Agro-ecosystem Farming system
Definition A set of biotic and abiotic A purposefully modified ecosystemby An arrangement of farm enterprises and
components functioning human beingsthat uses selective plant its management in response to
together as a unit and animal species to fulfill his needs biophysical and socioeconomicfactors
tofulfill family goal
Component Biotic and abiotic Biotic and abiotic Biotic and abiotic
Human beings Human beings &
Enterprises
Input Completely closed system Semi-closed system Open system
Completely natural Manipulation of natural inputs External inputs used
inputs
Process Natural processes like Natural processes Natural processes
photosynthesis, respiration, Plus Management to some extend to Plus Management to large extend
nutrient cycle, hydrological manipulate natural process e.g.,slash .e.g., tillage, sowing, fertilization,
cycle,gaseousexchange and burn of plant biomass, sowing, irrigation,pest management
mulching
Output Biomass and forest products Biomass, Forest products, Plus Biomass
agricultureproducts Plus selected farm products
Boundary Fixed by nature, Fixed by human Fixed by biophysical and

Depends upon the types of By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
socioeconomicfactorslikemarket
ecosystem
To identify the types of farming system based on
different criteria
To understand existing farming system in specific
region
To access the relative viability and sustainability of
Why to study existing FS
To diagnosis the problem related to farming system
farming To formulate suitable FS models for different farming
system ? situations
To increase profitability of farm by suitable combination
of main and allied enterprises
To ensure optimal utilization and conservation of
available resources
To gain sustainable production conserving the resource
base
Components of Farming System
Input Process Output
Labor Management Plant products
Sowing/planting Cereals, Pulses, Oilseeds
Capital Sugar, Fibre, Fruits,
Nutrient management (fertilization)
Farm structure Vegetables, Flowers
Water management (irrigation)
Machineries Weed management (weeding) Animal products
Seed Pest management (spraying) Meat Milk Egg
Irrigation water Mulching Wool
Forest products
Manures Harvesting Honey bee
Fertilizers Post harvest operation Mushroom
Chemicals
Herbicides Natural process: Photosynthesis,
Respiration, Transpiration, Translocation,
Pesticides Absorption, Nutrient cycling
Components: Land, water, forest, household, plants, animals
Components of Nepalese Farming System
The average farm, a source of livelihood in Nepal is based on and operated by the dynamic and
meaningful interaction of 5 Js and b
i.e., Jamin, Jal, Jungle, Janawar, Janta and bali(Crops)
Land (jamin) provides the basis for all the activities
Water (jal) is the basis for all forms of lives in the farm
Forest (jungle) provides fodder, firewood, mulching materials, organic matter and other
various useful products
Households (Janata) manages all these components making a farming system
Animal (janawar) provides draft power, milk, manure, meat, etc.
Crop (bali) includes cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, flower
Homestead area itself contributes to diversified food production on the farm producing
vegetable, fruits, spices, timber, honey, fish, etc.
It also provides a working space for processing and storing agricultural crops and crop
byproducts. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Typical Nepalese Farming System
Income
Off Farm Activities Labour

Agronomy crops: cereals, pseudo-cereals, pulses,
oilseed
Horticulture crops: fruits, vegetables, flowers
Fiber crops: Cotton, jute, flax, hemp
Plantation crops: tea, coffee, cotton, rubber, cocoa
Enterprises Spices: turmeric, zinger, cardamom, coriander, cumin
Medicinal and aromatic plants
of farming Birds: Poultry, turkey, pigeon, duck
system Livestock: Cattle, sheep, goat, Piggery, Rabbit
Aquaculture: Fish, prawn, crab
Bee keeping
Sericulture
Mushroom cultivation
Biogas plant
Hagen (1969) was among the earliest workers to propose
the physiographic subdivision of Nepal.
Similarly, the Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP,
1986) of the survey department divides the Nepal into
Physio- five major physiographic zones.
ecological / The boundary of these physiographic zones also coincide

with those of the ecological units of Nepal identified
by UNDP/FAO in 1980.
Physiographic Following are the major physiographic zones of Nepal:
Zones or  The High Himalayas
 The High Mountains/ High hill
regions  The Middle Mountains/Mid hill
 The Siwaliks / Low hill
 Terai

Physio-ecological / Physiographic Zones or regions
PEZ/ Terai Siwaliks Middle Mountain High High
features Mountain Himalayas
Land area (%) 14 13 30 20 23
Elevation 66 to 300 200 to 1500 800 to 2400 2200 to 4000 Above 4000
(masl)
Climate Tropical Sub-tropical (but warm Sub- tropical, warm Warm to cool Alpine to arctic
temperate in higher hill temperate, cool temperate, alpine (Snow 6-12
spurs) temperate on high ridges months)
Rainfall High High Medium Low Low

intensity
Vegetation Sal, mixed Sal, mixed hard woods, Pine, mixed Fir, pine, birch, Open meadows,
hardwoods pine forest hardwood, Oak rhododendron tundra vegetation
Crops Rice, maize, Rice, maize, wheat, Rice, maize, wheat, Oat, barley, wheat, Potato, millet, naked
wheat, mustard, millet, radish, potato, millet, barley, pulses, potato, buckwheat, barley
lentil, sugar cane, ginger, tea. ginger, cardamom yams, amaranths,
jute, tobacco, cotton medicinal herbs
Fruits Mango, litchi, Mango, papaya, banana, Mango, papaya, banana, Chestnut, walnut, Apple, walnut,
pineapple, orange, lime, lemon, apple, peach, plum, vegetable seeds
jackfruit, banana peach,
By Achyut Gaire, Asst.plum
Professor apricot
Climatic zones of Nepal
Climatic zone/ Tropical to Warm Cool Alpine Arctic
features sub-tropical temperate temperate
Characteristics Hot and wet Warm and Mild wet Cool summer, Perpetual
/ climate summer, mild wet summer, summer, cool frosty winter frost and
dry winter cool and dry and dry winter desert
winter condition
Altitude Up to 1000 Up to 2000m Up to 3000m Up to 4500m Above 4500
m m
Physiographic Siwalik,Terai Lower- middle Higher -middle High Mountain High
regions and inner Mountain Mountain Himalayas
Terai
Mean annual 20 to 25 0C 15 to 200 C 10 to 15 0C 3 to 10 0C Below 3 0C
temperature
Meteorological Bhairahwa Kathmandu Jomsom Langtang Everest base
stations Nepalgunj DhankutaBy Achyut Gaire, Jumla
Asst. Professor Namche camp
Concept of Farming
System- Terminologies
Homestead garden (घरबारी)
Is a garden located in the periphery of
home where you grow /raise commodity
like crop, vegetables, fruits, spices,
livestock, poultry, fish, honey bee, etc.
Kitchen garden (करेसाबारी)

Is a garden you keep as close to your
back door as possible where you grow
mainly vegetables, fruits and spices
necessary for daily consumption.
Concept of Farming System
Farming System: An arrangement of farm enterprises and its management
in response to biophysical and socioeconomic factors to fulfill family goal.
Cropping System: The cropping pattern used on a farm and their
interaction with farm resources, other enterprises and environment.
Cropping pattern: The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops
and fallow on a given area.
The cropping pattern indicates the proportion of area under different
crops at a point of time.
Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on
individual plot of a farm during a given period of time. It aims to obtain
maximum return from crop by best utilization of farm resources and
inputs.
Cropping pattern of Terai farming system
Land type Water availability Cropping pattern
Lowland Irrigated Rice –Wheat – Fallow, Rice –Wheat – Rice
Rice – Pulses- Fallow
Rice – Oilseed – Maize
Rice –Vegetables –Vegetables
Mid land Partially irrigated Rice – Wheat – Fallow , Rice – Fallow –
Fallow
Rice – Pulses – Fallow
Rice –Wheat – Mung
Rice –Vegetables –Vegetables
Upland Rainfed Maize – Mustard – Fallow
Rice – Mustard + Lentil – Fallow
Maize – Pulses – Fallow
Rice – Lentil– Fallow, Rice – Mustard – Fallow
Cropping pattern of Hill farming system
Land type Water Cropping pattern
availability
Khet land Irrigated Rice – Wheat – Rice, Rice–Wheat–
Fallow, Rice –Wheat – Maize, Rice
– Fallow – Rice, Rice – Mustard -
Maize
Khet land Partially Rice –Wheat – Fallow, Rice –
irrigated Fallow – Fallow, Rice – Lentil
Fallow, Rice – Potato - Fallow
Upland /Bari Rainfed Maize/ Millet – Fallow,
land Maize –Wheat – Fallow,
Maize
By Achyut – Fallow
Gaire, Asst. Professor – Fallow,
Cropping pattern of Mountain farming system
Land type Water Cropping pattern
availability
Khet land Irrigated Rice – Wheat, Rice – Rice, Rice – Maize
Khet land Partially Rice – Wheat, Rice – Fallow
irrigated Rice – Mustard, Rice – Maize
Maize – Wheat
Upland /Bari Rainfed Maize/ Millet – Fallow

land Maize – Wheat/ Barley Maize – Potato
Millet – Wheat, Amaranths – Wheat
Naked Barley – Fallow, Buckwheat -
Fallow
Types of cropping system
Mono cropping /single cropping
Sole cropping e.g., commercial farming
Monoculture e.g., lowland rice
Multiple Cropping
Sequential cropping
Diverse cropping
Inter cropping
Mixed cropping
Relay cropping/overlapping cropping
Strip cropping
Alley cropping
Multistoried/Multilevel/Multi-tier cropping
Ratoon cropping By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Mono cropping /single cropping: growing single crop
in an area during a crop season or period of time
Sole cropping
Is growing of single crop variety in a pure stand during a
Types of crop season
E.g., growing of only rice in summer and only wheat in
Cropping winter
Monoculture
System Is repeated growing of the same sole crop on the same
land
Due to agro-climatic condition, e.g., potato in mountain
Due to land types, e.g., rice in lowland condition
Due to long crop duration, e.g., sugarcane farming,
banana, tea farming
Due to commercialization, e.g., sugarcane, cotton, tea
Multiple cropping is the growing of two or more crops
on the same piece of land in the same year.
Sequential cropping
Sequential cropping means growing two or more
Types of crops in a sequence on the same piece of land in the
same year
Cropping Double cropping means growing two crops in a year in
sequence. E.g., Rice - Wheat
System Triple cropping means growing three crops in a year in
sequence. E.g., Rice – Wheat – Maize
Quadruple cropping means growing four crops in a
year in sequence. E.g., Rice – Rapeseed – Winter
vegetable - Mung
Symbol used is “ – “

Mixed cropping Inter cropping
Definition Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land
Symbol The symbol used is plus “ + “.
Advantages  Increases the total productivity of cropping system
 Increases risk bearing capacity of farmers (if one crops fails due to climatic or
biological factors then farmers can harvest another crop)
 Increases the use efficiency of input and resources
 The main crop acts as a nursing crop for the inter crop
Examples Wheat + Mustard Chick Sugarcane + Potato Maize

pea + Linseed Maize + + Soybean Maize + Black
Rice bean gram Maize + Tomato
Maize + ginger
Differences between mixed and inter cropping
SN Mixed cropping Inter cropping
1 Absence of definite crop geometry or Crops grown with definite crop geometry
row arrangement of row arrangement
2 Seed of crops are mixed together and Seed of crops are not mixed, rather sown at
broadcasted in field different rows, in proximity
3 All the crops are sown at the same time Sowing time may be same or different
4 Equal emphasis is given to all the crops More emphasis is given to main crop
5 Intercultural operations for nutrient, water Intercultural operations are easier
and pest management for specific crop are
difficult
6 All crops havealmost similar life cycle Crops might have similar or different life
and crop duration cycle and cropduration
7 Harvesting and threshing is difficult Harvesting and threshing is easier
8 Main aim is to minimize risk Main aim is to increase productivity
Eg. Wheat + Mustard Sugarcane + Potato
Relay cropping
• Is the planting of succeeding crops during or after flowering and
before harvesting of standing crop in the same field.
• It is a special type of intercropping
• Some part of life cycle of crops goes together.
Advantages
Types of • Utilization of residual moisture of preceding crop by relay crop
• Faster germination and crop stand establishment due to
Multiple protection from direct exposure to sunlight and drying of seed
• Protection of seed from picking by birds
Cropping Other advantages are similar to intercropping ….
• Increases the total productivity of cropping system
• Increases risk bearing capacity of farmers (if one crops fails due
to climatic or biological factors then farmers can harvest
another crop)
• It increases the use efficiency of input and resources
• The main crop acts as a nursing crop for the inter crop
Examples of relay crop
in Nepal
Terai farming system
Rice and lentil relay cropping is the most popular cropping
pattern
Lentil is broadcasted 1 to 2 weeks before harvesting of rice.
Some examples are: Rice/ Lentil, Rice/ chickpea, Rice/
lathyrus
•
Hill farming system
Maize and millet relay cropping is the most popular cropping
pattern
Millet is transplanted in between maize during tasseling stage
Examples are Maize/millet
Types of multiple cropping
Diverse cropping/ Diversified cropping
Is planting a number of crop species and varieties on a farm
to meet the family goal
Increases the agro-diversity in farm
Decreases the infestation of pest and diseases
Increases the risk bearing capacity of farmer
Increase the farm productivity and profitability
Example: vegetables in kitchen garden
Alley or companion cropping
Is the cultivation of companion crops like field crops,
vegetables or fodder grasses in between rows of trees.
Example: Apple + vegetables
Apple + wheat
Multi-story / Multi- tier
cropping
Is a system of growing
crops of different heights at
the same time on the same
piece of land.
Resources like land area
or space, light and water
are used efficiently
Examples: Coconut +
Pepper + Lime + Pineapple
Areca nut + Cardamom +
Ginger or turmeric
Areca nut + banana +
vegetables
Concept of cropping system: Crop rotation
Crop rotation
• The practice of growing different crops in
succession on a piece of land over a period of
time, mainly to preserve soil productivity. Year Crop rotation of 3 years
Advantages of crop rotation
Maintenance of soil fertility and productivity 1st year Rice –Wheat - Mungbean
Reduce soil erosion
2nd year Rice – Mustard – (Maize +
Reduce incidence of insect pest, diseases and Cowpea)
weeds
Increase in crop productivity
3rd year Rice / Lentil - sasame
Utilization of farm resources: farm manures,
irrigation water, farm machineries, family
labor By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Principles of crop rotation
SN Principles Crop rotation and examples
1 Root depth and types Shallowrootedcrops,e.g.,Rice Deep rooted crops,e.g.,Wheat,maize
Fibrous root system, e.g.,Cereals Tap root system, e.g., pulses
2 Nutrient requirement Nutrient exhaustive crops Higher Nutrient restorative crop Lower
fertilizer requiring crops e.g., fertilizerrequiringcrops e.g., Pulses
Cereals, oilseeds, sugarcane
3 Water requirement More water requiring crops Less water requiring crops e.g.,
e.g.,Rice,maize,wheat,sugarcane Millet, barley,pulses
4 Crop family Non-leguminous crop Leguminous crops e.g., Pulses
e.g., Cereal, pseudocereal,oilseed
5 Intercultural operations More intercultural operations Fewer intercultural operations requiring
requiring crops crops
e.g., Rice, Maize, sugarcane e.g., Millet, barley, pulses
6 Proper utilization of farm resources: farm manures, irrigation water, farm machineries, family labor
7 Meets family needs and goals:growing cereals,pulses,oil seeds,vegetables,cash crops,fodder
*Inclusion of leguminous crops in crop rotation
By Achyut fulfills
Gaire, Asst. Professormost of the principles of crop rotation
Cropping season: is the season of the year when a
particular crop is normally grown.
Season Summer Winter Spring
Crops Kharif Rabi Zaid
Cereal Rice Wheat Rice
Maize Barley, Maize Maize
Finger millet
Pseudocereal Buckwheat
Amaranthus
Pulses Pigeon pea Lentil, Green gram
Soybean Chickpea, Gram Cowpea
Black Field pea
gram, Rice Horse bean,Cowpea
bean Beans
Oilseed Groundnut Rapeseed, Mustard Sunflower
By Sunflower, Linseed,
Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor Sesamum
Physical factors
Climatic factors
Edaphic factors
Determinants Topography
of Farming Biological factors
System
Socio-economic factors
Management factors

Physical factors Biological Factors
Climatic factors  Plants, animals, humans,
Solar radiation microorganisms
Light  Production potential of enterprise
Temperature  Production promoting factors
Precipitation beneficial microorganisms,
Relative humidity beneficial insects, earthworm, green
Wind manure, crops
Edaphic factors  Production reducing factors insects,
Soil physical environment rodents, birds, pathogens, weeds
Soil chemical environment
Soil biological environment
Topography
Socioeconomic factors
1. Resources
Availability, accessibility and affordability
of resources determines the nature of
farming system
Natural resources: Land, water, forest
Physical resources/infrastructure:
road, electricity, irrigation structure, store
house
Farm machineries
Financial resources: capital, access to
loan, willingness to invest
Human resources: labor, skilled manpower
2. Social setting
Ethnic group: like Bhramin, Indigenous, Dalits
affects the choice of enterprises
Cultural setting: beliefs, opinions, and religious
aspects of a certain location
Economically active population
Socioeconomic 3. Family setting :
factors Number of family members
Gender
Division of labor
Perception toward agriculture

Socioeconomic factors
4. 5. 6.
Market Facility Government policy: Linkage and Coordination
: among the stakeholders
 Availability of inputs  Subsidies  Producers

 Accessibility of market  Pricing system  Consumers
 Affordability of inputs  Insurance  Research
 Collection centre for  Loan  Extension office
selling output  Technical  Policy makers
 Pricing system services
Management factors
Includes crop and animal production
POPs and technologies that a farmer
practices in farm
Soil management
Nutrient management
Crop management
Water management
Weed management
Plant protection
Harvesting and post-harvest
Internal and External Factors
Internal Factors External Factors
 Factors under farmers’ control  Factors not under farmers’
 Management factors  control
 Biological factors  Physical factors
 Socioeconomic factors  Climatic factors
 Topography
 Government policy
• *Factors under farmers’ control to some extend:

• Micro climatic factor
• Edaphic factors By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
 Historical background of FSR
 Concept of Farming System Research
Farming 

Characteristics of FSR
Conventional research VS FSR
System 

FSR methodology / Stages of FSR
Descriptive and diagnosis stage
Research 

Design stage
Testing stage
 Technology transfer stage
 Evaluation stage
Commodity Cropping System
programs started Program (CSP)
in Nepal (with started as the IRRI changed
the emphasis on corner stone of cropping system
more food Integrated Cereal Farming System research into
production Project (ICP) research and Farming System
through started in Nepal development Research and
disciplinary with the help of program in Development
research) USAID Nepal. (FSRD).
Historical
background of
FSRD in Nepal 1972 1974 1975 1977 1977 1981 1984 1984
Cropping system Nepal became the Lumle Farming system

research program members of Agriculture as an elective
initiated by IRRI ACSRN with Research Center course for final
and ICP. (LARC) and year B.Sc.Ag
establishment of Pakhribas
Asian Cropping Agriculture
System Research Research Center
Network (PARC) started
By(ACSRN)
Achyut Gaire,in
Asst. Professor FSR activities in
IRRI their sites.
1985 1989 1995
Farming System Research FSR/E program was started FSR/E program of IAAS
Program started as the by IAAS faculties in Jugedi, was terminated.
natural extension of Kabilas under the grant A compulsory course
Cropping system Program in donated by Ford Foundation, “Farming System and
Nepal. New Delhi. Sustainable Agriculture” was
started for the final year of
B.Sc.Ag. four year
programs
At present, GOs, NGOs and

INGOs are working with
farmers under the name of
participatory technology
FSRDD was amalgamated generation, participatory
A full fledged FSRDD was with Outreach Program on variety development ,
formed under NARC. NARC. participatory seed production
1985 1994 2000 and onwards

Basic/fundamental research
This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge
and does not have immediate commercial potential.
Examples: on-station research in areas like tillage, soil conservation,
life cycle of insects and pathogen, plant physiological process
Applied research
Different Knowledge gained from basic research is used in solving problems
faced by farmers and the output has immediate commercial potential.
types of Mostly conducted at research stations (on-station)

Example: Coordinated varietal trial, weed, fertilizer, pest management
Research Adaptive research

Research conducted on farmers field in participation of farmers for
the ultimate verification, validation, adoption, promotion and mass
dissemination of technologies among the farmers' at large scale.
Conducted at farmers’ field (on-farm)
Examples: Participatory varietal trial, adaptation of RCTs and crop
management practices at farmers’ field
Action research
Research initiated to solve an immediate problem at
field level. Example weed, pest and disease
Different management
Strategic research
types of Research designed to develop the basic strategic
plan
Research Recommendation domain
• RD is relatively homogenous group of farms within
an agro-climatic zone for which the technology is
generated.
• Homogenous agro-climatic condition, land types,
soil properties, resource base, enterprise etc.
Rationale of FSR:
There is variation in -
Farming system among the homestead
Agro climatic conditions (physical
factors) among the agro-ecological
zones
Resource available to farmers to meet
their basic needs
Physical factors such as topography,
soil type and fertility
Socioeconomic factors such as land
tenure pattern, size of holdings, access
to market
Difference between FSR and Conventional research
Characteristics Farming System Research Conventional Research
Holistic Prospective System based research Component based research
Interdisciplinary cooperation Present Absent
FSR- Commodity research Present Absent
linkage
Research site On station and On farm On station
Research type Adoptive research Applied research
Research extension linkage Present Absent
Farmer’s participation Present Absent
Problem solving approach Diagnose problem and identify Doesn’t care about farmer’s
the best solution problem
Approach BottomBytoAchyut
topGaire, Asst. Professor Top to bottom
FSR includes six stage process:
FSR 1. Descriptive and diagnosis stage

2. Design stage or planning stage
Methodolgy 3. Testing stage or implementation
stage
4. Evaluation stage
5. Extension stage
6. Policy formulation

1. Descriptive and diagnosis stage
Objectives
Description or characterization of existing farming systems (components, resource base,
enterprises, opportunities, problems, limitations)
Detection of component interrelationship
Analysis of the environment on which the system operate i.e. study the factors (physical,
biological, socioeconomic and management factors) that affects the farming system
Identification and analysis of the problem constraints
Procedures or methodology
Informal survey: PRA, RRA, PLA
Formal survey
Special purpose survey
Analysis of secondary data
2. Design stage/ planning stage
Objectives:
Screening the existing technologies to solve target problem
Formulation of improved production technologies
Procedures or methodology:
On station experiment
On farm experiment under researcher design and management:
technology screening
Ex-ante analysis: economic prescreening of technologies
*Ex-ante is a form of financial analysis that uses forecasting or predictions for future
events. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
3. Testing Stage
Objectives:
• Evaluating the technologies at farmers field under farmers management
• Determination of adoptability of new technologies throughout the
recommendation domain
• Extension to larger area for technology screening
Procedures:
• On farm experiment under farmer management
• Multi location trials under extensions management
• Pilot production program (whole farm analysis) under farmers management
• Front line demonstration By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
4. Extension stage:
Up scaling and out scaling of high impact technologies by
extension workers.
• Roll in/scale in/ high hanging/ better bet technologies-Technologies to be verified in
farmers field
• Roll out/scale out/low hanging/ best bet technologies- Technologies fit as capsules
5. Evaluation stage:
Evaluation on the technical and economic aspects of technologies
by a multidisciplinary team. It includes adaptability study, impact
study, acceptance test and others.
6. Policy formulation:
Internalization of high impact technologies in the regular program
of MOAD.
I. Classification of Farming System
Classification II. Characteristics of Terai , Hill and
of Farming Mountain farming system
System -Components (resource base and enterprises),
opportunities and limitations of Terai FS
-Components, opportunities and limitations of
Hill FS
-Components, opportunities and limitations of
Mountain FS

Classification of Farming System
Based on components/enterprises Based on the ownership of land
Specialized Farming Estate farming
- Crop based farming Family farming
- Animal based farming Collective farming
Diversified farming Cooperative farming
- Integrated farming Based on inputs used
- Mixed farming High External Input Agriculture (HEIA)
Based on land area availability Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA)
Extensive farming Low External Input Sustainable
Intensive farming Agriculture (LEISA)
Biointensive farming

Classification of Farming System
Based on degree of commercialization Based on water availability
Subsistence farming
Dry farming
Semi- subsistence farming
Dry land farming
Semi – commercial farming
Rainfed farming
Commercial farming
Based on medium used to support plant Irrigated farming
Sand culture Based on physio ecological
Hydroponics zones
Aquaponics Mountain farming system
Aeroponics Hill farming system
Terai farming system
Based on Components or enterprises
• 1. Specialized farming
• Farmer focus only in one or few similar enterprises
Types Arable farming Pastoral farming
Enterprise Crops based Animal based
Eg.  Rice-wheat based in  Dairy /poultry based FS are popular these days in commercial
terai region farms of terai region
 Maize based in hilly  Goat based FS are popular these days in commercial farms of
and mountain region hilly region
 Sheep/ changrya /yak/ based in high mountains
• 2. Diversified farming- Farmers make a combination of two or more different
enterprises
Types Mixed faming Integrated farming
Enterprises  Combination of two or more enterprises  Combination of two or more interdependent

independently at the same time enterprises at the same time
 Less sustainable & Profitable  More sustainable & profitable
Eg. Dairy + Fishery, Poultry + Apiculture Piggery + Fishery , Rish- Fish Culture,
Floriculture + Apiculture
Based on land area availability
Types Intensive farming Extensive farming Biointensive farming
Meaning Refers to a farming Refers to a farming Refers to a farming system that
technique , wherein there technique, wherein there focus on maximizing production
is high level use of inputs is low level of inputs from limited area, maintaining
in smaller land area. used in larger land area the biodiversity and sustainability
of system
Inputs used Higher number of Lower number of Both external inputs and internal
external inputs like external inputs and resources are used efficiently
capital, fertilizers, capital
Chemicals, etc. -Locally devised tools
-Advanced machineries and machineries
Land holding Small and expensive Large and inexpensive Small
Location Urban and Semi urban Rural area Both rural and urban
area
Output/area Large Small Large
Eg. Commercial farms Subsistence farms Organic farming
Based on degree of commercialization
Types Goal Inputs used
Subsistence farming Fulfill the family needs Mostly internal inputs are
used
Semi-subsistence farming Fulfill the family needs, Limited use of external
also sell certain part of input and capital
production
Semi-commercial farming Selling a large part of Use of both internal and
production external inputs
Commercial farming Selling all the production High level of external

inputs and capital used
Based on ownership of land
Types Owner of land Benefit sharing Examples
Estate farming Government is the Output is used by Illam Tea Estate
owner of farming land government Seed production farms
Family Farming Farmer is the owner Output is used by family Family farm
of farm members
Collective farming Members of farmer Output are distributed Farm of a farmer

groups or registered among members of group,
farms farmers group or farm Registered farm
Co-operative Member of Output are distributed Agriculture

farming cooperatives among members based based cooperative
on land, labor and farms
capital
By Achyut Gaire, invested
Asst. Professor
Based on Water availability
Types Annual Growing Moisture Constraints Cropping
rainfall regions availability System
Dry farming Less than 750 Arid Shortage Wind erosion Monocropping
mm
Dryland 750-1150 mm Semi-arid Shortage Wind and Monocropping
farming water erosion Intercropping
Rainfed More than Sub-humid and Depends upon Water erosion Multiple
farming 1150 mm humid distribution Drainage cropping
pattern of problem
rainfall
Partially Farming system with facility of irrigation in one or few seasons
irrigated
farming
Irrigated Farming system with facility of irrigation water year round
farming By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Based on inputs used
• LEIA means maximum utilization of local resources with less
cost on external inputs for agriculture production
1. Low External
• Reduction of purchased inputs and increase use of on-farm
Input resources
Agriculture
(LEIA) • Minimize impact on the environment by minimum use of
agrochemicals
• In LEIA, Use of synthetic fertilizers or other agrochemicals
below rates commonly recommended
• It doesn't mean the elimination of these materials
• Yield are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural
practices, IPM and utilization of on-farm resources
• Increases biological N-fixatation by legumes
• HEIA means maximum use of external inputs and
chemical fertilizers
• Agriculture production is increased rapidly to meet
demand of food for the increasing population. (Green
Revolution)
2. High • Mechanization solves the problem of labour shortage.
External • Increases the profit and income of farmers also
Input increased productivity of land
Agriculture • Collapse environmental balance and reduces soil
fertility
(HEIA) • Due to mechanization, increase soil erosion losses.
• Kills beneficial microorganisms and affects various
natural resources

Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA)
• LEISA is an integrated agriculture system which makes optimal use of locally available natural and
human resources (soil, water, vegetation, animals, knowledge and skill) and is economically feasible,
ecologically sound, culturally adaptable and socially justice.
• It aims to:
Optimize the use of locally available resources
 Stable and adequate production level over the long term
Incorporate the best components of Indigenous farmers knowledge and practices, ecologically – sound
agricultural practices.
Developed within each ecological and socio-economic systems.
• Some LEISA Techniques and Practices
a)Soil and water management- Terraces to prevent soil erosion, Contour planting, Hedgerows and living
barriers, Conservation tillage, Mulching, Cover crop
b) Soil fertility enhancement - Manures and composts, Green manures
c) Controlling weeds and pests- Intercrops and rotations, Integrated pest management
Differences between HEIA and LEIA
SN HEIA LEIA
1 Farming pattern depends heavily on external It relies on the optimal use of natural processes.
and chemical inputs .
2 Focus of agricultural development & Focus is on the sustainability of farming system.
research.
3 There is a great damage to the environment. Environmentally sound
4 The rising costs of agricultural inputs have Greater emphasis on the long-term sustenance &
made farming increasingly unprofitable balance between the profit & livelihood.
5 HEIA depends on the higher production & Sustainable ecological practices depends on
profit. local agro –ecological conditions.
6 Lack of diversity in the farming practices. Maintains diversity.

7 Under HEIA system soil quality deteriorates. LEIA maintains a healthy soil.
There is a lack of use of indigenous Best use of indigenous technologies

technologies. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Characteristics of Nepalese farming system
Characteristics includes types, components (resource base and enterprises), opportunities and
limitations of a particular farming system.
Types : Opportunities
Subsistence farming Major source of livelihood
Rainfed farming Rich in biodiversity and natural resource base

Effective farmers participation
Diversified farming: Agroforestry
and Livestock Crop Forestry Environmentally sustainability
system are popular Limitations
Traditional farming Low system productivity
Extensive farming and LEIA Fragmented & small land holding: due to high population
Declining soil fertility and productivity
Components: Land, water, forest,
crop, animals, farmers. Farmer oriented and supply driven
Poor availability, accessibility and affordability of inputs
Types of farming system mostly prevalent in
three physiographic regions of Nepal:
Based on /Types Mountain FS Hill FS Terai FS
Components Livestock based Integrated Crop based
Land Area Extensive Extensive Intensive

Availability
Inputs used LEIA LEIA HEIA
Degree of Subsistence and Semi-subsistence Semi-commercial
Commercialization Semi-subsistence and semi- and commercial
commercial
Availability of Dry and Dry land and Rainfed and
Water Dryland Rainfed
Irrigated
Assessment of Land Use and Yield advantage
1. Rotational Intensity
It is the ratio of number of crops grown in rotation to the duration of rotation
(year) expressed in percentage.
Rotational Intensity = No. of crops grown in rotation * 100 %
Duration of rotation (year )
Question: Calculate the rotational intensity of the following crop sequences:
a) Rice-Wheat
b) Rice-Early potato-Wheat- Cowpea
c) Sesamum- Greengram- Broccoli- Blackgram- Greengram- Cauliflower
Rotational Intensity = 2/1 * 100 % = 200 %

2. Cropping Intensity
It is the ratio of gross cropped area to the net cultivated area expressed in percentage.
Cropping Intensity = Gross cropped area * 100 %
Net cultivated area
Question: Calculate the cropping intensity from the following information.
a) Net cultivated area of farm= 10 ha
gross cultivated area = 15 ha
Cropping Intensity = 15/10 * 100 % = 150 %

Assume that you have 5 acre of land. In a particular year, you grow a crop(only once a year because you didn't have irrigation
facilities) in all of the land. Then,
Net sown area is 5 acres. Also, the gross cropped area is same 5 acres.
Now you have irrigation facilities, so you are able to grow the same crop, twice a year. Then,
Net sown area is 5 acres. But the gross cropped area will be 5+5 = 10 acres.
Value addition- the ratio of gross cropped area and net sown area is called cropping intensity. (To get in percentage, multiply by
100) By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
3. Land Use Efficiency (LUE)
LUE indicates the present land use in terms of duration. So, if LUE is 70 %, it
indicates the out of 100 days, land was occupied by crops for 70 days.
LUE= No. of days occupied by the crop * 100 %
365
Question: Following crops are grown in the field. Calculate LUE.
Season Crop
Kharif Rice (120)
Rabi Mustard (120)
LUE= (120+120)/365 * 100 % = 65.67 %

4. Land Equivalent Ratio
LER is the relative land area under sole cropping that is required to produce the same
yield achieved in inter cropping at the same management level.
Intercropping is beneficial when, LER>1.
Question: Calculate the LER of wheat + lentil intercropping system from the following
observation.
Wheat sole: 3.33 tons/ha, Wheat + Lentil : 3.06 tons/ha
LER= 3.06/3.33 =0.92

Historical context of Agriculture
Agriculture as a fundamental human activity since
ancient times.
Evolution from subsistence farming to globalized
Advances in agricultural systems.
Agriculture: A Ancient Agriculture- Stone age, Hunting and
Retrospect and Gathering, Slashing and Firing, Shifting cultivation
Need for Traditional Agriculture- LEIA system
Modernization Conventional/ Modern agriculture – HEIA System
Sustainable agriculture- LEISA system Eg. Organic
farming, Permaculture, Precision agriculture, etc.

1. Technological Innovations
Machinery and Automation:
• Introduction of tractors, harvesters, and other
modern equipment.
• Increased efficiency and reduced labor intensity.
Advanced Irrigation Systems:
Advances in • Drip irrigation and precision watering.
Agriculture • Conservation of water resources.
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology:
• Crop modification for improved yield and
resistance.
• Development of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).
2. Digital Agriculture
Data Analytics for Crop Monitoring:
• Utilization of data for decision-making.
• Monitoring crop health and predicting
yield.
IoT Applications in Agriculture:
Advances in • Smart farming techniques.
Agriculture • Connected sensors for real-time
monitoring.
Remote Sensing Technologies:
• Satellite imagery and drones for field
analysis.
• Precision agriculture and resource
optimization.
3. Sustainable Practices
Organic Farming and Agroecology:
• Shift towards chemical-free farming.
• Integration of natural ecosystem
processes.
Advances in Conservation Tillage and Cover Cropping:
• Soil health preservation.
Agriculture • Reduction in erosion and nutrient loss.
Water Conservation and Efficient Resource
Utilization:
• Sustainable water management practices.
• Precision irrigation to minimize wastage.
Impacts of Advancement in Agriculture
Increased Crop Yield and Quality:
• Quantifiable improvements in production.
• Enhanced nutritional content of crops.
Reduction in Environmental Impact:
• Decreased reliance on chemical inputs.
• Mitigation of soil and water pollution.
Enhanced Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness:
• Improved resource utilization leading to cost
savings.
• Increased profitability for farmers.
Improved Resilience to Climate Change:
• Adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.
• Greater adaptability to changing weather patterns.
Technological Adoption Barriers:
Cost implications and access issues.
Education and training requirements.
Challenges in Economic Challenges for Small-Scale Farmers:
Disparities in technology adoption.
Modern Ensuring inclusivity in modernization efforts.
Agriculture Environmental Concerns and Sustainable
Practices:
Balancing productivity with ecological
sustainability.
Identifying and addressing potential negative
impacts.

Need for Modernization
Addressing Global Food Security Challenges:
 Growing population and food demand.
 Ensuring a resilient and secure global food supply.
Increasing Agricultural Productivity Sustainably:
 Balancing the need for increased production with
environmental sustainability.
 Promoting efficient and responsible resource management.
Meeting the Demands of a Growing Population:
 The role of modern agriculture in feeding a burgeoning
global population.
 Leveraging technology to meet future food requirements.
Adapting to Climate Change and Variability:
 Developing climate-resilient crops and practices.
 Mitigating the impact of extreme weather events on
agriculture.
Future Prospects
Emphasis on 1. Continued investment in agricultural research.
Research and
Development: 2. Encouraging innovation for sustainable farming.
Integration of 1. Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence and

Emerging machine learning.
Technologies: 2. Incorporating new technologies as they emerge.
1. Governments, farmers, research institutions, and

Collaboration private sectors working together.
Between
Stakeholders: 2. Building partnerships for comprehensive and
effective modernization.
Precision Farming
 Application of technologies and principles to manage
spatial and temporal variability associated with all
aspects of agricultural production. → Pierce and
Nowak, 1999
Aims to improve
 Crop performance
 Environmental quality
 Energy and chemical efficiency
By
 Intelligent machines
 Intelligent processes (Crop model)
Based on observing, measuring and responding to inter and
intra-field variability in crops
Precision Farming
 Traditionally, variations in land type and soil biogeochemistry were not accounted in agriculture.
 Farmers use same inputs such as irrigation, fertilizer, or pesticides across an entire field in a blanket application
process.
 Precision farming makes use of geospatial data to analyze the fluctuations of soil nutrients, water availability, slope,
sun exposure, and other such variable features of land parcels and addresses them only as needed.
 This core practice of precision agriculture is called variable rate application (VRA) and is what makes this
agricultural movement stand out as a more advanced and responsible way to farm.
Methodology Through
Assessing variability  Precision land leveling
 Managing variability  Variable rate technology
 Site-specific planting
 Site-specific nutrient management
 Site-specific weed management
 Precision in pests and disease
management etc.
Geographic Information System (GIS)
For linking and integrating GIS data ( Soil, Crop, Weather,
Field history) with simulation models as well as to support the
engineering components for designing implements and GPS
guided machineries.
Modern It offers recommendations based on the analysis, such as
Tools of where to plant specific crops, when to irrigate, and where to
apply fertilizers or pesticides.
Precision GIS generates visual representations of spatial data, making it
easier for users to understand complex information.
Farming Global Positioning System (GPS)
 For yield mapping and variable rate fertilizer/pesticide
applicator. Helps to find out the exact location in the field to
assess the spatial variability.
Tracking of agricultural equipment, enabling farmers to make
informed decisions, optimize resource use, and improve
overallBy farm efficiency.
Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Remote Sensing
 Remote sensing is a field of study and technology that
involves gathering information about the Earth’s surface or
other objects from a distance.
It utilizes various devices and sensors, such as satellites,
Modern airplanes, and drones, to collect data without making physical
contact with the target.
Tools of It can detect light at various wavelengths, providing
Precision information beyond what the human eye can perceive to assess
crop health ( Eg. NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation
Farming Index), disease and pest detection, yield forecasting, etc.
Leaf Color Chart (LCC)
 A simple and cost-effective
tool used in precision
agriculture to assess the
nitrogen status of crops,
particularly in rice cultivation.
Modern Tools of
Precision Farming
Laser Land Leveler
 A specialized piece of agricultural
equipment used to precisely level and
grade the surface of a field or
farmland.
Variable Rate Technology ( VRT)

 It allows fertilizer, chemical, lime,
gypsum, irrigation water and other farm
inputs to be applied at different rates
across the field.
Modern Tools of Precision Farming
Grid Soil Sampling
 Grid soil sampling involves dividing a field into a grid
pattern with evenly spaced sampling points or nodes.
Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) Meter or

Chlorophyll Meter
 A chlorophyll meter is used for simple, rapid, and non-
destructive assessment of leaf chlorophyll concentrations.
Omission Plot Techniques

 Small plots where each of the nutrients being evaluated is
omitted, while all the other nutrients are applied
adequately.
Computers, sensors and farmers- Crop models
Drawbacks of precision agriculture tools
Initial Investment Cost
Need of technical expertise
Complex data management
Required accessibility and internet
connectivity
Not applicable or difficult for small
land holding
Dependency on technology

Resource Base and Modern Agriculture
1) Land Utilization:
It involves optimized land use through precision farming techniques.
Use of satellite imagery and GPS for accurate mapping of fields.
Adoption of smart irrigation systems to maximize productivity per
unit of land.
2) Water Management:
Efficient water usage through technologies such as drip and sprinkler
irrigation.
Implementation of water-saving practices to address scarcity issues.
Monitoring and managing water resources using data analytics and
sensors.
3) Soil Health and Fertility:
Emphasis on sustainable soil management practices.
Precision agriculture to tailor fertilization and nutrient application.
Cover cropping and conservation tillage to enhance soil health.
4) Technological Integration:
Integration of advanced technologies like drones and sensors for
real-time monitoring.
Use of precision agriculture tools to optimize resource utilization.
Adoption of digital platforms for farm management and decision-
making.
5) Genetic Resources and Crop Improvement:
Utilization of genetic engineering for developing crops with
desirable traits.
Preservation of genetic diversity for future crop resilience.
Crop breeding programs aimed at improving yield, resistance, and
nutritional content.
6) Energy Efficiency:
Adoption of energy-efficient practices in agriculture machinery.
Integration of renewable energy sources on the farm.
Sustainable energy practices to reduce Bythe carbon
Achyut footprint.
Gaire, Asst. Professor
7) Human Capital and Knowledge Base:
Investment in education and training for farmers on modern techniques.
Access to information through digital platforms and extension services.
Continuous learning and adaptation to new agricultural practices.
8) Financial Resources:
Adequate financing for the adoption of modern technologies.
Investment in research and development for agricultural innovation.
Access to credit and financial instruments for farmers.
9) Climate-Smart Agriculture:
Adoption of practices that enhance resilience to climate change.
Implementation of weather forecasting tools for informed decision-making.
Crop varieties designed to withstand changing climatic conditions.
10. Biodiversity Conservation:
 Integration of agroecological principles to promote biodiversity.
 Sustainable farming practices that support a diverse ecosystem.
 Conservation of natural habitats within and around agricultural areas.
11. Supply Chain and Market Access:
 Efficient supply chain management for timely delivery of produce.
 Access to markets and fair trade practices for farmers.
 Integration of technology for traceability and quality assurance.
12. Government Policies and Support:
 Implementation of supportive policies for sustainable resource management.
 Incentives for adopting modern and environmentally friendly practices.
 Government support in terms of subsidies, insurance, and infrastructure development.
Understanding and optimizing this resource base is crucial for achieving sustainable and
productive modern agriculture, ensuring food security, and mitigating environmental
impact. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Modern agriculture, when implemented responsibly, has the potential to address the
challenges of food security while minimizing negative environmental impacts.
Balancing the two is crucial for creating a sustainable and resilient global food
system.
Environment:
 Sustainable Practices:
Modern  Integration of sustainable agricultural practices to minimize environmental
impact.
Agriculture :  Adoption of organic farming, agroecology, and conservation tillage.
 Precision Agriculture:
Environment  Use of precision farming technologies to optimize resource use.
 Reducing overuse of fertilizers, pesticides, and water through targeted
and Food application.
Security  Climate-Smart Agriculture:
 Implementation of practices that enhance resilience to climate change.
 Development and cultivation of climate-resistant crop varieties.
 Biodiversity Conservation:
 Promotion of biodiversity through diversified cropping systems.
 Conservation of natural habitats within agricultural landscapes.
Reduced Environmental Pollution:
 Minimization of soil and water pollution through responsible
chemical use.
Implementation of practices to prevent runoff and leaching.
Efficient Water Management:
Adoption of water-efficient irrigation systems.
Modern Monitoring and managing water resources to address scarcity and
reduce waste.
Agriculture: Renewable Energy Integration:
Use of renewable energy sources on the farm to reduce reliance on
Environmental fossil fuels.
Implementation of energy-efficient technologies in agricultural
Impacts operations.
Soil Health Preservation:
Practices such as cover cropping and crop rotation to enhance soil
health.
Reduction in soil erosion through conservation tillage methods.
Increased Productivity:
Adoption of modern technologies leading to higher crop
yields.
Improved efficiency in livestock production to meet growing
demands.
Crop Diversification:
Diversification of crops to enhance resilience to pests and
diseases.
Modern Ensuring a variety of nutrient-rich foods for a balanced diet.
Genetic Improvement:
Agriculture: Development of genetically modified crops for improved
Food Security yield and resistance.
Crop breeding programs for desirable traits, such as drought
resistance.
Technology in Storage and Transportation:
Modern storage facilities to reduce post-harvest losses.
Efficient transportation systems to ensure timely delivery to
markets.
 Access to Markets:
 Utilization of technology for market access and information.
 Fair trade practices to ensure equitable returns for farmers.
 Risk Reduction:
 Implementation of risk management strategies to mitigate the impact
of climate events.
 Insurance schemes to protect farmers against crop failures.
 Global Collaboration:
Modern  International cooperation to address global food security challenges.

 Sharing of knowledge, resources, and technologies for mutual
Agriculture: benefit.
 Government Policies and Support:
Food Security  Implementation of policies that promote food security and
sustainable agriculture.
 Subsidies, incentives, and support for small-scale farmers to enhance
productivity.
 Innovation and Research:
 Continued investment in agricultural research and development.
 Adoption of innovative technologies to improve efficiency and
productivity.
Emerging Challenges in Agriculture: Biophysical
and Socioeconomic
Climate Change: Effect, Concept of Adaptation and
Mitigation
Production in drought and Nutrient Stress Conditions and
Coping with them
Changing Socioeconomic Conditions and Strategies to
handle

--Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature,
Climate Change: precipitation patterns, and other climate parameters. In agriculture,
Effect, Concept of climate change poses a significant biophysical challenge with far-
reaching consequences for crop production, water availability, and
Adaptation and the overall sustainability of farming systems.
Mitigation 1. Altered Weather Patterns:
Temperature Increase: Rising global temperatures affect crop
growth cycles, alter flowering patterns, and influence the
distribution of pests and diseases.
Changing Rainfall Patterns: Shifts in precipitation patterns
result in irregular rainfall, droughts, and floods, impacting water
availability for crops.
2. Impact on Crop Yields:
Reduced Crop Yields: Increased temperatures and altered
precipitation affect crop productivity negatively in many regions.
Crop Sensitivity: Certain crops are more sensitive to
temperature changes, leading to variations in yields.
Impact of Climate change in Agriculture
3. Water Availability:
Droughts and Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns contribute to more frequent and severe
droughts, affecting water availability for irrigation.
Increased Evapotranspiration: Higher temperatures lead to increased evaporation and transpiration,
exacerbating water scarcity.
4. Spread of Pests and Diseases:
Geographical Shifts: Warmer temperatures expand the geographic range of pests and diseases,
impacting regions previously unaffected.
Altered Life Cycles: Climate change influences the life cycles of pests, affecting their prevalence and
impact on crops.
5. Adaptation Challenges:
Crop Adaptation: Farmers face challenges in adapting crops to changing climatic conditions.
Shifts in Agroecological Zones: Traditional agroecological zones may shift, requiring adjustments in
crop selection and management practices.
Impact of Climate change in Agriculture
6. Extreme Weather Events:
Increased Frequency: Climate change contributes to more frequent extreme events such as hurricanes,
typhoons, and heatwaves.
Crop Damage: These events can cause immediate and severe damage to crops, leading to significant
yield losses.
7. Impact on Livestock:
Heat Stress: Livestock experience increased heat stress, affecting productivity and well-being.
Altered Pasture Conditions: Changes in temperature and precipitation impact the availability and
quality of grazing lands.
8. Soil Health and Fertility:
Erosion and Degradation: Intense rainfall events and extreme weather can lead to soil erosion and
degradation.
Nutrient Cycling: Changes in temperature and precipitation affect microbial activity, impacting nutrient
cycling in soils.
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
Climate change adaptation and mitigation in agriculture are essential
strategies to ensure the resilience of farming systems, reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, and promote sustainable food production.
Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture:
 Crop Diversification:
• Objective: Reduce dependency on a single crop by diversifying
crop varieties.
• Benefits: Increases resilience to changing climatic conditions and
reduces vulnerability to specific pests or diseases.
 Climate-Resilient Crop Varieties:
• Objective: Develop and promote the cultivation of crop varieties
resistant to heat, drought, or other climate-related stresses.
• Benefits: Enhances productivity in the face of changing climate
patterns.
 Improved Water Management:
• Objective: Implement efficient irrigation systems, water
conservation practices, and rainwater harvesting.
• Benefits: Addresses water scarcity, reduces irrigation costs, and
ensures better water-use efficiency.
 Agroforestry and Conservation Agriculture:
• Objective: Integrate trees into agricultural landscapes and adopt conservation tillage
practices.
• Benefits: Improves soil health, enhances water retention, and provides additional
income sources through agroforestry.
 Early Warning Systems:
• Objective: Establish and strengthen early warning systems for extreme weather events.
Climate • Benefits: Enables farmers to make informed decisions and take preventive actions
ahead of climatic hazards.
Change  Adjustment of Planting and Harvesting Times:
• Objective: Adapt planting and harvesting schedules based on changing climatic
Adaptation in conditions.
• Benefits: Helps align agricultural activities with optimal weather conditions, reducing
Agriculture: risks and losses.
 Livestock Management Strategies:
• Objective: Develop climate-smart livestock management practices, such as improved
shelter and feeding strategies.
• Benefits: Reduces the impact of heat stress and other climate-related challenges on
livestock.
 Capacity Building and Education:
• Objective: Provide training and education to farmers on climate-smart agricultural
practices.
• Benefits: Enhances adaptive capacity and encourages the adoption of resilient farming
technique
 Conservation Agriculture:
• Objective: Adopt minimal tillage practices to reduce soil disturbance
and enhance carbon sequestration.
• Benefits: Improves soil health, conserves water, and mitigates
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Precision Farming:
Climate • Objective: Use technology for precise application of inputs,
optimizing resource use.
Change • Benefits: Reduces emissions by minimizing the use of fertilizers,
Mitigation in pesticides, and water.
 Renewable Energy Integration:
Agriculture • Objective: Transition to renewable energy sources for on-farm
operations.
• Benefits: Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, mitigates emissions, and
contributes to sustainable agriculture.
 Cover Cropping:
• Objective: Plant cover crops during non-growing seasons to protect
and enrich the soil.
• Benefits: Enhances carbon sequestration, prevents erosion, and
improves soil structure.
 Agroforestry Practices:
• Objective: Integrate trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes.
• Benefits: Enhances carbon sequestration, provides additional income through
timber or fruit production, and promotes biodiversity.
 Methane Reduction in Livestock:
• Objective: Implement dietary and management strategies to reduce methane
Climate emissions from livestock.
• Benefits: Mitigates a potent greenhouse gas, contributing to climate change
Change mitigation.
 Carbon Farming:
Mitigation in • Objective: Implement practices that increase carbon sequestration in soils,
such as rotational grazing and improved pasture management.
Agriculture • Benefits: Enhances soil health, reduces emissions, and contributes to carbon
sequestration.
 International Collaboration and Policy Support:
• Objective: Collaborate internationally to address global climate challenges and
advocate for supportive policies.
• Benefits: Enables the development and implementation of effective mitigation
strategies at a global scale.
By combining adaptation and mitigation strategies, agriculture can play a

crucial role in addressing the challenges posed by climate change
while ensuring food security and sustainability.
Production in drought and Nutrient Stress Conditions and Coping with them
Strategies and practices that farmers can adopt to cope with these challenging conditions and
enhance production resilience.
Drought Stress:
Water Management:
• Efficient irrigation practices, such as drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting, can help
optimize water usage.
• Mulching helps in retaining soil moisture by reducing evaporation.
Drought-Resistant Crop Varieties:
• Planting drought-tolerant crop varieties can significantly improve yield in water-limited
conditions.
• Genetic modification and breeding programs focus on developing crops with improved
drought resistance.

Strategies to cope with drought stress
Soil Moisture Conservation:
• Conservation tillage methods and cover cropping can help retain soil moisture.
• Organic matter incorporation improves soil structure and water-holding
capacity.
Crop Rotation and Diversification:
• Rotating crops helps break pest and disease cycles and can enhance soil
fertility and structure.
• Diversifying crops can reduce dependency on a single water-demanding crop.
Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
• Implementing soil moisture monitoring and meteorological tools helps in early
detection of drought conditions.
• Early warning systems can assist farmers in making informed decisions
regarding crop management.
Strategies to cope with nutrient stress
Soil Testing and Nutrient Management:
• Regular soil testing helps determine nutrient levels and allows for targeted fertilization.
• Precision agriculture technologies can aid in optimizing nutrient application.
Organic Amendments:
• Incorporating organic matter into the soil improves its nutrient-holding capacity.
• Compost and manure application enhance soil fertility.
Nitrogen-Fixing Plants:
• Growing leguminous crops or using nitrogen-fixing cover crops can increase soil nitrogen levels.
Balanced Fertilization:
• Providing a balanced ratio of essential nutrients helps prevent nutrient imbalances.
• Foliar application of nutrients can be a quick way to address deficiencies.
Crop Rotation and Diversification:
• Crop rotation not only helps in managing pests but also ensures a more diverse nutrient profile in the soil.
Hydroponics and Controlled Environment Agriculture:
• In water-scarce areas, hydroponics and controlled environment agriculture can optimize nutrient delivery
to plants. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Integrated Approaches
Agroforestry:
• Integrating trees with crops can improve water and nutrient cycling, providing a buffer
against stress conditions.
Conservation Agriculture:
• Practices like minimum tillage, cover cropping, and crop rotation are part of conservation
agriculture, promoting sustainable and resilient farming.
Technology Adoption:
• Embracing precision farming technologies, such as remote sensing and data analytics, aids
in real-time decision-making.
Capacity Building and Extension Services:
• Providing farmers with information and training on sustainable practices enhances their
ability to cope with stress conditions.
To sum up, a combination of improved agricultural practices, resilient crop varieties, and the
integration of technological innovations can help farmers cope with drought and nutrient
stress conditions, ultimately contributing to sustainable and productive agriculture.
Changing Socioeconomic Conditions and Strategies to handle emerging
challenges in agriculture
1. Diversification of Income Sources:
 Encourage farmers to diversify their income streams by engaging in activities beyond traditional farming, such as agro-
processing, eco-tourism, or value-added products.
 Promote alternative crops or high-value crops that align with changing market demands.
2. Technology Adoption:
 Embrace digital agriculture, precision farming, and smart technologies to enhance productivity, reduce costs, and improve
resource efficiency.
 Provide training and support for farmers to adopt modern farming practices and use technology effectively.
3. Access to Financial Services:
 Facilitate access to credit and financial services for smallholder farmers to invest in modern equipment, seeds, and technology.
 Develop innovative financial instruments, such as crop insurance, to mitigate risks associated with changing weather patterns.
4. Market Linkages and Value Chains:
 Strengthen market linkages to ensure farmers have access to fair and transparent markets.
 Develop robust agricultural value chains that connect producers to processors, retailers, and consumers, creating opportunities
for increased income.

Changing Socioeconomic Conditions and Strategies to handle emerging
challenges in agriculture
5. Sustainable Agriculture Practices:
 Promote sustainable farming practices that consider environmental impact and resource conservation.
 Invest in organic farming, agroecology, and regenerative agriculture to address consumer preferences for
environmentally friendly and healthy products.
6. Capacity Building and Education:
 Provide training and education programs to enhance the skills of farmers, making them better equipped to adapt to
changing conditions.
 Promote agricultural education that integrates modern technologies, climate-smart practices, and business
management.
7. Community Engagement and Social Capital:
 Foster community-based approaches that encourage collaboration among farmers.
 Establish cooperatives and farmer groups to share resources, knowledge, and collectively negotiate with markets.
8. Government Policies and Support:
 Implement policies that support sustainable agriculture, promote fair trade, and ensure food security.
 Provide subsidies and incentives for adopting new technologies and environmentally friendly practices.
Yield Estimation and Yield
Forecasting in Agriculture
Predicts the amount of crops
that will be harvested based on
various factors such as weather
conditions, soil quality, crop
management practices, and
historical data.

Yield Estimation
Field Surveys and Sampling:
• Agronomists and experts conduct field surveys to assess crop conditions by sampling.
Remote Sensing:
• Satellite and drone imagery help monitor crop health, identify stress factors, and estimate yields.
• Remote sensing technologies provide real-time data, aiding in timely decision-making.
Weather Data:
• Historical and current weather data are crucial for understanding the impact of temperature,
precipitation, and other climatic factors on crop development.
Crop Models:
• Mathematical models simulate crop growth based on input parameters such as weather, soil, and
management practices.
• Models like the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) are widely used.
Sensor Technologies:
• In-field sensors monitor parameters like soil moisture, nutrient levels, and plant health, providing
real-time data for estimation.
Yield Forecasting
Statistical Models:
• Regression analysis and other statistical methods use historical data to predict future yields.
• Time-series analysis considers trends, seasonality, and external factors.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms:
• ML techniques, including neural networks and ensemble methods, are applied to large datasets to identify
patterns and make predictions.
• Algorithms can integrate various data sources such as satellite imagery, weather data, and sensor
readings.
Big Data Analytics:
• Processing and analyzing vast datasets help uncover patterns and correlations, improving the accuracy of
yield forecasts.
Integration of Multiple Data Sources:
• Combining information from various sources, including IoT devices, satellite data, and historical records,
enhances the precision of forecasts.
Expert Knowledge and Farmer Input:
• Local knowledge and farmer input are valuable in validating and refining models, considering factors not
captured by data alone. By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor
Fig.: Architecture figure of yield forecasting
Challenges and Considerations
Data Quality and Availability:
• Reliable and timely data is crucial, but challenges exist in obtaining accurate information,
especially in developing regions.
Dynamic Nature of Agriculture:
• Weather conditions, pests, and diseases can change rapidly, impacting crop development and
yield.
Model Accuracy and Validation:
• Ensuring the accuracy of models requires validation against real-world outcomes.
Adaptability:
• Models should be adaptable to different crops, regions, and changing agricultural practices.
Communication and Accessibility:
• Translating complex forecasts into actionable insights for farmers is essential for effective
implementation.
• Yield estimation and forecasting continue to evolve with advancements in technology and data
science, contributing to more sustainable and efficient agricultural practices.
Nano, Nuclear and other advanced Technologies in
Agriculture
The word nano means one-billionth, so
nanotechnology refers to materials that are measured
in a billionth of meter (nm).
Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on a
near-atomic scale to produce new structures,
materials and devices.
Nanotechnology has revolutionized the traditional
agriculture system in terms of productivity,
economics, minimum toxicity and efficient use of
nanoproducts.
Several nanoproducts including nano-fertilizers and
nano-pesticides are available commercially and their
use in fields offers many benefits to farmers.
Nano pesticides
Nano-pesticides are defined as any formulation that includes elements of nm size range
and/or claims novel properties associated with these small size range
The major aim in the development of nano-pesticides is to lessen the environmental
hazards of a pesticide active ingredient through improving the efficacy of a chemical.
Formulations of Nano-pesticides:
Nano-pesticides are formulated according to their intended purpose as formulations
improving solubility, slow release of active ingredients, prevent degradation etc.

Some foremost nano-formulations for nano-pesticides
Nano-emulsions: In this formulation, a.i of the chemical is dispersed as nanosized
droplets in water, with surfactant molecules confined at the pesticide-water interface
Nano-suspension: Nano-suspensions, also termed as nano-dispersions, are
formulated by dispersing the pesticide as solid nanosized particles in aqueous media
Polymer based nano-particles: Nano carriers are majorly deployed in the slow and
controlled release of active ingredients to the target site.
Nano-encapsulation: This confines the hydrophobic or hydrophilic active
ingredient, surrounded by a polymer coating or membrane.

Polymeric nanoparticle
Advantages of Nanopesticides:
Improved solubility of active ingredients
Better stability of formulation
Slow release of active ingredient
Improved mobility
Higher surface area
Uniform leaf coverage
Improve pesticide utilization

Nano-fertilizers
Nano-fertilizers are nutrient carriers of nano-dimensions capable of holding
bountiful of nutrient ions due to their high surface area and release it slowly and
steadily that commensurate with crop demand.
Examples:
 The use of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NP) expanded the germination of the
Sesamum plant.
 Urea–hydroxyapatite nanohybrids to achieve slow release of nitrogen, concluding
that the use of nanourea can increase yields and reduce the use of conventional
fertilizers.
 Nanofertilizers have less toxic consequences for humans than traditional
products, as well as minimizing costs by increasing the quantity and quality of
products.

Nano-sensors
Nano-sensors are any biological, chemical or
surgical sensory points used to convey
information about nanoparticles to the
macroscopic world.
Different types include :
Sensors using semi-conductor nanowire
detection elements
Semi-conducting carbon nanotubes
Nanowires detect bacteria and viruses
Nanocantilevers

Protected Agriculture: Concept, Characteristics and
Scope in Nepal
Protected agriculture refers to the cultivation of crops in controlled
environments to optimize plant growth and protect plants from adverse
environmental conditions.
It is modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant
growth.
Modification can be aerial as well as root environment.
Practiced under structures like greenhouses, polyhouses, and net
houses, which provide a controlled environment for crops.
The main goal is to create an optimal microclimate for plant growth,
protecting them from extreme weather conditions, pests, and diseases.
Concept of Protected Agriculture
Controlled Environment: Protected agriculture involves the use of structures
like greenhouses to control various environmental factors such as temperature,
humidity, and light intensity.
Optimized Conditions: The aim is to create conditions that are favorable for
plant growth throughout the year, enabling farmers to achieve higher yields and
better quality produce.
Crop Protection: The structures provide a barrier against pests, diseases, and
adverse weather conditions, reducing the need for chemical inputs and making the
cultivation process more sustainable.
Water and Resource Management: Protected agriculture allows for efficient
water and resource management, as the controlled environment enables better
control over irrigation and fertilization.

Need for Protected Cultivation
 Higher yield
Year round cultivation
Better quality
Off-season production
Least pesticide residues
Controlled pollination
Easier plant protection
Weed free cultivation
Generate self employment for the educated
rural youth in the farm sector
Different Types of Protected Farming
Hi-Tech Poly House
 This protected farming structure is the costly and latest
technology in all the structures as all the operations used in it
like irrigation, temperature Controls, raising and lowering
plastic walls, etc. are all operated by computers.
 High cost for operation
Greenhouses:
 Greenhouses are enclosed structures made of transparent
materials, typically glass or plastic, that allow sunlight to
enter while preventing heat from escaping.
 Characteristics: Controlled environment, temperature
regulation, humidity control, protection from pests, and
extended growing seasons.
Polyhouses (Polytunnels or Hoop Houses):
Similar to greenhouses but constructed with a
frame covered in polyethylene plastic. They
are often more affordable than traditional
greenhouses.
Season extension, protection from weather,
and increased temperature and humidity
control.
Net Houses (Shade Houses):
Structures covered with shade nets that
provide partial protection from sunlight,
reducing light intensity and temperature.
Protection from harsh sunlight, insect control,
and improved ventilation.
High Tunnels (Low Tunnels):
Simple, low-cost structures with arched
frames covered with plastic. High tunnels
are taller and larger than low tunnels.
Season extension, frost protection, and
improved climate control.
Cloches:
Small, bell-shaped structures made of
glass, plastic, or other translucent
materials. They are used to cover
individual plants or seedlings.
Frost protection, early season warming,
and individual plant protection.
Cold Frames:
Bottomless, low structures with transparent tops, often
used for hardening off seedlings or protecting plants from
cold temperatures.
Frost protection, seedling acclimatization, and season
extension.
Aquaponics and Hydroponics Systems:
Soilless cultivation systems where plants are grown in
nutrient-rich water. In aquaponics, fish waste provides
nutrients to plants.
Water efficiency, precise nutrient control, and year-round
production.
Screen Houses:
Similar to net houses but with finer mesh screens to
exclude even smaller pests.
Pest control, disease prevention, and improved ventilation.
Scope of Protected Agriculture in Nepal
Increase in Crop Yields: With optimal environment, it can lead to increased yields and better-quality
produce, contributing to food security and income generation.
Extreme Weather Conditions: It can mitigate the impact of extreme temperatures, heavy rainfall, and other
weather-related challenges.
Resource Efficiency: With precise control over water, nutrients, and other inputs, protected agriculture in
Nepal can contribute to efficient resource utilization and sustainability.
Income Generation: The ability to cultivate high-value crops and achieve year-round production can enhance
the income of farmers engaged in protected agriculture.
Disease and Pest Management: Protecting crops from pests and diseases reduces the reliance on chemical
pesticides, making cultivation more environmentally friendly.
Technology Adoption: The adoption of protected agriculture involves the use of modern technologies,
contributing to the modernization of agriculture in Nepal.
Diversification of Crops: Farmers can diversify their crop choices and cultivate high-value crops that may
not thrive in open-field conditions.
To promote and support protected agriculture in Nepal, it would be essential to provide training, financial support, and
access to technology for farmers.

Contract and Family Farming: Concept, Characteristics and
Scope
An agricultural arrangement between farmers and agribusiness firms, where the
farmers agree to produce a specific agricultural product according to the terms and
conditions set by the buyer (agribusiness firm).
The agreement typically includes specifications for the quality, quantity, and
timing of the produce.
This arrangement is intended to provide farmers with a guaranteed market for
their products and agribusiness
firms with a reliable supply.

Characteristics of Contract Farming
Agreement: Formal agreement between the farmer and the agribusiness firm outlining the
terms and conditions of the contract, including price, quantity, quality standards, and delivery
schedules.
Risk Sharing: Both parties share certain risks. Farmers may receive support in the form of
inputs, technical assistance, and guaranteed markets, while agribusiness firms gain a stable
supply of produce.
Technical Guidance: Agribusiness firms often provide farmers with technical know-how,
training, and sometimes inputs to ensure that the produce meets the required quality standards.
Price Determination: The price for the produce is usually determined in advance, providing
farmers with price stability. However, this can sometimes lead to concerns about fairness in
pricing.
Market Access: Contract farming provides farmers with access to established markets,
reducing their reliance on volatile open markets.

Scope of Contract Farming
Crop Diversification: Contract farming facilitates the cultivation of specific crops based on
market demand, leading to crop diversification in response to changing consumer preferences.
Technology Transfer: Agribusiness firms often transfer technology, best practices, and
modern farming methods to contract farmers, contributing to agricultural modernization.
Income Stability: Farmers benefit from a stable income due to predetermined prices and
market access, reducing the income volatility associated with traditional farming.
Quality Assurance: Agribusiness firms usually enforce quality standards, ensuring that the
produce meets market requirements. This benefits consumers and enhances the reputation of the
agribusiness.
Rural Development: Contract farming can contribute to rural development by providing
employment opportunities, improving infrastructure, and boosting the overall economic
condition of farming communities.

Family Farming
Family farming refers to a type of agricultural production where a family owns
and operates the farm, and family members are actively involved in its
management and labor.
It is characterized by a strong connection between the family and the land, with
the family often passing down farming traditions and practices through
generations.

Characteristics of Family Farming
Small to Medium Scale: Family farms can range from small to medium-scale
operations, and they may engage in diverse agricultural activities, including crop
cultivation, livestock rearing, or a combination of both
Ownership and Management: The farm is owned and managed by a family unit,
and family members are typically involved in various aspects of farm operations.
Sustainability: Many family farms prioritize sustainable and environmentally
friendly farming practices, as the long-term health of the land is crucial for the
family's livelihood.
Local Focus: It often have a local or regional focus, supplying produce to local
markets and contributing to local food systems.
Generational Transfer: It often involves the transfer of knowledge, skills, and
the farm itself from one generation to the next.
Scope of Family Farming
Food Security: Family farming plays a vital role in local and national food
security by producing a significant portion of the world's food supply.
Cultural Preservation: Family farming helps preserve cultural traditions and
agricultural practices that are passed down through generations.
Community Engagement: Family farms are often deeply rooted in their
communities, contributing to community development and fostering social
connections.
Biodiversity: Many family farms prioritize biodiversity by growing a variety of
crops and raising diverse livestock, contributing to ecosystem health.
Adaptability: Family farms can be more adaptable and flexible in responding to
changing market demands and shifts in agricultural practices.


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By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Artificial system- man made, non-living. E.g., Tractor, computer

Living/Soft/Biological system- are natural system, E.g., plants, animals, human..

Non-living/Hard/Physical- might be natural or artificial, E.g., Rock, water, tractor

Elements Input (WHAT goes into the system?): Raw materials

of System Process (HOW the system works?): Sequence of

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Boundary Fixed by nature, Fixed by human Fixed by biophysical and

Off Farm Activities Labour

ecological / The boundary of these physiographic zones also coincide

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Rainfall High High Medium Low Low

Kitchen garden (करेसाबारी)

Upland /Bari Rainfed Maize/ Millet – Fallow

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Examples Wheat + Mustard Chick Sugarcane + Potato Maize

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

 Availability of inputs  Subsidies  Producers

• *Factors under farmers’ control to some extend:

Cropping system Nepal became the Lumle Farming system

At present, GOs, NGOs and

1985 1994 2000 and onwards

types of Mostly conducted at research stations (on-station)

Research Adaptive research

FSR 1. Descriptive and diagnosis stage

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Enterprises  Combination of two or more enterprises  Combination of two or more interdependent

Commercial farming Selling all the production High level of external

Collective farming Members of farmer Output are distributed Farm of a farmer

Co-operative Member of Output are distributed Agriculture

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

6 Lack of diversity in the farming practices. Maintains diversity.

There is a lack of use of indigenous Best use of indigenous technologies

Rainfed farming Rich in biodiversity and natural resource base

Components Livestock based Integrated Crop based

Land Area Extensive Extensive Intensive

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Cropping Intensity = 15/10 * 100 % = 150 %

LUE= (120+120)/365 * 100 % = 65.67 %

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

LER= 3.06/3.33 =0.92

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Integration of 1. Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence and

1. Governments, farmers, research institutions, and

Variable Rate Technology ( VRT)

Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) Meter or

Omission Plot Techniques

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

Modern  International cooperation to address global food security challenges.

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By combining adaptation and mitigation strategies, agriculture can play a

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor

By Achyut Gaire, Asst. Professor