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PAPERS
1
Department of Signal Processing and Acoustics, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
2
Nokia Institute of Technology, INdT, Brasilia, Brazil
768 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
1 PICKUP POSITION
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October 769
PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
1st Rb (s) represent the reflection from the fret and the bridge,
respectively, s is the complex frequency variable of the
Laplace transform, the terms e−sτ represent delays of τ sec-
onds in the Laplace domain, X(s) represents an excitation
signal at the plucking point, and YP (s) represents the output
signal at the pickup. This model uses two traveling waves
propagating in opposite directions with a total delay of 2T0
= 2(T1 + T2 + T3 ) seconds.
The fundamental frequency of the string f0 is related to
the total time delay T0 by
1
f0 = , (2)
2T0
and the delay times are related to the time a wave takes to
propagate from the fret to the plucking point T1 , from the
plucking point to the pickup point T2 , and from the pickup
point to the bridge T3 . Hence, the string displacement above
(a) the pickup can be determined as [14]
YP (s) = O1 (s) + O2 (s) = O1 (s) [1 + HO1O2 (s)] , (3)
where O1 (s) and O2 (s) are the traveling waves at the pickup
point in the Laplace domain, and
HO1O2 (s) = Rb (s)e−2T3 s (4)
is the transfer function between the observation points O1
and O2 . The incoming wave at the pickup point O1 (s) can
be rewritten as
O1 (s) = 12 X (s) [1 + HE2E1 (s)] HE1O1 (s)
+O1 (s)HL (s) (5)
= 12 X (s)HE1O1 (s) 1+H E2E1 (s)
1−HL (s)
,
where HE2E1 (s) is the transfer function between the exci-
tation points E1 and E2 , HE1O1 (s) is the transfer function
between the excitation point E1 and the observation point
O1 , and
(b)
HL (s) = Rb (s)Rf (s)e−2T0 s (6)
Fig. 3. Pickup position effect based on standing waves (adapted
from [30, 31]). is the transfer function of the feedback loop. Thus, the final
output regarding the pickup position is
1 1 + HE2E1 (s)
YP (s) = X (s)HP (s) , (7)
2 1 − HL (s)
where the pickup effect HP (s) is given by
HP (s) = [1 + HO1O2 (s)] HE1O1 (s). (8)
Since the reflection transfer function at the bridge is often
approximated by a constant Rb (s) = −β, where 0 < β < 1,
and the term HE1O1 (s) stands for a constant delay that can
Fig. 4. General delay-line-based string model for plucking point be ignored in this analysis, the pickup position effect can
and pickup position evaluation, adapted from [14]. be approximated by
HP (s) = 1 − βe−2T3 s , (9)
this approach is capable of defining the pickup response
given by its position, it fails to determine other important where the squared magnitude of the frequency response is
factors, such as imperfect reflection coefficients at string obtained replacing s by jω in Eq. (9):
terminations. |HP (ω)|2 = 1 − βe−2T3 jω 1 − βe2T3 jω
A framework for analyzing the effect of the pickup po- (10)
= 1 − 2β cos (2ωT3 ) + β2 ,
sition is shown in Fig. 4, where a waveguide model for a
string is presented in the continuous-time Laplace domain √ ω represents the analysis frequency in rad/s and
where
[12]. In the model of Fig. 4, the transfer functions Rf (s) and j = −1 is the imaginary unit. Hence, the pickup position
770 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October 771
PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
(a)
(b)
which can be simplified into the following non-causal Fig. 8. Comb filter implementation for equal pickup mixing for
model, ignoring the linear delay element e−(T0 −T1 )jω : (a) in-phase and (b) out-of-phase configurations.
772 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
10 3rd harmonic 10 3rd harmonic
2nd harmonic 2nd harmonic
0 1st harmonic 0 1st harmonic
−10 −10
−20 −20
1 10 100 1 10 100
Normalized Frequency f/f Normalized Frequency f/f
0 0
(a) ( b)
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
10 3rd harmonic 10 3rd harmonic
2nd harmonic 2nd harmonic
0 1st harmonic 0 1st harmonic
−10 −10
−20 −20
1 10 100 1 10 100
Normalized Frequency f/f Normalized Frequency f/f
0 0
(c) ( d)
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
10 3rd harmonic 10 3rd harmonic
2nd harmonic 2nd harmonic
0 1st harmonic 0 1st harmonic
−10 −10
−20 −20
1 10 100 1 10 100
Normalized Frequency f/f0 Normalized Frequency f/f0
(e) (f)
Fig. 9. Effect of mixing pickup signals at different positions for pickups at the (a) bridge and middle, (b) bridge and middle with opposite
phases, (c) neck and middle, (d) neck and middle with opposite phases, (e) neck and bridge, (f) neck and bridge with opposite phases.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October 773
PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
10
Magnitude (dB)
0
−10 B=0
B = 10−5
−20 −4
B = 10
−30
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Frequency (Hz) (a)
Fig. 11. Warped comb-filter responses caused by string dispersion.
774 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
Magnitude (dB)
affects the pickup timbre, since the combination of the in-
ductance L and capacitance C forms a resonant filter. 0 R = 10kΩ
As any winding around a magnetic core, the pickup has an R = 20kΩ
inductance L, whose value depends on the magnetic prop- R = 5kΩ
−20
erties of the core and the number of turns of the winding. 10 100 1k 10k 100k
Frequency (Hz)
The winding is built using thin wires in order to increase
the number of possible turns in the available space and (a)
increase the pickup inductance. The usual values for in- 20
R = 1000kΩ
l
Magnitude (dB)
ductance are in the range 1 H ≤ L ≤ 10 H [23, 24]. Also, Rl = 2000kΩ
due to the high number of turns and the small thickness of 0 Rl = 500kΩ
wire, the pickup has a pronounced resistance accounting R = 10kΩ
−20 l
for ohmic losses. This is represented in the pickup model Rl = 1kΩ
as a series resistance R in Fig. 12(a), whose typical values −40
10 100 1k 10k 100k
are in the range 5 k ≤ R ≤ 15 k [24]. Frequency (Hz)
Again, the small insulation separating the wire between (b)
each turn creates a parasitic capacitance. This capacitance 20
Magnitude (dB)
per turn combines for a large number of turns forming
C in Fig. 12(a). Although this capacitance is usually small, 0
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October 775
PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
(a)
Fig. 14. Typical configuration of tone and volume control in
electric guitars. Adapted from [24].
output level, but also damp the resonant peak. Hence, the
volume control of a guitar also changes the coloration of
the output signal.
The effect of the pickup inductance L is shown in Fig.
13(c). In this figure, L is shown to have an effect on the res-
(b)
onant frequency, since larger values of L push the resonance
to lower frequency values. On the other hand, L also has an Fig. 15. Equivalent circuits for (a) series and (b) parallel connec-
effect on the magnitude of the resonance peak. Addition- tions of two pickups.
ally, by changing the resonant frequency ωR , the energy at
high frequencies is also changed since the low-pass decay
starts at ωR .
Just like the pickup inductor L, the output capacitance C
shows a major effect on the pickup magnitude response in c1 = 2 + 2R/Rl − 8 f s2 LC (36)
Fig. 13(d), which is also related to the resonant frequency
ωR and to the peak magnitude.
The tone control in a guitar connection is often imple- c2 = 1 + R/Rl − 2 f s L/Rl − 2 f s RC + 4 f s2 LC. (37)
mented with a capacitance and a potentiometer, as shown In another approach, a model using wave digital filters
in Fig. 14, which has the effect of increasing the equivalent [45, 46] can be obtained. In this case, the magnetic behavior
output capacitance. As the typical value for the tone control of the pickup permanent magnet can also be included as for
capacitance is about 1 nF, Fig. 13(d) shows also the magni- power amplifier transformers [6]. In both approaches, note
tude response with C = 1 nF. When the tone-control resistor that when close to the Nyquist limit fs /2, the resonance of
is zero, the tone-control capacitor adds to C in Fig. 12(a), the pickup fR will be distorted due to the frequency warping
the resonance appears at a much lower frequency, and there caused by the bilinear transform.
is a significant decrease in the energy at high frequencies.
A practical measurement of the equivalent circuit is pos- 5.1 Two Pickups in Parallel or in Series
sible by analyzing the pickup impedance [24]. Additionally, The pickup combinations affect not only the guitar timbre
a measurement setup is possible by using a second core with through the phase differences, as shown in Section 2, but
the magnetic field driven by a controlled external signal [24, also the equivalent circuit. In addition to connecting two
23, 44]. With this measurement setup it would be possible to pickups in- or out-of-phase, the pickups may be connected
determine the pickup transfer function, although the mea- in series or in parallel. This additional connection option
surement will be also influenced by the impedance of the not only varies the signal magnitude at the output jack but
second core used in the measurement. also affects the tone coloration.
The digital model for this effect can be obtained in dif- Traditionally, the two coils on a humbucker pickup are
ferent manners. One approach is to obtain the discrete-time connected in series to produce a loud “punchy” tone. The
transfer function by applying the bilinear transform to Eq. combination of two single-coil pickups (pickup selector
(30) [4]. In this case, substituting s = 2fs (1 − z−1 )/(1 + z−1 ) positions 2 and 4 in a Stratocaster-style guitar) have tradi-
in Eq. (30) gives the discrete-time transfer function of the tionally been connected in parallel, resulting in a brighter
pickup circuit tone while retaining the hum-canceling effect. Some gui-
tars even offer the musician the choice of selecting the type
1 + 2z −1 + z −2
Hc (z) = , (34) of pickup connection (series/parallel and in-phase/out-of-
c0 + c1 z −1 + c2 z −2 phase) via electrical switches. The series and parallel pickup
where combinations are presented in Figs. 15(a) and (b), respec-
tively, where pickups are modeled with circuit components
c0 = 1 + R/Rl + 2 f s L/Rl + 2 f s RC + 4 f s2 LC (35) Lx , Cx , Rx , and Rlx , where x is the pickup number.
776 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
Magnitude (dB)
means that they are placed at the same position, the equiva- 10
−10 Pickup 1
in order to evaluate the pickup combination effect. For both Pickup 2
−20 Series
parallel and series connections, the equivalent circuits pre- Parallel
−30
sented in Fig. 15 can be translated into the transfer function 100 1k 10k 100k
Frequency (Hz)
a0 + sa1 + s 2 a2
Hcc (s) = . (38) (a)
b0 + sb1 + s 2 b2 + s 3 b3 + s 4 b4 20
Magnitude (dB)
The transfer function coefficients for the series connec- 10
0
tion of Fig. 15(a) are
−10
a0 = 2Rl1 Rl2 + R1 Rl2 + Rl1 R2
Pickup 1
(39) −20 Series
Parallel
−30
100 1k 10k 100k
Frequency (Hz)
a1 = Rl1 (L 2 + R2 Rl2 C2 ) + Rl2 (L 1 + R1 Rl1 C1 ) (40)
(b)
Fig. 16. Circuit frequency response for (a) a combination of two
a2 = Rl1 Rl2 (L 1 C1 + L 2 C2 ) (41) different pickups, and (b) a combination of identical pickups.
J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October 777
PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
0.792
0.79
0.79 Output
Input
0.788 0.788
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Vertical displacement (cm) Normalized time t/T
0
(a) (a)
Magnetic flux (Tesla)
−40
778 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October
PAPERS ACOUSTICS AND MODELING OF PICKUPS
values in the output signal. The result of this effect is shown have been shown to have a major effect on the position of
in Fig. 18(c), where only even harmonics are present for the the resonance peak the pickups usually have in their transfer
horizontal polarization. function. This resonance peak is responsible for the distinc-
The results shown in Fig. 18 indicate that different po- tive sound of each individual pickup. The DC resistance has
larization patterns in the string will have different col- little effect on the pickup transfer function but has some ef-
oration impacts. When more energy is present in the hor- fect on the damping of the resonance peak. The core loss
izontal polarization, odd harmonics will be suppressed. resistance is seen to influence the amplitude of the reso-
Additionally, time-varying polarization of the string will nance peak. Additionally, typical volume control circuits
lead to a varying harmonic pattern, with either more for guitar were shown to interact with this resistance, and
odd or even harmonics, which can enhance the guitar at extreme values a damping of the pickup resonance was
timbre. observed.
The nonlinear behavior of the pickup was demonstrated
7 CONCLUSION using a finite element simulation. The results show that
the polarization of the string movement affects the output
This work has presented the properties of the physical timbre by adding more even harmonic content for high
phenomena and modeling techniques related to guitar pick- energy in horizontal polarization, or odd harmonic content
ups. The importance of modeling the pickup phenomena for vertical polarization.
is related to proper synthesis of steel string instruments, The results and new models presented here can be used
such as the guitar or bass guitar, and emulation of different both in musical sound synthesis and in the implementa-
pickups in digital audio effects processing. tion of digital effects. Since most of the models are string
The pickup position was modeled by using a waveguide dependent, their application to synthesis models is straight-
framework. With this approach it is possible to describe the forward, since they often use a waveguide approach. For
frequency coloration with relation to the pickup position, the implementation of audio effects for real guitar signals,
as well as to design a digital filter that emulates it. A com- non-magnetic hexaphonic pickups (such as piezoelectric
parison of different pickup positions have explained why ones) separating the signal streams for each string would
guitar pickups placed next to the bridge have a bright sound, be needed. Several commercial implementations of such
while neck and middle positions have a darker sound. The pickup systems currently exist.
pickup sensitivity width is explained and a novel model is
proposed by using the same waveguide approach, which 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
has shown that the pickup sensitivity has a low-pass effect
on the output signal. This research was funded by CIMO, Aalto University,
The results for the pickup position were used to deter- and Academy of Finland (project 122815). The authors
mine the effect of mixing different pickup signals when also thank Julian Parker and Luis Costa de Jussilainen for
identical pickups are used. It was shown that for some con- their helpful comments.
figurations with opposite pickup phase, the first harmonic
was mostly suppressed. For configurations with in-phase
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PAIVA ET AL. PAPERS
THE AUTHORS
Rafael Cauduro Dias de Paiva is a doctoral student at the currently working for Dolby Sweden AB in Stockholm,
r
Aalto University School of Electrical Engineering, Espoo, Sweden.
Finland, since 2010 and is a researcher at Nokia Institute
of Technology (INdT), Brasilia, Brazil, since 2008. Rafael
Paiva obtained his Bachelor’s degree in electrical engineer- Vesa Välimäki is professor of audio signal processing
ing from the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) at the Aalto University, Espoo, Finland. He received his
in 2005, and the Master’s degree in signal processing from M.Sc. in Technology, Licentiate of Science in Technology,
the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) in 2008. and Doctor of Science in Technology degrees in electrical
Paiva has been involved with audio signal processing since engineering from the Helsinki University of Technology
2006, when he conducted research on voice/speech pitch (TKK) in 1992, 1994, and 1995, respectively. His doctoral
modification and morphing. His ongoing doctoral research dissertation dealt with fractional delay filters and physical
focuses on real-time models of nonlinear analog audio sys- modeling of musical wind instruments.
tems, which includes models for guitar amplifiers and other In 1996 he was a postdoctoral research fellow at the
guitar related phenomena. At INdT, Rafael Paiva develops University of Westminster, London, UK. In 2001–2002 he
simulation tools and new solutions for wireless networks was professor of signal processing at the Pori School of
for standardization forums. Among his research interests Technology and Economics, Tampere University of Tech-
are real-time models for vintage nonlinear analog effects nology, Pori, Finland. In 2006–2007, he was the Head of the
and vacuum tube amplifiers; audio and speech synthesis, TKK Laboratory of Acoustics and Audio Signal Process-
effects and coding; new technologies; and standardization ing. During the academic year 2008–2009 he was a visiting
r
of wireless networks. scholar at the Center for Computer Research in Music and
Acoustics (CCRMA), Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
His research interests include sound synthesis, audio effects
Jyri Pakarinen was born in Lappeenranta, Finland, in processing, digital filter design, and acoustics of musical
1979. He received the M.S. and D.S. (tech.) degrees in instruments.
acoustics and audio signal processing from the Helsinki Prof. Välimäki is a fellow of the Audio Engineering
University of Technology in 2004 and 2008, respectively. Society, a senior member of the IEEE Signal Processing
Dr. Pakarinen worked as a researcher in the Aalto Uni- Society, a life member of the Acoustical Society of Fin-
versity, Finland, from 2002 until 2011. His research work land, and a member of the Finnish Musicological Society.
focused on sound synthesis through physical modeling, He was the papers chair of the AES 22nd International
digital emulation of electric audio circuits, and vibroa- Conference on Virtual, Synthetic, and Entertainment Au-
coustical measurements. He was the Lead Guest Edi- dio in 2002. He was the chairman of the 11th International
tor of a special issue of the EURASIP Journal on Ad- Conference on Digital Audio Effects (DAFx-08), which
vances in Signal Processing in 2011. Dr. Pakarinen is was held in Espoo, Finland, in 2008.
782 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 60, No. 10, 2012 October