Companion to English Grammar

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LOWRESS
COMPANION
ENGLISH TRAILIAR
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7
COMPANION
ΤΟ
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LONDON
PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.
NEW-STREET SQUARE
COMPANION
TO
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
BEING A GUIDE TO
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, PUNCTUATION,

PARAPHRASING, COMPOSITION OR STYLE,
HIGHER ORDER OF PARSING, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
WITH NUMEROUS EXERCISES FOR PUPILS
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.
SPECIALLY ADAPTED ΤΟ THE TUITION OF

PUPIL-TEACHERS, QUEEN SCHOLARS, AND THE ADVANCED PUPILS IN
ACADEMIES, SEMINARIES, AND BOARDING-SCHOOLS.
BY
JACOB LOWRES,
AUTHOR OF "A SYSTEM OF ENGLISH PARSING " &c.
31276f.56
LONDON :
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS.
1862.
680.4.148-
N
EIA
DL
BO
EJAN SC
OXFORD
TO THE READER.
THE utility of Analysis of Sentences, Paraphrasing, and

Parsing is now so generally admitted, that exercises on
these subjects form a very important part of every
examination for Government certificates, Queen scholar-
ships, and of the yearly examinations of pupil-teachers.
See selections from examination papers at the end.
The present treatise may be considered a ' Com-
panion to English Grammar ' generally; but more
especially to an ' Advanced Manual of English
Grammar, Language, and Literature,' entitled the

' Grammar of English Grammars,' which will shortly
appear, in the preparation of which the author has
spent several years. The two parts were originally in-

tended to form one volume, but to prevent too great
an increase in size, the entire work will appear in two
parts, each complete in itself, and of a convenient

size for general use.
The references made in this part relate to the other

volume of the course, except where it is otherwise
expressed.
a
vi PREFACE
The part on English Parsing forms an important

supplement to a small work by the author, entitled ' A
System of English Parsing and Derivation,' of which
upwards of thirteen thousand copies have already

been sold. And those who have made use of the
smaller work, will derive much benefit by continuing

their studies in the present.
This work may also be used with any Manual of

English Grammar, and will form a most useful com-
panion.
J. L.
LONDON: April 1862.
CONTENTS .
Page
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 1
The different kinds of Sentences 3
Exercises for Pupils 4
The Parts of a Simple Sentence 6
Different kinds of Simple Sentences
Exercises for Pupils 10
Examples of Simple Sentences 12
Subordinate Sentences · 22
The Substantive or Noun Sentence 23
The Adjective Sentence . 24
The Adverbial Sentence . 25
Examples with Explanations . 26
Exercises for Pupils • 29
Principal Co-ordinate Sentences . 30
Contracted Sentences 31
Analysis of Complex and Compound Sentences 34
General Remarks on Analysis 42
Exercises for Pupils · 44
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION • 47
Examples of Variety of Expression 52
PARAPHRASING • · 53
Prose, with Exercises 53
Poetry, with Exercises · 60
PARSING 73
Introductory Remarks 73
Parsing Table 79
Examples of Parsing 80
Contractions in Parsing . 92
Examples of Parsing continued 92
Exercises for Pupils • 109
PUNCTUATION · 114
The Comma, with Exercises . • · 115
viii CONTENTS
Page
The Semicolon, with Exercises • 119
The Colon, with Exercises . 121
The Period, with Exercises · 122
The Point of Interrogation · 123
The Point of Exclamation 123
The Parenthesis 123
The Dash 124
Other Marks used in Composition 124
COMPOSITION, or Style 126

Purity of Style · 127
Propriety of Style . 128
Precision of Style 129
Clearness • 134
Unity · 136
Strength 137
Exercises on Style . • 139
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 141

Explanations with Examples . 142
Figures of Speech in Verse • 146
Exercises on Figures of Speech . 147
APPENDIX I. Synonymy . 151

99 II. Obsolete Words . 160
99 III. Law terms explained · 164
99 IV. Abbreviations 170
99 V. General Exercises 172
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
A SENTENCE is a number of words so arranged as to make

complete sense, and must contain a finite verb. Every col-
lection of words is not a sentence.
A phrase is a part of a sentence not making complete
sense, nor containing a finite verb.
EXAMPLES .
Sentences. Phrases.
Awise man governs his passions. In my hat on the table.
That boy reads well. To write a letter.
Fishes swim. Near me.
Sentences may be divided into three kinds ; namely,

Simple, Compound, and Complex.
A SIMPLE sentence has in it but one subject, and one
finite or personal verb ; as, 6 Life is short.'
A COMPOUND sentence consists of two or more simple
sentences, independent of each other, joined together by
means of conjunctions ; as, ' Life is short and eternity is
long.' Each simple sentence is called a ' clause ' or
' member ' of the compound sentence.
A COMPLEX sentence contains one principal assertion,
accompanied by one or more explanatory or secondary sen-
tences, dependent upon, and qualifying the principal sen-
tence ; as, ' I lost the book which my father bought for
me.'
Remark. One of the first things that pupils should learn, is to distinguish readily
between the simple, compound, and complex sentences ; so that when they get a sen-
tence to analyse, they may know at once what kind it is, and deal with it accordingly.
The following observations will assist them in determining to which of these classes a
sentence belongs.
B
2 COMPANION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR
In the compound sentence the several clauses or members

of which it is composed can generally be taken separately,
each forming sense of itself ; and the assertion of one clause
does not explain the other or depend upon it. Take the
following example, ' Life is short and eternity is long.'
Here we have two plain assertions : -
' Life is short.'
'Eternity is long.'
Each of these makes complete sense of itself, and neither

of them in any way qualifies the other. Take another
example, The prices rose and fell.' Here we have two
independent assertions again : -
The prices rose.'
" The prices fell.'
Each of these makes sense of itself, and does not qualify
the other either in time, place, or manner ; therefore the
sentence is compound. It is, however, contracted in sub-
ject, that is, the subject of one of the clauses is not ex-
6
pressed, the word prices ' in the latter clause being un-
derstood . But contractions of this kind are very common
in compound sentences. Where clauses are thus independent
of each other, they are called ' Principal sentences,' and
are said to be co-ordinate ' to each other. The sentence
"
Eternity is long ' is co-ordinate to ' Life is short ; ' and
the sentence The prices fell ' is co-ordinate to 6 The
prices rose.' All compound sentences contain two or more
principal clauses co-ordinate to each other.
In the Complex sentence the case is very different ; the
sense generally remains suspended until the close, and the
clauses of which it is composed, if disjoined, do not make
complete sense of themselves. Take the example ' I lost
the book which my father bought for me.' Here we have
two assertions also :
' I lost the book.'
' Which my father bought for me.'
But it will be readily seen that each of these clauses
does not make perfect sense of itself. The latter clause,
' Which my father bought for me,' by itself makes no
sense, but when joined to the other, it qualifies or describes
it. It tells what particular book I lost ; namely, the book
which my father bought for me, not any other. Therefore
the whole sentence is complex ; it contains one main as-

sertion, ' I lost the book,' and this is called the principal
sentence.' The latter clause, ' Which my father bought
for me,' depends upon, and describes the other, and is said
to be " subordinate ' to it. All sentences dependent upon
others are called ' subordinate sentences.' The complex
sentence contains but one principal clause, but it may con-
tain several subordinate clauses.
The Simple sentence will be easily distinguished from
the other two ; it contains but one finite or personal verb,
that is, a verb that has a nominative case. A simple sen-
tence may, however, have in addition to a finite verb one
or more verbs in the infinitive mood ; as, ' I am to go,' or
one or more participles ; as, ' I have been loved,' or a
participle and an infinitive ; as, ' He is learning to read, '
yet so long as there is but one subject and one finite verb,
it remains a simple sentence.
EXAMPLES OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES.
1. Pleased with each other's lot, 1. A simple sentence ; it con-

our own we sometimes hate. tains but one finite verb, hate.'
2. I received the letter which 2. This is a complex sentence ;
was posted last night. it contains but one principal clause
I received the letter,' and a
subordinate one 'which was
posted last night.'
3. James loves his sister, and is 3. A compound sentence ; it

very kind to her. contains two principal assertions.
The latter contracted in subject.-
' James loves his sister.'
' (He) is very kind to her.'
4. The ship had been completely 4. A simple sentence ; it contains

wrecked by a heavy sea on the but one finite verb ' had,' and one
south coast of England about the subject, 6 ship.'
beginning of last June.
5. The rain descended, the floods 5. A compound sentence ; it

came, the winds blew, and beat contains six principal clauses, all
upon that house, and it feil, and co-ordinate to each other.
great was the fall of it.
B2
6. To love the memory of all 6. Not a sentence ; it contains

things else, to forget all respect of no finite verb.
his own friends, in thinking of
your fate.
7. He (whose first emotion on 7. Complex. It contains but

the view of an excellent production one principal assertion, ' He will
is to undervalue it) will never have never have one of his own to show.'
one of his own to show.
8. The sense of death is most in 8. Compound. It contains two

apprehension; and the poor beetle principal clauses independent of
(that we tread upon) in corporal each other, and two explanatory
sufferance finds a pang as great, (as or subordinate clauses ; the latter
when a giant dies). are enclosed in parentheses.
9. A diamond (though set in 9. Compound. It contains two

horn) is still a diamond, and principal clauses, and one subor-
sparkles as in purest gold. dinate clause ; the latter is en-
closed.
10. I can get no remedy against 10. A simple sentence. It has

the consumption of the purse. but one finite verb, ' can.'
QUESTIONS FOR PUPILS.
What is a sentence ? Is every collection of words a sentence ? What is a phrase ?

Give an example of a sentence. Of a phrase. What is the difference between a phrase
and a sentence ? Into what three classes may sentences be divided ? Define a simple
sentence. A compound sentence. A complex sentence. How may a compound sen-
tence be distinguished from a complex sentence ? How may a simple sentence be dis-
tinguished from the others ?
EXERCISE No. 1.
Distinguish Sentences from Phrases in the following.

In oratory the greatest art is to hide art. A letter written in haste.
In the desk near the window. A word spoken cannot return. Speak
to me. Hating sin through love of virtue. The first ingredient in con-
versation is truth . The next is good sense. The third is good humour.
A man of the best parts and the greatest learning. A tormenting con-
science by day and by night. All must die. To be exempt from pas-
sion.
EXERCISE No. 2.
Tell whether the following Sentences be Simple, Complex, or Compound.

1. A fox, who listened all the while,
Addressed the monarch with a smile.
2. Natural history is no work for one that loves his bed. - Johnson.
3. Not to oversee workmen is to leave them your purse open..--
Franklin.
4. By different methods diff'rent men excel ;
But where is he that can do all things well. -Churchill.
5. Good manners is the art of making those people easy with whom
we converse. - Swift.
6. A miser, if honest, can only be honest bare weight.- Shenstone.
7. He that by the plough would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive. -Franklin.
8. Pride is a vice, which pride itself inclines every man to find in
others, and to overlook in himself.--Johnson.
9. Economy is an excellent lure to betray people into expense.
Zimmermann.
10. The eye that will not weep another's sorrow,
Should boast no gentler brightness than the glare
That reddens in the eyeball of the wolf.-Mason.
11. People seldom improve, when they have no other model but
themselves to copy after.- Goldsmith.
12. I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute ;
From the centre all round to the sea,
I am lord of the fowl and the brute.- Cowper.
13. He that wants money, means, and content, is without three good
friends.-Shakspeare.
14. For any man to match above his rank
Is but to sell his liberty.-Massinger.
B3
THE PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Every simple sentence contains two essential parts,

' Subject' and ' Predicate.'
The SUBJECT of a sentence is the person or thing of
which we speak.
The PREDICATE is that which is affirmed or asserted of
the subject.
EXAMPLES.
Subjects. Predicates.
Birds fly.
Fishes swim .
Men walk.
In addition to these two parts, when the verb is transi-
tive a simple sentence requires an object in order to make
complete sense, and for this reason the object is sometimes
called the ' Completion ' of the sentence.
EXAMPLES.
Subjects. Predicates. Completions.
Birds build nests.
Cats kill mice.
John struck James.
Besides these three parts, a simple sentence may be fur-
ther extended by the addition of words or phrases modifying
the predicate in respect to time, place, manner, and in
various other ways. All such extensions as these may be
placed by themselves in a separate column.
EXAMPLES.
Subjects. Predicates. Completions. Extensions.
Birds build nests in trees.
Cats kill mice at night.
John struck James with a stick.
Remark. The division of a simple sentence into four parts is a convenient arrange-
ment, and has been adopted by eminent authors. Mr. Rice has adopted it in his
Grammatical Analysis, published nearly thirty years ago. So also has Mr. Morell
in his excellent work on this subject.
A simple sentence may also contain one or more adjec-
tives, articles, or phrases qualifying either the subject or
object. All such qualifying words being readily assignable
to the words which they qualify, need no separation.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
EXAMPLES.
Subject. Predicate. Completion. Extension.
A little girl of repeated a very long co- | without a single
six years of age lumn ofspelling mistake.
Note. The subject with its qualifying words taken as a whole is called the ' Enlarged
Subject,'
· Enlargedand the simple Predicate, with its Completion and Extension, is called the
Predicate.'
The subject, verb, and object are called the ' principal '
parts of a sentence, and the words which are added to either
6
of these parts are called its complements ' or ' adjuncts.'
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A sentence that affirms, is called Affirmative.
A sentence that denies, is called Negative.
A sentence that questions,is called Interrogative.
A sentence that commands, is called Imperative.
A sentence containing exclamation,is called Exclamatory.
A sentence expressing a wish, is called . Optative.
EXAMPLES.
The covetous man always wants.
Affirmative.. Pleasure often leaves causes to repent.
Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver.
know not the man.
Negative . • Whose shoe latchet I am not worthy to unloose.
It is not for you to know the times or the seasons.
Can wealth give happiness ?
Interrogative. Can'the Ethiopian change his skin ?
Art thou that traitor, angel ?
Remember thy Creator in thy youth.
Imperative .. Abstain from all appearance of evil.
Follow peace with all men.
How soon the departing spirit has fled !
Exclamatory . How charming is the face of nature !
What a noble scene is before us !
May the queen live long!
Optative May happiness attend us all our days!
May we depart in peace !
Note 1.-A sentence that asks a question with a negative is sometimes called a
'Negative-Interrogative,' as, Has he not explained the difficulty ?
Note 2. -Though sentences thus differ in form and construction, yet in analysing
them one uniform method is observed : the subject is placed first, the predicate next,
the object or completion in the third place, and the extension in the fourth.
Note 3. In imperative sentences the subject is generally a pronoun of the second
person understood.
B4
To analyse a simple sentence means to separate it into the

parts of which it is composed ; that is, to divide it into sub-
ject, predicate, completion, and extension. Every sentence
has not all of these parts, but the longest simple sentence
may be arranged under these four heads.
Remark. The next thing to be required of pupils is to learn to distinguish readily

between the subject, predicate, completion, and extension of simple sentences. The
following observations will assist them in determining these divisions.
The Subject may be :: -

- Examples.
1. A noun or pronoun. Time flies. We fade away.
2. An adjective used as a noun. The good are happy.
3. The infinitive of a verb. To steal is sinful.
4. A participial phrase. Taking snuff is an odd custom.
5. A part of a sentence. To excel in learning is commend-
able.
6. A noun qualified by an adjec- | A small pony drew the chaise.
tive.
7. A noun preceded by a posses- A lad's behaviour often ruins him.
sive case.
8. A noun qualified by a preposi- A man of prudence will be re-
tional phrase. spected.
9. A noun or pronoun qualified A fox, pursued by the hounds, swam
by a participial phrase. across a river.
10. Two or more pronouns placed William the Conqueror, Duke of
in apposition. Normandy, became King of
England.
11. The pronoun it,' with a phrase It is pleasant to live in town ; or
in apposition to it. thus: -
It, to live in town, is pleasant.
12. Sometimes one simple sentence That you have done wrong is very
forms the subject of another. evident.
The Predicate may be :— Examples.

1. A single finite verb. Lions roar.
2. A verb followed by one or She has been seen at the school
more participles.
3. A finite verb followed by one He can repeat his lesson without a
or more infinitives. mistake.
4. One or more verbs with a ne- I may not go to town. There were
gative, or expletive adverb. bad accounts yesterday.
5. The verb ' to be ' with an ad- The winter is cold. The summer
jective referring to the sub- is pleasant.
ject.
6. The verb ' to be ' with a noun The writer of the book of Proverbs
or pronoun in apposition to was Solomon.
the subject.
The Completion may be :- Examples.

1. A noun or pronoun in the ob- Industry gains wealth. He saw me.
jective case.
2. An adjective used as a noun. The law punishes the wicked.
3. The infinitive of a verb. They learn to 6 sing.
4. A phrase or part of a sentence. He replied by no means.'
5. A noun or pronoun in the nomi- The tender calf became a strong
native case when the verb is cow.
intransitive.
6. Sometimes one simple sentence The doctor said, that he had no
forms the completion of hope of his recovery.'
another.
Remark. Any noun forming a part of the completion, may take with it various
qualifying words, such as adjectives, a prepositional phrase, or participial phrase.
Extensions are words signifying : — Examples.
1. When the action was done. He did it yesterday.
2. Where the action was done. He did it at his own house.
3. How the action was done. He did it remarkably well.
4. The purpose or reason for doing He did it for pleasure.
it.
5. The means employed in doingit. He did it with a knife.
6. The result or consequence of He did it to his future sorrow.
doing it.
Remark. The predicate may be extended in two or more of these ways at once.
All accompanying phrases that do not qualify the subject or object, are extensions,
and should be classified as such.
NOTE.
A difference of opinion exists as to the proper place of single adverbs which modify
the predicate. Some place the adverb in the second column with the verb which it
modifies; others place it in the fourth column with the phrases of extension.
Examples.
1. Hefrequently sent me to town.
2. He never took me to town.
3. He could not find it on the shelf.
4. He held me firmly by the hand.
Respecting such sentences observe the following rules : —
1. When the adverb completely alters the sense of the verb, it should not be sepa-
rated from it. Place it in the second column.
2. When the adverb does not alter the meaning of the verb, but merely modifies it in
respect to manner, time, place, &c. In all such cases it may be placed as an exten-
sion in the fourth column; as in the following table : —
He sent me frequently to town.
He never took me to town.
He could not find it on the shelf.
He held me firmly bythe hand.
In the foregoing examples there is a wide difference of meaning between ' took "
and never took ; between ' could find ' and ' could not find ; therefore the ad-
verbs never' and ' not ' should not be separated from their verbs . But there is
not that difference of meaning between ' sent ' and • frequently sent; " between
held and • firmly held.' The adverbs frequently ' and firmly ' simply modify
the verbs as to the manner of sending and holding, and therefore they may be placed
among the extensions in the fourth column.
B5
QUESTIONS FOR PUPILS.

What are the two essential parts of every simple sentence ? Explain what is meant
by the Subject ' and 'Predicate ' of a sentence. When does a simple sentence
require an object to complete it ? How may a simple sentence be further extended ?
What do you understand by the Enlarged Subject ? The Enlarged Predicate ? '
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? By what names are the words
which are added to the principal parts called ? What kind of sentence is that which
affirms ? That which denies ? That which questions ? That which commands ? That
which contains an exclamation ? That which expresses a wish ? Give an example of
each ? What does analysing ' a simple sentence mean ? What may the Subject
of a simple sentence be ? What the Predicate ?' The Completion ? ' The Ex-
tension ?
EXERCISE No. 1.
Underline the three principal words in each of the following Sentences.
Pain takes away from a man the enjoyment of all good things.
Ignorance of the law excuses no man. The good enjoy eternal life in
heaven. Choose the company of your equals. Hunger has a most
amazing faculty of sharpening the genius. A cheerful countenance
betokens a good heart. Nobility of birth commonly abateth industry.
A noble heart showeth its greatest countenance in its lowest estate. }
EXERCISE No. 2.
What kind ofsimple sentence is each ofthe following?
Whose son art thou, young man ? How vast is the empire of na-
ture! The study of truth is perpetually joined with the love of virtue.
Dispute like a hero. What a piece of work is man ! Here lurks no
treason. May she sleep with the blessed! We are born to trouble. A
friend in need is a friend indeed. O mighty Cæsar, dost thou lie so
low? Has he not promised ? Is he not able and willing to perform?
Sin is the fruitful parent of distempers. Ill lives occasion good phy-
sicians. Have not I an arm to protect you? I have neither wit nor
words. Laziness begets wearisomeness.
EXERCISE No. 3.
Underline the enlarged subject in each of thefollowing sentences.
Perfect happiness is not to be found on this side of the grave. The
ear of a friend is the sanctuary of evil reports. To communicate his
knowledge is a duty with the wise man. Extremes in dress often
create a personal dislike. A death-bed flattery is the worst of treache-
ries. A sentence well couched, takes both the sense and the under-
standing. Long sentences in a short composition are like large rooms
in a little house. A man, driving his cattle to market, was met by a
band of robbers. It is an ill thing to be ashamed of our poverty. It
is much worse not to make use of lawful endeavours to avoid it. A
lucky thought, or look, has often made a fortune.
EXERCISE No. 4.
Underline the predicates in thefollowing sentences.
Truth will be uppermost, one time or other. The eye is an expres-
sive organ. Him would Paul have to go forth with him. Authors have
not always the power or habit of throwing their talents into conversa-
tion. There are some very just and well-expressed observations on this
point in Johnson's Life of Dryden. Several purses make cheap experi-
ments. The letter has been returned in a stamped envelope. Trust
not the world. Avarice is a most stupid and senseless passion. Sweet
manners gloss over the cruelest injuries.
EXERCISE No. 5.
Underline the object or completion in each ofthe following sentences.
Gold cannot silence the apprehensions of conscience. Give tribute,
but not oblation, to human wisdom. We should not press the memory
of children too soon. The affection of our servants repays the expense
of keeping them. Oppression makes a poor country and a desperate
people. Trade increases the wealth and glory of a country. Study
has something cloudy and melancholy in it. Humility and knowledge
in poor clothes excel pride and ignorance in costly attire. Charity
makes the best construction of things and persons. Few have the
courage to correct their friends. Forbearance will sometimes disarm a
ferocious assailant. An envious man will sacrifice his own interest to
ruin another.
EXERCISE No. 6.
Underline the extensions of the predicate in the following sentences.
Bad men, even in their prosperity, are unhappy. Just and noble
minds rejoice in other men's success. Replies are not always answers.
Men are governed by custom. Some run headlong into danger. Pre-
judice throws many impediments in the way of belief. By fools, knaves
fatten. The vicious man lives at random. Adversity borrows its
sharpest sting from our impatience. Temperance, by fortifying the mind
and body, leads to happiness. Grief certainly softens the heart. Poets,
fiddlers, and beggars, are always dull in dull weather. He was con-
veyed to the station in an open chaise. We should give cheerfully, and
without hesitation. The greatest part of mankind employ their first
years to make their last miserable.
B6
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
1. Grief certainly softens the heart.

2. The covetous man is tormented night and day.
3. Vicious means cannot produce virtuous consequences.
4. Extremes in dress often create a personal dislike.
5. Not since January last have I seen my friend.
6. Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune.
7. The absence of evil is a real good.
8. True friendship will at all times avoid a careless behaviour.
9. It is a great blessing to live in peaceful times.
10. Plants raised with tenderness are generally weak.
Analysis oftheforegoing Sentences.
1. Grief softens the heart certainly.
2. The covetous is tormented night and day.

man
3. Vicious means cannot produce virtuous conse-

quences.
4. Extremes in create a personal dis- often.
dress like
5. I have not seen my friend since last Ja-

nuary.
6. Hope, the balm soothes us underevery mis-

of life, fortune.
7. The absence of is a real good.

evil
8. True friendship will avoid a careless beha- at all times.

viour
9. It, to live in is a great bless-

peacefultimes, ing.
10. Plants raised are weak generally.
with tender-
ness
EXAMPLES.
11. Ocean exhibits, fathomless and broad,
Much ofthe power and majesty of God.
12. One evening, a simple swain
His flocks attended on the plain.
13. The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes,
Produces sapless leaves.
14. Forth goes the woodman, leaving unconcerned
The cheerful haunts of man, to wield the axe
And drive the wedge in yonder forest drear.
15. Shaggy, and lean, and shrewd, with pointed ears
And tail cropped short, half lurcher and half cur,
His dog attends him.
Analysis ofthe foregoing Sentences.
11. Ocean fathom- exhibits much of the

less and broad power and
majesty of
God.
12. A simple swain attended his flocks one evening on

the plain.
13. The tree of produces sapless leaves.

knowledge
blasted by dis-
putes
14. The woodman, goes forth to wield
leaving un- the axe, and
concerned the drive the
cheerful haunts wedge in yon-
of men, der forest
drear.
15. His dog, shaggy, attends him.

and lean, and
shrewd, with
pointed ears,
and tail crop-
ped short, half
lurcher and
half cur,
EXAMPLES.
16. The covering of different animals displays in a striking manner
the wisdom of the Creator.
17. Two evils, ignorance and want of taste, have produced the con-
tinual corruption of our language.
18. Imaginary evils become real ones by indulging our reflections on
them.
19. Plumed victory
Is truly painted with a cheerful look,
Equally distant from proud insolence
And base dejection.
20. To confirm his words, out-flew
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim.
Analysis of the foregoing Sentences.
16. The covering of displays the wisdom of in a striking

different ani- the Creator manner.
mals
17. Two evils, igno- have pro- the continual

rance and want duced corruption of
of taste, our language.
18. Imaginary evils become real ones by indulging

ourreflections
on them.
19. Plumed victory is painted truly, with a

cheerful look
equally dis-
tant from
proud inso-
lence and base
dejection.
20. Millions of flam- out-flew to confirm his

ing words, words.
drawn from
the thighs of
mighty cheru-
bim,
EXAMPLES WITH NOTES.

21. (a) That it may please Thee to give us health and strength.
(b) Lamps gracefully disposed illumined every side.
(c) She taught the girls to write.
(d) The king made the nobleman resign his office.
(e) Let every one take his place.
(ƒ) A watery light gleamed through the clear transparency.
(g) Long wavy wreaths of flowers blushed on the panels.
(h) He told them to depart in peace.
(a) That it, to give may please thee.

us health and
strength,
(b) Lamps grace- illumined every side.
fully disposed,
and ofall hues,
(c) She taught the girls to write.
(d) The king made the nobleman re-
sign his office.
(e) (Thou or you) let each one take
implied, his place .
(f) A watery light gleamed through the clean
transparency .
(g) Long, wavy blushed on the panels.
wreaths of
flowers
(h) He told them to depart
in peace.
NOTES.
(a) The pronoun it frequently represents an infinitive phrase in the same sentence :
in such cases both the pronoun and the infinitive phrase should be placed together in
analysis.
(b) A noun forming the subject or object of a sentence takes with it all its qualifying
words, whether they be participial or prepositional phrases, and also any words modi-
fying them.
(c) As in parsing, a transitive verb is sometimes followed by a noun or pronoun and
the infinitive of a verb, both of which are governed by it, so also in analysis the noun
and infinitive in such positions, form the completion of the predicate.
(d) When the infinitive verb forms any part of the completion or the subject, it takes
its object with it, ifthere be one.
(e) Verbs in the imperative mood generally have for a subject the pronoun thou or
you understood. The completion of this sentence is similar in construction to that in
sentence (d).
(f, g) When the verb in the predicate is intransitive, the prepositional phrases which
follow it should be placed as extensions. These phrases generally modify the predicate
in manner, time, place, purpose, &c.
(h) When a prepositional phrase modifies an infinitive in the completion or in the
subject, the phrase should not be separated from the verb to which it relates ; but when
a phrase modifies the predicate, it is separated and placed as an extension. In this sen-
tence the prepositional phrase belongs to ' depart, not to told,' the meaning being
" depart in peace,' not ' told in peace ; therefore it is not separated. Learners should
bear in mind that words and phrases placed as extensions belong to the predicate only.

22. (i) I shall never see his like again.
(j) Let me not die the death of the wicked.
(k) Malta is an island in the Mediterranean.
( To the foot it was treacherous and false.
(m) In every heart are sown the seeds of war.
(n) They feared no enemy but warmth.
(0) Who spoil their toy, the world.
(p) Methuselah, the oldest man, died at a great age.
(q) There are many difficulties in the way.
(r) At two o'clock I shall have finished my work.

(i) I shall never his like again.
see
(j) (Thou) implied let not me diethe death
ofthe wicked.
(k) Malta is an island in the Mediter-
ranean.
(1) It was treacher- to the foot.
ousand false
(m) The seeds of are sown in every heart.
war
(n) They feared no enemy but
warmth.
(0) Who spoil their toy, the
world .
(p) Methuselah, the died at a great age.
oldest man,
(q) Many difficul- there are in the way.
ties
(r) I shall have my work at two o'clock.
finished
NOTES.
(i,j) In negative sentences the adverbs not, never, &c., which express a negative,
belong to the predicate, and should not be separated from their verbs.
(k, l, m) The verb ' to be ' is simply a copula ; that is, a verb which connects the pre-
dicate with the subject, therefore it does not form a predicate by itself,but must always
take with it some other word or words, in order to make sense and form a predicate.
The words most usually joined to it are adjectives, participles, and nouns. The verb
to be,' however, sometimes means to exist ; ' in this sense it forms a predicate by
itself- as, God is.'
(n, o, p) Nounsin apposition, whether in the subject or completion, are always placed
together.
(9) The expletive adverb there ' joined to the verb 'to be ' forms a predicate
equivalent to the verb ' exist,' therefore they must not be separated. Thus, There
are many difficulties ' is equal to many difficulties exist.'
(r) The predicate frequently consists of a compound verbal expression, but it never
contains more than one finite verb.

23. (s) William the Second was named Rufus from the colour of his
hair.
(t) The young prince afterwards became a great monarch.
(u) I dislike not the lad's behaviour.
(v) Let us not be butchers of our brother.
(w) Hearing the sentence, he said, with a faltering voice, ' Alas !
my mother.'
Now, I but chide thee.
(y) So stood the brittle prodigy.
(2) Who forced the blunt, and yet unblooded, steel to a keen
edge ?
1
Analysis of the foregoing Sentences.
(s) William the was named Rufus from the colour
Second of his hair.
(t) The young became a great monarch afterwards.
prince
(u) I dislike not the lad's beha-
viour.
(v) (You) implied, Let not us be butchers
ofourbrother.
(w) He, hearing the said Alas! my mother, with a faltering
sentence, voice.
(x) I but chide thee now .
(y) The brittle pro- stood SO.
digy
(z) Who forced the blunt, and to a keen edge.
yetunblooded,
steel
NOTES.
(s, t) Nouns following predicates of naming, becoming, or calling, though in the
nominative case, as in sentences (s) and (t), form the completion of the predicate, and
should be placed under that heading.
(u, v) The possessive case and the thing possessed must always go together in ana-
lysis, whether the possession be expressed by the apostrophe with ' s,' as in sentence
(u) , or by the preposition of,' as in sentence (v).
(w ) A transitive verb may have for its object a phrase, a clause, or any word or
number of words that complete the sense.
(a) When the word ' but ' is used as an adverb in the sense of ' only,' it is not sepa-
rated from the verb which it modifies.
(y) As a general rule, single adverbs, as well as adverbial phrases, should be placed
as extensions of the predicate. The exceptions are the negatives, the expletive ' there '
when joined to some part of the verb to be,' and ' but ' when used in the sense of
only,'
the sense.with some others that cannot be separated from their verbs without injuring
(x) Respecting prepositional phrases, it is important to remember that all those
belonging to the extension make good sense when joined to the predicate. Thus
we say : -
Forced to a keen edge, as in sentence (x).
Said, with afaltering voice,. 99 19 (w).
Was namedfrom the colour ofhis hair, 99 99 (8).
Notes.-Complex and compound sentences, or long passages containing any number

of clauses, may be analysed according to the method of simple sentences, by taking
each clause separately and analysing it as in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 24.
No forest fell
When thou wouldst build ; no quarry sent its stores
To enrich thy walls ; but thou didst hew the floods,
And make thy marble of the glassy wave.
In such a palace Aristaeus found
Cyrene, when he bore the plaintive tale
Of his lost bees to her maternal ear :
In such a palace Poetry might place
The armoury of winter ; where his troops,
The gloomy clouds, find weapons, arrowy sleet,
Skin-piercing volley, blossom-bruising hail,
And snow, that often blinds the traveller's course,
And wraps him in an unexpected tomb.
Silently as a dream the fabric rose ;
No sound of hammer or of saw was there.-CowPER.
The Empress of Russia's Palace of Ice.
Analysis.
Sentence. Subject. Predicate. Completion. Extension .
No forest fell. No forest fell
When thou wouldst Thou wouldst when (time)

build. build
No quarry sent its No quarry sent its stores to enrich thy

stores walls.
walls. to enrichthy
But thou didst hew Thou didst hew the floods

the floods.
And ( thou didst) (Thou) (didst) make thy marble of the glassy
make thy marble of wave.
the glassy wave.
In such a palace Aris- Aristaeus found Cyrene in such a pa-

taeus found Cyrene lace.
When he bore the He bore the plaintive when (time) to

tale of his her maternal
lost beestaletoofher
plaintive his lost bees. ear.
maternal ear.
In such a palace Poetry might place the armoury of in such a pa-

Poetry might place winter lace.
the armoury of
winter.
Analysis -continued.
Sentence. Subject. Predicate. Completion. Extension.
Where his troops, the His troops, find weapons, ar- where (place)
gloomy clouds , find the gloomy rowy sleet,
weapons, arrowy clouds skin-piercing
sleet, skin-piercing volley, blos-
volley, blossom- som bruising
bruising hail, and hail and snow
snow.
That often blinds the That blinds the traveller's often

traveller's course. course
And (that) wraps him (That) wraps him in an unex

in an unexpected pected tomb
tomb.
Silently as a dream The fabric rose silently as a

the fabric rose. dream .
No sound of hammer No sound of was there.

or ofsaw was there. hammer or
of saw
EXERCISES.
Analyse the following sentences.

1. Content, the offspring of virtue, dwells frequently in the humble
cottage.
2. To live soberly, righteously, and piously is our bounden duty.
3. By the greatest industry, and the severest habits of abstinence and
privation, he amassed a large fortune.
4. He stooping down, and looking in, saw the linen clothes on the
ground.
5. The snowy bones his relatives did place
With tears collected, in a golden vase.
6. The golden vase in purple palls they rolled
Of softest texture, and inwrought with gold.
7. High in the midst they heaped the swelling bed
Of rising earth, memorial of the dead.
8. The redbreast oft at evening hours
Shall kindly lend his little aid.
9. A young mouse, having made an excursion some way from her
home, on a sudden returned with joy in her eyes.
10. In the Tower of London are preserved the spoils of the Spanish
Armada, fitted out by Philip the Second of Spain.
11. 'Him the Ammonite

Worshipped in Rabba and her wat❜ry plain,
In Argob and in Basan, to the stream
Of utmost Arnon.'
12. 'Not content with such

Audacious neighbourhood, the wisest heart
Of Solomon he led by fraud to build
His temple right against the temple of God
On that opprobious hill.'
13. (a ) A good man seeks one like himself.

(b ) Death is common to every age.
(c ) The souls of men are mortal.
(d) There is much good in friendship.
14. (e ) Pleasures often leave causes to repent.

(f) We should always resist passion.
(g ) To talk of one's self is the property of old age.
(h ) Let us be sacrificers but not butchers.
(i ) Death hangs over us every hour.
(j ) There is none of us without fault.
15. (k ) The best head cannot atone for a bad heart.

( Set before your eyes every one of those things.
(m) To take uncertain things for certain is very foolish.
(n ) The necks of oxen are naturally fitted for the yoke.
(o ) Personal devotion seldom fails to obtain its object.
(p) Silence hatches the most fatal brood.
(9 ) Richard the Idle beheld his trees naked and bare.
(r ) He received a packet of letters by the last mail.
16. (s ) You may imitate anything with wet clay.

(t ) A lucky thought or look has made many a fortune.
(u ) Too much, or too little, leads us into many perplexities.
(v ) Poverty with peace is preferable to affluence with anxiety.
(w) It is a hard thing to find words equal to great grief.
(x ) It is some loss of liberty to resolve on schemes beforehand.
(y ) The tenant is not to be judged by the tenement.
(z ) Candour is most safely shown in trifles.
17. (a ) It is great riches to a man to live sparingly, with a con-

tented mind.
(b ) The unskilfulness of youth is to be governed by the wisdom
of the aged.
(c ) It passes in the world for greatness of mind to be perpetually
giving and loading people with bounties.
(d) One example of luxury or covetousness does a great deal
of mischief.
Divide the following passages into separate clauses, and analyse ac-
cording to Example 24.
18. 'Give thy thoughts no tongue,
Nor any unproportion'd thought his act.
Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar.
The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried,
Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel ;
But do not dull thy palm with entertainment
Of each new-hatch'd, unfledged comrade. Beware
Of entrance to a quarrel but, being in,
Bear it that the opposer may beware of thee.
Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice.
Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment.
Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy,
But not express'd in fancy ; rich, and gaudy,
For the apparel oft proclaims the man .'-Shakspeare.
19. Almost all the parts of our bodies require some expense. The
feet demand shoes ; the legs, stockings ; the rest of the body, clothing ;
and the belly, a good deal of victuals. Our eyes, though exceedingly
useful, ask, when reasonable, only the assistance of spectacles, which
could not much impair our finances. But the eyes of other people
are the eyes that ruin us. If all but myself were blind, I should want
neither fine clothes, fine houses, nor fine furniture.' --Franklin.
20. To-morrow you will live, you always cry.
In what far country does this morrow lie,
That 'tis so mighty long ere it arrive ?
Beyond the Indies does this morrow live ?
'Tis so far fetch'd this morrow, that I fear
"Twill be both very old and very dear.
To-morrow I will live,' the fool does say,
To-day itself's too late ; the wise lived yesterday.'- Martin.
21. Correction may reform negligent boys, but not amend those
that are insensibly dull. All the whetting in the world can never set
a razor's edge on that which hath no steel in it. Shipwrights and boat-
makers will choose those crooked pieces of timber which other carpen-
ters refuse. Those may make excellent merchants and mechanics
which will not serve for scholars .' -Fuller.
22. ' Greatness, with private men
Esteem'd a blessing, is to me a curse ;
And we, whom from our high births they conclude
The only freemen, are the only slaves.
Happy the golden mean.'-MASSINGER.
SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
When sentences or clauses are dependent upon other

sentences, or explain them in any way, they are said to be
subordinate, or secondary .*
Every subordinate sentence performs the office either of
an adjective, or a noun, or of an adverb, to another sen-
tence. Thus a simple sentence may be made complex by
detaching from it an adjective, a noun, or an adverb, and
forming a subordinate clause of the detached word.
EXAMPLE 1 .
Simple.-Saul was the first (Jewish) monarch.
Complex.-Saul was the first monarch (that reigned over the Jews).
Remark. In the foregoing examples the adjective Jewish,' and the clause ' that
reigned over the Jews ' have similar meanings, both of them describe or qualify the
noun monarch,' and therefore the clause that reigned over the Jews ' may with
propriety be called ' an adjective sentence ' to ' Saul was the first monarch.'
EXAMPLE 2.
Simple. I heard him repeat (the text).
Complex.-I heard him repeat ( The wages of sin is death').
Remark. In these examples the noun text,' and the clause The wages of sin is
death,' have similar meanings, and stand in the same relation to the verb ' repeat' ;
they are both in the objective case, governed by ' repeat,' and therefore the clause
The wages of sin is death,' may with propriety be termed a substantive or noun
sentence.
EXAMPLE 3.
Simple. (Then) the master entered the room.
Complex. (Whilst the boys were assembling) the master entered the
room.
Remark. In these examples the adverb then ' and the clause whilst the boys
were assembling,' have similar meanings ; both refer to the time that the master
entered, and therefore the clause whilst the boys were assembling ' may with pro-
priety be called an adverbial sentence.'
Hence subordinate sentences are of three kinds ; namely - -
The Substantive or Noun sentence.
The Adjective sentence.
The Adverbial sentence.
And these are distinguished by the relation they bear to the other sen-
tences with which they are connected .
* A subordinate clause at the beginning of a sentence is called introductory ; in the
middle, parenthetical ; at the end, accessory. An Accessory ' sentence is one that
accedes, or is added to a principal sentence. The word stands opposed to principal.'
THE SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCE.
The next thing that the pupils should learn, is to be able to distinguish readily
between substantive, adjective, and adverbial sentences ; and when they can do this,
the chief difficulties of analysis are over. The following rules and observations tell how
each ofthese sentences may be known respectively.
The substantive sentence is known- Examples.
1. By being nominative to a verb 1. (That we attend punctually)
in another sentence. is our duty.
2. By being the object of a tran- 2. The master said (that we are
sitive verb in another sen- to have a holiday to-mor-
tence. row).
3. By being in apposition with 3. Have you heard the news
some noun or pronoun. (that the war is ended).
NOTES.
1. The verb ' to be,' with an adjective or phrase after it, is sometimes equivalent
to a transitive verb, and may have a substantive sentence after it.
Examples on the note.
I know (that I shall succeed).
I am certain (that I shall succeed).
I am ofopinion (that I shall succeed).
2. The substantive sentence is introduced either by the conjunction ' that' ex-
pressed or understood, or by some interrogative word ; as when, where, who, which.
what, how, why, &c.
Examples on the note.
(When he sails) I don't know.
(Where he went) I cannot say.
(Who took it) is very uncertain .
(Which will wiu) it is impossible to say.
(What is just) is always best to be done.
(Whyhe said so) does not appear.
Remark. The sentences enclosed in brackets in the foregoing examples are substan
tive sentences ; and those with which they are connected are all ' principal sen-
tences.'
EXERCISES.
Form six sentences of your own making, each containing a ' sub-
stantive sentence ' and a principal sentence.
Point out a substantive sentence in the following lines.

' Pride was not made for men ; a conscious sense
Of guilt, and folly, and their consequence,
Destroys the claim, and to beholders tells,
Here nothing but the shape of manhood dwells.'
WALLER.
THE ADJECTIVE SENTENCE.
The adjective sentence is known by its describing some

noun or pronoun preceding it so as to distinguish it from
other nouns or pronouns.
EXAMPLES.
The soldiers (who went to the Crimea) had to encounter many
dangers.
I will assist them (that ask me).
NOTES.
1. The adjective sentence is introduced either by the relatives who, which, that, or
by some word used instead of a relative ; as where, when, why, whereby, wherein, &c.
2. The relative word is not always expressed, but it can easily be supplied.
Examples on the Notes.
This is the girl (who tore her book).
The tree (which I planted ) is withered.
The book (that you gave me) is lost.
He described the place (where he lived).
Can you name the day (when we shall leave home) ?
The reason (why I took it) is evident.
The omnibus (whereby I came) delayed on the way.
The house (wherein he resided) was spacious .
The line (you now read) will finish these examples.
Remark. The sentences enclosed in parentheses in the foregoing examples are
adjective sentences,' and those with which they are connected are all ' principal
sentences."
EXERCISES.
Form six sentences of your own making, each containing
an adjective sentence ' and a ' principal sentence.'
Underline the Adjective Sentences that occur in the following lines.

The eye that will not weep another's woe,
Should boast no gentler brightness than the glare
That reddens in the eyeball of the wolf. - Mason.
They that creep and they that fly
Shall end where they began. -Gray.
Cease to lament for that thou canst not help,
And study help for that which thou lament'st.- Shakspeare.
THE ADVERBIAL SENTENCE.
The adverbial sentence is known : - Examples.

1. By determining the time of 1 . (When the lion roars) the beasts
another sentence . of the forest tremble.
2. By determining the place of 2. (Where your treasure is) there
another sentence. will your heart be also.
3. By determining the manner of 3. The man appears (as if he had
another sentence. been very ill).
4. By determining the purpose or 4. He sold the horse (because he
cause of another sentence. wanted money ).
5. By determining some condition, 5. I will repeat the passage (if you
on which another sentence pay attention).
depends.
6. By determining some conse- 6. The farmer tills his ground so
quence or result of another carefully (that he may expect
sentence. a plentiful crop).
7. By stating some concession 7. (Although he was very rich ),
connected with another sen- he was not happy.
tence.
REMARKS.
1. The sentences enclosed in parentheses in the foregoing examples are adverbial
sentences,' and those with which they are connected are ' principal sentences.'
2. Adverbial sentences bear the same relation to the principal sentence that the
extensions of a simple sentence do to its predicate.
3. Adverbial sentences of time and place are very numerous, and are generally intro-
duced by adverbs oftime and place respectively.
4. Adverbial sentences of purpose, condition, consequence, concession, and manner
are generally introduced thus :-
Of Purpose = because, that, inasmuch, in order that.
"" Condition if, provided, except, unless.
,, Consequence therefore, so that, that.
"" Concession although, though, however, notwithstanding.
99 Manner = than, so as, as though, as if, according as.
EXERCISES .
Form six sentences of your own making, each containing

an adverbial sentence and a principal sentence.
Point out the adverbial sentences in the following passage.
When fiction rises pleasing to the eye,
Men will believe, because they love the lie ;
But truth herself, if clouded with a frown,
Must have some solemn proofs to pass her down.- Churchill.
EXAMPLES WITH EXPLANATIONS.
EXAMPLE 1.
The boy (who hid the book) found it.
Explanation.
This example contains one principal clause — namely, the boy
found it ' and one adjective clause, namely, ' who hid the book.'
This latter clause is called an adjective sentence, because it describes the
noun boy ; it tells what particular ' boy ' found it, that it was the one
' who hid it,' and not any other. If the question be asked, What boy
found it ? the answer will be the boy who hid it.' All sentences that
describe or qualify a ' noun ' or a ' pronoun ' are adjective sentences.
It should also be noticed that an adjective sentence very frequently comes
between the parts of another sentence, as in this example.
EXAMPLE 2.
Sound travels quicker (than a race-horse can run).
Explanation.
In this example there is a principal clause — namely, ' sound travels
quicker and an adverbial clause, namely, 'than a race-horse can
run.' Here, let it be observed, there is a comparison drawn between
sound and a race-horse, and the latter clause modifies the former in
point of quickness ; it shows that its motion is quicker than something
else, namely, a race-horse. In all such comparisons the clause following
the conjunctions ' than ' or ' as ' is an adverbial sentence to the other.
This last remark will apply to hundreds of sentences of frequent occur-
rence.
EXAMPLE 3.
He (who maliciously takes advantage of the unguarded moments of

friendship) is no farther from knavery than the latest moments of evening
are from the first ofnight.
Explanation.
In this example there are three sentences, each of a different kind
namely, a principal sentence, an adjective sentence, and an adverbial
sentence. The part within parentheses is an adjective sentence
qualifying ' He,' similar to Example 1, and the part in italics is an
" adverbial sentence,' modifying the principal clause in the same manner
as that in Example 2. The principal clause . is, ' He is no farther from
knavery.' The adjective clause tells what He ' we are talking about,
and the adverbial tells how far ' he is from knavery.
EXAMPLE 4.
I know (that he shall return again).
Explanation.
Here6 we have a principal sentence ' I know,' and a substantive sen-
tence, that he shall return again.' This latter clause is called a
substantive sentence, because it forms the object of the transitive verb
'know.' If it be asked, what do I know? the answer is, that he shall
return again.' All sentences forming the object, or the subject, of a
verb, are substantive sentences. This latter remark will apply to
hundreds of sentences of frequent occurrence.
EXAMPLE 5.
The admiral of Castile said, that he who marries a wife must neces-
sarily submit to everything that may happen.
Explanation.
This passage contains four finite verbs ; namely, said, marries, must,
may. And as there cannot be more than one finite verb in each clause,
or single sentence, it follows, therefore, that there are four simple sen-
tences in the passage. These may be arranged in the following manner.
with the description of each placed opposite it.
1. The admiral of Castile said, 1. This is a principal sentence, be-
cause it contains the main
assertion, or principal subject
of discourse.
2. That he must necessarily sub- 2. This is a substantive sentence,
mit to everything, because it forms the object of
the transitive verb ' said.'
3. Who marries a wife, 3. This is an adjective sentence,
because it qualifies ' he ; ' a
married he, or he who marries.
4. That may happen. 4. This also is an adjective sentence ,
because it qualifies thing; it
tells what things ' he must
submit to ; namely, 'things
that may happen.'
The same may be written in a shorter form, thus :- :

1. The admiral of Castile said, Principal sentence.
2. That he must necessarily sub- Sub. sentence to 1st clause, object
mit to everything, of 'said.'
3. Who marries a wife, Adj. sentence to 2nd clause, quali-
fying 'he.'
4. That may happen. Adj. sentence to 2nd clause, quali-
fying thing.'
Remark. We learn from this example that a substantive sentence may have two
adjective sentences qualifying it. And when each ofthese is independent of the other,
as in this example, the adjective sentences are said to be co-ordinate to each other.
C 2
28 COMPANIO
N TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR
EXAMPLE 6.
He who has refused to live a villain, and has preferred death to a
base action, has been a gainer by the bargain.
Explanation.
This passage contains three clauses ; namely one ' principal ' and
two adjective clauses. Both of the latter clauses qualify the pronoun
' he,' and may be written thus :
1. He has been a gainer by the Principal sentence to 2nd and 3rd
bargain, clause.
2. Who has refused to live a Adj. sentence to 1st clause, quali-
villain, fying ' he.'
3. Who has preferred death to a Adj. sentence to 1st clause, quali-
base action. fying ' he.'
EXAMPLE 7.
If some men died, and if others did not, death would indeed be a
most mortifying evil.
Explanation.
In this example there are two suppositions, or conditional clauses,
and one main assertion founded on them ; namely, —
'If some men died,'
' and if others did not,'
' death would indeed be a most mortifying evil.'
The two suppositional clauses are ' adverbial sentences ' to the third,
which is the principal sentence.' All clauses that express some con-
dition or ' supposition on which another assertion is founded, are
adverbial sentences.' The foregoing example may be written thus :-
1. If some men died, Adv. sentence to 3rd clause.
2. And if others did not, Adv. sentence to 3rd clause.
3. Death would indeed be a most Principal sentence to 1st and 2nd
mortifying evil. clauses.
EXAMPLE 8.
The man who can conceal his joys is greater than he is who can hide
his grief.
Explanation.
This example contains four clauses, which may thus be divided and
defined :---
1. The man is greater Principal sentence.
2. Who can conceal his joys Adj. sentence to 1st clause, quali-
fying man.
3. Than he is Adv. sentence, modifying 1st clause
in manner.
4. Who can hide his grief. Adj. sentence to 3rd clause, quali-
fying ' he.'
EXERCISES FOR PUPILS.
Distinguish between principal, substantive, adjective, and

adverbial clauses in the following.
1. The love that we bear our country is a root which never fails to
bring forth golden fruit.- Churchill.
2. The regard one shows economy, is like that we show an old aunt,
who is to leave us something at last.-Shenstone.
3. A dog we know is better company than a man whose language

we do not understand.- Pliny.
4. If there is an evil in this world, 'tis sorrow and heaviness of heart.
-Sterne.
5. Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world, though
the cant of hypocrites may be the worst, the cant of criticism is the
most tormenting. - Sterne.
6. If we did but know how little some enjoy of the great things that
they possess, there would not be much envy in the world. - Young.
7. Where two discourse, if the one's anger rise,
The man who lets the contest fall is wise.- Plutarch.
8. If a man does not make new acquaintance as he advances through

life, he will soon find himself left alone. -Johnson.
9. Well-sounding verses are the charms we use,
Heroic thoughts and virtue to infuse.- Waller.
10. A man who has passed his life on shipboard, will pace the length
of his quarterdeck on the terrace before his house, were it a mile in
length. Cumberland.
10. The Jews are so disseminated through all the trading parts ofthe
world, that they are become the instruments by which the most distant
nations converse with one another, and by which mankind are knit
together in a general correspondence. — Spectator.
11. That friendship's raised on sand,
Which every sudden gust of discontent,
Or flowing of our passions, can change,
As if it ne'er had been.- Massinger.
PRINCIPAL CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES.
When two or more principal clauses occur in the same

sentence, they are said to be ' co-ordinate ' to each other.
Principal co-ordinate sentences are of three kinds, and
receive different names according to their relation or con-
nection with one another ; namely : -
EXAMPLES.
1. When they are placed in the
relation of equality to each
other; that is, when the clauses
The sun rules the day, and the
are merely coupled together, moon guides the night.
they are called ' equivalent,'
or ' copulative,' or ' connective'
clauses.
2. When they express contrast ;
that is, when one clause is put Straws swim upon the surface ;
in opposition to another, they but pearls lie at the bottom.
are called antithetical,' or
' adversative ' clauses.
3. When one clause or assertion
results from another, or comes
from it by way ofinference, or The boy is often absent ; and there-
accounts for it in any way, fore he cannot improve much.
they are called ' illative,' or
'causative ' clauses.
Principal co-ordinate clauses are generally introduced by the fol-

lowing words :
Equivalent clauses, and, also, besides, likewise, neither, nor, as

or well as, as, moreover, further, not only, not
Copulative. merely.
Antithetical clauses, but, else, whereas, whilst, yet, nevertheless, on

or the contrary, either, or, otherwise, however,
Adversative notwithstanding, only, not, but.
Illative clauses, therefore, hence, consequently, wherefore, ac-

or cordingly, because, for, whence, consequently,
Causative. so, thereupon, then, and, so, on that account.
EXERCISES.
Distinguish between equivalent, antithetical, and illative
clauses in the following.
1. The Alps are the highest mountains in Europe, and the Volga is
the longest river.
2. The wicked are overthrown ; but the righteous shall stand.
3. A fine day is universally commended ; because people can com-
mend it without envy.
4. We must attend closely to lessons ; otherwise we shall not suc-
ceed.
5. The floods came, and the winds blew, and they beat upon that
house.
6. Time is very precious ; and yet it is often badly spent.
7. Vice ends in misery ; whereas virtue leads to happiness.
8. Be ye angry, and sin not : let not the sun go down upon your
wrath.
ON CONTRACTED SENTENCES.
In sentences that are co-ordinate to each other, contrac-

tions very frequently occur ; that is, some part of one of the
clauses is omitted ; as in the following examples : -
EXAMPLE 1.
The girl screamed and fainted.
REMARK.
In this example there are two principal clauses, which, if written in full, would be :
The girl screamed '
' and the girl fainted.'
But as both clauses have the same subject, girl,' it may be omitted in the second
clause, which is then said to be contracted in subject.
EXAMPLE 2.
Black boards and maps are used in teaching geography.
REMARK.
Here there are two principal clauses also, which, if written in full, would be:
' Black boards are used in teaching geography,'
' and maps are used in teaching geography.
But as both clauses have the same predicate, it is not necessary to express it twice ;
therefore the first clause is contracted in ' predicate.'
EXAMPLE 3 .
He not only protected, but he rewarded his followers.

REMARKS.
In this example there are two principal assertions, the first of which is contracted in
object. Ifboth clauses were written in full, they would be : -
He not only protected his followers,'
'but he rewarded his followers.'
But instead of repeating the object, followers,' it is better to omit it in one of the
clauses, which clause is then said to be ' contracted ' in object.
Sometimes the object is joined to the first clause, and a pronoun is substituted in
the second clause, as in the following :-
EXAMPLE 4.
He not only protected his followers, but he rewarded them.

REMARK .
In such cases the sentence is not said to be contracted . Using a pronoun for a noun
does not make a sentence become contracted in subject or object.
Hence we learn that a contracted sentence may have :
One subject and two predicates.
One predicate and two subjects.
One object and two subjects, or predicates.
When a sentence containing but one subject, verb, and object, has two or more
phrases of extension, it may be doubted whether it is a simple sentence with several
extensions, or a contracted compound sentence. The following example is a sentence
of this description :-
EXAMPLE 5.
He struck him (on the right hand and on the left).

REMARK.
Respecting such examples, it should be observed that the essential parts of a sentence
are the subject ' and verb ; and when the verb is transitive it also requires an object.
When any one of these three parts is expressed twice, the sentence contains two
clauses, and should be so divided when analysing it ; but when none of these three
essential parts are contained in it more than once, it is better to consider it a simple
sentence. Hence, instead of calling the foregoing example a compound sentence, and
dividing it into two clauses thus, —,
'He struck him on the right hand
' (He struck him) on the left hand,'
it would be better and more convenient in practice to consider it a simple sentence
with a lengthened extension. This may appear clearer when we state that the fore-
going sentence is equivalent to the expression : -
He struck him on both hands
or
He struck him on the hands,
which are evidently simple sentences.
EXERCISES.
Contract the following sentences.
1. The children come at nine, and the children go home at twelve.

2. I saw your brother, and I saw your sister.
3. Harold fought for the crown of England, and William of Normandy
fought for the crown of England.
4. The garment was well shaped, and the garment was neatly sewn .
5. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit goeth before
a fall.
6. A violent man enticeth his neighbour, and he leadeth him astray.
7. He reads too quickly, and therefore he reads carelessly.
8. The blind man may hear the thunder, but he cannot see the
lightning.
9. Alfred made wise laws, and so he was loved by his people.
Express the following contracted sentences in full and

separate clauses.
1. King John signed the great charter, but did not keep it.
2. Constant attention wears the active mind,
Blots out her powers, and leaves a blank behind.- Churchill.
3. Reason is a very light rider, and easily shook off. — Swift.
4. Purblind to poverty the worldling goes,
And scarce sees rags an inch beyond his nose;
But from a crowd can single out his grace,
And cringe and creep to fools who trust in lace.- Churchill.
Tell how many sentences in each of the following passages.

1. A gentleman one day took occasion to speak of the married state
before his daughter, and observed that she who marries does well ; but
she who does not marry does better. 'Well, then ! ' replied the young
lady, ' I will do well ; let those who can do better.'
2. When Taylor was introduced to the Archbishop of Canterbury he
was told by the prelate that his extreme youth was a bar to his present
employment. If your grace,' replied Taylor, will excuse this fault,
I promise, if I live, to mend it.'
c5
ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX AND COMPOUND

SENTENCES.
To analyse a complex or a compound sentence is to sepa-

rate it into the simple clauses or members of which it is
composed. It is performed by simply arranging the several
clauses one under the other, and writing opposite to each
clause what kind it is, and the relation it bears to the other
clauses with which it is connected. The several clauses
should also be numbered or lettered for the sake of distinc-
tion and convenience.
The following contractions may sometimes be adopted
with advantage, when it is wished to make the explanations
of a clause fit in a single line :
Principal = prin. Subject subj.
Substantive sub. Predicate pred.
Adjective adj. Object obj.
Adverbial adv. Contracted contr.
Sentence sent. Co-ordinate co-ord.
Copulative cop. Equivalent equiv.
Adversative advers. Qualifying qual.
Illative • illa. Concession concess.
EXAMPLE 1.
As small letters hurt the sight, so do small matters hurt him that is
too much intent upon them. -Plutarch.
Analysis.
1. As small letters hurt the sight, Adv. sentence to 2d clause : manner.
2. So do small matters hurt him Prin. sentence to 1st and 3d clauses.
3. That is too much intent upon them. Adj. sentence to 2d clause, qual. ‘ him.'
EXAMPLE 2.
Around the fire one wintry night,
The farmer's rosy children sat ;
The faggot lent its blazing light,
And jokes went round and careless chat.
Analysis.
1. Around the fire one wintry night, Principal sentence.
The farmer's rosy children sat;
2. The faggot lent its blazing light, Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause:
equiv.
3. And jokes went round Prin. sentence co-ord. to 1st and 2nd
clauses.
4. And careless chat (went round). Prin. sentence, co-ordinate to 1st, 2nd,
and 3rd, contr. in pred.
EXAMPLE 3.
A good name will wear out ; a bad one may be turned ; a nickname
lasts for ever. -Zimmerman.
Analysis.
1. A good name will wear out ; Principal sentence.
2. A bad one may be turned ; Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause :
equiv.
3. A nickname lasts for ever. Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st and 2d
clauses.
EXAMPLE 4.
A man who tells nothing, or who tells all, will equally have nothing
told him.- Chesterfield.
Analysis.
1. A man will equally have nothing told Prin. sentence to 2d and 3d clauses.
him
2. Who tells nothing, Adj . sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' man.'
3. Or who tells all. Adj. sentence to 1st clause, co-ord. to 2nd.
EXAMPLE 5.
Love sees what no eye sees ; love hears what no ear hears; and what
never rose in the heart of man love prepares for its object.-Lavater.
Analysis.
1. Love sees Prin. sentence to 2d clause.
2. What no eye sees ; Sub. sentence to 1st clause, obj. of ' sees .'
3. Love hears Prin. sentence to 4th clause, co-ord. to 1st.
4. What no ear hears ; Sub. sentence to 3d clause, obj . of ' hears.'
5. And love prepares for its object Prin. sentence to 6th clause, co-ord. to 1st
and 3d.
6. What never rose in the heart of man. Sub. sentence to 5th clause, obj. of ' pre
pares.'
EXAMPLE 6.
Sight, though it is the acutest of all our senses, is too dull to present
us with a view of wisdom. -Plato.
Analysis.
1. Sight is too dull to present us with a Prin. sentence to 2d clause.
view of wisdom,
2. Though it is the acutest of all our Adv. sentence to 1st clause : concession.
senses.
EXAMPLE 7.
King James used to call for his old shoes ; they were the easiest for
his feet.-Seldon.
Analysis.
1. King James used to call for his old Principal sentence.
shoes,
2. They were the easiest for his feet. Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause:
illative.
EXAMPLE 8.
When the gay sun first breaks the shades of night,
And streaks the distant Eastern hills with light,
Colour returns, the plains their livery wear,
And a bright verdure clothes the smiling year;
The blooming flowers with opening beauties glow,
And grazing flocks their milky fleeces show ;
The barren cliffs with chalky fronts arise,
And a pure azure arches o'er the skies.— Gay.
Analysis.
1. When the gay sun first breaks the Adv. sent. to 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th,
shades of night, and 9th clauses : time.
2. And streaks the distant eastern hills Adv. sentence, co- ordinate to 1st clause:
with light, time.
3. Colour returns, Prin. sentence.]
4. The plains their livery wear, Prin. sentence .
5. And a bright verdure clothes the Prin. sentence.
smiling year;
6. The blooming flowers with opening Prin. sentence. Allandequivalent
co-ordinateclauses,
to each
beauties glow,
7. And grazing flocks their milky fleeces Prin. sentence other.
show ;
8. The barren cliffs with chalky fronts Prin. sentence
arise,
9. And a pure azure arches o'erthe skies . Prin, sentence
EXAMPLE 9.
Quiet night, that brings
Rest to the labourer, is the outlaw's day,
In which he rises early to do wrong,
And when his work is ended, dares not sleep. - Massinger.
Analysis.
1. Quiet night is the outlaw's day, Principal sentence.
2. That brings rest to the labourer, Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
'night.'
3. In which he rises early to do wrong, Adj . sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
day.'
4. And when his work is ended, Adv. sentence to 5th clause : time.
5. (He) dares not sleep. Principal sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause,
contracted in subject.
EXAMPLE 10.
A wolfrapacious, rough, and bold,

Whose nightly plunders thinn'd the fold,
Contemplating his ill- spent life,
And cloyed with thefts, would take a wife. -Moore's Fables.
Analysis.
1. A wolf, rapacious, rough, and bold, Principal sentence to 2nd clause.
contemplating his ill-spent life, and
cloyed with thefts, would take a wife,
2. Whose nightlyplunders thinn'd the fold Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
wolf.'
EXAMPLE 11 .
A contented mind is the greatest blessing a man can enjoy in this
world ; and if in the present life his happiness arises from the subduing
of his desires, it will arise in the next from the gratification of them.-
Addison.
Analysis.
1. A contented mind is the greatest bles- Principal sentence.
sing
2. A man can enjoy in this world ; Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
' blessing.'
3. And if in the present life his happiness Adv. sentence to 4th clause : condition.
arises from the subduing of his de-
sires,
4. It will arise in the next from the grati- Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause.
fication ofthem.
EXAMPLE 12.
Thrice he assay'd, and thrice in spite of scorn
Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth.- Milton.
Analysis.
1. Thrice he assay'd, Principal sentence.
2. And thrice in spite of scorn tears burst Prin. sentence, co-ord . to 1st clause : equiv.
forth,
3. Such as angels weep. Adj. sentence to 2nd clause, qualifying
'tears.'
EXAMPLE 13.
He spake; and to confirm his words outflew
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim. - Milton.
Analysis.
1. He spake ; Principal sentence.
2. And to confirm his words outflew mil- Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause.
lions of swords, drawn from the thighs
of mighty cherubim.
EXAMPLE 14.
He
That kills himself t' avoid misery fears it;
And at the best shows spurious valour.-Massinger.
Analysis.
1. He fears it Principal sentence.
2. That kills himself to avoid misery; sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
Adj . he.'
'
3. And at the best shows spurious valour. Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause, con-
tracted in subj .
EXAMPLE 15.
The world's a wood , in which all lose their way,
Though by a different path each goes astray. -Buckingham.
Analysis.
1. The world's a wood, Principal sentence.
2. In which all lose their way, Adj . sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
'wood.'
3. Though by a different path each goes Adv. sentence : concession.
astray.
EXAMPLE 16.
One of the best rules in conversation is never to say a thing which
any of the company can reasonably wish we had rather left unsaid ; nor
can there anything be well more contrary to the ends for which people
meet together, than to part unsatisfied with each other or themselves.
- Swift.
Analysis.
1. One ofthe best rules in conversation is | Principal sentence to 2nd clause.
never to say a thing
2. Which any of the company can reason- Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
ably wish ' thing.'
3. We had rather left unsaid ; Subs. sentence to 2nd clause, obj. of
' wish.'
4. Nor can there anything be well more Prin. sentence, co-ordinate to 1st clause.
contrary to the ends
5. For which people meet together, Adj. sentence to 4th clause, qual. ' ends.'
6. Than to part unsatisfied with each other Adv . sentence to 4th clause : contracted.
or themselves.
EXAMPLE 17.
That man, though in rags, who is capable of deceiving even indolence
into wisdom, and who professes amusement, while he aims at reformation,
is more useful in refined society, than twenty cardinals with all their
scarlet, who are tricked out in all the fopperies of scholastic finery.—
Goldsmith.
Analysis .
1. That man is more useful in refined Principal sentence.
society,
2. Though (he should dress) in rags, Adv. sentence to 1st clause : contracted.
3. Who is capable of deceiving even indo- Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' man.'
lence into wisdom,
4. And who professes amusement, Adj. sentence to 1st clause, co-ord. to 3rd.
5. While he aims at reformation, Adv. sentence to 4th clause : time.
Adv. sentence to 1st clause : contracted in
6. Than scarlet, cardinals ( are) with all
their twenty pred.
7. Who are tricked out in all the fopperies Adj . sentence to 6th clause, qual. ‘cardi-
of scholastic finery. nals.'
EXAMPLE 18.
A Spanish proverb says, that he, who would bring home the wealth of
the Indies, must carry the wealth of the Indies, with him. - Johnson.
Analysis.
1. A Spanish proverb says, Principal sentence.
2. That he must carry the wealth of the Sub.· sentence to 1st clause, object of
Indies with him, says.'
3. Who would bring home the wealth of Adj.'he.'
sentence to 2nd clause, qualifying
the Indies.
EXAMPLE 19.
He that gives for gain, destroys the very intent of bounty ; for it falls
only upon those that do not want. - Seneca.
Analysis.
1. He destroys the very intent of bounty Principal sentence to 2nd clause.
2. That gives for gain ; Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
'he.'
3. For it falls only upon those Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 1st clause :
illative.
4. That do not want. Adj . those.'
sentence to 3rd clause, qualifying
'
EXAMPLE 20.
He, who reforms himself has done more towards reforming the public,
than a crowd of noisy, impotent patriots. - Lavater.
Analysis.
1. He has done more towards reforming Principal sentence.
the public,
2. Who reforms himself Adj.' he.'
sentence to 1st clause, qualifying
3. Than a crowd of noisy, impotent pa- Adv. sentence to 1st clause : contracted in
triots. predicate.
EXAMPLE 21 .
He who prorogues the honesty of to-day till to-morrow, will probably
prorogue his to-morrows to eternity. - Lavater.
Analysis.
1. He will probably prorogue his to-mor- Principal sentence to 2nd clause.
rows to eternity,
2. Who prorogues the honesty of to-day Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' he.'
till to-morrow.
EXAMPLE 22.
Travellers who are sent on a business of the last and most important
concern, may be allowed to please their eyes with the natural and artifi-
cial beauties of the country they are passing through, without reproach
of forgetting the main errand which they were sent upon ; and if they
are not led out of their road by variety of prospects, edifices and ruins,
would it not be a senseless piece of severity to shut their eyes against
such gratifications ? - Sterne.
Analysis.
1. Travellers may be allowed to please Principal sentence to 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
their eyes with the natural and artifi- clauses.
cial beauties of the country, without
reproach offorgetting the main errand,
2. Who are sent on a business of the last Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' tra-
and most important concern, vellers.'
3. They are passing through, Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' country."
4. Which they are sent upon ; Adj. sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' errand.'
5. And ifthey are not led out of their road Adv. sentence to 6th clause : condition.
by variety of prospects, edifices, and
ruins,
6. Would it not be a senseless piece of Prin. sentence to 5th clause, co-ord. to 1st.
severity to shut their eyes against such
gratifications?
EXAMPLE 23.
When a man writes from his own mind he writes very rapidly : the
greatest part of a writer's time is spent in reading in order to write ; a
man will turn over half a library to make one book. — Johnson.
Analysis.
1. When a man writes from his own mind Adv. sentence to 2nd clause : time.
2. He writes very rapidly : Prin. sentence to 1st clause.
3. The greatest part of a writer's time is Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 2nd clause.
spent in reading in order to write ;
4. A man will turn over half a library to Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 2nd and 3rd
make one book. clauses.
EXAMPLE 24.
The man whose hardy spirit shall engage

To lash the vices of a guilty age,
At his first setting forward ought to know
That ev'ry rogue he meets must be his foe;
That the rude breath of satire will provoke
Many who feel, and more who fear the stroke.- Churchill.
Analysis.
1. The man at his first setting forward | Principal sentence.
ought to know
2. Whose hardy spirit shall engage to lash Adj . sentence to 1st clause, qual. ' man.
the vices of a guilty age,
3. That ev'ry rogue must be his foe ; Subs. sentence to 1st clause, obj. of
'know.'
4. He meets Adj . sentence to 3rd clause, qual. ' rogue.'
5. That the rude breath of satire will pro- Sub. sentence to 1st clause, co-ord. to 3rd.
voke many and more
6. Who feel Adj . sentence to 5th clause, qual. ' many.'
7. Who fear the stroke. Adj. sentence to 5th clause, qual. ' more.'
EXAMPLE 25.
What worth have all the charms our pride can boast,
If all in envious solitude are lost ?
Where none admire, 'tis useless to excel;
Where none are beaux, 'tis vain to be a belle!
Beauty, like wit, to judges should be shown ;
Both are most valued when they best are known.
Soliloquy of a Country Beauty.
Analysis.
1. What worth have all the charms Principal sentence to 2nd and 3rd clauses.
2 Our
8. If allpride can boast,
in envious Adj. sentenceto 1st clause, qual. ' charms.'
solitude are lost ? Adv. sentence to 1st clause : condition.
4. Where none admire, Adv. sentence to 5th clause : place.
5. 'Tis useless to excel ; Prin. sentence to 4th clause : contracted.
6. Where none are beaux Adv. sentence to 7th clause : place.
7. 'Tis vain to be a belle ! Prin. sentence to 6th clause : contracted.
8. Beauty,
shown ; like wit, to judges should be Prin. sentence, co-ord. to 9th clause.
9. Both are most valued Prin. sentence to 10th clause.
10. Where they best are known. Adv. sentence to 9th clause.
REMARK.
Pupils should occasionally be required to analyse the same passage according to the
two methods already given. Let them first divide the passage into clauses, according to
the method of compound sentences ; and next divide each clause into its parts, accord-
ing to the method of simple sentences. Both methods are employed in the following
example.
EXAMPLE 26.
If we work upon marble, it will perish; if we work upon brass, time

will efface it; if we rear temples, they will crumble into dust ; but if
we work upon our immortal minds, if we endue them with right prin-
ciples, with the just fear of God and of our fellow-men, we engrave on
those tablets something that will brighten to all eternity.- Webster.
Analysis.
1. Ifwe work upon marble, Adv. sentence to 2nd clause : condition.
2. It will perish ; Prin. sentence to 1st clause.
3. If we work upon brass, Adv. sentence to 4th clause : condition.
4. Time will efface it ; Prin. sentence to 3rd clause.
5. If we rear temples, Adv. sentence to 6th clause : condition.
6. They will crumble into dust Prin. sentence to 5th clause.
7. But if we work upon our immortal Adv. sentence to 9th clause: condition.
minds,
8. If we endue them with right princi- Adv. sentence to 9th clause : co-ord. to 7th.
ples, with the fear of God, andofour
fellow-men,
9. We engrave on those tablets some- Prin. sentence to 7th and 8th clauses.
thing
10. That will brighten to all eternity. Adj. sentence to 9th clause, qual. ' some-
thing.'
1. (If) we work upon marble,
2. It will perish;
3. (If) we work upon brass,
4. Time will efface it ;
5. (If) we rear temples,
6. They will crumble into dust ;
7. (But if) we work upon our immortal

minds,
8. (If) we endue them with right principles,

with the just fear of
God and of our fel-
low-men,
9. We engrave something on those tablets
10. That will brighten to all eternity.

GENERAL REMARKS.
The following hints relating to analysis will be useful to

all learners : -
1. When two clauses are compared by ' as ' and ' so,' the clause fel-
lowing ' as' is an adverbial sentence to that beginning with ' so.'
EXAMPLES.
As a man plants, so shall he reap.
As thy day, so shall thy strength be.
2. When two clauses are compared by a6 comparative adjective and
the conjunction ' than,' the clause following than ' is an adverbial sen-
tence to the other.
EXAMPLES.
She is much taller than I am.
Two sides of a triangle are greater than the third side (is).
3. When two clauses are connected, one beginning with 6 ' where,' the
other beginning with ' there,' the clause 6introduced by where ' is an
adverbial sentence to that introduced by there,' which is the principal
sentence.
EXAMPLES.
Where envying and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work.
Where the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together.
4. Suppositional clauses, on which other assertions are founded, are
adverbial sentences, and those which are founded on them are principal
sentences.
EXAMPLES.
Should I fail, I shall be ruined for life.
If I succeed, I shall be a great gainer.
5. Clauses beginning with ' prepositions governing relatives,' are
adjective sentences, as well as those beginning with the simple relatives
'who,' ' which,' ' that.'
EXAMPLES .
I know the person to whom I gave it.
This is the gun with which I fired.
6. When the corresponding conjunctions though,' ' yet,' are found in
different clauses, that in which ' though' occurs is an adverbial sentence
to that beginning with ' yet.'
EXAMPLES.
Though he is strong, yet he is very gentle.
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
7. When a sentence coming after a transitive verb, begins with ' what,'
where,' or ' that,' it is a substantive sentence, object of the verb.
EXAMPLES.
I received what he sent to me.
I heard where you reside.
I heard that he said it.
But ifthe word ' what ' be resolved into its equivalent thing which ; '
or the word ' where ' into its equivalent ' the place in which ; ' then the
latter clauses will cease to be substantive sentences, and will become
adjective sentences to the former.
EXAMPLES.
I received the thing which he sent to me.
I know the place in which you reside.
8. When the pronoun it ' begins a complex sentence, very fre-
quently some following clause could supply its place, and if substituted
would make good sense ; when this can be done, the clause that can be
substituted is a substantive sentence.
EXAMPLE.
It is amazing that she succeeded.
That she succeeded is amazing.
9. When one of two clauses begins with the word ' when ' and the
other with the word ' then,' the clause introduced by ' when ' is an
adverbial sentence to that introduced by then,' which is a principal
sentence.
EXAMPLE.
When ye shall see Jerusalem compassed with armies,
Then know that the desolation thereof is nigh.
10. When the corresponding conjunctions so,' that ' are found in
different clauses, the clause in which ' that ' occurs, is generally an ad-
verbial sentence to the clause containing ' so.'
EXAMPLES.
She was so weak, that she fainted away.
Central Africa is so hot, that few persons can live there.
Analyse the following sentences.
1. The man who builds, and wants wherewith to pay,

Provides a house from which to run away.- Young.
2. Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy; and he that
riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at
night; while laziness travels so slowly, that poverty soon overtakes
him.- Franklin.
3. Who shall dispute what the reviewers say?

Their word's sufficient ; and to ask a reason,
In such a state as theirs, is downright treason.- Churchill.
4. Marriage is a desperate thing ; the frogs in Æsop were extremely

wise they had a great mind to some water, but they would not leap
into the well, because they could not get out again.— Selden.
5. As at his board a farmer sat,

Replenished by his homely treat ;
His favourite spaniel near him stood,
And with his master shared the food.
The crackling bones his jaws devoured,
His lapping tongue the trenches scoured ;
Till sated now, supine he lay,
And snored the rising fumes away. -Moore's Fables.
6. Doth a man stutter, look asquint, or halt?

Mimics draw humour, out of nature's fault ;
With personal defects their mirth adorn,
And hang misfortune out to public scorn.- Churchill.
7. As a lamp is choked by a superabundance of oil, a fire extin-

guished by excess of fuel, so is the natural heat of the body destroyed
by intemperate diet.— Burton.
8. It is usually said by grammarians, that the use of language is to

express our wants and desires ; but men who know the world hold, and
I think with some show of reason, that he who best knows how to keep
his necessities private, is the most likely person to have them redressed;
and that the true use of speech is not so much to express our wants as
it is to conceal them.- Goldsmith.
9. So cheer'd he his fair spouse, and she was cheer'd,

But silently a gentle tear let fall
From either eye, and wiped them with her hair ;
Two other precious drops that ready stood,
Each in their crystal sluice, he, ere they fell ,
Kiss'd. -Milton.
10. In common cases the general method I take to bring any gentle-
man to a patient hearing, is to entertain him with his own commenda-
tions : if this simple medicine will not serve, I am forced to dash it
with a few drops of slander, which is the best appeaser, I know; for
many of my patients will listen to that, when nothing else can silence
them.-Cumberland.
11. When winter soaks the fields, and female feet

Too weak to struggle with tenacious clay,
Or ford the rivulets, are best at home,
The task of new discoveries falls on me.
12. Those who cultivate the memory of our revolution, and those
who are attached to the constitution of this kingdom, will take good
care how they are involved with persons who, under the pretext of
zeal towards the revolution and constitution, too frequently wander
from their true principles, and are ready on every occasion to depart
from the firm , but cautious, and deliberate spirit which produced the one,
and which presides in the other. -Burke.
13. The generous, who is always just, and the just who is always
generous, may, unannounced, approach the throne of heaven.- Lavater.
14. The fountain which from Helicon proceeds,

That sacred stream should never water weeds,
Nor make the crop of thorns and thistles grow,
Which envy or perverted nature sow.— -Walter.
15. An Englishman fears contempt more than death: he often flies

to death as a refuge from its pressure, and dies when he fancies the world
has ceased to esteem him. - Goldsmith.
16. A man that is out of humour when an unexpected guest breaks

in upon him, and does not care for sacrificing an afternoon to any
chance comer; that will be master of his own time and pursuer of his
own inclinations, makes but a very unsociable figure in this life.
Spectator.
17. Those get the least that take the greatest pains,
But most of all i' th' drudgery of brains;
A nat'ral sign of weakness, as an ant
Is more laborious than an elephant;
And children are more busy at their play
Than those that wisely'st pass their time away.--Butler.
18. Aim at perfection in everything, though in most things it is un-

attainable ; however, they who aim at it, and persevere, will come much
nearer to it than those whose laziness and despondency make them
give it up as unattainable.- Chesterfield.
19. A man should not allow himself to hate even his enemies, be-
cause, if you indulge this passion in some occasions, it will rise of
itself in others ; if you hate your enemies, you will contract such a
habit of mind, as by degrees will break out upon those who are your
friends, or those who are indifferent to you.-Plutarch.
20. He that first started the doctrine, that bravery was the best
defence against a knave, was but an ill teacher, advising us to commit
wickedness to secure ourselves. - Plutarch.
21. When we are young, we are slavishly employed in procuring

something whereby we may live comfortably when we grow old ; and
when we are old, we perceive it is too late to live as we propose. -Pope.
22. Ye sons of luxury, be wise :

Know, happiness for ever flies
The cold and solitary breast ;
Then let the social influence glow
And learn to feel another's woe
And in his joy be blest.- Beattie.
23. Eloquence, when at its highest pitch, leaves little room for reason
or reflection : but addresses itself entirely to the fancy or the affections,
captivates the willing hearers, and subdues the understanding. -Hume.
24. Death is not sufficient to deter men who make it their glory to
despise it ; but if every one that fought a duel were to stand in the
pillory, it would quickly lessen the number of these imaginary men of
honour, and put a stop to so absurd a practice.- Addison.
25. When Babel was confounded, and the great

Confederacy of projectors wild and vain
Was split into diversity of tongues
Then, as a shepherd separates his flock,
These to the upland, to the valley those,
God drave asunder, and asigned their lot
To all the nations.- Cowper.
Note. Many ofthe passages in the other parts of the work, form suitable exercises
in analysis also. See Grammar of English Grammars.'
END OF ANALYSIS.
47
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
INTRODUCTORY TO PARAPHRASING.
Before pupils begin to paraphrase passages, they should

know how to express the same sentiment in various ways.
The following methods by which the construction of a sen-
tence may be changed, without altering the sense, should be
carefully considered .
FIRST METHOD.
By substituting the relatives, who, which, that, what,

for conjunctions where it can be done.
Examples. Changed thus.
1. God governs the world, and his 1. God governs the world which
power created it. his power created.
2. They are blessed with wealth 2. They who are blessed with
and plenty, and they ought to wealth and plenty, ought to
be liberal and charitable. be liberal and charitable.
Sentences to be changed.
1. The girl thinks she can learn without study, but she labours under
a great mistake .
2. He gives himself up wholly to pleasures, and is not worthy of the
name of man.
SECOND METHOD.
By substituting the words ' so that ' or ' such that ' for
the conjunction ' and.'
Examples. Changed thus.
1. The man was very negligent, 1. The man was so negligent that
and he soon failed. he soon failed.
2. The river has rocks and sand 2. The river has such rocks and
near its mouth, and it is not sand near its mouth, that it is
navigable. not navigable.
1. He labours diligently, and he will be sure to succeed.
2. She became very ill, and she fainted with weakness.
3. The children have a severe cough, and they cannot attend.
4. The climate is intensely hot, and the country is rendered un-
healthy.
THIRD METHOD.
By substituting the present or past participle for the verb
and conjunction .
Example. Changed.
He addressed the people, and Addressing the people, he con-
consoled them for their loss, and soled them for their loss, pro-
promised to render them assist- mising to render them assistance.
ance.
An ass found the skin of a lion, and put it on ; and went into the
woods and pastures, and threw all the flocks and herds into a terrible
consternation. At last, he met his owner, and he would have frightened
him also ; but the good man saw his long ears stick out, and presently
knew him, and with a good stick made him sensible that notwithstanding
he was dressed in a lion's skin, he was really no more than an ass.
FOURTH METHOD.
By changing the transitive verb into the passive form, or
the passive into the transitive.
Examples. Changed.
1. Columbus discovered America. 1. America was discovered by Co-
lumbus.
2. Stones are made hollow by 2. Water makes stones hollow.
water.
1. Gentleness corrects whatever is offensive in our manners.
2. A life well spent makes old age pleasant.
3. Riches change men's minds, and breed pride and arrogance.
FIFTH METHOD.
By changing adjectives, adverbs, and the possessive case of
nouns into prepositional phrases.
Examples. Changed.
1. A prudent man will act wisely. 1. A prudent man will act with
wisdom.
2. He who is continually in the 2. He who is at all times in the
world's bustle, leads a weary bustle ofthe world, leads a life
life. of weariness.
1. The sun's rays fall perpendicularly on some portions of the earth's
surface.
2. The vicious man is often looking round him anxiously and fear-
fully.
3. Human affairs are continually in motion, altering their appearance
daily.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION 49
SIXTH METHOD.
By changing nouns into the infinitive mood, or part of a
sentence.
Examples. Changed.
1. Order, attention, and obedience 1. To be orderly, attentive, and
are required of all children. obedient is required of those
of younger years.
2. Temperance produces health. 2. To live temperately produces
health.
1. Idleness is the parent of many vices, but industry begets comfort
2. The dog's quick obedience to his master's commands is in-
teresting.
3. The cuckoo's hiding -place during the summer has not been dis-
covered.
SEVENTH METHOD.
By transposing the clauses or members of a sentence .
Example. Changed.
No bounds th' Almighty's glory No bounds can restrain the glory
can restrain, of the Almighty, nor can the di-
Nor time's dimensions terminate mensions of time terminate his
his reign; reign ; convulsive nature shakes at
At his reproof convulsive nature his reproof, and shivering earth
shakes, quakes from its foundations.
And shiv'ring earth from its founda-
tion quakes.
Sentence to be changed.
Best are all things as the will
Of God ordained them; His creating hand
Nothing imperfect or deficient left
Of all that He created, much less man;
Or aught that might his happy state secure.
EIGHTH METHOD.
By a negation of the contrary, instead of a simple direct
affirmation.
Example. Changed.
He is a very idle lad, and has He is not at all an industrious
very bad habits. lad, and has anything but good
habits.
1. It is a hard thing to find words equal to great grief.
2. Our ears are to be shut to bad speeches. We must resist passion.
3. Help the weak, and comfort the afflicted.
D
NINTH METHOD.
By using different words having the same or similar
meaning.
Example. Changed.
Idleness is the cause of misery. Indolence leads to unhappiness.
Want of occupation prevents the
enjoyments of life. Indolent habits
lay the foundation of future
wretchedness.
1. To be deprived of the person we love, is a happiness in comparison
of living with a person we hate.
2. Blame not before you have examined the matter ; understand first
and then rebuke.
TENTH METHOD.
By using a periphrasis or circumlocution ; that is, the use
of several words to express the sense of one.
Example. Changed.
The sun shines upon all men. The glorious luminary of day
casts its gladdening rays on every
member of the human family.
Express the following in a periphrasis.

1. A good conscience laughs at the lies of fame.
2. Beware of pleasure , the mother of all evils.
3. Death devours all living things.
ELEVENTH METHOD.
By using a euphemism ; that is, a softened mode of expres-
sion, to avoid the harshness of a plain one.
Example. Changed.
The man was drunk, and told a The man was a little intoxicated,
falsehood about it. and misrepresented the case.
Express the following in Euphemisms.
1. I hate that man, he is such a stingy fellow.
2. That girl is a great glutton, and has very sluttish manners.
3. He was turned out of office for stealing a book.
TWELFTH METHOD.
(Chiefly applied in turning poetry into prose.)
By rejecting all poetical licenses, obsolete words, and
figurative language unsuitable for prose, and expressing the
same in plainer language.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION 51
Example. Changed.
At his command th' uprooted hills The hills that had been torn up
retired by the roots, at his command went
Each to his place ; they heard his back to the place from which they
voice, and went had been taken, for they heard his
Obsequious ; Heaven his wonted voice and obeyed it. The face of
face renew'd, heaven was restored to its former
And with fresh flow'rets hill and beauty, and the hills and valleys
valley smil'd. strewed with fresh verdure.
Change the following.

Oh, sons of earth ! attempt ye still to rise
By mountains pil'd on mountains to the skies?
Heav'n still with laughter the vain toil surveys,
And buries madmen in the heaps they raise.
The following is an example of the several changes made

on the same sentence by the application of the preceding
methods taken separately :
Sentence.
The farmer cultivates his grounds carefully, and therefore he is
rewarded with a plentiful crop.
Changed.
By 1st. The farmer who cultivates his grounds carefully is rewarded
with a plentiful crop.
29 2nd. The farmer cultivates his grounds so carefully that he is
rewarded with a plentiful crop.
29 3rd. The farmer, having cultivated his grounds carefully, is re-
warded with a plentiful crop.
29 4th. The grounds were cultivated carefully by the farmer, and
therefore a plentiful crop is his reward.
5th. The grounds of the farmer were cultivated with care, and
therefore he is rewarded with a crop of plenty.
29 6th. To be a careful cultivator of the ground leads to the posses-
sion of abundance of its fruits.
99 7th, The farmer is rewarded with a plentiful crop, because he care-
fully cultivates his grounds.
34
8th. The farmer does not neglect the cultivation of his grounds,
and therefore a scanty crop is not his reward.
29 9th. The husbandman, who tills his lands with anxiety and care,
may expect to be recompensed with an abundant harvest.
39 10th. The active and laborious tiller of the soil, who rises early and
spares no pains to improve the product of his lands by
manual industry, shall, at the season of ingathering, re-
ceive for his recompense a liberal portion of the produc-
tions ofthe earth.
D 2
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES ON VARIETY OF

EXPRESSION.
Changed chiefly by transposition. By different modes of expression.

Poverty shows by whom thou art They who have nothing to give,
loved. can afford relief to others by im-
Poverty shows who loves thee. parting what they feel.
A kind word, yea, even a kind
look, often affords comfort to the
Nothing can be well done by an afflicted.
angry person. Many persons unable to supply
An angry person can do nothing the wants of others, may assist
rightly. them much by sympathy.
Not only the mind, but also the It is a continual warfare to live
body, is discomposed by passion. perpetually in the bustle of the
Passion not only discomposes the world.
mind, but also the body. By dwelling constantly in the
midst of tumult, our lives become a
scene of contention.
To people that are sailing, those They who are always occupied
things that stand seem to move. in the busy scenes of life, are
People that are sailing think strangers to the blessings of peace.
those things to move that stand.
The advantages of this world,
A wolf let into the sheep-fold even when innocently gained, are
will devour the sheep. uncertain blessings.
Aslaughter willbe made amongst The good things of this life are
the sheep, if the wolf get into the not secure, even when obtained by
fold. innocent means.
If the fold be not carefully shut, On this side the grave nothing is
the wolf will devour the sheep. certain, not even the benefits de-
rived by honest toil.
Insecurity attends all the ad-
Music she passionately loves. vantages of this world, though
She is passionately fond of music. acquired in the most harmless
Music is her favourite subject. manner.
Sentences to be expressed differently.

1. He is rich whose income is more than his expenses ; and he is poor
whose expenses exceed his income.
2. He is happy whose circumstances suit his temper ; but he is more
excellent who can suit his temper to any circumstances.
3. Three days of uninterrupted company in a vehicle, will make you
better acquainted with another, than one hour's conversation with him
every day for three years.
53
PARAPHRASING.
Paraphrasing, or rendering the sentiments of an author

into other and more simple language of the pupil's own
construction, is a most useful exercise for all advanced
students.
Paraphrasing is of two kinds, namely : —
1. Paraphrasing prose, or turning it into a plainer or more simple
form.
2. Paraphrasing poetry, or rendering it into clear and simple prose.
In writing a paraphrase of a passage, the following parti-
culars are the principal things that require attention : -
(a) Vary the expression, but let your words accord with the rules of
syntax.
(b) Endeavour to give the author's exact meaning.
(c) Add any explanatory words which will make the sense plainer.
(d) The punctuation and orthography should be correct.
PROSE.
Scriptural Examples.
Original. Paraphrase.
1. Go to the ant, thou slug- 1. You that are indolent and sloth-
gard ; consider her ways and ful, consider the example of the ant ;
be wise. diligently observe her way of life, and
thence learn the wisdom of a provident
care, and most active industry.
2. The very hairs of your 2. The most minute circumstances
head are all numbered. that can concern your well-being, are
under the care and direction of Provi-
dence.
3. A reproof entereth more 3. A single check or friendly sharp
into a wise man, than an rebuke will penetrate deeper to the
hundred stripes into a fool. conviction and reformation of a reflect-
ing, thinking man, than a hundred
stripes in correcting one that is stupid
and obstinate.
4. Thy Father which seeth 4. Thy Father, though he cannot be
in secret, Himself shall reward seen by mortal eye, seeth and observeth
thee openly . all things ; and will reward thee, if not
in this world, yet certainly in the most
public and glorious manner in the world
to come.
5. He that is despised, and 5. He that seeks and gets an honest
hath a servant, is better than livelihood in the lowest and most ser-
he that honoureth himself and vile condition, without being burden-
lacketh bread. some, is preferable to him who boasts
of his honourable parentage, disdains
all toilsome labour, and consequently
starves or is supported by others.
6. Be ye therefore perfect, 6. Remember that it is your highest
even as your Father which is perfection and glory to resemble your
in Heaven is perfect. Heavenly Father as much as you pos-
siblycan in acts of goodness and mercy.
7. A soft answer turneth 7. Smooth and gentle language in
away wrath ; but grievous answers will divest and appease the
words stir up anger. heat of passion; but pinching orgalling
expressions create angry passions in
men,and increase them into raging fury.
8. Better is a dry morsel, 8. There is more pleasure in a piece
and quietness therewith, than of dry bread, accompanied with sweet
an house full of sacrifices with tranquillity and undisturbed quietness,
strife. than in a house full of victims or the
richest provisions embittered with cla-
mour and wrangling.
9. Think not that I am come 9. You are not to suppose that I am
to destroy the law and the pro- come to teach anything contrary to
phets : I am not come to de- what God hath been pleased to com-
stroy, but to fulfil. mand. The foundation of my religion
is in the law and the prophets, and the
intent of it is to explain and enforce, to
fulfil and complete, what hath been
already delivered by them in a less
perfect manner.
10. As vinegar to the teeth, 10. As vinegar is painful to the gums
and as smoke to the eyes, so is or teeth, and smoke offensive to the
the sluggard to them that send eyes, so vexatious is the sauntering of
him. the slothful where delays hazard, or
the quickest despatch is necessary .
11. My daughter is even 11. I left my daughter at the point
now dead ; but come and lay of death ; but, though past human
Thy hand upon her, and she help, Thy power, I know, can restore
shall live. her.
12. A righteous man re- 12. A good and humane man is at-
gardeth the life of his beast ; tentive to the well-being of his beast,
but the tender mercies of the and is considerate as to the support
wicked are cruel. that is provided, and the burdens
which are laid upon it ; as to the un-
godly and tyrannical, their utmost
indulgence or tenderest pity, whether
to man or beast, is the height of
cruelty.
PARAPHRASING 55
13. Ye cannot serve God and 13. If you be over-anxious to get
mammon. wealth you will be a slave to the
world, and cannot be a true servant of
God.
14. A wise son maketh a 14. The conduct of a sober, prudent
glad father ; but a foolish son lad gives his father most sincere plea-
is the heaviness of his mother. sure ; but that of a stupid , wicked one
gives his affectionate mother intoler-
able pain and anguish.
15. Take up thy cross and 15. Be ready to suffer hardships and
follow me. afflictions for the sake of religion.
16. He that spareth his rod 16. The parent who, from an exces-
hateth his son ; but he that sive fondness, refraineth to correct his
love thhim chasteneth him be- son's faults, in effect hateth him ; but
times. he that is truly concerned for his wel-
fare, and intent to form his mind to
virtue and to prevent evil habits, is
most vigilant and early in his disci
pline.
EXERCISES.
Write a paraphrase of thefollowing passages.

1. Stolen waters are sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant.
2. When thou givest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right
hand doeth.
3. He that is surety for a stranger shall smart for it ; but he that
hateth suretyship is sure.
4. Which of you, by taking thought, can add one cubit unto his
stature.
5. My son, if sinners entice thee consent thou not.
6. Blessed are they that mourn ; for they shall be comforted.
7. Give instruction to a wise man and he will yet be wiser ; teach a
just man and he will increase in learning.
8. Excellent speech becometh not a fool : much less do lying lips a
prince.
9. The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of
righteousness.
10. Pleasant words are as an honey comb, sweet to the soul, and
health to the bones.
11. The lot causeth contentions to cease, and parteth between the
mighty.
PARENTS' CARE FOR THEIR CHILDREN.

Before leaving the parental bosom, if hungry, you could not feed
yourselves ; if cold, you could not put on clothes. Parents judge by
the voice, and examine the features of their children ; their smiles
create joy; their weeping grief. On beginning to walk, they leave not
their steps ; when sick, to sleep or eat are in vain ; thus nourishing and
teaching them.
A paraphrase of the same.

In infancy, when you hung in the tender embrace of your parents,
were you hungry? you yourselves knew not to eat food ; were you cold?
you yourselves knew not to put on clothes. Your father and mother
observed the features of your face, and listened to the sound of your
voice. Did you smile? they were delighted. Did you weep? they
were unhappy. Did you begin to walk? they followed you step by
step. If you had the least degree of illness, then their sorrow was in-
expressible ; sleep had fled from their eyes, and even their food had lost
its relish. They waited with anxiety till you recovered ; then their
minds were composed. Their eyes were intent upon you, watching
your growth from year to year. You have no conception of how many
anxious toils they bore, and how many painful apprehensions they en-
dured, in nourishing and in educating you.
DESIGN AND NECESSITY OF THE CIVIL LAW.

The law of the land was first established in order to exterminate the
wicked and awe the guilty, and likewise to protect the honest and just.
It can never be supposed that it was to open a way for the villanous to
involve the innocent in difficulty. Lawsuits are not desirable; but when
a severe injury has been received, both reason and sense require that it
should not be passed over ; it should be reported to the magistrate,
asking him to give judgment. This gives rise to legal indictments.
4 paraphrase ofthe same.

The national law was originally formed with the view of punishing
bad men, that those who are void of conscience and delight in crime
might be kept in awe; and also to secure protection to the innocent and
upright. How could it be imagined that the public offices where law is
administered, were established in order that the vile and deceitful should
go there to injure good men ! Lawsuits are the most unprofitable of all
things in which men can engage; yet where extreme wrong is suffered,
right indispensably requires that it should not be allowed to pass with
impunity; but be laid before the magistrate, that he may give judgment
and punish the offender. Hence there are accusations and defences,
and these at first arose from necessity.
PARAPIIRASING 57
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE.
ADDRESS OF THE EMPEROR OF CHINA TO HIS PEOPLE.
1. We have heard that food and raiment constitute the essential sup-
ports of a people. Food and raiment proceed from agriculture. If,
therefore, a man plough not, he will very likely suffer hunger ; if a
woman weave not, she may probably feel the cold.
2. Of old time the emperors themselves ploughed, and their empresses
cultivated the mulberry-tree. Though supremely honoured, they dis-
dained not to labour, in order that by their example they might excite
the millions of the people to lay due stress on the radical principles of
political economy.
3. Now food and raiment are produced by the earth, matured by the
seasons, and collected by human strength. To be deficient in labour,
in what regards the fundamental employment, is the same as to sit down
waiting for wretchedness. Therefore be diligent ; then the farmer will
have superabundance of grain, and the housewife of cloth ; but if negli-
gent, you will neither have enough to serve your parents above you, nor
to nourish your families below you.
4. Do not love idleness and hate labour; do not be diligent first and
slothful afterwards ; do not, because of a deficient season, reject your
fields and plantations.
Aparaphrase of the same.

1. In the support of a people, the most essential articles are food and
clothing, and both of these have their source and origin in agriculture.
If you plant not the fields, whence will you obtain food ? If you culti-
vate not the thread for the weaver, whence will you obtain clothing?
2. The emperors of ancient times, viewing agriculture as of extreme
importance, went annually in the spring in person to plough in the
fields ; and their empresses to feed the silk worm. Now, consider, if
these personages -the most honourable, rich, and noble - disdained not
to engage in such labour, with the view of setting an example to excite
the empire to activity, would it not be strange to suppose that you, the
people, should not exert yourselves?
3. Consider that food and clothing come from the ground ; therefore
you must plant in spring and summer, and gather in the harvest. It
requires much toil to obtain from the earth the necessities of life. In-
fluenced by these considerations, the diligent have their lands well culti-
vated ; consequently their property increases more and more, -their
corn is stored up in their barns ; their cloth laid up web upon web ;
they consume neither the whole of the former, nor the entire ofthe
latter. But the negligent and improvident have neither sufficient to
nourish their aged parents, nor to feed their own wives and children.
4. Beware of sloth. Maintain to the end that diligence which you
manifest at the beginning. Do not, because you may happen for once
to have a scanty crop, lightly and foolishly give up your fields and
colonies.
D5
HEREDITARY RIGHT.
The doctrine of hereditary right does by no means imply an indefea-
sible right to the throne. No man will, I think, assert this that has con-
sidered our laws, constitutions, and history without prejudice, and with
any degree of attention. It is unquestionably in the breast of the
supreme legislative authority of the kingdom, the king and both houses
of parliament, to defeat this hereditary right ; and by particulars,
entails, limitations, and provisions, to exclude the immediate heir, and
vest the inheritance in any one else. This is strictly consonant to our
laws and constitutions, as may be gathered from the expression so fre-
quently used in our statute book of the king's majesty, his heirs, and
successors,' in which we may observe, that, as the word ' heirs ' neces-
sarily implies an inheritance or hereditary right generally subsisting in
the royal person, so the word ' successors,' distinctly taken, must imply
that this inheritance may sometimes be broken through, or that there
may be a successor without being the heir of the king. -Blackstone's
Commentaries.
A paraphrase of the same.

Though the heir of the reigning monarch claims the throne by right of
inheritance, yet no person who has carefully and impartially considered
the history of our constitution and statutes, will affirm that this right or
claim is so irrevocably fixed as never to be nullified or broken through.
Undoubtedly the great council of the nation in full parliament assembled
has power to cancel this claim and set aside the immediate heir, and by
special statutes and measures to transfer the possession to some other
person. And this is in perfect harmony with the nature and wording
of our laws and statute book, in which we find frequent mention of
the king his heirs and successors.' From which it may be fairly
inferred, that as the expression his heirs ' means those who inherit by
right of descent from the king, so the expression his successors,' as dis-
tinguished from the former, must of necessity imply, that persons may be
in possession of the throne who do not hold it by right of inheritance
from the deceased monarch.
Write a paraphrase of thefollowing passages.

1. Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry easy ; and he that
riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at
night ; while laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him.
-Franklin.
2. There is a story related of a very poor woman, who had an only
child, and an aged mother whose teeth were decayed so that she could
eat nothing, but sucked the breasts of her daughter along with the
child. This dutiful daughter, not being able to hire a nurse, and not
having milk sufficient to nourish both, was reduced to the necessity of
PARAPHRASING 59
parting with her mother or child. She resolved on the latter ; and,
while digging a grave, in which to bury her child alive, she found under
the ground a certain quantity of gold, which heaven had deposited
there as a reward for her filial piety. Thus she was enabled to provide
both for her mother and child.
3. By the absolute rights of individuals ' we mean those which are
so in their primary and strictest sense ; such as would belong to their
persons merely in a state of nature ; and which every man is entitled
to enjoy, whether out of society orin it. But with regard to the absolute
' duties ' which man is bound to perform, considered as a mere in-
dividual, it is not to be expected that any human municipal law should
at all explain or enforce them. For the end and intent of such laws
being only to regulate the behaviour of mankind, as they are members
of society, and stand in various relations to each other, they have
consequently no concern with any other but social or relative duties.--
Blackstone.
4. Let a man therefore be ever so abandoned in his principles, or
vicious in his practices, provided he keeps his wickedness to himself,
and does not offend against the rules of public decency, he is out of
the reach of human laws.. But if he makes his vices public, though
they be such as principally affect himself, as drunkenness or the like,
then they become, by the bad example they set, of pernicious effects to
society ; and, therefore, it is then the business of human laws to correct
them. Here the circumstances of publication is what alters the nature of
the case. Public sobriety is a relative duty, and therefore enjoined by
our laws ; private sobriety is an absolute duty, which, whether it be per-
formed or not, human tribunals never know; and therefore they can
never enforce it by any civil sanction. But with respect to rights, the
case is different. Human laws define and enforce as well those rights
which belong to a man considered as an individual as those which belong
to him considered as related to others. -Blackstone.
5. In civilised society, external advantages make us more respected .
A man with a good coat upon his back meets with a better reception
than he who has a bad one. You may analyse this, and say, what is
there in it ? But that will avail you nothing, for it is a part of a general
system. Pound St. Paul's church into atoms, and consider any single
atom ; it is, to be sure, good for nothing : but put all these atoms to-
gether, and you have St. Paul's Church. So it is with human felicity,
which is made up of many ingredients, cach of which may be shown to
be very insignificant. - Johnson.
POETRY.
Short pieces ofpoetry rendered into simple prose.
EXAMPLE 1.
Hope springs eternal in the human breast,
Man never is, but always to be blest.
The same in prose.

Hope, in the breast of man, is a source of perpetual delight : he
never indeed feels himself blessed, but always enjoys the expectation
of it.
EXAMPLE 2.
Know thou thyself, presume not God to scan,
The proper study of mankind is man.
The same in prose.

The most suitable subject for human consideration is man; to know
himself his highest wisdom. It is folly and presumption to look too
minutely into the nature of God, and the reason of his works.
EXAMPLE 3.
Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine?
Earth for whose use ? Pride answers, 6 'Tis mine.'
The same in prose.

If we ask for what purpose the heavenly bodies shed their influence ;
or for whose use the earth and all things in it were formed ; - the
pride of man exclaims ' for me.'
Render the following into simple prose.

Respecting man whatever wrong we call,
May, must be right, as relative to all.
False eloquence, like the prismatic glass,
Its gaudy colours spread on every place.
Were I but once from bondage free,
I'd never sell my liberty.
PARAPHRASING 61
EXAMPLE 4.
Oh, blind to truth, and God's whole scheme below!
Who fancy bliss to vice, to virtue woe.
The same in prose.
There is no blindness so deplorable, or so opposed to the whole of
God's plan concerning his creatures, as that which supposes happiness
to proceed from vice. and misery to be the companion of virtue.
EXAMPLE 5.
Honour and shame from no condition rise ;
Act well your part, there all the honour lies
The same in prose.

Praise and disgrace arise out of no condition of human life. Nor
is there any true honour but what arises from upright and virtuous
conduct.
EXAMPLE 6.
Know then this truth (enough for man to know)
Virtue alone is happiness below.
The same in prose.

Let this truth then be known, as the sum of all that is essential
for man to know; that virtue alone is the foundation of human hap-
piness.
EXAMPLE 7.
What nothing earthly gives or can destroy;
The soul's calm sunshine, and the heart-felt joy
Is virtue's prize.
The same in prose

The reward of virtue is so great, and so well secured, that nothing
on earth can give it nor take it away. It is the cheering lamp of the
soul, and the source of joy to the heart.
Render the following into prose.

The world's a wood, in which all lose their way,
Though by a different path each goes astray.
He that by the plough would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive.
Glories like glow-worms, afar off shine bright,
But look'd too near, have neither heat nor light.
62
EXAMPLE 8.
Virtuous and vicious ev'ry man must be,
Few in the extreme, but all in the degree.
The rogue and fool, by fits, are fair and wise
And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise.
The same in prose.
Every person is to some extent both virtuous and vicious; but no
man is so entirely either as to have in his character no traces of the
other. The rogue sometimes acts honestly, and the fool wisely ; and
the best men sometimes fall into practices which they at other times con-
demn.
EXERCISE FOR PUPILS.
Continuation of the above.

"Tis but by parts we follow good or ill,
For, vice or virtue, self directs it still;
Each individual seeks a sev'ral goal ;
But Heav'n's great view is one, and that the whole.
EXAMPLE 9.
Music the fiercest grief can charm
And fate's severest rage disarm;
Music can soften pain to ease
And make despair and madness cease.
Our joys below it can improve,
And antedate the bliss above.
The same in prose.

Music can soothe the bitterest pangs of grief, and deprive the most
adverse fortune of its destructive power. Its melody causes pain to be
forgotten, renews hope, and even madness itself is appeased by its
charms. By music the pleasures of life are increased, and the soul
enjoys a foretaste of future happiness.
EXERCISE.

Would you both please and be instructed too,
Watch well the rage of shining to subdue;
Hear every man upon his theme,
And ever be more knowing than you seem.
The lowest genius will afford some light,
Or give a hint that had escaped your sight.
PARAPHRASING 63
EXAMPLE 10.
Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen;
But seen too oft, familiar with her face
We first endure, then pity, then embrace.
The same in prose.
Vice is so deformed a being, that it requires only to be seen to be
abhorred ; yet often viewed it becomes familiar. We first get to bear
with it, we next pity, and at length give it a hearty reception.
EXERCISE.
The surest road to health, say what they will,
Is never to suppose we shall be ill.
Most of those evils we poor mortals know,
From doctors and imagination flow.
EXAMPLE 11.
Two principles in human nature reign ;
Self-love to urge ; and reason to restrain ;
Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call ;
Each works its end, to move or govern all :
And to their proper operation still
Ascribe all good ; to their improper, ill.
The same in prose.
Two great principles rule in the nature of man; namely, self-love to
press us on to action, and reason to keep us within due bounds ; we do
not call self-love an evil, nor reason a good ; each works to its proper
purpose, to impel, or to check all our actions : to their proper agency,
we attribute all that is good, and to their improper, all that is evil.
EXERCISE.
Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul;
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole ;
Man, but for that, could to no action tend,
And but for this, were active to no end,
Fix'd like a plant to his peculiar spot,
To draw nutrition, propagate, and rot ;
Or meteor-like flame lawless through the void,
¡Destroying others, by himself destroyed.
EXAMPLE 12.
Who noble ends by noble means obtains,
Or failing, smiles in exile or in chains ;
Like good Aurelius, let him reign, or bleed
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.
The same in prose.

That man is truly great who accomplishes noble purposes by generous
means; or failing in the attempt, is cheerful under the iron hand of
persecution ; whether he obtains authority and dominion like Aurelius,
or dies a violent death like Socrates.
EXERCISE.
Of fortune's gifts, if each alike possest,
And each were equal, must not all contest?
If then to all men, happiness was meant,
God in eternals could not place content.
EXAMPLE 13.
Heav'n from all creatures hides the book of fate,
All but the page prescrib'd, their present state,
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know,
Or who could suffer being here below?
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day,
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play?
Pleas'd to the last he crops the flow'ry food,
And licks the hands just raised to shed its blood.
Oh blindness to the future kindly giv❜n,
That each may fill the circle marked by Heav'n.
The same in prose.

It is the will ofthe Almighty to conceal from his creatures all knowledge
of their future destiny ; except those things relating to their present
condition. He hides from the lower animals the knowledge he bestows
on man, and from man the knowledge of superior beings ; if it were
not so, each would be dissatisfied with the station assigned it. Would
the innocent lamb, who to-day is to die to satisfy man's wants ; would
he, I ask, if he possessed the reason of man, skip and play, as the pre-
Tude to his slaughter ? Would he to the last, crop the flowery mead,
and lick the hand lifted up to shed his blood ? Ignorance of future
events is kindly designed to keep all creatures within their allotted
station.
PARAPHRASING 65
EXAMPLE 14.
There stood a hill not far, whose grisly top
Belch'd fire and rolling smoke ; the rest entire
Shone with a glossy scurf, undoubted sign
That in his womb was hid metallic ore,
The work of sulphur. Thither, wing'd with speed,
A numerous brigade hastened as when bands
Of pioneers, with spade and pickaxe armed,
Forerun the royal camp, to trench a field
Or cast a rampart. Mammon led them on, -
Mammon, the least erected spirit that fell
From heaven ; for even in heaven his looks and thoughts
Were always downwards bent, admiring more
The riches of heaven's pavement, trodden gold,
Than ought divine or holy else.
The same in prose.

At a small distance was a mountain, from the summit of which fire
and smoke rolled down in large torrents ; the other parts of it were
firm, and the surface shone with a bright gloss, a sure sign that in it
was contained mineral ore, ripened by sulphur. To this hill a legion
of the evil spirits repaired in haste ; just like bands of pioneers marching
before a royal camp, armed with implements for digging trenches or
raising ramparts. Their leader, Mammon, the vilest and most sordid
spirit that fell from heaven ; for even there his looks and thoughts were
ever tending downwards, admiring more the golden pavement of heaven
than anything spiritual or belonging to God.
Render the following into simple prose.
(a) In little trades, more cheats and lying

Are used in selling than in buying ;
But in the great, unjuster dealing
Is us'd in buying than in selling.
(b) To see sad sights moves more, than hear them told ;
For then the eye interprets to the ear
The heavy motion, that it doth behold ;
When every part a part of woe doth bear,
'Tis but a part of sorrow that we hear.
Deep sounds make lesser noise than shallow fords ;
And sorrow ebbs being blown with wind of words.
The following directions may be adopted with advantage.

in rendering passages of poetry into prose :
First. Read the passage carefully through, and notice the several
ideas or propositions which it contains.
Secondly. Express those ideas successively in detached sentences, and
in plain language suitable for prose.
Thirdly. Connect these detached sentences into one continued form,
omitting any unnecessary words.
EXAMPLE 15.
Order is heaven's first law ; and this confest,
Some are and must be greater than the rest,
More rich, more wise ; but who infers from hence
That such are happier, shocks all common sense.
In this passage the ideas are : -
1st. It asserts what the leading law of heaven is.
2d. This being admitted, its consequences are stated.
3rd. A wrong inference drawn from this is checked.
These ideas may be expressed in detached sentences
thus : -
1. The great ruling principle of heaven is order.
2. Order being admitted, it will follow that some are, and must, in the
nature of things, be greater, wiser, and richer than others.
3. He who infers from this circumstance that such are therefore
happier, is very much mistaken.
The same in a connectedform.

The great ruling principle of heaven is order ; and if this be admitted,
it will follow that some are, and must in the nature of things be, greater,
wiser, and richer than others ; but he who infers from this circumstance
that such are therefore happier is very much mistaken.
EXERCISE FOR PUPILS.

Heav'n to mankind impartial we confess,
If all are equal in their happiness ;
But mutual wants this happiness increase,
All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace.
Condition, circumstance, is not the thing ;
Bliss is the same in subject as in king ;
In who obtains defence, or who defend,
In him who is, or him who finds a friend.
PARAPHRASING 67
EXAMPLE 16.
Ask of the learn'd the way, the learn'd are blind,
This bids to serve, and that to shun mankind ;
Some place the bliss in action, some in ease,
Those call it pleasure and contentment these ;
Some sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain ;
Some swell'd to gods, confess e'en virtue vain ;
Or indolent to each extreme they fall,
To trust in every thing, or doubt of all ;
Who thus define it, say they more or less
Than this that happiness is happiness ?
Ideas contained in this passage ·:·--
1. A question is supposed to be asked -of whom their state
described.
2. Their various answers to the question.
3. Their opinions on the subject, and the names they call it.
4. Three classes of persons, and their experience on the subject.
5. The conclusion drawn from their various definitions of it.
These ideas expressed in detached sentences :
1. If we ask the learned which is the way to happiness, we shall find
them blind and bewildered.
2. Some of the learned will tell us that, to obtain happiness, we must
maintain a constant intercourse with mankind ; others, that we must
avoid them.
3. Some consider that happiness consists in action, others in ease.
The former call it pleasure, the latter contentment.
4. Some, degrading themselves to the condition of brutes, find all their
pursuits of pleasure sources of misery. Some, fancying themselves to
be more than men, contend that even virtue is vain. Some, to save
themselves the trouble of thinking, go to the extremes of doubting or
believing all things.
5. Those who define happiness in this way do but show6 in what their
own peculiar happiness is placed, and only tell us that happiness is
happiness.'
The same in a connected and modified form.

If we ask the learned which is the way to happiness, we shall find
them blind and bewildered. Some of them will tell us that, to obtain it,
we must maintain a constant intercourse with mankind ; others, that we
must avoid them. Some consider that happiness consists in action,
others in ease ; the former call it pleasure, the latter contentment. Some,
degrading themselves to the condition of brutes, find all their pursuits of
pleasure sources of misery. Some, fancying themselves to be more than
men, contend that even virtue is vain ; while others, to save themselves
the trouble of thinking, go to the extremes either of doubting or believ-
ing all things. Those who define happiness in this way do but show
in what their own peculiar happiness is placed, and only tell us that
happiness is happiness.'
EXAMPLE 17.
O happiness ! our being's end and aim!

Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whate'er thy name :
That something still, which prompts th' eternal sigh,
For which we bear to live, nor fear to die;
Which still so near us, just beyond us lies,
O'erlook'd, seen double, by the fool and wise.
Plant of celestial seed ! if dropt below,
Say, in what mortal soil thou deign'st to grow?
Fair opening to some court's propitious shrine,
Or deep with diamonds in the flaming mine,
Turn'd with the wreaths Parnassian laurels yield,
Or reap'd in iron harvests of the field?
Where grows where grows it not? If vain our toil,
We ought to blame the culture not the soil :
Fix'd to no spot is happiness sincere ;
'Tis nowhere to be found, or ev'rywhere.
The same rendered into prose.
O happiness ! that art the aim of all we do, and the end of our
existence! whatever thy name be, whether good, or pleasure, or ease,
or contentment ! thou art still the object for which we continually
sigh. It is for thee we bear the evils of our existence ; for thee
we dare give up our lives. Thou appearest ever near us, yet still
thou dwellest beyond us. Alike by the wise man and the fool, thou
art seen through a false medium, or viewed with an indulgent eye.
Offspring of heaven ! if dropt upon this earth, say, where dost thou
vouchsafe to grow? Art thou found expanding in the splendour of
courts? Dost thou grow up with diamonds in the shining mine? Art
thou wrapped up in leaves of Parnassian laurels ? or gathered in
toilsome harvests of the field? Where dost thou grow? Rather, where
dost thou not grow ? If our toils after thee be vain, we ought to blame
not our nature but our bad management of it. The soil is good but
the culture is bad. True happiness is fixed in no particular spot;
according as we conduct ourselves, it is to be found everywhere or no-
where.
NOTE.
In rendering poetry into prose, pupils are not to suppose that all the words in
the poetry must of necessity be disused and all new words used instead. This would
in many cases spoil the effect of the passage, as there are many words in the English
language which have no other strictly synonymous words with them; and would also
be very tedious and wearisome for the pupil. The great point to be attended to, is to
endeavour to express the author's true meaning in plain language, using the words
best adapted to convey the sense, whether some of them be in the poetry or not.
Compositions put together with much pain and difficulty are seldom read with plea-
sure.
PARAPHRASING 69
EXAMPLE 18.
Of all the mute creation, bees alone

A public weal and common int'rest know
Imbody'd ; and subsist by certain laws.
Mindful of winter, they in summer toil;
And for their country's good preserve their store.
Some, by joint compact, range the fields for food
Industrious ; others in their tents at home
Narcissus' clammy tears and gum from trees
Lay, as the first foundation of their combs,
Then' into arches build the viscid wax ;
Others draw forth their colonies adult,
The nation's hope ; some work the purest sweets,
And with the liquid nectar stretch their cells :
Some (such their post allotted) at the gates
Stand sentry, and alternate watch the rain
And clouds, observing ; or unlade their friends
Returning ; or in troops beat off the drones,
A lazy cattle.
The same in prose.

Bees are the only insects which make the young an object of public
care, which share the buildings of a city in common, and which pass
their lives under inviolable laws; and they alone have a country of
their own, and a fixed abode. Mindful of the coming winter, they
labour hard in summer, and lay up their acquisitions in a common
stock. Some are, by general consent and fixed agreement, employed
in the fields in search of food ; some within the enclosures of their own
hives, lay the clammy gum from barks of trees and the sap of the
daffodil, as a foundation for their combs, then build into arches the
tenacious wax : others wait upon the young, the hope of the nation,
and nourish them up to maturity; others condense the purest honey
and distend the cells with liquid nectar. Some there are to whose lot
has fallen the watching of the gates, and these by turns, observe the rain
and the state of the atmosphere ; or receive the loads of those who
return, or, forming a band, drive from the hive that sluggish race, the
drones.
Exercise to be rendered into prose.

O grant me, heav'n, a middle state,
Neither too humble nor too great;
More than enough for nature's ends,
With something left to treat my friends.
EXAMPLE 19.
Say first, for heaven hides nothing from thy view,

Nor the deep tract of hell ; say first, what cause
Moved our grand parents, in that happy state,
Favour'd of heaven so highly, to fall off
From their Creator, and transgress his will,
For one restraint, lords of the world besides?
Who first seduced them to that foul revolt?
Th' infernal serpent ; he it was, whose guile,
Stirr'd up with envy and revenge, deceived
The mother of mankind, what time his pride
Had cast him out from heaven with all his host
Of rebel angels ; by whose aid, aspiring
To set himself in glory above his peers,
He trusted to have equalled the Most High,
If he oppos'd ; and , with ambitious aim
Against the throne and monarchy of God,
Rais'd impious war in heaven, and battle proud,
With vain attempt. Him the Almighty Power
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky,
With hideous ruin and combustion, down
To bottomless perdition; there to dwell
In adamantine chains and penal fire,
Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms.
The same in prose.
Neither the highest heaven nor the lowest hell are hid from thee ;
teach me, therefore, to relate what was the cause that persuaded our
first parents, when placed in so happy a condition, and favoured of
heaven in such an eminent degree, to disobey their Maker and trans-
gress His command, when He had laid only one easy restraint upon
them, and had given them power over the whole vegetable and animal
world besides ; and who it was that first prompted them to that wicked
rebellion. It was Satan, the chief of the fallen angels, concealed in
the form of a serpent, full of revenge and envy, that deceived Eve, the
first mother of mankind. His pride had occasioned him to be cast out
of heaven before this, with all the rest of the rebellious angels by whose
assistance he hoped to reinstate himself in glory, and again imagined
that he might make himself equal to the Almighty ; and with this am-
bitious aim made war in heaven, and sought against his government,
absolute power and dominion. But the attempt was vain, for the power
of the Almighty cast him down from heaven, with most dreadful wrath
and burning, down to the bottomless pit, and everlasting destruction,
where he was doomed to live in chains and fire; who had the presump-
tion to defy, and set himself against the Almighty Creator of all things.
PARAPHRASING 71
Passages to be rendered into simple prose.
( 1.) Who can hold a fire in his hand,

By thinking on the frosty Caucasus f
Or cloy the hungry edge of appetite,
By bare imagination of a feast?
Or wallow naked in December snow,
By thinking on fantastic summer's heat?
Oh no, the apprehension of the good,
Gives but the greater feeling to the worse. - Shakspeare.
(2. ) Riches, like insects, while concealed they lie,

Wait but for wings, and in their season fly;
To whom can riches give repute and trust,
Content or pleasure, but the good and just ?
Judges and senates have been bought for gold,
Esteem and love were never to be sold.-Pope.
(3.) Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he

Who first broke peace in heaven, and faith, till then,
Unbroken: and in proud, rebellious arms,
Drew after him the third part of heaven's sons
Conjur'd against the Highest ; for which both thou
And they, outcast from God, are here condemn'd
To waste eternal days in woe and pain ?-Milton.
(4.) Have angels sinn'd? and shall not man beware?

How shall a son of earth decline the snare ?
Not folded arms, and slackness of the mind
Can promise from the safety of mankind.
None are supremely good ; through care and pain,
And various arts the steep ascent we gain;
This is the scene of combat, not of rest;
Man's is laborious happiness at best ;
On this side death his dangers never cease ;
His joys are joys of conquest, not of peace.- Young.
(5.) Three poets, in three distant ages born,

Greece, Italy, and England, did adorn.
The first, in loftiness of thought surpassed ,
The next, in majesty ; in both the last.
The force of nature could not further go;
To make a third, she join'd the former two. -Dryden.
(6. ) Would you taste the tranquil scene ?

Be sure your bosoms be serene:
Devoid of hate, devoid of strife,
Devoid of all that poisons life ;
And much it 'vails you, in their place
To graft the love of human race. - Shenstone.
(7.) Happy the mortal man, who now at last

Has thro' this doleful vale of misery past ;
Who to his destin'd stage has carried on
The tedious load, and laid his burden down ;
Whom the cut brass, or wounded marble shows
Victor o'er life and all her train of woes!
He happier yet, who privileg'd by fate
To shorten labour, and a lighter weight,
Received but yesterday the gift of breath,
Order'd to-morrow to return to death. -Prior.
(8. ) Thus says the prophet of the Turk,

Good Mussulman, abstain from pork ;
There is a part in every swine
No friend nor follower of mine
May taste, whate'er his inclination,
On pain of excommunication.
Such Mahomet's mysterious charge,
And thus he left the point at large.
Had he the sinful part express'd,
They might with safety eat the rest;
But for one piece they thought it hard
From the whole hog to be debarr'd,
And set their wit at work to find
What joint the prophet had in mind.— Cowper.
(9.) Good sense and learning may esteem obtain ;

Humour and wit a laugh, if rightly ta'en :
Fair virtue admiration may impart ;
But 'tis good nature only wins the heart :
It moulds the body to an easy grace,
And brightens every feature of the face :
It smoothes th' unpolish'd tongue with eloquence,
And adds persuasion to the finest sense. Stillingfleet.
END OF PARAPHRASING.
123
73
PARSING.
Parsing consists in showing to what class or part of

speech each word belongs, with its relations in a sentence.
Note 1.- As a small work on English Parsing ' written by the author is already in
the possession of several thousands of readers, and can be obtained through any book-
seller from Longman & Co., London, easy examples suited for young beginners are
omitted in the present work.
Note 2. Before attempting long or difficult passages, pupils are requested to make
themselves acquainted with the remarks upon the following short sentences, which will
greatly assist them afterwards.
Note 3. The notes given on classification and syntax should also be well studied, as
a knowledge of them will render parsing a very easy exercise . See Preface.
Sentences. Remarks.
(a) Ladies,takeyourseats. In sentence (a), ladies is in the nominative
case of address ; the verb take is in the impera-
tive mood, having its nominative ye or you
understood. Thus : Ladies, take ye your seats.'
Verbs in the imperative mood generally agree
with the pronoun thou or ye understood. It is
also well to remember that when a noun and
verb coming together are separated by a comma,
the noun is not nominative to the verb.
(b) The ladies take their In sentence (b), the noun ladies is nominative
seats. case to the verb take. Here we are talking of
the ladies, and relating what they do ; but in
(a) we were addressing them, and giving a
command. Observe also that ladies and take
are not separated by a comma, as in the former
sentence.
(c) I saw the girl take the In sentences like (c) pupils should be careful
book. not to fall into the error of making the noun
girl nominative to take. Girl is in the objective
case governed by the vero saw, and the verb
take following it is in the infinitive mood and
requires no nominative. This will be evident
by substituting a pronoun in the place of the
noun girl; thus, ' I saw her take the book,' not
'I saw she take the book.' Whenever you are
in doubt of the case of a noun substitute a pro-
noun, and it will assist you in determining.
Besides, if girl was in the nominative case, the
following verb should be takes, not take, ac-
cording to the first rule of concord.
E
Sentences. Remarks.
(d) I heard that the girl In sentence (d) girl is nominative to took ;
took the book.
heard is a transitive verb, having for its object
the following clause. Whenever a clause be-
ginning with the conjunction that, expressed or
understood, immediately follows a transitive
verb, the clause is a substantive sentence,
governed by the transitive verb before it. Par-
ticularly bear in mind that in substantive sen-
tences the conjunction that is not always
expressed, as ' I heard the war is ended ; ' but
it can be easily supplied -thus, ' I heard that
the war is ended.' Observe also that in sen-
tences like (c) you cannot supply the conjunc-
tion that.
(e) It is an error. Since the verb ' to be ' takes the same case
(f) I know it to be an after it as before it, the noun error in sentence
error.
(g) It could not be an (e) is nominative after is, agreeing in case with
error. the nominative it.
In sentence (f) error is in the objective case
after ' be,' agreeing in case with the object it.
In sentence (g) error is nominative after be,
agreeing in case with the nominative it. It is
well to remember that no part of the verb ' to
be ' takes the objective case after it except the
infinitive mood, and even that does not when
there is no object before it, as in the sentence (g).
Therefore, never make a noun or pronoun fol-
lowing am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, in the
objective case.
(h) The man loved his The word ' loved ' is different parts of speech
neighbours, and died
happy. in (h) and (i), and consequently is parsed dif-
(i) The man loved by ferently. In - sentence (h) loved is a transitive
his neighbours died
happy. verb, governing neighbours, and agreeing with
(j) The man who loved its nominative man. In sentence (i) loved has
his neighbours died neither nominative case, nor objective case ; it
happy.
is simply a past participle relating to man. In
(i) man is nominative to the verb died ; in (h)
the nominative to died is he understood. In
sentence (j) loved is a verb agreeing with its
nominative who, and man is nominative to the
verb died. *
NOTE.
* For easy and correct methods for distinguishing the passive participle from the past
tense ofthe same form, see notes on classification.— Grammar of English Grammars.
PARSING 75
Sentences. Remarks. •
(k) I bought a reading In sentence (k) the word reading is a par-
book.
(1) I am reading a book. ticipial adjective qualifying book. In (1) reading
(m) I spend much time in is a participle relating to I, and governing book.
reading. In (m) reading is a participial noun, governed by
(n) I spend no time in
reading novels.* the preposition in. In sentence (n) reading is a
participle governing novels. The preposition in
in the latter sentence governs the whole partici-
pial phrase.
(0) The Duke of Cum- In sentence (o) the words ' Duke of Cumber-
berland's house was land's ' must be taken together, and parsed as
newly painted.
one compound name in the possessive case,
governed by house; the noun house is nomina-
tive to the verb was. The words cannot be
explained separately . †
(p) Pilate, being governor In sentence (p) Pilate is nominative case to
of Judea, ordered
him to be brought the verb ' ordered.' In (q) Pilate is nominative
forth. case absolute. In both (p) and (q) governor is
(9) Pilate, being governor
ofJudea, the sceptre nominative after the participle being,' agreeing
had departed from in case with Pilate. In (p) the participle
Judah.
'brought' relates to the pronoun him.' In (q)
the participle ' departed ' relates to the noun
sceptre.
(r) Theynamed himPeter. In sentence (r) the noun Peter is in the ob-
(s) He was named Peter. jective case, in apposition with the pronoun him.
In sentence (s) the noun Peter is in the nomina-
tive case, agreeing with he.
(t) The winter's nights In sentence (t) winter's is a noun in the pos-
are cold.
(u) The winter blasts are sessive case, governed by nights. In sentence (u)
cold. winter is a noun used adjectively, qualifying
'blasts.'
NOTES.
* I am aware that many grammarians in parsing sentence (n) would call reading a
participial or gerundial noun in the objective case, governed by the preposition in; but
this method is attended with many inaccuracies. For those who call reading a noun,
the objective case of the preposition in, must make novels in the objective case also,
governed by reading; that is, they must make one noun in the objective case govern
another noun in the objective case, which is contrary to the rules of grammar ; or they
must make the same word be two different parts of speech in the same sentence, and in
the same position, which is absurd. That is, they must make reading a noun in its re-
lation to the preposition in, and a participle in its relation to the noun novel. The
simplest and most correct method of parsing sentences like (n) is to make the preposi-
tion govern the following phrase, and the participle govern its immediate object.
Observe that the meaning of sentence (n) is not that I spend no time in reading,' but
in ' reading novels ; therefore, the whole phrase ' reading novels ' is the object of in.
Observe
after it. also, that when a participle is used as a noun it cannot govern an object
+ Duke is nominative to no verb in the sentence, nor is it governed by any other word.
The preposition ofdoes not govern the noun Cumberland's, for that is in the possessive
case governed by house; nor does it govern house, for that is nominative to the verb
was. Nor does ofgovern the whole phrase Cumberland's house,' for then the meaning
would be that he wasthe Duke of Cumberland's house,' which is contrary to the sense.
Besides, though the house belongs to the duke, yet Cumberland ' has the sign of the
possessive case. The simple and only correct method of parsing such expressions isto
consider them as one compoundnoun in the possessive case. The following are similar
instances of construction : - The Duke of Wellington's statue,' The Queen of Eng-
• land's palace,' ' Of the children of Israel's half,' &c.
E2
Sentences. Remarks.
(v) He was employed as In sentence (v ) teacher is nominative case, in
teacher
school. to a village apposition with ' he.'
(w) He offered himself as In sentence (w) teacher is in the objective case,
teacher to a village in apposition with ' himself.
school.
(x) He came home last In sentence (a) the nouns home and June are
June. in the objective case, governed by prepositions
understood. Bear in mind that the prepositions
in, on, to, for, from, are often understood before
nouns of time and place.
They burst out a The little word a is generally an article ; but

laughing. in sentences like (y) it is used as a preposition,
(y) She lies a bed all and may be parsed as such. In, on, at, to, are
day. the prepositions for which it is sometimes used.
(z) Here is none but me. In sentences like (z ) ' but ' is a preposition,
(A) You 6 me.' In (A) it is a conjunction con-
not. went, but I did governing
necting the two clauses of the sentence. In
(B) He went but twice.
sentence (B) but is an adverb, modifying twice.
(c) Answer me without In sentence (c) but and if are nouns, objects of
an ' or a ' but.' the preposition ' without.' Observe that when-
ever but is a preposition it has the meaning of
save or except, and is followed by an objective
case. When but is an adverb it is equivalent to
the word only, and is not followed by an objec-
tive case. When but is a conjunction it cannot
be substituted by save, except, only ; it merely
joins two distinct clauses. Any word that be-
comes the object of a verb or preposition is in
sense and meaning a noun or pronoun, and
should be parsed as such. *
(D) No man would do it. No is an adjective when it refers to a noun,

(E) Will you come ? No, as in sentence (D); it is an adverb when it
or nay.
(F) I asked him , and he answers a question as in sentence (E). In sen-
said 'No.' tences like (F) no is the object of the transitive
verb said, and may be parsed as a ' noun.'
(G) I only saw your When the word only modifies a verb, an ad-
daughter. jective, or an adverb, it is an adverb ; but when
(H) I saw your only it relates to a noun or pronoun it is an adjective.
daughter.
(1) I saw her only. In sentence (G) only it an adverb, modifying
(J) I saw her only twice. saw. In sentence (H) it is an adjective, quali-
fying daughter. In sentence (1) it is also an
adjective relating to her. In sentence (J) only
is an adverb relating to twice.
NOTE..
Some authors assert that but is never a preposition, and that sentences like (z)
should be written Here is none but I.' I am, however, of opinion that but me ' is
the correct form. The expression is to be found in the writings of the best authors,
and very frequently in the Scriptures.
PARSING 77
Sentences. Remarks.
(K) There were a thou- Both articles generally relate to nouns ; but
sand persons present. when the indefinite article is followed by a
(L) I have a few pears in
my pocket. numeral or collective adjective, in such cases it
(M) The
the better like send,
soonerIyou it. relates to the adjective, as in sentences (K) and
(N) The oftener I see him, (L) ; and when the definite article is used before
the more I respect words of the comparative degree to increase
him.
their emphasis, in such cases it relates to the
comparative word, as in sentences (M) and (N).
(0) He permitted me to Sometimes a noun is put in apposition with a
consult his library, preceding clause, as the word kindness in sen-
a kindness which i
shall never forget. tence (o). In sentence (P) the noun parties is
(P) Romanists, Protes- in apposition with Romanists, Protestants, Jews,
tants,Jews, parties
wished for aallchange. all of which are nominatives to the verb wished. '
(Q) He took it from be- In sentences like (Q), where two prepositions
tween his knees.
(R) But though our out- come together, they may be called a prepositional
ward man perish. phrase, or compound preposition ,' and taken
(s) John as well as James together in parsing. In sentences like (R) the two
took a walk in the
garden. conjunctions may be taken together, and called a
' conjunctional phrase.' Any combination of
words performing the office of conjunctions, as in
sentence ( s), may also be taken together and
parsed as a ' conjunctional phrase.' For a list
of compound 6 prepositions and conjunctional
phrases, see Grammar of English Grammars.'
(T) You are taller than I. In sentences (T) and (U) the pronoun I and
(u) You are taller than
George. the noun George are nominatives to verbs
(v) Ithan more to him understood ; as, than I am,' 'than George
gaveher.
like him better than is. ' In sentence (w) her is governed by the
(w) Iher.
verb like. In (v) her is governed by the prepo-
(x) I love you more than sition to; as, ' better than I like her,' ' more to
George. him than to her.' In sentence (x) the case of
the noun George is uncertain as the sentence
stands. It may be either in the nominative case
or objective case, according to the way we sup-
ply the ellipses. Thus : --
I love you more than George (loves you ) ;
Or,
I love you more than (I love) George.
(Y)
(z) She
She isislikeunlike
her sister.
her In sentences like (r) and ( z) the words ' like '
mother.* and ' unlike' are adjectives relating to ' she,' and
the nouns sister ' and ' mother ' are in the ob-
jective case, governed by the preposition ' to ' or
NOTE.
* Some authors would make the adjective like govern the objective case following it ;
others would call like in such a sentence a preposition. Both of these opinions, how-
ever, I believe to be wrong. When like modifies a verb, it is an adverb ; as, The
thoughts of former days glide over my soul like swift winged arrows over the gloomy
valley.
Sentences. Remarks.
'unto ' understood ; as, ' she is like (unto) her

sister,' 'she is unlike (to) her mother.'
(a) Smith, the bookseller, In this sentence the nouns (a) Smith and book-
he that entitled
volume sold me' The
the seller and the pronoun he are in apposition with
Canterbury Tales,' each other, and nominative case to the verb has.
has promised
me some steeltopens.
send The pronoun me in both instances is governed
by the preposition ' to ' implied. Entitled and
promised are both passive participles, —the for-
mer relating to the noun volume, and the latter
relating to the pronoun he. (See Syntax on
relation.) The words Canterbury and steel are
nouns used adjectively, qualifying Tales and pens
respectively.
(b) He cut himself. In sentences like (b) himself is a reflective
(c) He himselfcut it. pronoun, objective case of cut. In sentences
like (c) himself is an emphatic pronoun, nomi-
native case, in apposition with ' he.' (See Classi-
fication.)
(d) I, James, take thee, In sentences like (d ) the noun James is inthe
Sarah. first person, and in apposition with the pronoun
I. Sarah is in the second person, and in appo-
sition with thee.
(e) He took his brother In sentences like (e) the noun brother may be
Philip's wife. parsed in the possessive case, having the posses-
sive sign understood, and in apposition with
Philip's. Or the two nouns may be taken
together and parsed as a compound noun in
the possessive case, governed by wife. (See
Syntax.)
(f) His father gave him When two objective cases follow a transitive
possessions abun- verb, one is governed by the verb and the other
dantly.
by a preposition. In sentence (f) ‘ possessions '
is in the objective case, governed by ' gave,' and
'him ' is governed by the preposition ' to ' under-
stood.
PARSING 79
PARSING TABLE.
ARTICLE. PARTICIPLE.
1. Tell whether definite or inde- 1. Tell whether present or passive.
finite. 2. Tell what verb or participle it
2. Tell what noun it limits or re- is used after, or what other
lates to. participle it is auxiliary to.
3. Tell what noun or pronoun it
NOUN. relates to.
1. Tell whether proper, common,
&c.
2. Tell its gender. ADVERB.
3. 99 its person. 1. Tell its kind, whether of time,
4. 99 its number.
5. 99 its case. place, &c.
es
6. 99 what it is nom.to, or gov. by. 2. Tell what word it modifi or
relates to.
ADJECTIVE. Note. An adverb may modify a verb,
an adjective, a participle, or another ad-
1. Tell whether numeral, proper, verb.
& c.
2. Tell its degree, if compared.
3. 99 what noun it qualifies or PREPOSITION.
relates to.
Tell what words it shows the rela-
tion between.
PRONOUN .
1. Tell whether personal, relative,
&c.
2. Tell what noun it represents, or CONJUNCTION.
relates to. 1. Tell whether copulative or dis-
3. Tell its gender. junctive.
4. 99 its person. 2. Tell what it connects.
5. 99 its number. 3. If there be a corresponding con-
6 . 99 its case. junction, name it.
7. 99 whatit is nom . to, orgov.by.
VERB. INTERJECTION.
1. Tell whether regular or irre- Tell what it expresses, whether joy,
gular. sorrow, &c., or whether used
2. Tell whether transitive or in- in addressing .
transitive.
3. Tell its mood.
4. 99 its tense. COMPOUND VERBAL EXPRESSIONS.
5. 99 its person.
6. 99 its number. 1. Parse each word separately.
2. Take the whole in a combined
7. 99 what nominative it agrees
with. form, stating the effect or
Note. The first three are sufficient for meaning of the entire expres-
the infinitive, and to tell what governs it. sion.
80 COMPANIO TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR
N
EXAMPLES OF PARSING.
Note. The most difficult words in each passage are printed in Italics, and only
those need be parsed ; the other words present no difficulty and are therefore omitted
in the parsing .
EXAMPLE 1 .
Resolve me, why the cottager and king,
He whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and he
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste,
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw,
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh.- Young.
Transposition and Ellipsis.

Resolve (thou to) me, why the cottager, he who steals his whole do-
minion from the waste, repelling winter blasts with mud and (with)
straw, and (the) king, he whom sea-sever'd realms obey, disquieted alike,
draw sigh for sigh.
Parsing. Syntax applied. *
Resolve . A regular transitive verb, Verbs in the imperative mood
imperative mood, second generally agree with the
person, agreeing with its pronoun thou ' or ' you,
nominative ' thou ' or ' you ' understood. A transitive
understood, and having verb may have for its ob-
for its object the following ject a clause or part of a
substantive sentence. sentence.
Me ... A personal pronoun, inde- | Prepositions govern the ob-
finite gender, first person, jective case. The prepo-
singular number, objective sitions 'to ' and ' for ' are
case, governed by the pre- often understood after
position 'to ' understood. transitive verbs.
Cottager. A common noun, masculine Every nominative case, ex-
gender, third person, singu- cept the case absolute and
lar number, nominative the case of address, be-
case to the verb ' draw.' longs to some verb.
King ... A common noun, masculine Two or more singular no-
gender, third person, minatives connected by
singular number, nomina- ' and ' are equivalent to a
tive case to the verb ' draw.' plural, and require a plural
verb.
He .... A personal pronoun, mas- Nouns or personal pronouns
culinegender, third person, applied to the same person
singular number, nomina- or thing, and explaining
tive case in apposition with each other, agree in case,
' king.' and are said to be in ap-
position.
* The rules of syntax here used aretaken from the Grammar of English Grammars,'
PARSING 81
Parsing. Syntax applied.

Whom .. A relative pronoun, agreeing A relative pronoun is of the
with its antecedent ' he,' same number and person
thirdperson, singular num- as its antecedent. Rela-
ber, objective case, go- tives always precede the
verned by the verb ' obey.' verb in whatever casethey
may be.
Sea-sever'd A compound adjective re- An adjective relates to a
lating to realms.' noun or pronoun.
He .... A personal pronoun, mas- Nouns or personal pronouns
culine gender, third per- applied to the same person
son, singular number, no- or thing, and explaining
minative case in apposition each other, agree in case,
with ' cottager.' and are said to be in ap-
position.
Who ... A relative pronoun agreeing The relative is nominative
with its antecedent ' he,' to the verb, when no other
third person, singular num- nominative comes between
ber, nominative case to it and the verb.
the verb steals.'
Repelling A present transitive parti- Participles relate to nouns
ciple, relating to ' who ' or pronouns in the same
and governing ' blasts.' sentence.
Winter · A noun used adjectively, re- Sometimes the first of two
lating to blasts.' nouns has the relation
of an adjective to the
second.
Blasts .. A common noun, neuter The present participles of
gender, third person, plural transitive verbs govern the
number, objective case, objective case. The ob-
governed by the participle jective case generally fol-
• repelling." lows the verb or participle
that governs it.
Straw .. A common noun, neuter gen- Prepositions govern the ob-
der, third person, singular jective case of nouns and
number, objective case, pronouns.
governed by ' with ' un-
derstood.
Disquieted A 6past participle, relating to Participles relate to nouns
cottager ' and ' king.' or pronouns in the same
sentence.
Alike .. Anadverb oflikeness, relating Adverbs relate to verbs, ad-
to the participle dis- jectives, participles, or
quieted.' other adverbs.
Draw . An irregular, transitive verb, A verb must agree with its
indicative mood, present nominative case in number
tense, third person, plural and person. The subject
number, agreeing with its or nominative of a verb
nominative cottager ' and may be one or more nouns.
' king.'
E5
EXAMPLE 2.
O thou fond many ! with what loud applause
Didst thou beat heav'n with blessing Bolingbroke,
Before he was what thou wouldst have him be.
Shakspeare, Hen. IV.
O .... An interjection used in ad- The interjections O ! oh ! ah!
dressing. are followed by the no-
minative case of the se
cond person.
Thou .. A personal pronoun, second The nominative of address,
person, singular number, that is, a noun or pronoun
nominative case of ad- to whom a direct address
dress. is made, relates to no
verb.
Fond ... An adjective in the positive An adjective relates to a
degree, relating to ' many.' noun or pronoun expressed
or understood.
Many A collective noun in apposi- A nominative in apposition
tion with thou.' relates to no separate verb.
What . · A pronominal adjective, re- An adjective relates to a
lating to applause.' noun or pronoun expressed
or understood.
Didst An irregular intransitive Every finite verb relates to
verb, indicative mood, past some noun, pronoun, or
tense, second person, sin- something equivalent,
gular number, agreeing which is called its subject
with its nominative 'thou.' or nominative case.
Beat ... An irregular transitive verb, One verb governs another
infinitive mood, governed that follows it in the infi-
by ' didst.' nitive mood.
With A preposition governing A preposition sometimes
the following participial governs a participial
phrase. phrase.
Blessing . A present transitive parti- The present participle of
ciple, governing Boling- transitive verbs governs
broke. the objective case.
Bolingbroke A proper noun, masculine The objective case generally
gender, third person, sin- follows the verb or parti-
gular number, objective ciple that governs it.
case, governed by bless-
ing.'
Before .. A preposition used adver- Adverbs relate to verbs, ad-
bially, relating to ' was.' jectives, participles, ог
other adverbs.
What . · A compound relative, in- Nouns or pronouns before
cluding the antecedent ' and after the verb ' to be'
and the relative ; ' the agree in case. All parts
antecedent part is nomi- of the verb ' to be ' take
native case after ' was,' the nominative case after
PARSING 83

agreeing with ' he,' and it, except the ' infinitive,'
the relative part is objec- which generally takes the
tive case after • be,' agree- objective case.
ing with ' him.'
Be .... An irregular intransitive One verb governs another
verb, infinitive mood, go- that follows it in the infi-
verned by ' have.' nitive mood.
EXAMPLE 3.
The great fundamental maxim upon which the right of succession to

these kingdoms depends, I take to be this :- That the crown is, by
common law and constitutional custom, hereditary; and this in a manner
peculiar to itself ; but that the right of inheritance may from time to time
be changed or limited by act of parliament ; under which limitations the
crown still continues hereditary. —Warren's Extracts from Blackstone.
Parsing. Syntax Applied.

Maxim . A common noun, neuter Transitive verbs govern the
gender, third person , sin- objective case of nouns
gular number, objective and pronouns. The ob-
case, governed by ' take.' ject sometimes precedes
the verb.
Which • A relative pronoun, agree- A relative pronoun is of the
ing with its antecedent same number and person
'maxim ,' third person, as its antecedent. The
singular number, objec- antecedent of a relative
tive case, governed by the may be one or more
preposition ' upon.' nouns, or pronouns, or
part of a sentence.
Right . · A common noun, neuter A noun or pronoun in the
gender, third person, sin- nominative case relates to
gular number, nomina- a finite verb expressed or
tive case to the verb understood.
6 depends. '
This . A demonstrative adjective, Adjectives sometimes relate
relating to the following to a clause, phrase, or the
' clause ' or ' maxim.' infinitive mood.
Hereditary An adjective relating to An adjective relates to a
' crown.' noun or pronoun expressed
Peculiar . An adjective relating to or understood.
' manner.'
But that . A conjunctive phrase, con- Conjunctions usually stand
necting the following between the words and
clause with the preceding. clauses which they con-
nect.
Be • • An irregular intransitive One verb governs another
verb, infinitive mood, go- that follows it in the infi-
verned by may.' nitive mood.

Limited .
The past participle of the The past participle, and not
verb ' limit,' used after the the past tense, follows the
verb ' be,' and relating to verbs have' and ' be.'
the noun ' right.'
Which · A pronominal adjective, re- An adjective relates to a
lating to ' limitations." noun or pronoun expressed
or understood.
Hereditary An adjective relating to An adjective relates to a
' crown.' nounor pronoun expressed
or understood.
EXAMPLE 4.
The love we bear our country is a root
Which never fails to bring forth golden fruit;
'Tis inthe mind an everlasting spring
Of glorious actions which become a king,
Nor less become a subject ; 'tis a debt
Which bad men, tho' they pay not, can't forget,
A duty which the good delight to pay,
And ev'ry man can practise ev'ry day. — Churchill.

Love .. A common noun, neuter A noun or pronoun in the
gender, third person, sin- nominative case relates to
gular, nominative case to a finite verb expressed or
the verb ' is.' understood.
Bear . · An irregular transitive verb, A verb must agree with its
indicative mood, present nominative case in num-
tense, first person, plural, ber and person. The rela-
agreeing with its nominative ' which ' is often
tive ' we,' and governing omitted in the objective
'which' understood. case.
Country . A common noun, neuter Prepositions govern the ob-
gender, third person, sin- jective case. The prepo-
gular, objective case, go- sitions to ' and 'for' are
verned by ' to ' under- often understood after
stood. transitive verbs.
Root . · A common noun, neuter All parts of the verb ' to be'
gender, third person, sin- take the nominative case
gular, nominative case after it, except the infini-
after ' is.' tive, which generally takes
the objective .
Which • A relative pronoun, agreeing The relative is nominative
with its antecedent ' root,' to the verb when no other
nominative case to the nominative comes between
verb 'fails.' it and the verb.
Forth An adverb, modifying Adverbs relate to verbs, &c.
' bring.'
PARSING 85

Fruit . ·A common noun, objective Transitive verbs govern the
case, governed by the objective case of nouns
verb ' bring.' and pronouns .
"Tis · . A contraction for ' it is,' the Pronouns must agree with
pronoun it,' representing the nouns which they re-
love,' is nominative case present in gender, person,
to the verb ' is.' and number.
Spring A common noun, nomina- Nouns or pronouns before
tive case after ' is.' and after the verb ' to be '
agree in case.
Which • A relative pronoun, agree- A relative is of the same
ing with its antecedent number and person as its
' actions,' nominative case antecedent, and the verb
to 'become.' agrees with it accordingly.
King A common noun, objective Transitive verbs govern the
case, governed by ' be- objective case of nouns
come. and pronouns.
Less . An adverb, modifying ' be- Adverbs relate to verbs, &c.
come.'
Become . An irregular transitive verb, A verb must agree with its
indicative mood, present subject or nominative case
tense, third person, plural, in number and person .
agreeing with its nomina-
tive ' which ' understood.
Which A relative pronoun, agreeing Relatives always precede the
with its antecedent ' debt,' verb, in whatever casethey
objective case, governed may be.
by the verb 6 forget.'
Can't · A contraction for ' can not ;' A verb must agree with its
the verb'can ' is inthe third subject or nominative case
person, plural, agreeing in number and person.
with its nominative ' men.'
Duty . A common noun, nominative All parts of the verb ' to be'
case after the verb ' is ' take the nominative case
understood. after it, except the infini-
tive.
Which • A relative pronoun, having Relatives always precede the
for its antecedent ' duty,' verb, in whatever casethey
objective case, governed may be.
by 'pay.'
Day •
A common noun, objective The prepositions in ' and
case, governed by ' on ' 'on' are often understood
understood. before nouns expressing
time.
EXAMPLE 5.
That spot to which I point is Paradise,

Adam's abode ; those lofty shades, his bower.
Thy way thou canst not miss, me mine requires.
Thus said, he turned ; and Satan, bowing low,
As to superior spirits is wont in Heaven,
Where honour due and reverence none neglects,
Took leave, and toward the coast of earth beneath,
Down from the ecliptic, sped with hoped success ;
Throws his steep flight in many an aëry wheel,
Nor stayed till on Niphates' * top he lights.- Milton.
In this and the following examples it is considered unnecessary to add the rules of
syntax, as they may be easily supplied by pupils who have studied syntax.
Spot . A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, nominative case to the verb ' is.'
To A preposition expressing relation between ' point ' and
'which.'
Paradise • A proper noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, nominative case after ' is,' agreeing with
'spot. '
Abode • • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, nominative case, in apposition with ' Para-
dise.'
Shades • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, plural
number, nominative case to ' are ' understood , (' bower '
is nominative after ' are ').
Way • • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by the verb ' miss.'
Miss . A regular transitive verb, infinitive mood, governed by
' canst.'
Me A personal pronoun, first person, singular number, ob-
jective case, governed by the verb ' requires.' †
Mine • A personal pronoun , first person, singular number, pos-
sessive case, governed by a noun understood .‡
Requires A regular transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense,
third person, singular number, agreeing with its nomi-
native, a noun understood.
Said . The past participle of the verb ' say,' used after ' having'
understood, and relating to ' he.' (Having thus said,
he turned.)
Satan A proper noun, third person, singular number, nomina-
tive case to ' took.'
Niphates is a very high mountain, part of Mount Taurus, between Armenia and
Mesopotamia, not far from Paradise and the source of Euphrates and Tigris.
+ The pronoun ' me ' represents the angel Uriel,' who is here supposed to be
conversing with Satan, and pointing out to him the abode of Adam. The name 'Uriel'
is not found in Holy Scripture, but in the Apocrypha, 2 Esdras, iv. 1 , 36.
Many grammarians of much experience would, in parsing this clause, make
'mine ' nominative case to ' requires.' I prefer, however, to make mine ' in the pos-
sessive case, governed by a noun understood, which is the nominative to ' requires.'
The meaning is, My way requires me, ' or, My business requires me to go a different
way.' ' My is used when the noun is expressed ; ' mine ' when the noun is under-
stood.
PARSING 87
Bowing . • The present participle of the verb ' bow,' relating to

Satan.
Low An adjective used adverbially, relating to " bowing.'
Is . · An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present
tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its
nominative ' it' understood.
Wont A past participle, used after ' is,' and relating to ' it.'
Honour . · A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by the word ' neglects.'
( Reverence,' the same as honour.")
Due . · • An adjective, relating to honour.
Leave • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by the verb took.'
Toward · A preposition expressing relation between ' sped ' and
coast.'
Sped . •1. An irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, past
nominative Satan ' or ' he ' understood.
Hoped A participial adjective, relating to ' success.'
Throws . An irregular transitive verb, indicative mood, present
nominative he ' understood.
Many • • A collective adjective, relating to wheel.' *
Stayed A regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, past tense,
third person, singular number, agreeing with ' he ' un-
derstood. (Nor stayed he, &c.)
EXAMPLE 6.
When young life's journey I began,

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ;
I saw along the extended plain
Joy after joy successive rise.
Young · An adjective in the positive degree, relating to ' I.'
Journey • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by the verb began.'
Along • • A preposition expressing relation between ' saw' and
'plain.'
Joy • A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by the verb ' saw.'
Successive . An adjective used adverbially, modifying ‘ rise.'
Rise. · An irregular intransitive verb, infinitive mood, governed
by 'saw.'
* The adjective ' many' is used before ' a ' or ' an,' with a singular noun, to denote
plurality ; as-
' From many an ancient river,
From many a palmy plain.'
888
COMPANION
TO
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
EXAMPLE 7.
The word 'that' in all its positions and significations.

1 2 3
' That,' may be different parts of speech, as it is certain that that
4 5 6 7
that that begins this passage belongs to a different class from that that
8 9 10 11
that next follows it ; for that that that begins the passage is evidently
12 13 14
the subject of the verb ' may,' but that that that next follows it only
15 16 17 18 19
introduces a substantive clause. Again, that that that follows that that,
20
that is said to introduce a substantive clause, simply points out a par-
21 22
ticular that, and therefore requires a different classification from that
23 24 25 26 27
that, that introduces a substantive clause, or from that that that is sub-
28 29 30 31
ject of · may.' Lastly, it appears that that that, that comes fifth in order,
32 33
not only introduces an adjective sentence, but also stands for that that
34
that next precedes it, therefore it is of a class different from either of
35 36 37 38
the fore-mentioned thats ; namely, that that, that points out a particular
39 40 41 42 43 44
that, that that, that introduces a substantive clause, and that that,
45
that is subject of ' may. '
Note.-The Thats are numbered for the more convenient reference.
1
That . A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, nominative to ' may.'
2
That . • A conjunction, connecting the following substantive clause
with the preceding sentence.
3 4
That . · A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
4
That . A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, nominative to ' belongs.'
5 4
That . · A relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent that, and
nominative case to 'begins."
PARSING 89
6 7
That . • A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
7
That • A common noun, objective case, governed by the preposi-
tion 'from.'
8 7
That . A relative pronoun, having for its antecedent that, nomina-
tive case to follows.'
9 10
That . A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
10
That . • A common noun, nominative case to the verb ' is.'
11 10
That . · A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative case
to ' begins."
12 13
13
That · · A common noun, nominative case to the verb ' introduces. '
14 13
That . • A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative case
to 'follows.'
15 16
16
That . • A common noun, nominative case to the verb ' points.'
17 16
That . A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative case
to 'follows.'
18 19
That A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
19
That • A common noun, objective case, governed by 'follows.'
20 19
That .. A relative, having for its antecedent ' that,' nominative case
to ' is.'
21
That A common noun, objective case, governed by ' points.'
22 23
That . A demonstrative adjective, relating to that
23
That . . A common noun, objective case, governed by the preposition
'from .'
24 23
That • . A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative to
'introduces.'
25 26
That . . A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
26
That . . A common noun, objective case, governed by the preposition
'from .
27 26
to 'is.'
28
That . • A conjunction, connecting the following clause with the pre-
ceding.
29 30
30
That . A common noun , nominative case to the verb ' introduces. '
31 30
to 'comes.'
32 33
33
That . • A common noun, objective case, governed bythe preposition
'for.'
34 33
That .. A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative to
'precedes.'
35
Thats. A common noun, plural number, objective case, governed
by ' of.'
36 37
37
That Acommon noun, objective case, governed by the preposition
'from ' understood.
38 37
That . · A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative to
' points.'
39
That . • A common noun, objective case, governed by the vero
'points.'
40 41
41
That . • A common noun, objective case, governed by ' from ' under-
stood.
42 41
That A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative to
'introduces.'
43 44
That . · A demonstrative adjective, relating to that.
44
That . A common noun, objective case, governed by ' from ' under-
stood.
45 44
That · • A relative, having for its antecedent that, nominative to
'is.'
PARSING 91
EXAMPLE 8.
Note. As certain words in the title-page of a book present some difficulty to

beginners, the following example may be useful : -
A History ofthe Rise and Progress

of the Literature of Europe.
By Isaac Smith, Bart.
London :
L. G. and Son.
1857.
The same title with the ellipsis supplied.
(This is) a History of the Rise and Progress of the Literature of

Europe, (which has been written) by Isaac Smith, (who is a) Bart.
(The book was published in) London, by L. G. and Son, (in the year)
1857.
History A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular

number, nominative case after ' is ' understood.
Progress . A common noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by ' of.'
By A preposition, expressing the relation between ' written '
and Isaac Smith.'
Bart.. • A common noun, contracted form of ' Baronet,' nominative
case after ' is ' understood.
London . A proper noun, neuter gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by ‘ in.'
L. G. • A proper noun, contracted form, objective case, governed
by the preposition ' by ' understood.
Son A common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular
number, objective case, governed by ' by.'
1857 • · A numeral adjective, relating to ' year ' understood.
CONTRACTIONS IN PÁRSING.
Note. The following contractions are sometimes used in parsing, particularly when
the time in which the exercise is to be performed is short, or the space on which it is
to be written small:-
Contractions with Explanations.
Adj. for Adjective. Masc. for Masculine.
Adv. 99 Adverb. Neut. 99 Neuter.
Art. 99 Article. Nom. 99 Nominative.
Conj. 99 Conjunction. Num. 99 Number.
Comp. "" Comparative. Obj. 99 Objective.
Cond. 99 Conditional. Per.. 99 Person.
Cop. "9 Copulative. Plu.. 99 Plural .
Def. 99 Definite. Part. 99 Participle.
Dem. 99 Demonstrative. Poss. 29 Possessive.
Dist. 22 Distributive. Posit. 99 Positive.
Disj. "" Disjunctive. Pres. "" Present.
Fem. 99 Feminine. Prep. 99 Preposition.
Gov. 99 Governed. Pro. 99 Pronoun .
Indef. 99 Indefinite. Qual. 99 Qualifying.
Indic. 99 Indicative. Reg. 99 Regular.
Infin. 99 Infinitive. Rel. Relative.
Imper. ,, Imperative. Sing. 99 Singular.
Interj. · ,, Interjection. Subj. 99 Subjunctive.
Intrans. · "" Intransitive. Super. ,, Superlative.
Irreg. 99 Irregular. Trans. 99 Transitive.
EXAMPLE 9.
This day be bread and peace my lot:
All else beneath the sun
Thou knowest if best bestowed or not,
And let Thy will be done.
Day • · A com. noun, neut. gen., third per., sing., obj. case, gov.
by 'on.'
Be An irreg. intrans. verb, infin. mood, gov. by ' let ' understood .
Bread A com. noun, neut. gen., third per., sing., obj . case, gov. by
' let.'
Lot • Acom. noun, neut. gen., third per., sing. , obj. case after ' be. '
All An adj., relating to ' things ' understood.
Knowest . An irreg. trans. verb, indic. mood, present tense, second per.,
sing., agreeing with ' thou,' and gov. the clause ' If all
things else,' &c.
Bestowed The past part. of the verb ' bestow,' used after ' be ' under-
stood, and relating to ' things.'
Let · • An irreg. trans. verb, imper. mood, second per., sing. , agree-
ing with ' thou ' understood.
Be . · An intrans. verb, infin. mood, gov. by ' let.'
Done .
Past part., used after ' be,' and relating to ' will.'
365
PARSING 93
EXAMPLE 10.
Live while ye may,

Yet happy pair; enjoy till I return,
Short pleasures, for long woes are to succeed.
So saying, his proud step he scornful turned ,
But with sly circumspection, and began,
Through wood, through waste, o'er hill, o'er dale, his roam.
Meanwhile, in utmost longitude, where Heaven
With earth and ocean meets, the setting sun
Slowly descended, and with right aspect
Against the eastern gate of Paradise
Levelled his evening rays.— Milton.
PARSING.
Live A reg. intrans. verb, imper. mood, second person, plural
number, agreeing with its nominative ' ye ' understood.
Pair • A common noun, nominative case of address.
Enjoy A reg. trans. verb, imper. mood, second person, plural
number, agreeing with ' ye ' understood.
Pleasures A common noun, neut. gender, third person, plural, obj.
case, governed by the verb enjoy.'
For A conjunction, connecting the following clause with the
preceding.
So An adverb of likeness, relating to ' saying.'
Saying . The present participle of the verb ' say,' relating to ' he.'
Step.. A com. noun, neut. gender, third person, sing., obj. case,
gov. by turned.'
6
Scornful . An adj. used adverbially, modifying turned.'
Began An irreg. trans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third person,
sing. number, agreeing with ' he ' understood.
Roam A com. noun, obj. case, gov. by ' began. ' (And he began
his roam . )
Meanwhile An adverb of time, relating to descended.
Heaven . A proper noun, neut. gender, third person, sing., nom. case
to 'meets.'
Ocean A common noun, neut. gender, third person, sing. , obj . case,
gov. by ' with.'
Sun • A proper noun, neut. gender, third person, sing., nom. case
to · descended.'
Against . A preposition, expressing relation between levelled ' and
'gate.'
Of • A preposition, expressing relation between ' gate ' and
' Paradise.'
Levelled . A reg. trans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third person,
sing. , agreeing with its nom. ' he ' understood, and govern-
ing ' rays.'
Evening . A noun used adjectively, qualifying ‘ rays.'
EXAMPLE 11 .
Verbal Combinations. 6
See Inflection, Gram. of English
Grammars.'
(a) I am writing. | (g) The letter is written.

(b) He was writing. (h) The letters were written.
(c) They have been writing. (i ) The letter has been written .
(d) We had been writing. (j) The letters had been written.
(e) Thou shalt be writing. (k) The letter shall be written.
(f) She shall have been writing. (1) The letter shall have been writ-
ten.
Note 1.-There are various methods of parsing combinations like the preceding, but
the simplest and most correct method seems to be - first, to parse each word sepa-
rately ; then to take the whole in a combined form, stating the effect or meaning of
the whole expression. The combinations of other verbs may be parsed similarly to
the verb write.'
SENTENCE (a).
am An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, first per., sing., agreeing
with I.'
writing • The pres. participle of ' write' used after am,' and relating to ' I.'
am writing A verbal combination , denoting progressive action at the present
time.
SENTENCE (b).
was An intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., sing., agreeing
with 'he.'
writing The pres. participle of write,' used after ' was,' and relating to ' he.'
was writing A verbal combination, expressing progressive action at a past time.
SENTENCE (c).
have · An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per., plu., agreeing
with they.'
been • · • Passive part. of ' be,' used after have, auxil. to ' writing.'
writing . • The present part. of write,' used after ' been,' and relating to
'they.'
have been writ- A verbal combination, denoting progressive action at a period of time
ing. part of which is yet to elapse.
SENTENCE (d).
had . An intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, first per., plu., agreeing
with 'we.'
been Passive part. of be,' used after had,' auxil. to ' writing.'
writing The pres. part. of write, ' used after ' been,' and relating to we.'
had been writ. A verbal combination, denoting progressive action at a time com-
ing. pletely past, and prior to some other time which is past.
SENTENCE (e).
shalt An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, second per. sing. agreeing
with thou.'
be An intrans. verb, infin. mood, governed by ' shall.'
writing The pres. part. of write,' used after ' be," and relating to ' thou.'
shalt be writing A verbal combination, denoting progressive action at a future time.
PARSING 95
SENTENCE (f).
shall An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per., sing., agreeing
with she.'
have An intrans. verb, infin. mood, governed by ' shall .'
been Passive part. of be,' used after have,' auxil. to writing.'
writing Pres. part. of write,' used after ' been,' and relating to she.
shall have been A verbal combination, denoting progressive action at a future time,
writing . and prior to some other future event specified.
SENTENCE (g).
is An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per., sing., agreeing
with letter.'
written The passive part. of ' write,' used after ' is,' and relating to ' letter.'
is written A verbal combination, denoting completed action at the present
time.
SENTENCE (h).
were An intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., plu., agreeing
with letters .'
written The passive part. of write,' used after ' were,' and relating to
'' letters.'
were written . A verbal combination, denoting completed action at a past time.
SENTENCE (i).
has . An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per., sing., agreeing
with letter.'
been Passive part. of ' be,' used after has,' auxil. to ' written.'
written · Passive part. of write,' used after ' been,' and relating to ' letter.'
has been writ- A verbal combination, denoting action completed in a period of time
ten. part of which is yet to elapse.
SENTENCE (j).
had . An intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., plu., agreeing
with letters.'
been Passive part. of ' be,' used after ' had,' auxil. to ' written.'
written Passive part. of write,' used after been,' and relating to letters.'
had
ten.been writ- A verbal combination, denoting action completed at a time perfectly
past, and prior to some other event which is also past.
SENTENCE (k).
shall An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per., sing., agreeing
with letter.'
be
written An intrans. verb, infin. mood, governed by · shall.'
The passive part. of write,' used after ' be,' and relating to ' letter.'
shall be written A verbal combination, denoting action yet to be completed.
SENTENCE (1).
shall • An intrans. verb, indic. mood, pres. tense, third per. , sing., agreeing
with letter.'
have • An intrans. verb, infin. mood, governed by ' shall.'
been · Passive part. of be,' used after have,' auxil, to ' written.'
written Passive part. of write,' used after ' been,' and relating to ' letter.'
shall have been A verbal combination, denoting a future action to be completed at or
written. before some other future event specified.
EXAMPLE 12 .
Yet not for those,

Nor what the potent victor in his rage
Can else inflict, do I repent or change,
Though chang'd in outward lustre, that fix'd mind,
And high disdain from sense of injur'd merit,
That with the mightiest rais'd me to contend,
And to the fierce contention brought along
Innumerable force of spirits arm'd
That durst dislike his reign, and, me preferring,
His utmost power with adverse power oppos'd
In dubious battle on the plains of heaven,
And shook his throne.- Milton.
PARSING.
What A compound rel. including the anteced. and the rel. , the anteced. part
is in the obj. case, gov. by ' for ' understood, and rel. part in the
obj. case, gov. by ' inflict.'*
Victor . A com. noun, mas. gen., third per. , sing., nom. case to ' can.'
Repent A reg. intrans. verb, infin. mood, governed by ' do.'
Change A reg. trans. verb, infin. mood, governed by 'do.'
Changed Passive part. ofthe verb ' change,' relating to ' I.'
Mind Two singular noung, joined by ' and,' obj. case, governed by the
Disdain
That A rel. pronoun, having for its antecedent ' mind ' and ' disdain,' nom.
case to raised.'
With A preposition, expressing relation between ' contend ' and ' mightiest '
(to contend with the mightiest) .
Brought • An irreg. trans. verb, indic. mood, agreeing with its nom. ' that.'
Along An adverb, modifying ' brought.'
Armed . The passive part. of the verb arm,' relating to ' spirits.'
That A rel. pronoun, having for its anteced. ' spirits,' nom. case to ' durst.'
Dislike . A reg. trans. verb, infin. mood, gov. by the verb ' durst.'
Me A per. pronoun, representing ' Satan ,' obj. case, gov. by ' preferring.'
Preferring Present part., relating to ' that ' or ' who ' understood (and who pre-
ferring me).
Power · • · A com. noun, neut. gen., third per., sing. , obj . case, gov. by ' opposed.'
Opposed A reg. trans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., plural, agreeing
with its nom. " that ' or who understood.
In A preposition, expressing relation between ' opposed ' and ' battle.'
* For the different relations which the word ' what ' may occupy in a sentence, see
' Grammar of English Grammars.'
PARSING 97
EXAMPLE 13.
O Prince, O chief of many throned powers,

That led the embattled seraphim to war
Under thy conduct, and in dreadful deeds
Fearless, endanger'd heaven's perpetual King,
And put to proof his high supremacy,
Whether upheld by strength, or chance, or fate;
Too well I see and rue the dire event,
That with sad overthrow, and foul defeat,
Hath lost us heaven, and all this mighty host
In horrible destruction laid thus low,
As far as gods and heavenly essences
Can perish; for the mind and spirit remains
Invincible, and vigour soon returns,
Though all our glory extinct, and happy state
Here swallow'd up in endless misery. -Milton.
PARSING.
Prince Two sing. nouns, nom. case of address.
Chief
Throned A participial adj . qualifying powers.'
That 'A relative, anteced. ' powers ' nom. to ' led.' (a)
Seraphim Collective noun, obj . case, gov. by ' led.'
To war Averb, infin. mood, gov. by led , ' or ' war ' may be parsed as a noun,
obj. case, gov. by to.' (b)
Fearless An adj. relating to · that or who ' understood. (c)
Endangered Averb, indic. nood, past tense, having for its nom. that ' or ' who '
understood.
Put . A verb, parsed the same as endangered ' and (who) put to proof.
Supremacy • A common noun, obj . case, gov. by ' put.'
Whether . A conjunction, corresponding with or.'
Upheld Passive part, relating to it ' or ' he ' understood. (d)
Too well An adverbial phrase modifying see.'
That A rel. pronoun anteced. ' event ' nominative case to hath.'
Defeat Noun, obj. case, gov. by with ' understood.
Us Pronoun, obj case, gov. by ' to ' or ' for ' understood.
Host Collective noun, obj . case, gov. by laid,' or the combination ' hath
laid.'
Gods Two plural nouns, nominative case to the verb ' can.'
Essences
Remains A reg. intrans. verb, used erroneously in the sing (e), for its nom.,
' mind and spirit,' requires the plural form remain.'
Invincible An adj . relating to ' mind ' and ' spirit.'
Glory A noun, nom. to ' be ' understood.
Extinct An adj . relating to ' glory.'
State A noun, nominative to ' be ' understood. And our happy state (be)
here swallowed up.
Swallow'd Passive part. relating to ' state.'
NOTES.
(a) Some would make chief ' or ' prince ' the antecedent of that,' but observe, the
structnre is ' led,' not ledst.'
(b) For the different modes of government given to the infinitive, see Syntax.
Gram. of English Grammars .'
(c) The order is — And (who) fearless in dreadful deeds eudangered heaven's per-
petual king .'
(d) Some read it — Whether (it) be upheld ; others whether (he) be upheld.
(e) Where two or more singular nouns connected by ' and ' were onlydifferent names
for the same thing, or where there existed some resemblance in their meanings, many
ancient writers use a singular verb. See Concord, Gram, of English Grammars.'
F
EXAMPLE 14.
Thus Satan, talking to his nearest mate

With head uplift above the wave, and eyes
That sparkling blaz'd ; his other parts besides
Prone on the flood , extended long and large,
Lay floating many a rood ; in bulk as huge,
As whom the fables name of monstrous size,
Titanian or Earth-born, that warr'd on Jove,
Briareus, or Typhon , whom the den
By ancient Tarsus held ; or that sea-beast,
Leviathan, which God of all his works
Created hugest that swim the ocean stream.-- Milton.
PARSING.
Satan A proper noun, mas. gender, third per., sing., nom. case to ' spoke'
understood. (a)
Talking Present part. of the verb ' talk,' relating to ' Satan.'
Uplift Used for uplifted : ' passive part. relating to head.' (b)
Eyes A common noun, neuter gen., third per., plu., obj. case, gov. by
'with' understood. (c)
Blazed · A reg. intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., plu., agree-
ing with its nom. ' that.'
Parts • · A common noun, plural •number, nom. case to the verb ' lay.'
Prone · · Antheadjective
flood). relating to parts ' (his other parts prostrate or flat on
Extended . Passive part. of the verb ' extend,' relating to ' parts.'
Rood • · A common noun, obj. case, governed by ' over ' or some preposition
understood. (d)
Huge • An adjective relating to ' he ' or ' Satan ' implied. In bulk (he was)
as huge. (e)
Whom A rel. pronoun, having for its anteced. ' he ' or ' they ' implied,
Titanian obj. case, gov. by name.' (f)
Briareus Two proper nouns, nom. case in apposition with ' he ' or ' they '
Whom implied. (g)
A rel. pronoun, having for its anteced. ' Typhon,' obj. case, gov. by
'held.'
Leviathan · • A noun in apposition with ' sea-beast.'
Which . . A rel. pronoun, having for its anteced. Leviathan,' obj. case, gov.
by created.'
That A rel. pronoun, having for its anteced. ' works,' nom. case to the verb
' swim .'
Ocean A noun used adjectively, qualifying ' stream.'
NOTES.
(a) Thus Adam,' and similar expressions, omitting the word ' spoke,' is very com-
mon in Milton's works.
(b) The adverb ' up ' is frequently used as a prefix, and becomes part of the verb;
as, uphold, uproot, &c.
(c) With head uplifted and (with) eyes that sparkling blazed ; his other parts ex-
tended, lay floating (over) many a rood.
(d) The bulk of Satan is expressed by the same sort of measure as that of a giant in
Virgil, who is represented as covering nine" acres. See Eneid vi. 596.
(e) Some persons may prefer making huge ' qualify parts,' if so, the meaning
would be, that the remaining parts (all but the head) were equal in size to Briareus.
(f) As whom.' As huge as (he was) whom, &c. &c. or, as huge as (they were)
whom, &c. &c.
(g) Titanian. According to fable, Titan and his sons were giants who made war
on Jupiter, by whom they were subdued. Briareus was one of the Titans ; Typhon is
the same with Typhocus, a monster who dwelt in a cave near Tarsus.
PARSING 99
EXAMPLE 15.
Him, haply slumbering on the Norway foam,

The pilot of some small night-founder'd skiff,
Deeming some island, oft, as seamen tell,
With fixed anchor in his scaly rind
Moors by his side under the lee, while night
Invests the sea, and wished morn delays ;
So stretch'd out huge in length the arch-fiend lay
Chain'd on the burning lake : nor ever thence
Had risen, or heav'd his head, but that the will
And high permission of all-ruling Heaven
Left him at large to his own dark designs ;
That with reiterated crimes he might
Heap on himself damnation , while he sought
Evil to others; and, enrag'd, might see
How all his malice serv'd but to bring forth
Infinite goodness, grace and mercy shown
On man by him seduc'd ; but on himself
Treble confusion, wrath, and vengeance pour'd. — Milton.
PARSING.
Him . A per. pronoun, mas. gender, third per., sing., obj. case, gov. by
deeming.'
Slumb'ring • · The present part. of the verb • slumber,' relating to ' him.'
Pilot A com. noun, mas. gender, third per., sing., nom. case to ' moors.'
Night-foundered A compound adj . qualifying ' skiff.'
Deeming · • The present part. of the verb ' deem,' relating to ' pilot.'
Island . · A com noun, neuter gender, third per., sing., obj . case after 'to be'
or 'for' understood (deeming him to be some island).
Wished • A participial adj. qualifying ' morn.'
Huge A common adj . positive degree, qualifying ' Arch-fiend.'
Will .
Permission :} Two singular nouns joined by ' and,' nom. case to the verb left.
That A conjunction forming with ' but ' a conjunctional phrase.
Damnation • A com. noun, neut. gender, third per., sing., obj . case, gov. by
' heap.'
Enraged Passive part., used after ' being,' and relating to ' he ' (and being
enraged he might see).
Might • • An intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., sing., agreeing
withhe.'
To bring • An irreg. trans. verb, infin. mood, governed by ' served.'
Shown . The passive part. of the verb ' show,' relating to ' mercy ' and
grace.'
Seduced The passive part. of the verb, ' seduce,' relating to ' man.'
F 2
EXAMPLE 16.
The supreme executive power of these kingdoms is vested by our
laws in a single person, the king or queen : for it matters not to which
sex the Crown descends; but the person entitled to it, whether male or
female, is immediately invested with all the ensigns, rights, and preroga-
tives of sovereign power.
The executive power of the English nation being vested in a single
person by the general consent of the people, the evidence of which gene-
ral consent is long and immemorial usage, it became necessary to the
freedom and peace of the state that a rule should be laid down, uniform,
universal, and permanent, in order to mark out with precision who is
that single person to whom are committed, in subserviency to the law of
the land, the care and protection of the community; and to whom, in
return, the duty and allegiance of every individual are due. It is of the
highest importance to the public tranquillity and to the consciences of
private men, that this rule should be clear and indisputable, and our Con-
stitution has not left us in the dark upon this material occasion.—
Warren's Extracts.
PARSING.
Power . A noun, nominative case to It A pronoun, representing the
the verbis.' subs. clause, that a rule
Vested · Past part., used after ' is,' should &c., and nom.
and relating to ' power.' case to be,'
became.'
King A noun in apposition with Necessary An adjective relating to ' it.'
'person.' (a) Down . An adverb of manner, relat-
Which · A pronominal adj . relating to ing to 'laid.'
sex.' Permanent An adj. qualifying ' rule.'
Person • A noun, nom. case to ' is.' Person . • A noun, nominative case after
Entitled • Past part. relating to ' per- ' is.'
son.' Care Two sing. nouns, joined by
Male · A noun, nominative case after Protec tion and,' nom . case to the verb
'be,' understood. (b) 'are.
Invested . Past part. relating to ' per- Are . • A plural verb, agreeing with
son. 'duty ' and ' allegiance.'
Rights A noun, obj . case, gov. by Due An adjective relating to duty'
' with .' and allegiance.'
Power • A noun, nom. case absolute. It · . A pronoun representing the
Being • Pres . part., auxil. to ' vested. subs. clause, that this rule.'
Vested • Past part. used after being,' &c. and nom . case to ' is."
and relating to ' power.' That A conj. used to introduce a
By • A prep. relating vested ' to substantive clause.
its object consent .' Clear • An adj . qual. ' rule.' ( Indis-
Evidence . Anoun, nom. case to ' is.' putable, the same. )
Which . A pronominal adj . relating to Us · A pronoun, plural num., obj.
'consent.' case, gov. by has, ' or ' has
Usage . A noun, nom. case after ' is.' left.'(c)
NOTES.
(a ) Or ' king ' may be parsed as nominative case after is ' or styled,' understood
thus In a single person who is the king or queen,' or, who is styled the king or
queen.' But6 taking the passage as it stands, without supplying any additional words,
king ' and queen' must be parsed in the objective case, in apposition with " person.'
(b) Whether that person be a male or female.
(c) When an objective case follows a compound verbal expression , it may be parsed
as being governed either by the transitive verb preceding it, or by the whole combina-
tion. But the past participle by itself never governs an objective case. See remarks
on the past participle in Etymology and Syntax, ' Gram. of English Grammars.'
PARSING 101
EXAMPLE 17.
Fair Angel, thy desire, which tends to know

The works of God, thereby to glorify
The great Work-Master, leads to no excess
That reaches blame, but rather merits praise
The more it seems excess, that led thee hither
From thy empyreal mansion, thus alone
To witness with thine eyes what some perhaps
Contented with report, hear only in Heaven;
For wonderful indeed are all His works,
Pleasant to know, and worthiest to be all
Had in remembrance always with delight ;
But what created mind can comprehend
Their number, or their wisdom infinite
That brought them forth, but hid their causes deep ?
Milton.
PARSING.
Angel . • A noun, nom, case of ad- What . A compound rel. including
dress. the anteced. and the rel.,
Desire . A noun, nom. case to ' leads.' the antecedent part is in the
Which A rel. pro. antecedent de- obj. case, gov. by ' witness
sire,' nom. to ' tends.' and rel. part. in the obj.
To . A preposition, used here as case, gov. by ' hear."
the sign of the infinitive. Contented Past part. relating to some
Know . • A trans. verb, infin. mood, or angels ' understood.
gov. by ' tends.' Hear . • A trans. verb, indic. mood,
Works · A noun, obj. case, gov. by agreeing with ' some' or ' an-
'know."' gels ' understood. (Which
Thereby . An adv. relating to ' glorify.' some angels hear.)
Glorify . A trans. verb, infin. mood, Wonderful An adj. relating to works."
gov. bydesire, or perhaps by Are . A plural verb, agreeing with
mayest ' understood. (a) its nominative works."
Work- A comp. noun, obj . case, gov. Know An infin. verb, gov. by the
Master.
That by glorify.' adj. • pleasant.'
Rel. pron. antecedent ex- Be • An infin. verb, gov. by the
cess,' nom. to reaches.' adj. ' worthiest.'
Rather • An adv. relating to merits.' Had • Past part. used after ' he,' and
Merits . A trans. verb, agreeing with relating to works,' or its
its nom. it ' understood, substitute ' they,' or ' which'
and gov.praise.' understood. ( They are
The Def. art. relating to more.' pleasant,' &c. or which are
(b) pleasant,' &c.)
Excess . A noun, nom. case, after ' to What Pronominal adj . relating to
be,' understood.' ' mind.'
Hither . · Adv. motion, modifying Compre- Trans. verb, infin. mood, gov.
' led.'of hend. by can.'
Thus Adv.led.'
phrase of manner, mod. Number ( Two sing, nouns, obj . case,
alone. ' (c) Wisdom governed by the trans, verb
Witness A trans. verb, infin. mood, comprehend.'
gov. by ' led.' Hid . Trans. verb, agreeing with its
nom. that.'
NOTES.
(a) That thou mayest thereby glorify the great Work- Master.
(b) The definite article is sometimes used before words of the comparative or
the superlative degree, to increase their emphasis. (See Arrangement, Rule.3,
Note 5, Gram. of English Grammars.')
(c) Whenever alone ' directly relates to a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective, as
God alone can do it.'
EXAMPLE 18.
All regal governments must be either hereditary or elective : and, as

I believe there is no instance where the Crown of England has ever been
asserted to be elective, except by the regicides at the infamous and un-
paralleled trial of King Charles I.; it must of consequence be hereditary.
It must be owned, an elective monarchy seems to be the most obvious
and best suited of any to the rational principles of government and the
freedom of human nature ; and accordingly we find from history that in
the infancy and first rudiments of almost every state, the leader, chief
magistrate, or prince hath usually been elective.- Warren's Extracts
from Blackstone.
PARSING.
Either. A disjunctive conj. having its Most · An adv. modifying ' obvious.'
correspondent ' or.' Obvious . An adj . relating to ' monar-
Heredi- Two adjectives, not admitting chy.'
tary. comparison, relating to ' go- Best • • An adv. modifying ' suited.'
Elective vernments.' Suited . • A " participial adj. relating to
I A personal pro. representing monarchy.'
the writer and nom. case to Any An indef. adj . relating to the
'believe .' noun ' government ' or
·Believe · A regular trans. verb, agree- ' monarchy ' understood.
ing with its nom. I,' and Freedom . An abstract noun, obj . case,
having for its obj . the fol- gov. by the prep. to ' un-
lowing substantive sentence. derstood.
There . · An expletive adv. relating to Accord- An adv. modifying ' find. '
'is.' ingly.
Instance . A sing. noun, nom. case to Find A trans. verb, first person,
is.' plural, agreeing with we,'
Crown . • A sing. noun, nom. case to and having for its obj . the
'has.' following substantive sen-
Of A prep. relating ' Crown ' to tence.
England.' That · • A conj. used to introduce the
Been · • The past part. of ' be ' used following substantive sen-
after 'has,' and auxil. to ' as- tence.
serted.' Rudiments A plur. noun, obj. case, gov.
Asserted . The past part. of ' assert,' by in.'
used after been,' and re- Of ... A prep. relating rudiments '
lating to Crown.' to'state.'
Be ... An infin. verb, gov. by ' as- Almost An adv. modifying ' every.'
serted.' Leader Three singular nouns, disjunc-
Elective . An adj . not compared, re- Magi- tively joined, and 'nom. case
lating to Crown.' strate to the verb 'hath.
Infamous An adj. qual. trial.' ( Unpa- Prince
ralleled, ' the same.) Hath An irreg. verb, used intran-
Charles • A proper noun, in apposition sitively, third person, sing.,
with king.' agreeing with its nom.
It .. A neuter pronoun, represent. ' leader,' ' magistrate,' or
ing Crown,' and nom. case prince.'
to'must.' Been • The past part. of ' be ' used
Heredi- An adj . not compared, relat- after hath,' and relating to
tary. ing to it.' ' leader, magistrate,' or
It A neut. pronoun, nom. case to Elective . ' prince.'
must,' and in apposition An adj. relating to ' leader,'
with the substantive sen. 'magistrate,' or ' prince.'
tence, an elective monar- Extracts . A noun, obj . case, gov. by
chy seems,' &c. 'from' understood . (Thisis
Owned • The past part. of · own,' used taken from Warren's Ex-
after ' be,' and relating to tracts.')
'it.'
PARSING 103
EXAMPLE 19.
He scarce had ceased when the superior Fiend

Was moving towards the shore ; his pond'rous shield,
Ethereal temper, massy, large and round,
Behind him cast ; the broad circumference
Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views (a)
At evening from the top of Fesolé , (b)
Or in Valdarno, ( c) to descry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe.
His spear (to equal which the tallest pine
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast
Of some great ammiral (d) were but a wand,)
He walked with, to support uneasy steps
Over the burning marle ; (e) not like those steps
On heaven's azure ; and the torrid clime
Smote on him sore besides, vaulted with fire.- Milton.
(See Gov. Exam. Questions for 1853.)
The passage in prose.
Before he had well done speaking, Satan, the great leader of the
hellish crew, was advancing towards the coast, with his heavy oval
shield of heavenly workmanship, and enormous size, slung behind him ;
the wide compass of which resting on his shoulders, resembled the
moon, whose orb the celebrated artist of Tuscany employed his evenings
in examining through optic glasses from the highest towers of Fesolé,
or else, from the valleys of the Arnon, to discover mountains,
rivers, or new lands on its variegated surface. He walked with a spear
(in comparison with which the loftiest pines cut on the hills of Norway,
fit for the mast of a large man-of-war, were only as a small twig) to
enable him to sustain his painful passage over the fiery lake ; unlike
those happy flights he once enjoyed in heavenly skies ; the heat of heil
embarrassed him greatly, being surrounded and covered with fire.
NOTES.
(a) The Tuscan artist ' here meant is Galileo, an excellent astronomer, and native
of Florence, the capital of Tuscany. He invented glasses whereby he discovered spots
in the sun ; mountains, rivers, &c. , in the moon. For his discoveries he was impri-
soned five years by the Inquisition, condemned by Pope Urban VIII., forced to recant
at sixty, and died at seventy-eight years of age, A.D. 1642.
(b) Fesolé ' was an ancient city of Tuscany near Florence, the residence of the
Tuscan Augurs. Here the great Galileo resided, and made his astronomical observations
from the top of the tower thereof.
(c) Valdarno,' a pleasant valley on the river Arno, which runs through Tuscany
and by Florence into the Tuscan Sea.
(d) Ammiral,' a large man-of-war ' ship.
(e) 'Marle,' a kind of clay used for enriching or fattening land.
PARSING OF EXAMPLE 19.

Ceased · The past part. of the verb ' cease,' used after ' had ' and relating to
the pronoun He.'
Was . An irreg. intrans. verb, indic. mood, past tense, third per., sing.,
agreeing with its nom. Fiend.'
Moving . The present part. of the verb move,' used after ' was,' and relating to
'Fiend.'
Shield A noun in the nominative case absolute. ( His shield being cast behind
him.)
Temper A common noun, obj. case, governed by the prep. of ' understood.
(His shield of ethereal temper.)
Massy Adj., relating to ' shield,' (large and round, the same).
Behind . A preposition, relating its antecedent ' cast ' to its object ' him .'
Cast . The past part. of ' cast ' used after ' being ' understood, and relating
to shield.'
Circumference A noun, nominative case to the verb ' hung.'
Moon Anoun, obj. case, gov. by the prep. to ' or ' unto ' understood. (Like to
the moon.)
Orb . • A noun, obj. case, governed by the trans. verb ' views.'
Through A prep., expressing relation between the antecedent ' views ' and the
object ' glass.'
At A prep., expressing relation between the antecedent ' views' and the
object evening."
From A prep., expressing relation between the antecedent views ' and the
object 'top.'
Of A prep., expressing relation between ' top ' and ' Fesolé.'
In . A prep., expressing relation between ' views' and Valdarno.'
Her A possessive adj . relating to ' globe,' or (it may be parsed) a personal
pronoun used in the fem. gender by personification (being applied to
the moon) possessive case, gow. by ' globe.'
Spear A noun, obj . case, gov. by the prep. • with.' (He walked with his
spear).
Which . · A rel. agreeing with its antecedent ' spear ' and obj. case gov. by
' equal.'
Hewn Past part. of hew,' relating to ' pine ' or ' trees ' understood. ( Tallest
pine-trees hewn.)
To • A prep., used here as the sign ofthe infinitive mood.
Be · An intrans. verb, infin. mood, gov. by ' hewn,' or some elliptical word,
as fit to be the mast,' or ' intended to be the mast.'
Mast A common noun, nom. case, after the verb ' to be.'
Were An irreg. intrans. verb, agreeing with its nom. ' pine ' or rather ' trees '
understood.
But . An adverb, modifying ' were ' (when but means ' only ' it is an adverb) .
Wand A common noun, nominative case after ' were.'
With A prep., expressing relation between ' walk ' and ' spear.'
Support A reg. trans. verb, infin. mood, governing • steps, ' and gov. by an
elliptical word, such as ' may ' or ' order.' (That he may support his
uneasy steps, or, in order to support, & c.)
Burning · . A participial adj. qualifying ' marle.'
Steps A those
pluralsteps.)
noun, obj . case, gov. by the prep ' to ' understood. (Like to
Azure A sing. noun, obj . case, gov. by the prep. ' on.'
Clime · • · A sing. noun, nom. case to the verb ' smote.'
Sore . • An adj. used adverbially, modifying ' smote.'
Vaulted • The-past participle of ' vault,' relating to ' clime.'
PARSING 105
EXAMPLE 20.
He above the rest

In shape and gesture proudly eminent,
Stood like a tower, his form had not yet lost
All her original brightness, nor appeared
Less than Archangel ruined, and th' excess
Of glory obscured ; as when the sun, new risen,
Looks through the horizontal misty air,
Shorn of his beams ; or from behind the moon,
In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs. - - Milton.
PARSING.
He A personal pro. representing Satan,' nom. case to stood. ( He stood . )
Eminent An adj., positive degree, relating to ' He.' (He eminent in shape, &c. )
Tower • • A sing. noun, obj . case, gov. by the preposition ' to ' understood.
(Like to a tower)
Her • A personal pro. representing form,' used in the fem. gen. (Hisform
had not lost her) because forma ' in Latin is feminine, poss. case,
gov. by brightness. (Her brightness.)
Appeared Intrans. verb, past tense, agreeing with its nom. ' he ' understood.
(Nor appeared he less. )
Archangel A sing. noun, nom. case to appears ' or ' does ' understood. (Less
than an archangel appears.)
Ruined . . · The past participle of ruin, ' relating to ' archangel.' (Archangel
ruined or ruined archangel.)
Th' . · • Def. article, contracted by apocope, ' and relating to excess. (The
excess ofglory.) See Figures ofSpeech.
Excess . A sing. noun, obj. case, gov. by the prep. ' with ' understood. (With
the excess of glory.)
Obscured The past participle of obscure,' relating to ' glory.' (Of glory ob-
scured.)
Sun • A sing. noun, nom . case to looks.' (The sun looks.)
New An adj . used adverbially, relating to risen .' (Newly risen.)
Risen The past participle of ' rise ; ' relating to sun. (The sun newly risen.)
Through A prep. showing the relation between looks and air.' (Looks
through the air.)
Shorn The past participle of ' shear,' relating to ' sun.' (The sun shorn of
his beams.)
From behind . A prepositional phrase, relating ' sheds ' to ' moon.' (Sheds from
behind the moon.)
Twilight A noun, obj. case, gov. by the verb ' sheds. (Sheds disastrous twi-
light.)
Sheds · A trans. verb, agreeing with its nom. ' he ' or sun understood. (Or
when he sheds, &c.)
On • A prep. showing the relation between ' sheds,' and ' half.' ( Sheds on
half.)
Nations · A plu. noun, obj. case, gov. by the prep. of ' understood. (Half of
the nations.)
With • A prep. showing the relation between ' perplexes ' and ' fear.' (Per-
plexes with fear.)
Perplexes . . A trans. verb, governing monarchs,' and agreeing with ' he ' under-
stood. (He perplexes monarchs.)
F 5
EXAMPLE 21 .
Forthwith upright he rears from off the pool

His mighty stature ; on each hand the flames,
Driven backward, slope their pointing spires, and roll'd
In billows, leave ' th' midst a horrid vale.
Then with expanded wings he steers his flight
Aloft, incumbent on the dusky air,
That felt unusual weight ; till on dry land
He 'lights, if it were land that ever burn'd
With solid, as the lake with liquid fire
And such appear'd in hue, as when the force
Of subterranean wind transports a hill
Torn from Pelorus*, or the shatter'd side
Of thundering Etna, whose combustible
And fuell'd entrails thence conceiving fire,
Sublim'd with mineral fury, aid the winds,
And leave a singed bottom all involv'd
With stench and smoke ; such resting found the sole
Of unblest feet. - Milton.
PARSING.
Forthwith An adverb modifying ' rears.' Lake · A noun, nom. case to burns '
Pool A noun, obj. case, gov. by understood .
the compound preposition Force . • A noun, nom. case to trans-
'from off.' ports.'
Stature A noun, obj. case, gov. by Torn • Passive part. relating to ' hill.'
' rears.' Side • A noun, obj . case, gov. by
Flames A noun, plural, nom . case to 'from' implied.
' slope. Whose · A rel. pronoun, anteced.
Backward An adverb, modifying ' driven. ' ' Etna,' possessive case, gov.
Rolled Passive part. relating to by entrails.'
'flames.' Entrails . A noun, nom. case to ' aid.'
Leave A trans. verb, agreeing with Conceiv- Present part. relating to
its nom. 'they ' understood. ing 'entrails.'
(They leave in the, &c.) Leav e. A trans. verb, plur., agree.
i' . contraction for ' in,' prep. with its nom. ' entrails.'
gov. ' midst.' Involved Passive part. relating to
Vale • A noun, obj . case, gov. by 'bottom .'
' leave.' Smoke · A noun, obj. case, gov. by
Aloft An adverb, modifying ' steers.' with.
Incumbent An adjective relating to 'he.' Resting • A participial noun, obj . case,
That . A relative, anteced. air,' gov. by 'found.' (The sole
nom. to felt.' of unblest feet found such
Land • Anoun, nom. case after ' were.' resting or such resting-
Solid An adj. qualifying ' fire ' un. place.)
derstood. Sole A noun, nom. case to ' found.
NOTE.
* Pelorus, a promontory of Sicily, now called Cape Faro, about two miles from
Italy.
PARSING 107
EXAMPLE 22.
But see ! the angry Victor hath recalled

His ministers of vengeance and pursuit
Back to the gates of Heaven ; the sulphurous hail,
Shot after us in storm, o'erblown, hath laid
The fiery surge, that from the precipice
Of Heaven received ns falling ; and the thunder,
Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage,
Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now
To bellow through the vast and boundless deep.
Let us not slip th' occasion, whether scorn,
Or satiate fury, yield it from our foe. - Milton.
The passage in prose.

But look, the frowning conqueror hath recalled the executioners of
his vengeance back to heaven ; the fiery hail that was so violently dis-
charged after us, is now blown over, and has laid the burning flood,
which received us as we fell from the precipice of heaven; and that
furious thunder, with red lightning, which followed us, has spent its
force ; for now it ceases to roar through the great and boundless abyss :
then let us not lose this opportunity, whether scorn or satisfied fury con-
cede it to us from our enemy.
PARSING.
See . Verb, imper. mood, having Thunder . A noun, nom. case to ' hath '
for its nom. ' thou ' or ' you' Winged Passive part. relating to
understood, and forming ' thunder.'
with but' an interjectional His · A pronoun, representing
clause. ' thunder,' poss . case, gov.
Ministers A noun, obj. case, gov. by by shafts, and used for
'hath recalled.' its'by ancient usage, and
Pursuit . A noun, obj. case, gov. by of' by Latin idiom . (a)
implied. Shafts .. A noun, obj . case, gov. by
Back · An adverb, modifying ' re- 'hath spent.'
called.' To bellow A verb, infin. mood, gov. by
Hail A noun, nom. case to ' hath.' 'ceases.'
Shot Passive part. relating to hail. Slip • A verb, infin. mood, gov. by
That · • Rel. anteced. ' surge,' nom. 'let.'(b)
to received.' Scorn • A noun, nom. case to ' yield.'
Falling Pres. part. relating to us.
NOTES.
(a) In ancient writings the word his ' is used for the possessive case of the pronoun
'it. Many instances of this are to be found in the scriptures ; as-
'The laver and " his" foot.'
If the salt have lost " his " savour.'
(b) The full phrase is ' Let us not let slip the occasion.' Milton drops one ' let.'
EXAMPLE 23.
With questions on the passage.

At his command th' uprooted hills retir'd
Each to his place : they heard his voice and went
Obsequious ! Heaven his wonted face renew'd,
And with fresh flow'rets hill and valley smil'd.
1. Parse the words printed in italics, so as to show the relation they

bear to other words in the passage.
2. What figures of speech occur in this passage? Name the figures
of speech most common in English poetry.
3. What do you understand by diminutive nouns ? Give an ex-
ample from this passage. What are the diminutive terminations ?
4. What do you understand by poetical licence ? What are the
principal poetical licences ? Give an example from the passage.
5. Analyse the first line.
6. Render the passage into simple prose narrative.
SOLUTIONS.
QUEST. 1.
At .. • A preposition, expressing re- Wonted A participial adj. qualifying
lation between 'retired ' 'face.'
and command.' Face • • A common noun, neuter
Uprooted A participial adjective, rela- gender, third person, sing.
ting to hills.' number, obj. case, governed
Each • A distributive adjective re- by the verb renewed.'
lating to hill ' understood. reg. trans.
Renew'd . Amood, verb, indic.
To .. A preposition expressing re- past tense, third
lation between 'retired ' and person, sing. number, agree-
' place '-(Each retired to his ing with its nom. Heaven.'
place. ) With • A preposition, expressing re
They . . A personal pronoun, repre- lation between smiled ' and
senting hills, ' third per. 'flow'rets.'
plural, nom. case to ' heard. ' Hill • Two singular nouns, joinedby
Went . An irreg. intrans. verb, indic. ' and,' and therefore equiva-
mood, past tense, third per. Valley lent to a plural, nom. case
to'smil'd.'
plural, agreeing with its
nom. 'they' understood. Smil'd • A reg. intrans. verb, plural
Obsequi- An adj. used adverbially, re- number, agreeing with its
ous . lating to went.' nom. hill ' and ' valley.'
2. The figure of speech called ' personification ' is much used in this
passage; by it we ascribe to inanimate objects the actions of persons ;
thus the hills are said to retire ' and to hear ; ' the hill and valley are
said to smile.' The figures called " Syncope ' and ' Apocope ' occur in
the passage, as in the words retir'd, renew'd, flow'rets, th'. The figures
of speech most common in poetry are, ellipsis, syncope, enallage, hyper-
baton, simile, personification, antithesis.
PARSING 109
3. Diminutive nouns are those which express some diminution or

decrease ofthe original meaning of the word from which they are derived .
The example in the passage is flow'ret,' meaning ' a little flower.' The
diminutive terminations are cle, cule, et, let, ling, kin, ock, as in the
words, particle, animalcule, floweret, streamlet, duckling, lambkin,
hillock.
4. By poetical licence is meant certain violations of orthography,

etymology and syntax, which are allowed in poetry from the difficulty
of arranging words in regular measure. The principal poetical licences
are the following :.-
Two words are frequently contracted into one.
Adjectives are used for adverbs.
A noun and its pronoun are sometimes nominative to the same verb.
The past tense and the past participle are used for each other.
The conjunction ' nor ' is used for neither ' and ' or ' for ' either .'
Some words are shortened , and others are lengthened.
In the passage the adjective ' obsequious ' is used as an adverb, and
letters are cut out of words.

5. The uprooted hills retired at his command.
6. The hills that had been torn up by the roots, at his word went
back to the places from which they had been taken, for they heard his
voice and obeyed it : the face of heaven was restored to its former ap-
pearance, and the hills and valleys strewed again with fresh verdure.
Parse the words printed in italics in the following passages.
( 1 ) I saw a smith stand with his hammer, thus,

The whilst his iron did on the anvil cool,
With open mouth swallowing a tailor's news ;
Who, with his shears and measure in his hand,
Standing on slippers (which his nimble haste
Had falsely thrust upon contrary feet)
Told of a many thousand warlike French,
That were embattled and ranked in Kent;
Another lean, unwash'd artificer
Cuts off his tale, and talks of Arthur's death. - Shakspeare.
(2) So Satan spake, and him Beelzebub

Thus answered. Leader of those armies bright,
Which but the Omnipotent none could have foil'd
If once they hear that voice, their liveliest pledge
Of hope in fears and dangers, heard so oft
In worst extremes, and on the perilous edge
Of battle when it rag'd, in all assaults
Their surest signal, they will soon resume
New courage and revive ; though now they lie
Grovelling and prostrate on yon lake of fire,
As we erewhile, astounded and amaz'd ;
No wonder, fallen such a pernicious height.'-Milton.
(3) Seek not to know to-morrow's doom ;

That is not ours, which is to come.
The present moment's all our store ;
The next should heav'n allow,
Then this will be no more :
So all our life is but one instant now.— Congreve.
(4) Want is a bitter and a hateful good,

Because its virtues are not understood,
Yet many things, impossible to thought,
Have been, by need, to full perfection brought.
The daring of the soul proceeds from thence,
Sharpness of wit, and active diligence ;
Prudence at once, and fortitude it gives,
And, if in patience taken, mends our lives ;
For even that indigence which brings me low,
Makes me myself, and him above, to know ;
A good which none would challenge, few would choose,
A fair possession which mankind refuse.
If we from wealth to poverty descend,
Want gives to know the flatterer from the friend. - Dryden.
(5) What though the field be lost?

Allis not lost the unconquerable will,
And study of revenge, immortal hate,
And courage never to submit or yield,
And what is else not to be overcome ;
That glory never shall his wrath or might
Extort from me. To bow and sue for grace
With suppliant knee, and deify his power,
Who from the terror of this arm so late
Doubted his empire; that were low indeed,
That were an ignominy and shame beneath
This downfall. - Milton.
PARSING 111
(6) The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces,

The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit shall dissolve!
And like an insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind.- Shakspeare.
(7) Sweet are the uses of adversity :

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head :
And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything.- Shakspeare.
(8) A field of corn, a fountain, and a wood,

Is all the wealth by nature understood ;
The monarch, on whom fertile Nile bestows
All which that grateful earth can bear,
Deceives himself, if he suppose
That more than this falls to his share.
Whatever an estate does beyond this afford,
Is not a rent paid to the lord,
But is a tax illegal and unjust,
Extracted from it by the tyrant lust,
Much will always wanting be
To him who much desires. Thrice happy he
To whom the wise indulgency of heaven,
With sparing hand, but just enough has given.- Cowley,
(9) Fallen cherub ! to be weak is miserable

Doing or suffering ; but of this be sure,
To do aught good never will be our task,
But ever to do ill our sole delight,
As being the contrary to his high will
Whom we resist. If then his providence
Out of our evil seek to bring forth good,
Our labour must be to pervert that end,
And out of good still to find means of evil;
Which oft-times may succeed, so as perhaps
Shall grieve him, if I fail not, and disturb
His inmost counsels from their destin'd aim.- Milton.
(10) There are often seen, by those on their way to Calcutta, floating
islets of matted trees sailing along the open sea fifty or a hundred miles
from the mouth of the Ganges, having been brought down by its waters,
and bearing upon them living trees standing erect.
(11) Judge we by nature? habit can efface,

Int'rest o'ercome, or policy take place ;
By actions? those uncertainty divides ;
By passions? there dissimulation hides ;
Opinions ? they still take a wider range ;
Find, if you can, in what you cannot change.
Manners with fortunes, humours turn with climes,
Tenets with books, and principles with times.-Pope.
(12) Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness.

This is the state of man ; to- day he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope ; to -morrow blossoms,
And bears his blushing honours thick upon him :
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ;
And, when he thinks, good easy man, full surely
His grea ness is a ripening, nips his root,
And then he falls as I do.- Shakspeare.
(13) So weak are human kind by nature made,

Or to such weakness by their vice betray'd.
Almighty vanity ! to thee they owe
Their zeal of pleasure and their balm of woe.
Thou, like the sun, all colours dost contain,
Varying, like rays of light, on drops of rain ;
For every soul finds reason to be proud,
Though hiss'd and hooted by the pointing crowd. - Young.
(4) But what if he our conqueror (whom I now

Of force believe almighty, since no less
Than such could have o'erpower'd such force as ours),
Have left us this our spirit and strength entire
Strongly to suffer and support our pains,
That we may so suffice his vengeful ire,
Or do him mightier service as his thralls
By right of war, whate'er his business be,
Here in the heart of hell to work in fire,
Or do his errands in the gloomy deep ;
What can it then avail, though yet we feel
Strength undiminish'd, or eternal being
To undergo eternal punishment?
Whereto with speedy words the arch-fiend replied. - Milton.
( 15) A man so various that he seem'd to be

Not one, but all mankind's epitome.
Stiffin opinion, always in the wrong,
Was everything by starts, and nothing long !
But in the course of one revolving moon
Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon.- Spectator.
PARSING 113
(16) But among the females, the crown descends by right of primo-
geniture to the eldest daughter only and her issue ; and not, as in com-
mon inheritances, to all the daughters at once ; the evident necessity of
a sole succession to the throne having occasioned the royal law of de-
scents to depart from the common law in this respect ; and therefore
Queen Mary, on the death of her brother, succeeded to the crown alone,
and not in partnership with her sister Elizabeth. - Warren's Extracts
from Blackstone.
(17) Daughter of heaven, relentless power,

Thou tamer of the human breast,
Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour,
The bad affright, afflict the best !
Then gen'rous spark, extinct, revive ;
Teach me to love and to forgive ;
Exact my own defects to scan ;
What others are to feel, and know myself a man.'- Gray.
(18) What matter where, if I be still the same,

And what I should be. all but less than he
Whom thunder hath made greater ? Here at least
We shall be free ; the Almighty hath not built
Here for his envy, will not drive us hence :
Here we may reign secure, and, in my choice,
To reign is worth ambition though in hell ;
Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven.
But wherefore let we then our faithful friends,
The associates and copartners of our loss,
Lie thus astonish'd on the oblivious pool,
And call them not to share with us their part
In this unhappy mansion ; or once more,
With rallied arms, to try what may be yet
Regain'd in heaven, or what more lost in hell ?-Milton.
(19) ' Tis the first virtue, vice to abhor,

And the first wisdom to be fool no more:
But to the world no bugbear is so great
As want of figure, and a small estate.
Scar'd at the spectre of pale poverty !
To either India see the merchant fly·
See him with pains of body, pangs of soul,
Burn through the tropic, freeze beneath the pole !
Wilt thou do nothing for a nobler end,
Nothing to make philosophy thy friend?
To stop thy foolish views, thy long desires,
And ease thy heart of all that it admires ?
Here wisdom calls, 6 Seek virtue first, be bold!
As gold to silver, virtue is to gold.'
There, London's voice, ' Get money, money still !
And then let virtue follow, if she will.'-Pope.
END OF PARSING.
PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen-

tences, or parts of sentences, by means of points or stops, for the purpose
of showing more clearly the precise meaning of the sentences, and the
time required in reading them.
Punctuation is of great importance; it determines much of the
author's meaning, and sometimes the sense may be totally perverted by
the misapplication of the points or stops, as in the following lines :
Every lady in the land
Has twenty nails upon each hand ;
Five and twenty on hands and feet:
And this is true without deceit.
REMARK.
It will be readily seen that the foregoing lines, as they are there
printed, contain an untruth, and cannot be what the author meant ; but if
the stops be placed in the following manner the sense will be correct : -
Every lady in the land
Has twenty nails ; upon each hand
Five ; and twenty on hands and feet;
And this is true without deceit.
The following is another example of the effect of erroneous punctua-

tion: -
-
' NOTICE.
'Left his home on Monday last, a young man aged twenty - one years,
has dark hair, blue eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about
six feet high, &c.'
REMARK.
In the foregoing example the sense evidently requires a comma after
the word up.' Numerous examples might be selected in which the
sense is completely changed by inserting the stops in improper places, or
by omitting to place them anywhere ; but the preceding examples will
be sufficient to illustrate this point, and to show the necessity of atten-
tion to this subject.
Pauses are also useful in reading; they relieve the breath, and afford
much scope to the speaker's elocutionary powers. Therefore
Mind your pauses, all other graces
Will follow in their proper places.
PUNCTUATION 115
The points and marks most generally used in writing are the
following:
The comma, marked thus 9
The semicolon, thus ;
The colon, thus :
The period, thus
The point of interrogation, thus ?
The point of exclamation, thus !
The parenthesis, thus ()
The dash, thus
At a comma it is usual to pause while we can count one, at a semi-

colon while we can count two, at a colon while we can count three, and
at a period while we can count four. The points of interrogation and
exclamation are about the same length as the period. The other
marks are used for purposes which will be explained in the following
pages.
ON THE USE OF THE COMMA.
RULE 1 .
When words ofthe same parts of speech follow one another without
a conjunction, a comma is placed between them.
Examples.
He is a plain, honest, industrious man.
Riches, honours, pleasures, steal away the heart from religion.
RULE 2.
When a verb that is expressed in one part of a sentence, is under-
stood in other parts, its place is supplied by a comma.
Example.
Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready man ; and writing,
an exact man.
RULE 3.
When the subject is a part of a sentence, or otherwise consists of
many words, it is separated from the verb by a comma.
Example.
To take pleasure in doing good to others, is a sure mark of a superior
mind.
RULE 4.
A noun in the case of address, should be separated from the other
parts of a sentence by commas.
Examples.
I am, sir, your obedient servant.
Mary, please to hand me that book.
RULE 5.
Nouns in apposition, when accompanied by adjuncts, are separated
from each other, and also from the other parts of the sentence by com-
mas; but if there be no adjuncts, the comma is not required.
Examples .
Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was a zealous man.
The poet Milton is said to have been blind.
RULE 6.
Words of the same parts of speech following each other in pairs,
require a comma after each pair.
Example.
Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin , are
the consequences of civil war.
RULE 7.
Another person's expression, or observation, introduced rather in-
directly, is separated from the other part by a comma.
Examples.
Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.
The late scholar says, that he was sent on an errand.
RULE 8.
A direct quotation from another, is marked by inverted commas ;
and words thrown in between are separated from the quotation by a
comma placed before and after.
Examples.
His parting words were, ' Remember me to mother.'
'Come,' said he, let us take a walk.'
RULE 9 .
Words which express opposition or contrast, are separated by a
comma.
Examples.
He was learned, but not pedantic.
Though deep, yet clear.
PUNCTUATION 117
RULE 10.
Words or phrases emphatically repeated, are separated by a comma.
Examples.
Turn ye, turn ye, why will ye die?
Against thee, thee only, have I sinned.
RULE 11 .
Explanatory words and phrases are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
Example.
The king, in the mean time, learns the result.
His work is, in many respects, superior to mine.
RULE 12 .
A participial phrase is separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas.
Examples.
Alfred, having conquered the Danes, reigned in peace.
The man, being caught, related the whole story.
RULE 13 .
A nominative case absolute, with such words as belong to it, is
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Examples.
The wind being favourable, we set sail.
Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.
RULE 14.
The several clauses or members of a complex sentence are generally
separated from each other by commas.
Example.
The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our
spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections.
NOTES.
Though most sentences contain one or more commas, yet there are
numerous sentences that require no manner of stop, unless a period at
the end. Beginners should remember this, and be careful not to place
a comma where it is not required.
1. In general, a short simple sentence requires no comma ; as,
Every part of matter swarms with living creatures.
The best goods are often made up in small parcels.
2. When two nouns joined by a conjunction, are nominative to the

same verb they should not be separated by a comma; as,
Gold and silver are precious metals.
The man and his wife went to market.
3. In complex sentences, when the simple members are short and
closely connected by a conjunction, the comma is generally omitted ; as,
Thou art greater than I am.
She is not so tall as her sister.
4. When a clause beginning with ' what ' or ' that,' expressed or
understood, is the object of a verb immediately before it, the comma
is generally omitted ; as,
I believe what I see.
I know that he said it.
He said he would do it.
5. When two clauses are immediately connected by a relative re-
stricting the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the
comma is better omitted before the relative, but it should be inserted
after the relative clause ; as,
The things which are seen, are temporal.
The man that was here, is to call again.
EXERCISES ON THE COMMA.

Place one comma in each ofthe following sentences.
1. If you would be free from sin avoid temptation.
2. Do to others as you would have others do to you.
3. If you would be revenged on your enemies let your life be blame-
less.
4. Never excite those thoughts in others which will give them pain.
5. He must be utterly abandoned who disregards the good opinion of
the world.
6. Your countenance will be agreeable in proportion to the goodness
ofyour heart.
Place two commas in each of the following sentences.

1. Be armed with courage against thyself against thy passions and
against flatterers.
2. Forget not that the brightest part of thy life is nothing but a flower
which is almost as soon withered as blown.
3. As you value the approbation of heaven or the esteem of the
world cultivate the love of virtue.
Place commas in the proper places in the following.

1. In the least insect there are muscles nerves joints veins arteries
and blood.
PUNCTUATION 119
2. Every leaf every twig every drop of water teems with life.
3. Prepare for thyself by the purity of thy manners and thy love of
virtue a place in the happy seats of peace.
4. The silence of the night the stillness of the sea the trembling
light ofthe moon which played on the surface of the waves and the
shaded azure of the skies spangled with glittering stars served to
heighten the nobleness and majesty of the scene.
5. The Grecians excel in precepts ; the Romans in examples.
6. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the
suffering graces and virtue of the good.
7. The young and the old the rich and the poor the learned and the
ignorant must all go down to the grave.
8. Rejoice O young man in thy strength. My son hear the counsels
of thy aged parents.
9. Solomon the son of David was the wisest of men.
10. He tells us that it is too late to be admitted. Silver and gold
says Peter have I none.
11. Though a large animal yet very gentle.
12. My own opinion at least favours the proposal.
13. Italy is a large peninsula bounded on the north by the Alps.
14. The command being given the soldiers rushed upon the enemy,
15. The astonishing multiplicity of created beings the wonderful laws
of nature the beautiful arrangement of the heavenly bodies the elegance
of the vegetable world the operations of animal life and the amazing
harmony of the whole creation loudly proclaim the wisdom of the
Deity.
THE SEMICOLON.
RULE 1 .
When a sentence consists of two parts, the one complete in itself, and
the other added as an inference or explanation of what has been said,
and introduced by a conjunction ; the two parts are separated by a
semicolon.
Example.
Make a proper use of your time ; for the loss of it can never be
retrieved.
RULE 2 .
When several short sentences follow each other, not having any
necessary dependence upon each other, but having reference to the
same subject of discourse, or having several words in common ; they
are separated by a semicolon.
Example.
Everything grows old ; everything passes away ; everything disap-
pears.
RULE 3.
When a comparison , or contrast is made between one or more clauses
and a following one, the latter clause is separated from the other by
a semicolon.
Example.
As coals are to burning coals, and wood to fire;
So is a contentious man to kindle strife.
RULE 4.
When an example is introduced to illustrate any rule, the semicolon
is used before the conjunction ' as,' or the word ' namely.'
Example.
Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, ' He gave the book to
her.'
RULE 5.
When a sentence contains an enumeration of several particulars, the
clauses are generally separated by semicolons.
Example.
Various animals delight in various sorts of food ; some in grass and
herbs; some in grain and seed ; some in flesh ; some in insects.
EXERCISES ON THE SEMICOLON.
Divide the following sentences by one semicolon.

1. Perform your duty faithfully for this will procure you the blessing
of Heaven.
2. Be not proud for pride is odious to God and man.
3. Enjoy pleasure but enjoy it with moderation.
4. Murmur not at the afflictions you suffer for afflictions may be
blessings in disguise.
5. Sport not with pain and distress nor use the meanest insect with
wanton cruelty.
6. Envy not the appearance of happiness in any man for you know
not his secret griefs.
7. Economy is no disgrace for it is better to live on a little than to
outlive a great deal.
8. Straws swim at the surface but pearls lie at the bottom.
9. Green is the most refreshing colour to the eye therefore Provi-
dence has made it the common dress of nature.
Divide thefollowing by two or more semicolons.

1. Every seed contains in it a plant of its own species this plant
ther seed this seed another little plant and so on without end.
PUNCTUATION 121
2. There are tears for his love joy for his fortune honour for his
valour and death for his ambition.
3. Some men are intent upon gathering riches others endeavour to
acquire reputation and honour a third sort are devoted to their plea-
sures and a few are engaged in the nobler pursuits of learning and
wisdom.
4. Yet the world is still renewed with fresh life and beauty with a
constant succession of trees and plants with a new race of animals with
a new generation of men.
5. Listen to the counsels of your parents treasure up their precepts
and respect their riper judgments.
6. Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in her operations that
she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve that knowledge will always be
progressive and that future generations will continue to make disco-
veries of which we have not the slightest idea.
THE COLON.
RULE 1 .
When a clause, which is complete in itself, is followed by some remark
or illustration without a conjunction, they are separated by a colon.
Examples.
No man should be too positive : the wisest are often deceived.
Do not insult a poor man : his misery entitles him to pity.
RULE 2 .
When a quotation, an example, or a speech is formally introduced ,
it is commonly preceded by a colon.
Example.
The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in
these words: God is love.'
RULE 3.
When a sentence containing several clauses which are separated by
semicolons, has its sense suspended till the last clause, that clause is
separated by a cɔlon.
Example.
If he has not been unfaithful to his king; if he has not proved a
traitor to his country; if he has never given cause for such charges :
why then is he afraid to confront his enemies ?
G
EXERCISES ON THE COLON.
In each ofthefollowing sentences place a colon.

1. Cherish a spirit of benevolence it is a godlike virtue.
2. Do not flatter yourself with the idea of perfect happiness there is
no such thing in this world.
3. The Arabians have a proverb which runs thus ' Examine what is
said, and not him that speaks.'
4. Choose what is most fit custom will make it most agreeable.
5. Read the Scriptures they are the dictates of Divine wisdom .
6. Fear God He is thy Creator and Preserver.
7. Be upon thy guard against flattery it is a delicious poison.
8. The captain thus addressed his men My brave soldiers England
expects every man to do his duty.
9. The feebleness of the body and the weakness of the mind the
dimness of the eye and the failure of the limbs the restless night and
the day that can no longer be enjoyed these are some of the frailties
and afflictions of old age as described by the sacred preacher.
THE PERIOD OR FULL STOP.
RULE 1 .
When a sentence is complete, it is terminated by a period, unless it
is interrogative or exclamatory.
Examples.
Truth is the basis of every virtue. It is the voice of reason.
Let its precepts be religiously obeyed. Never transgress its limits.
RULE 2.
When words are abbreviated, the period is used after them.
Examples.
Vol. D.D. Rev. Jan. Feb. Mr.
EXERCISES ON THE PERIOD.
Place periods in the proper places in thefollowing.

1. Every deviation from truth is criminal Abhor a falsehood Let
your words be ingenuous Sincerity possess the most powerful charm
It acquires the veneration of mankind Its path is security and peace
2. The student obtained the degree of BA Jerusalem was de-
stroyed by Titus A D 70 Then shall the kingdom of Heaven be
likened unto ten virgins Mat xxv 1 Death is the king of terrors
PUNCTUATION 123
Religion breathes a spirit of gentleness and affability A man cannot

live pleasantly unless he lives honestly
3. Honour, glory, and immortality, are promised to virtue The hap-
piness allotted to man, is faint and low, when compared with the im-
mortal prospects Blessed are the pure in heart
THE POINT OF INTERROGATION.

The point of interrogation is placed at the end of a sentence that
asks a question.
Examples.
Wherein does happiness consist?
In what scene of life is it to be found ?
Shall we seek it in palaces?
Or in a peaceful retreat ?
Is it to be purchased by riches?
Can we obtain it by power?
NOTE. The point of interrogation should not be employed in cases where it is only
said, that a question has been asked ; as, ' The master asked me, why I came so
late.'
THE POINT OF EXCLAMATION.

The point of exclamation is placed after a word or sentence that
expresses surprise, joy, grief, or any sudden emotion.
Examples.
What ! deny the existence of a Deity !
Banish the Creator from His own world !
See the wonders of His power !
Enjoy the blessings of His goodness !
And turn his being into jest !
What madness is this !
THE PARENTHESIS.
The parenthesis is used to enclose some explanatory word or clause of
a sentence, which may be omitted without injuring the sense or con-
struction.
Examples .
An honest man (as Mr. Pope expresses himself) is the noblest
work of God.
Remember (continued he with a sigh) your absent friend.
Pride (to use the emphatical words of a sacred writer) was not made
for man.
G2
THE DASH.
The dash is used to mark an abrupt or unexpected turn in a sen-
tence. It may also be introduced where a significant pause is required,
Example.
'Here lies the great -false marble, where ?
Nothing but sordid dust lies here,'
If thou art he, so much respected once - but, oh !
How fallen! how degraded! '
NOTE. A dash following a stop, usually denotes that the pause is to be greater than
if the stop were alone ; and when the dash is used by itself, the pause is of variable
length which the sense only can determine.
GENERAL EXERCISES ON PUNCTUATION.
Place the proper stops and marks in the following.

1. Loose conversation operates on the soul as poison does on the
body Is your sister well Is she in town Admirable portrait What
a look Life in general for exceptions are extremely few is thrown
away in sloth and trifling
2. Be more ready to forgive than to return an injury Chance never
produced lions tigers bears sheep bulls dogs or horses Never value
yourself upon your fortune for this is a sign of a weak mind Apply
thyself to learning it will redound to thy honour
3. How do you employ your time In reading and writing What
is your favourite pursuit The improvement of the mind What a
noble scene is before us How charming the face of nature How
beautiful is the prospect I have seen charity if charity it may be
called insult with an air of pity I have a letter here it is that which
was given by the admiral.
4. O grant me heav'n a middle state
Neither too humble nor too great
More than enough for nature's ends
With something left to treat my friends
OTHER MARKS USED IN COMPOSITION.

The caret, marked thus Λ An index or hand, thus
thus 9 A bracket or crochet,
thus [
The apostrophe,
The hyphen, thus - thus
A dagger or obelisk,
The brace, thus A double dagger, thus
The paragraph, thus Parallel lines, thus
The ellipsis, thus A section thus
The asterisk thus * The diaeresis thus
The caret is made use of in writing (not in printing) to show where
to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. This
PUNCTUATION 125
mark is placed beneath the line, at the place where the words ought to
have been inserted ; and the words omitted are put over the line,
and
as near the place as may be ; as, watch Λ pray.
The apostrophe is used to shorten a word ; as, lov'd for loved ; tho'
for though ; o'er for over. It is also used to mark the possessive
case of a noun; as Nelson's victory.
The hyphen is used to connect the parts of a compound word ; as,
cheese-cake, coach-horse, Anglo-Saxon. It is set at the end of a
line to show that one or more syllables of a word are carried to the
next. The word in this case is to be divided according to the most
natural and approved rules for the division of syllables.
The brace is used to unite three lines of poetry having the same
rhyme or ending. It also connects a number of words in prose with
one common term to avoid repetitions ; as,
a long
The vowel a has a short sound.
a broad
The paragraph is a mark chiefly used in the Bible to denote the
beginning of some new matter or subject. In other books the parts of
discourse which are called paragraphs, are sufficiently distinguished
by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards.
The ellipsis is used when part of a word or sentence is omitted ;
as, k-g for king.
The asterisk or star generally refers to some remark in the margin
or at the bottom of the page. When several of them stand together
they imply that some part of an author is lost, or too immodest to be
read, or too long to be inserted.
The index or hand denotes that the passage to which it points is
worthy of observation or very remarkable.
Brackets or crochets are designed to enclose a particular word or
part of a sentence ; as the little word [man] makes a great noise in the
world.
The dagger or obelisk, the double dagger and also parallel lines, are
used in references to something in the margin or at the bottom of the
page. The letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures are some-
times used for the same purpose.
The section is used to mark the smaller divisions of a chapter or
book. It is also used sometimes as a reference to the margin.
The diaeresis is placed over the latter of two vowels to show that
they must be pronounced in distinct syllables ; as, Deïty.
COMPOSITION OR STYLE.
'Concise your diction, let your sense be clear,

Nor with a weight of words fatigue the ear.'- Francis.
Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts by

written language.
To compose correctly and perspicuously, it is necessary
not only to have a knowledge of the rules of orthography,
etymology, syntax, and punctuation ; but also of style and
of the use of figurative language. The words which a
writer employs may be proper, and so constructed as to
violate no rule of syntax, and yet his composition may have
great faults in point of style.
The following remarks, rules, and exercises, on style and
figurative language, will enable the student to express his
thoughts, not only with accuracy, but also with perspicuity.
OF STYLE.
Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his ideas

by means of language.
To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise,
diffuse, simple, elegant, vehement, neat, feeble, affected, easy, stiff,
obscure, are employed. A considerable diversity of style exists in
compositions all equally excellent in their kind : and indeed, different
subjects as well as the different endowments by which genius is dis-
tinguished, require a diversity.
In order to acquire a good style, attention to the following particulars
is essential.
FIRSTLY.-We ought always to endeavour to obtain a clear and pre-
cise idea of the subject of which we propose to treat. The foundation
offine writing is good sense accompanied with a lively imagination.
SECONDLY. - The frequent practice of composing is indispensably
necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules for the at-
tainment of this object will be of little avail.
THIRDLY.-We should render ourselves well acquainted with the
style of the best authors. By a diligent perusal of eminent authors,
we may acquire taste, sentiment, and command of language.
STYLE 127
FOURTHLY.-We should always study to adapt our style to the

subject of our composition, and also to the capacity of our hearers, if
we are to speak in public. If the subject be of a high and solemn
nature, our words should not be familiar and common-place: if on
matters of little import, and of every-day occurrence, high-sounding
expressions and learned phrases would be ludicrously misplaced.
FIFTHLY. -Those who are ambitious of attaining a beautiful style,
ought to study with attention the works of our most eminent poets.
From this source is often derived a more delicate and elevated mode of
expression, as well as of thinking.
SIXTHLY.-We must beware of falling into a servile imitation of
any author whatever. It fetters genius, and is likely to produce a
stiff manner. No person will ever become a good writer or speaker,
who has not some degree of confidence to follow his own genius.
LASTLY.-Attention to style should not engross us so much, as to de-
tract from a higher degree of attention to the thoughts. It has been
well said, ' To your expression be attentive; but about your matter be
solicitous.'
The most important qualities of a good style are perspicuity and
accuracy; qualities so essential in every kind of writing, that for the
want of them nothing can atone.
PERSPICUITY claims attention-
First, with respect to single words and phrases.

Second, with respect to the structure of sentences.
Perspicuity, considered with respect to words and phrases, requires
these three qualities in them, purity, propriety, and precision.
When considered with respect to the structure of sentences, it re-
quires clearness, unity, and strength.
PURITY.
Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only as
belong to the language which we write or speak. Therefore,
Rule 1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms.
Rule 2. Avoid antiquated or obsolete words.
Rule 3. Avoid new-coined or unauthorised words.
EXAMPLES.
Of words and phrases which violate the rules of purity.

Inelegant Better thus.
Methinks I am right. I think that I am right.
I had as lief do it. I would as readily do it.
I wot not, quoth he. I know not, said he.
Incumberment. Incumbrance.
PROPRIETY.
Propriety of style consists in the selection of such words as are best
adapted to express our meaning, and most suitable to the subject on
which we speak or treat. Therefore,
Rule 1. Avoid low and provincial words and phrases.
Rule 2. Avoid ambiguous or equivocal expressions. *
Rule 3. Avoid technical terms, except when necessary in treating of
science.
Rule 4. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions. †
Rule 5. Omit no words which are necessary to complete the sense.
Rule 6. Avoid using the same word too frequently, or in different
senses.
Rule 7. In writing prose, avoid words and contractions that are merely
poetical.
Rule 8. Avoid using words not adapted to the ideas which we wish to
convey.
EXAMPLES.
Of words and phrases which violate the rules of propriety.
Inelegant. Better thus.
By dint of argument. By the force of argument.
He is not a whit better. He is not in any degree better.
He does not hold long in one mind. He does not continue long in one
mind.
I work from morn till eve. I work from morning till evening.
He flies in the water. He swims in the water.
He had like to have gotten one or He was once or twice in danger of
two broken heads. having his head broken.
I perceived it with half an eye. I perceived it by a transient view.
If I happen to have leisure to- If I should have leisure to-
morrow. morrow.
Let us consider the works of nature Let us consider the works of nature
and art. and of art.
The Latin tongue was never in its The Latin tongue was never spoken
purity in this island. in its purity in this island.
It is difficult for him to speak three It is difficult for him to speak three
sentences together. sentences successively.
No less than 200 scholars have been No fewer than 200 scholars have
educated in that school. been educated in that school.
He is our mutual benefactor. He is our common benefactor.
NOTES.
* A sentence is said to be ambiguous or equivocal, when it conveys more meanings
than one ; as, ' God heapeth favours on his servants, ever liberal and faithful.' Is it
God or his servants that are ever liberal and faithful? If the former, we should say,
servants ; ' but if the latter,
' God, ever liberal and faithful, heapeth favours on hisservants,'
'God heapeth favours on his ever liberal and faithful or, on his servants
who are ever liberal and faithful.'
When a sentence cannot be understood, it is properly styled unintelligible ; as,
This temper keeps our understanding tight upon us.' What can the author mean
by this expression ? Again, I have observed that the superiority among these
coffee-house politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion. This
sentence conveys no definite meaning.
STYLE 129
PRECISION.
Precision of style consists in the use of such expressions as exactly

convey the meaning intended, and in the rejection of all superfluous
words and phrases. Therefore,
Rule 1. Observe the exact meaning of words which appear to be
synonymous, or nearly so, and employ those that are most suitable.
Rule 2. Avoid a useless repetition either of words or of sentiment.
EXAMPLES.
Of difference in meaning of words commonly reckoned

synonymous.
Custom respects the action ; habit, the actor. By
Custom custom we mean the repetition of the same act ; by
Habit habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the
mind or body. By the custom of dram-drinking one
acquires a habit of frequenting public-houses.
Avow To avow, supposes the person to glory in it ; to
Acknowledge acknowledge, supposes a small degree of faultiness ; to
Confess :{confess, supposes a higher degree of guilt.
Only imports that there is but one of the same
Only · kind ; alone is being without company, or having no
Alone other companion. An only child is one that has neither
brother nor sister ; a child alone is one left by itself.
Austerity relates to the manner of living ; severity, of
Austerity
Severity thinking; rigour, of punishing. A hermit is austere in
Rigour . his life; a casuist, severe in his application of religion ,
&c.; a judge, rigorous in his sentences.
Acquirement We say moral or literary acquirements ; acquisition
Acquisition of fortune ; and attainment of our salvation.
Attainment
Entire • As thing is entire that wants none of its parts ; com-

Complete . plete, by wanting none of its appendages. It is entire,
in not being broken ; complete, in wanting nothing.
To invent . We invent things that are new; we discover what was
To discover before hidden. Galileo invented the telescope; Harvey
discovered the circulation of the blood.
Pride • Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity makes us
Vanity . { desire the esteem of others
Drowsy. ·
Sleepy • • Drowsy is most poetical ; sleepy more familiar; in-
Inclined to clined to slumber is most proper, if we speak seriously.
slumber .
G5
Surprised · We are surprised at what is new or unexpected ; we

Astonished are astonished at what is great ; we are amazed by
Amazed what is incomprehensible ; we are confounded by what
Confounded is dreadful or terrible.
Haughtiness is founded on the good opinion we en-
Haughtiness tertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low opinion we
Disdain have of others. They are both children of pride.
Amiable
Lovely . We say an amiable character; a lovely complexion ;
Charming . a charming singer ; afascinating orator.
Fascinating
The continuance of the same thing wearies us ;
To weary • labour fatigues us. I am weary with standing; I am
To fatigue . fatigued with walking.
To abhor To abhor, imports simply strong dislike; to detest,

imports also strong disapprobation. One abhors being
To detest • in debt; he detests treachery.
Difference respects the senses ; distinction the under-
standing. We see, we hear, we feel, we smell, we taste
Difference . a difference ; but we perceive a distinction. We say a
Distinction difference in sounds, in tastes, &c., but a distinction in
ideas.
Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is proper ;
Wisdom · prudence prevents our speaking or acting improperly.
A wise man employs the most proper means for suc-
Prudence cess; a prudent man, the safest means for not being
brought into danger.
Duration · These are essentially and metaphysically different.
Durability . { We say duration of time ; durability of substance.
Difficulty · A difficulty embarrasses us ; an obstacle stops us. We
Obstacle · remove a difficulty ; we surmount an obstacle.
We distinguish what we wish not to confound with
another thing ; we separate what we wish to remove
To distinguish from it. Objects are distinguished from one anotherby
To separate their qualities. They are separated by the distance of
time or place.
Tranquillity denotes a situation free from trouble,
considered in itself; peace, the same situation with re-
Tranquillity spect to any causes that might interrupt it; calm, with
Peace regard to a disturbed situation going before or following
Calm it. A good man enjoys tranquillity in himself, peace
with others, and calm after a storm.
Sober A man may be counted sober, who drinks much and
Temperate is not intoxicated ; a temperate man drinks little ; an
Abstemious abstemious man drinks not at all.
STYLE 131
We remark in the way of attention, in order to re-

Remark · member ; we observe in the way of examination, in
Observe order to judge. A traveller remarks the most striking
objects he sees ; a general observes all the motions of
the enemy.
Desist • · We desist, from the difficulty of accomplishing ; we

Renounce renounce, on account of the disagreeableness of the
Quit. object or pursuit. We quit, for the sake of some other
Leave off thing which interests us more ; and we leave off, because
we are weary of the design.
A handsome woman is tall, graceful, and well shaped,
Handsome • with regular features ; a pretty woman is delicately
Pretty . made, with features formed to please, yet without
Beautiful grandeur or dignity ; a beautiful woman implies a
union of both.
Crime · Crime alludes to a breach of human laws, sin implies

Sin · offence against God ; and vice a depravation of the
Vice will. Thus, forgery is a crime ; infidelity a sin ; and
gaming a vice.
Mutual is a free and voluntary exchange, thus buy-
Mutual . ing and selling is for the mutual advantage of both
Reciprocal parties ; reciprocal means the return of one favour for
another.
Mirth Mirth is an act, cheerfulness is a habit ; mirth is short
Cheerfulness . and transient, cheerfulness fixed and permanent.
Afflicted Afflicted, means distressed ; tormented, implies griev-
Tormented :{{ ously afflicted, or in great pain.
Maimed · Maimed, means wanting a limb; cripple, is a person
Cripple who has his limbs, but wants the use of them ; lame, or
Lame . lameness, may arise from either of these causes.
Clear When applied to water are strictly synonymous ; but
Transparent we must use only the first if speaking of air or
weather.
Close · • Henry VII. was so close that even those who were
Private . • admitted to pass private hours with him, never knew
Secret anything of his secret counsels, or could pretend even
· • to guess at his future intentions.
To be parsimonious is to be excessively unwilling to
Parsimonious part with money on necessary occasions ; miserly, signi-
• fies a parsimonious disposition, or depriving ourselves
Miserly . of the necessaries of life, merely to hoard the riches
Covetous · we possess; covetousness is an eager craving for the
Avaricious
possessions of others ; avariciousness implies such an
Niggardly. • inordinate thirst of gain that makes a man grasp at
Penurious . ·
everything he sees. We say a man is niggardly in
Lgiving; and in spending penurious.
Conversation . These, if not quite synonymous, are at least very

Conference closely allied. We converse together familiarly, we
Chat confer seriously, while chatting means mere frivolous
Discourse and good-humoured intercourse to amuse. We say,
Talk subject of discourse ; proposed talk ; amusing chat ;
serious conference ; familiar conversation.
Dumb . • The first of these not strictly synonymous adjec-
Silent · tives, implies incapacity or deprivation of speech ; the
Mute • • others allude to volition.
To choose . These, though perfectly synonymous, are yet appro-

To select priated in the language of conversation. Thus we say,
To elect to choose a partner ; to select among many ; to elect a
member of parliament.
Enemy . · These words are not perfectly synonymous. The

Opponent second and third express immediate and particular
Antagonist contest, though perhaps without ill-will ; the first,
Adversary fourth and fifth dencte resolute and lasting enmity.
Foe .
Enough relates to the quantity which one wishes to

have of anything : sufficient relates to the use that is
Enough made of it. Hence enough generally imports a greater
Sufficient quantity than sufficient does. The covetous man never
has enough ; although he has what is sufficient for
nature.
Farewell • • Farewell! is applicable to whatever we take leave

Adieu · of; whilst adieu ! is a more pious exclamation, and
:{ should in strictness be applied only to human creatures.
Of easy inter-
course These are by no means synonymous; for a man may
Familiar be of easy intercourse with all, and familiar with many;
Friendly • yet friendly to few, and possibly intimate with none.
Intimate
Inexorable • These are not synonymous. The first refuses to

Inflexible . ·• hear the voice of entreaty ; the second never bending to
it, though he does hear.
Lavish . . These words end in a climax ; for he who begins by
Profuse being lavish, will soon become profuse, and finish with
Prodigal · growing completely prodigal.
Preface
Prelude We say the preface to a book, the prelude to a piece
Prologue of music, the prologue to a play, and the exordium to an
oration.
Exordium .
STYLE 133
Sullen · These words are not exactly synonymous. We say,

Austere a sullen girl, when young, is likely to end her days a
Churlish • sour old maid ; and that a churlish boy gives intimation
Sour of being at the close of life, either an austere father, if
Surly • · he marries early, or else a surly old bachelor, if he never
marries at all.
The first seems to imply excellence ; the other usually

Ready · contains somewhat of reproach. Thus we say, ' You
Prompt
:{ were too prompt in your replies.'
Rule These are not precisely synonymous, though similar.

Sway Sway has the gentlest meaning of the three : the hus-
Government band rules by his authority ; the wife sways by in-
fluence.
These are not exactly synonymous. When Caligula

wished the whole empire had but one head, that he
might have the pleasure of cutting it off, he expressed
Tyranny a tyranny the most diabolical. When King John, to
Oppression extort money from a Jew, caused him to have a tooth
drawn every day till the sum was paid which he in-
sisted on the man's lending him, oppression was the
true word for such a proceeding.
Warmth These are allied in affinity, yet not quite synony-

mous. We say, the heat of passion, the warmth of
Heat affection.
These are synonymous in books, but not in conver-

Vesture sation. Ruiment is an old-fashioned word, and clothes
Clothes is the word most in use. The first and last are almost
Raiment totally excluded in conversation, except the discourse
turns upon very serious subjects.
With expresses a more close and immediate connec-
With · · tion; by, a more remote one. We kill a man with a
By • sword; he dies by violence. The criminal is bound
with ropes by the executioner.
War These are not strictly synonymous. War is indeed

Hostility a state of hostility ; but there may be hostilities un-
:{ allowed by the laws of war.
Reverse • These words are not synonymous. Sickness is the

Contrary reverse of health, and youth the reverse of age. Vice
is contrary to virtue.
EXAMPLES
Of words and phrases which violate the rules of precision.

He was of so high and indepen- He was of so high and inde-
dent a spirit, that he abhorred and pendent a spirit, that he abhorred
detested being in debt. being in debt.
This man, on all occasions, This man, on all occasions,
treated his inferiors with great treated his inferiors with great
haughtiness and disdain. disdain.
His end soon approached ; and His end soon approached, and
he died with great courage and he died with great fortitude.
fortitude.
Such equivocal and ambiguous Such equivocal expressions mark
expressions mark a formed inten- an intention to deceive.
tion to deceive and abuse us.
There can be no regularity or There can be no order in the
order in the life and conduct of that life of that man who does not
man, who does not give and allot a allot a due share of his time to re-
due share of his time to retirement tirement and reflection.
and reflection.
His cheerful, happy temper, re- His cheerful, happy temper
mote from discontent, keeps up a keeps up a kind of daylight in his
kind of daylight in his mind, ex- mind, and fills it with a steady
cludes every gloomy prospect, and and perpetual serenity.
fills it with a steady and perpetual
serenity.
That great politician desisted That great politician desisted
from, and renounced his designs, from his designs when he found
when he found them impracticable. them impracticable.
CLEARNESS.*
Clearness in the structure of sentences consists in that arrangement
of the words and members by which their relation and connection are
rendered clear and determinate. A sentence is clear when the meaning
is easily understood and the expressions are such as to leave no doubt
of what the writer intends.
Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the meaning
ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes, namely, either
NOTE.
* The using ofsome word which is not to be found in our language, is termed a bar-
barism. When the construction is ungrammatical, that is, when there is a breach of
the rules of Syntax, it is termed a solecism; as, · They loves,' ' these apple.' When a
word is used to express
་ some idea or thing to which it has no reference, it is termed
an impropriety; as ' He flies in the water, instead of swims.
STYLE 135
from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong arrangement of them.

Therefore,
RULE 1.- Place adjectives, relatives, participles, adverbs, and expla-
natory phrases as near as possible to the words to which they relate,
and in such a situation as the sense requires, so as to make their mutual
relation clearly appear.
RULE 2.- Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to
preserve the sense.
RULE 3.-In the arrangement of members and clauses denoting cir-
cumstances, care is necessary that they occupy an appropriate situation
in the sentence.
EXAMPLES
In which the rules ofclearness are violated.
It is folly to pretend to arm It is folly to pretend, by heaping
ourselves against the accidents of up treasures, to arm ourselves
life by heaping up treasures which against the accidents of life, which
nothing can protect us against but nothing can protect us against but
the good providence of our Hea- the good providence of our Hea-
venly Father. venly Father.
We do those things frequently We frequently do those things
which we repent of afterwards. which we afterwards repent of.
I was engaged formerly in that I was formerly engaged in that
business, but I never shall be again business, but I shall never be con-
concerned in it. cerned in it again.
Are these designs which any Are these designs which any
man who is born a Briton, in any man who is born a Briton ought to
circumstances, in any situation, be ashamed or afraid, in any cir-
ought to be ashamed or afraid to cumstances, in any situation, to
avow ? avow?
It is true what he says, but it is What he says is true, but it is
not applicable to the point. not applicable to the point.
This kind of wit was very much About an age or two ago this
in vogue among our countrymen kind of wit was very much in
about an age or two ago, who did vogue among our countrymen, who
not practise it for any oblique rea- did not practise it for any oblique
son, but purely for the sake of reason, but purely for the sake of
being witty. being witty.
I do not only mean the bulk of I do not mean the bulk of any
any single object, but the largeness single object only, but the large-
of a whole view. ness of a whole view.
Theism can only be opposed to Theism can be opposed only to
Polytheism or Atheism. Polytheism or Atheism.
Avarice is a crime which wise Avarice is a crime of which wise
men are often guilty of. men are often guilty.
The Romans understood liberty, The Romans understood liberty
at least, as well as we. as well, at least, as we.
Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mis- Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mis-
take not, a great collector of books take not, a great collector at least
at least. of books.

Fields of corn make a pleasant Fields of corn make a pleasant
prospect; and if the walks were a prospect ; and if a little care were
little taken care of that lie between bestowed on the walks that lie be-
them, they would display neatness, tween them, they would display
regularity, and elegance. neatness, regularity, and elegance.
It is proper to be copious some- It is sometimes proper to be
times, but never to be verbose. copious, but never to be verbose.
He was taking a view from a He was at a window in Lich-
window of the cathedral in Lich- field, taking a view of the cathedral,
field, where a party of the Royalists where a party of the Royalists had
had fortified themselves. fortified themselves.
Though religion will indeed Though religion will indeed
bring us under some restraints , they bring us under some restraints,
are very tolerable, and not only so, they are not only very tolerable,
but desirable on the whole. but on the whole desirable.
May not we here say with the May we not here say with the
poet, that virtue is its own re- poet, that ' virtue is its own re-
ward?' ward ? '
UNITY.
The unity of a sentence implies that it contains only one leading
idea, which connects its different parts. A sentence may indeed con-
sist of several parts ; but these parts should have an inseparable relation
to the principal subject, and should be so closely bound together as to
make on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only
one. Therefore,
RULE 1.- Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little
connection that they could bear to be divided into two or more sen-
tences. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs.
RULE 2. Never introduce parentheses which are either long or
unnecessary ; but let the thought implied by the parenthetical member
be transferred to a following sentence.
RULE 3. During the course of a sentence the scene should be
changed as little as possible ; and all unnecessary transitions from one
subject or nominative case to another should be avoided.
EXAMPLES
In which the rules of unity are violated.
After we came to anchor, they Having come to anchor, I was
put me on shore, where I was wel- put on shore, where I was wel-
comed by all my friends, who comed by all my friends, and re-
received me with the greatest kind- ceived with the greatest kindness.
ness.*
* Bychanging so often both the place and the person, we, they, 1, who, they appear
in such a disunited view that the sense of connection is almost lost.
STYLE 137

The notions of Lord Sunder- The notions of Lord Sunderland
land were always good ; but he were always good. This noble-
was a man of great expense.' man, however, was a man of great
expense.
Never delay till to-morrow (for Never delay till to-morrow what
to-morrow is not yours, and though reason and conscience tell you
you should live to enjoy it, you ought to be performed to-day. To-
must not overload it with a burden morrow is not yours ; and though
not its own), what reason and con- you should live to enjoy it, you
science tell you ought to be per- must not overload it with a burden
formed to-day. not its own.
Desires of pleasure usher in Desires of pleasure usher in
temptation, and the growth of dis- temptation and forward the growth
orderly passions is forwarded. of disorderly passions.
STRENGTH.
Strength, in the structure of a sentence, consists in such an arrange-
ment of its several words and members as shall bring out the sense to
the best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance.
Therefore,
RULE 1. Place the most important words in that situation in which
they will make the strongest impression.
RULE 2.- A weaker assertion or proposition should never follow a
stronger one ; and when the sentence consists of two members, the
longer should generally be the concluding one.
RULE 3. - All redundant words and members ought to be excluded.
RULE 4.- Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition,
or any inconsiderable word or phrase which may be earlier introduced
or altogether omitted.
RULE 5. When two objects are either compared or contrasted, their
resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some resem-
blance in the language and construction be preserved.
EXAMPLES
In which the rules for promoting the strength of a sentence
are violated.
It is six months ago since I paid It is six months since I paid a
a visit to my relations. visit to my relations.
On receiving this information he On receiving this information he
arose, went out, saddled his horse, rode to town.
mounted him, and rode to town.
I have no silver and gold, but I Silver and gold have I none ;
give thee that which I have. but such as I have, give I unto
thee.

A friend often exaggerates a A friend often exaggerates a
man's virtues ; an enemy inflames man's virtues ; an enemy, his
his crimes. crimes.
I went home full of a great I went home full of serious re-
many serious reflections. flections.
Gentleness ought to diffuse itself To form our address and regu-
over our whole behaviour, to form late our speech, gentleness ought
our address, and regulate our to diffuse itself over our whole
speech. behaviour.
These two boys appear to be These two boys appear to be
both equal in capacity. equal in capacity.
Whenever he sees me, he always Whenever he sees me, he enquires
enquires concerning his friends. concerning his friends.
The reason why he acted in the The reason of his acting in the
manner he did was not fully ex- manner he did was not fully ex-
plained. plained.
How many there are by whom How many are there by whom
these tidings of good news were these good tidings were never
never heard! heard!
However clear and obvious the However clear the conduct which
conduct which he ought to have he ought to have pursued, he had
pursued, he had not courage and not resolution to set about it.
resolution to set about it.
This measure may afford some This measure may afford some
profit and furnish some amusement. profit and some amusement.
By a multiplicity and variety of By a multiplicity of words the
words, the thoughts and sentiments sentiments are not set off and ac-
are not set off and accommodated ; commodated ; but, like David
but, like David, dressed out and equipped in Saul's armour, they
equipped in Saul's armour, they are encumbered and oppressed.
are encumbered and oppressed .
Though virtue borrows no as- Though virtue borrows no as-
sistance from, yet it may often be sistance from the advantages of
accompanied by the advantages of fortune, yet it may often be accom-
fortune. panied by them.
We came to our journey's end At last, after much fatigue,
at last, with no small difficulty, through deep roads and bad wea
after much fatigue, through deep ther, we came, with no small diffi-
roads and bad weather. culty, to our journey's end.
QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION.

What is composition? In order to compose correctly and perspicuously, what is
necessary? What is style? What epithets are employed to designate the general
characters of style? What is essential in order to acquire a good style ? Name the
most important qualities of good style. What does perspicuity require with respect
to words and phrases ? What with respect to the structure of sentences ? In what
• does purity of style consist ? Repeat the rules on purity. In what does propriety of
style consist ? Repeat the rules on propriety. In what does precision of style con-
sist ? Repeat the rules on precision. What is a barbarism ? a solecism ? an impro-
priety? What do you understand by clearness ? When is a sentence said to be clear?
Repeat the rules on clearness. What does unity of a sentence imply? Repeat the
rules on unity.
the rules In what does strength in the structure of sentences consist ? Repeat
on strength.
STYLE 139
Correct the following sentences with respect to style.
The question was strenuously debated pro and con.

Violation He died of the hyp. It repenteth me. He is no way
of thy inferior. Thy speech bewrayeth thee. It irks me.
Purity. It is difficult to discover the spirit and intendment of
some laws. Methinks I am not mistaken in my opinion.
He turned himself topsy-turvy. They were all hurly-

burly. He was left to shift for himself. Stay here while
I return. His own reason might have suggested better
reasons. I want to go and see what he wants. I long
since learned to like nothing but what you do. They
can neither return to nor leave their houses. He was
Violation dexterous in smelling out the designs of others. The
of wise and foolish, the virtuous and vile, the learned and
Propriety. ignorant, the temperate and profligate, must often, like
the wheat and tares, be blended together. It may be
justly said that no laws are better than the English. He
was willing to spend a hundred or two pounds rather
than be enslaved. No place and no object appear to him
void of beauty. By this expression I do not intend what
some persons annex to it.
Take it, but return it back again. I have read

throughout the whole book. Whenever I go, he always
meets me there. His faithfulness and fidelity should be
rewarded. The writing which mankind first wrote was
written on tables of stone. Poverty induces and che-
rishes dependence ; and dependence strengthens and in-
Violation creases corruption. We were escorted by our friends,
of accompanied by our servants, and attended by the
Precision. troops. It is possible this painful event may have a
favourable consequence ; but, if not, we must submit to
the issue without dismay, and hope for better fortune.
He obtruded himself into the company without having
had an invitation, and he intruded his opinions upon the
party without them having been called for. The birds
were clad in their brightest plumage, and the trees were
clad in their richest verdure.
Reverence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity,

intermixed with a certain degree of awe. Restlessness
of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace
and the performance of our duty. The Christian reli-
gion gives a more lovely character of God than any
religion ever did. Had he died before, would not then
Violation
of this art have been wholly unknown ? Though energetic
Clearness. brevity is not adapted alike to every subject, we ought to
avoid its contrary, on every occasion, a languid redun-
dancy of words. Many act so contrary to this method,
that from a habit of saving time and paper, which they
acquired at the university, they write in so diminutive a
manner that they can hardly read what they have
written.
Their march was through an uncultivated country,

whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other
riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank
and unsavoury, by reason of their continually feeding
upon sea-fish. Without some degree of patience exer-
Violation cised under injuries (as offences and retaliations would
of succeed to one another in endless train), human life
would be rendered a state of perpetual hostility. The
Unity. Britons, daily harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts,
were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence, who
consequently reduced the greater part of the island to
their power ; drove the Britons into the most remote and
mountainous parts ; and the rest of the country, in cus-
toms, religion, and language, became wholly Saxons.
As the strength of our cause doth not depend upon, so

neither is it to be decided by, any critical points of history,
chronology, or language. If I mistake not, I think he is
improved both in knowledge and behaviour. Although
Violation he was closely occupied with the affairs of the nation,
of nevertheless he did not neglect the concerns of his
friends. There is nothing which promotes knowledge
Strength. more than steady application and a habit of observation.
For all your actions you must hereafter give an account,
and particularly for the employments of youth. May
the happy message be applied to us, in all the virtue,
strength, and comfort of it !
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
The figures of speech are intentional deviations either

from the usual form or spelling of words, from the syn-
tactical construction, or from the proper and literal meaning.
Hence they are divided into three classes, namely —
1. Figures of Etymology.
2. Figures of Syntax.
3. Figures of Rhetoric.
Figures of etymology are intentional deviations from the usual form
or spelling of words. They are almost exclusively confined to poetry.
Figures of syntax are intentional deviations from the ordinary con-
struction of words or sentences.
Figures of rhetoric are intentional deviations from the proper and
literal meaning or ordinary application of words. These are very
numerous, and are the language of the imagination or passions.
Figures of this kind are commonly called tropes.
When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen and
adorn expression. They are used more frequently in poetry than in
prose, and several of them are merely poetical licenses.
The follo wing Table contains the principal figures of speech :-
Figures Figures of Syntax. Figures of Rhetoric.*

of Etymology.
A-phær'-e-sis. El-lip'-sis. Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion. In-ter-ro-ga'-tion.
Pros'-the-sis. Ple'-o-nasm. Sim'-i-le, Par-al-ep'-sis.
Syn'-co-pe. En-al'-la-ge. Met'-a-phor. A-pos'-tro-phe.
A-poc'-o-pe. Hy per'-ba-ton. Al'-le-gor-y. On-o-ma-to-pœ'-ia.
Par-a-go'-ge. Syl-lep'-sis. Hy-per'-bo-le. Cat-a-chre'-sis.
Di-ær'-e-sis. I'-ro-ny. Vis'-ion.
Syn'-ær-e-sis. Me-ton'-y-my. Per-iph'-ra-sis.
Tme'-sfs. Syn-ec'-do-che. Ox-y-mo'-ron.
An-tith'-e-sis. A-nas'-tro-phe.
Cli'-max. Ex-cla-ma'-tion.
* Some writers on rhetoric make the number exceed a hundred ; carried to this
extent it may be truly said,—
All the rhetorician's rules
Teach nothing but to name his tools.'
EXPLANATIONS WITH EXAMPLES.
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
APHÆRESIS takes away a letter or syllable from the beginning of
a word ; as, ''gainst ' for ' against,' "'neath ' for
· beneath.'
PROSTHESIS . • adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word ;
as, arise' for ' rise,' ' bestrown ' forstrown.'
SYNCOPE . · cuts out a letter or syllable from the middle of a
word; as, ' o'er ' for ' over,' ' se'nnight ' for ' seven-
night.'
APOCOPE . cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of aword; as,
'th'' for 6 the,' tho' ' for " though.'
PARAGOGE adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; as,
'deary ' for dear," 6 withouten ' for ' without.'
DIERESIS . • is the division of one syllable into two, by placing the
mark ( ) over the latter of two vowels ; as,
' co-operate,' ' zoölogy.'
SYNÆRESIS · is the contraction or sinking of two syllables into one;
as, 6 seest ' for ' seest,' drowned,' for ' drown-ed ,'
"'tis' for ' it is.'
TMESIS · separates a compound word by putting a word be-
tween ; as, ' what man soever ' for whatsoever
man.'
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
ELLIPSIS . · is the omission of some word or words which are
necessary to complete the construction, but whichthe
sense can supply. Such words are saidto be under-
stood; as, the upper and the lower house,' that
is, the upper house and the lower house.'
PLEONASM · is the use of unnecessary words ; as, ' I know thee who
thou art.' This figure sometimes repeats an idea,
to impress it more strongly.
ENALLAGE • is the use of one part of speech for another, and is
confined to poetry ; as,
' They fall successive and successive rise."-Pope.
(Successively).
'Sure some disaster has befel.'-Gay. (Befallen)
HYPERBATON • is the transposition of words ; as, ' Silver and gold
have I none.' 6 He wanders earth around.' This
figure is much employed in poetry.
SYLLEPSIS • • is agreement formed according to the figurative sense

of a word, and not according to the literal or
common use of the term ; it is therefore, in gene-
ral, connected with some figure of rhetoric ; as,
While evening draws her crimson curtain round.'
Thomson.
FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
PERSONIFICATION is a figure by which we attribute life, intelligence, and
personality to inanimate things or unintelligent
beings ; as, ' The sea saw it and fled.'
' The worm, aware of his intent,
Harangued him thus, right eloquent.'- Cowper.
SIMILE expresses the resemblance that one object or thing
bears to another, and in general uses the word
' like,'' as,' or ' so;' as,
' He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of
water.'
' As for man, his days are as grass ; as a flower
of the field, so he flourisheth .'
METAPHOR expresses the resemblance of two objects by applying
the name or action of one directly to the other ;
that is, without using the sign ' like,' oras.' A
metaphor is nearly allied to a simile, and differs
only from it in being expressed in a shorter form ;
thus-
Metaphor- He is a pillar of the state.
Simile - He upholds the state like a pillar.
Metaphor -That man is a lion.
Simile- He has acted like a lion.
ALLEGORY is a continued chain or series of metaphors in the same
sentence or discourse. Thus, the Psalmist, repre-
senting the Jewish nation under the symbol of a
vine, says-
' Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou
hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou
preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to
take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills
were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs
thereof were like the goodly cedars.'- See 80th
Psalm.
HYPERBOLE . is the representation of things beyond the bounds of
strict truth, by representing things greater or less
than they really are ; as,
They were stronger than lions.'
As swift as the wind.'
'As white as snow.'
IRONY • is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of

what we say ; as,
' Well done,' when we mean ' badly done.'
'A brave watchman indeed to sleep.' (Meaning an
idle one.)
' You are quite a Solomon.' (Meaning very
ignorant )
METONYMY uses the name of one thing for another which is
closely related to it ; as, the effect for the cause ;
the author for his works ; the thing containing for
the thing contained, &c. Thus we say --
' He has read Milton.' (Meaning the works of
Milton. )
"They smotethe city.' (Meaning the citizens.)
"The kettle boils.' (Meaning the water in the
kettle.)
SYNECDOCHE • puts a part for the whole, or the whole for a part; as,
' Three summers I have lived there ' ( for ' three
years ').
'They pay so much per head' (for ' so much per
man ').
'Now the year is most beautiful ' (for ' the spring
is,' &c. ).
ANTITHESIS is a contrasting of two contrary objects or qualities,
that they may be made to appear in a stronger
light; as,
' On one side stands modesty, on the other
deceit.'
' Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not
dull.'
CLIMAX rises by regular steps from one circumstance to another
more important, or descends to what is more and
more minute ; as,
Knowing that tribulation worketh patience, and
patience experience, and experience hope.'
' Folly begets pride ; pride is the author of con-
fusion ; and confusion, misery.'
INTERROGATION enlivens a discourse by asking questions ; as, ' Hath
the Lord said it, and shall he not do it? Hath he
spoken it, and shall he not make it good ? '
PARALEPSIS • pretends to conceal what we are really declaring ; as,
•
' Your unwillingness, not to mention your insub-
ordination, has annoyed me. ' ' I omit your sins of
thought, and I pass by your Sabbath-breaking.'
APOSTROPHE • is a turning off from the regular course of the subject,
in order to address some person or thing ; as,
'Death is swallowed up in victory : O Death,
where is thy sting ? O Grave, where is thy vic-
tory ?'
ONOMATOPEIA • is an expression which strongly conveys its meaning

by its sound ; as, the whistling wind,' 6 the hissing
serpent,' ' flies buzz,' & c.
CATACHRESIS is the using of one word for another for the want of a
proper one, owing to the poverty of the language ;
as, a wooden tombstone,' a glass inkhorn,' 6 a
brass candlestick.
VISION is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects
of his imagination as actually existing before his
eyes and present to his senses ; as,
' He dies -see, see him butcher'd by the bloody
crew !'
' Is this a dagger which I see before me,
The handle toward my hand ? Come, let
Me clutch thee !'
PERIPHRASIS · is a circumlocution, or the using of several words to
express the sense of one ; as, ' I go the way of all
flesh,' that is, ' I die ; ' night's pale empress,' that
is, 'the moon.'
OXYMORON . · is a figure in which several contradictions meet. It
admits an adjective of a signification quite con-
trary to that of the noun with which it is joined ;
as, She that liveth in pleasure, is dead while she
lives.' ' A painful pleasure.' "A bitter sweet,' &c.
ANASTROPHE • is a figure whereby a word which should naturally go
before another is reversed or put behind it ; as, ' I
have travelled England through,' for through
England. '
FXCLAMATION is a figure used to express some strong emotion of the
mind, as, ' Oh, the depth of the riches both of the
wisdom and knowledge of God ! how unsearchable
are his judgments, and his ways past finding out ! '
Note 1. The figures most common in English poetry are Aphæresis, Syncope,
Apocope, Ellipsis, Enallage, Hyperbaton, Personification, Simile, Antithesis .
Note 2.-Personification is also called Prosopopoeia.
Simile "" Comparison.
Antithesis "" Enantiosis.
Climax 99 Gradation.
Interrogation "" Erotesis.
Paralepsis "" Apophasis.
Apostrophe 99 Address.
Periphrasis "9 Circumlocution.
Anastrophe 99 Suspension.
Exclamation Ecphonesis.
QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION.
What do you understand by figures of speech? Into what three classes have they
been divided? What are figures of Etymology? Of Syntax? Of Rhetoric? Of what
use are figures in language ? Name the figures of Etymology ; of Syntax ; of
Rhetoric. Define the Apheresis ; the Prosthesis ; Syncope ; Apocope ; Paragoge ;
Diæresis ; Tmesis ; Ellipsis ; Pleonasm ; Enallage ; Hyperbaton ; Syllepsis ; Per-
sonification ; Simile ; Metaphor ; Allegory ; Hyperbole ; Irony ; Metonymy ; Synec-
doche; Antithesis ; Climax ; Interrogation ; Paralepsis ; Apostrophe ; Onomatopoeia ;
Catachresis ; Oxymoron ; Anastrophe ; Exclamation. Namethe figures most common
in English poetry. Name the figures which are called by more names than one.
H
The following lines, extracted in part from the Circle of the

Sciences ' (1776 ), will assist the memory in the recollection of the fore-
going figures:-
Prosopopoeia, persons makes of things :
'The mountains clap their hands, the valley sings.'
Things which resemble, Simile compares :
'Her eyes are sparkling like the radiant stars. '
In borrow'd terms the Metaphor appears :
'A sea of troubles and a wood of spears.
An Allegory is a chain of tropes :
' I've pass'd the shoals ; fair gales, now swelling hopes.'
Hyperbole leaves truth with tow'ring flight :
' More glorious than the sun ! more swift than light! '
The Irony says one thing, means another:
'What ! load me with these chains ? kind, tender-hearted brother!'
Terms relative the Metonymy show:
'Mars rages now where Ceres used to grow.'
Synecdoche the part for whole, or whole for part doth give :
' Seven winters in the western world with thee, fair nymph, I'll live.
Enantiosis poises different things :
'Truth begets foes, and flattery friendship brings.'
A Climax by gradation still ascends :
" They were my countrymen, my neighbours, friends.'
An Erotesis asks, appeals, demands :
'Why hence ? Can you be safe in barbarous lands? '
Apophasis omits, but means the more :
'Oaths I pass by, thefts, bribes, and crimes in store ?'
Apostrophe, addressing, leaves the theme:
' He dies ! fade, ye fair flowers ! be dry, thou stream! '
Onomatopoeia forms words from sound :
'Flies buzz, bees hum, or winds whistle all around.'
A Catachresis words abus'd applies :
'Over his grave a wooden tombstone lies.'
Vision brings distant actions to our view :
'He dies - see, see him butcher'd by the bloody crew ! '
Periphrasis takes many words for one:
' Now Night's pale empress quits her silver throne.'
In Oxymoron contradictions meet :
'What's love ? A pleasing pain, a bitter sweet.'
Anastrophe suspense by inversion brings :
Of love and hate, of peace and war, he sings.'
By Ecphonesis, we with heat exclaim :
' Oh, cruel fate ! oh, fair, perfidious dame ! '
EXERCISES ON THE FIGURES OF SPEECH.
Tell what figures occur in the following sentences and

passages.
1. Give ear, the land mourns.
2. Like as the hart desireth the water-brooks, so longeth my soul

after Thee.
3. I have said to corruption, Thou art my father.
4. The giant's lofty head o'ertops the clouds.
5. The sword shall never depart from thy house, because of this
deed.
6. Let the floods clap their hands, and let the hills be joyful together.
7. Hear, O heavens ! and give ear, O earth! for the Lord hath
spoken.
8. Cry aloud: for he is a God, either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or

he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be waked.
9. Who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters, and

maketh the clouds his chariot, and walketh upon the wings of the wind.
10. I do not mention my adversary's scandalous gluttony and

drunkenness ; I say not a syllable of his treachery, malice, and cruelty.
11. What went ye out into the wilderness to see? a man clothed in
soft raiment? But what went ye out for to see? &c.
12. O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears,
that I might weep day and night for the slain of the daughters of my
people !
13. Giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue
knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance,
patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly kind-
ness; and to brotherly kindness, charity.
H2
14. So frown'd the mighty combatants that hell

Grew darker at their frown.- Milton.
15. But look, the moon, in russet mantle clad,

Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastward hill. - Shakspeare.
16. Who did ever in French authors see

The comprehensive English energy?
The weighty bullion of one sterling line,
Drawn in French wire would thro' whole pages shine
-Lord Roscommon.
17. Cowards die many times before their deaths ;

The valiant never taste of death but once.-Shakspeare.
18. Camilla
Outstript the winds in speed upon the plain,
Flew o'er the fields, nor hurt the bearded grain :
She swept the seas, and, as she skimm'd along,
Her flying feet unbath'd on billows hung.- Dryden.
19. Down thither, prone in flight,

He speeds ; and, thro' the vast ethereal sky,
Sails between worlds and worlds. -Milton.
20. All nature is but art unknown to thee;

All chance, direction which thou canst not see ;
All discord, harmony not understood ;
All partial evil, universal good.- Pope.
21. She never told her love,

But let concealment, like a worm i' th' bud,
Feed on her damask cheek : she pin'd in thought,
And sat like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. - Shakspeare.
22. The Egyptian rites the Jebusites embrac'd ;

Where gods were recommended by their taste
Such savoury deities must needs be good
As serv'd at once for worship and for food.- Dryden.
23. Not one word more she said ;

But breaking off the end for want of breath,
And sliding soft, as down to sleep she laid,
And ended all her woe in quiet death.
-Spenser's Fairy Queen.
24. The pious mother doomed to death,

Forsaken, wanders o'er the heath,
The bleak winds whistle round her head,
Her helpless orphans cry for bread ;
Bereft of shelter, food , and friend ,
She views the shades of night descend ,
And stretch'd beneath th' inclement skies,
Weeps o'er her tender babes, and dies. - Smollett.
25. O unexpected stroke, worse than of death !

Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? Thus leave
Thee, native soil ; these happy walks and shades,
Fit haunt of Gods !-Milton's Paradise Lost.
26. Wretched state ! O bosom, black as death !

O limèd soul, that, struggling to be free,
Art more engag'd ! help, angels, make essay!
Bow, stubborn knees! and heart, with strings of steel,
Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe.
-Shakspeare's Hamlet
27. He sung Darius, great and good,

By too severe a fate,
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen,
Fallen from his high estate,
And welt'ring in his blood.
Deserted at his utmost need,
By those his former bounty fed,
On the bare earth, expos'd he lies,
And not a friend to close his eyes.
-Dryden's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day.
28. It must be so -Plato, thou reason'st well !

Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire,
This longing after immortality?
Or whence this secret dread and inward horror
Of falling into nought? Why shrinks the soul
Back on herself, and startles at destruction?
"Tis the divinity that stirs within us ;
"Tis heaven itself, that points out an hereafter,
And intimates eternity to man.
Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought !
Thro' what new scenes and changes must we pass!
The wide, th' unbounded prospect lies before me;
But shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it.
Soliloquy of Cato.
29. O woods, O fountains, hillocks, dales, and bow'rs!

With other echo late I taught your shades
To answer, and resound far other song.-Milton.
150 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
30. All things are hush'd as nature's self lay dead,

The mountains seem to nod their weary head;
The little birds in dreams their songs repeat,
And sleeping flowers beneath the night dew sweat.- Dryden.
31. As when a weary traveller, that strays

By muddy shore of broad seven-mouthed Nile,
Unweeting of the perilous wand'ring ways,
Doth meet a cruel crafty crocodile;
Which, in false grief, hiding his harmful guile,
Doth weep full sore, and sheddeth tender tears :
The foolish man, that pities all this while
His mournful plight, is swallowed unawares,
Forgetful of his own, that minds another's cares.
—Spenser's Fairy Queen.
32. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet,

With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun,
When first on this delightful land he spreads
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower,
Glist'ring with dew: fragrant the fertile earth
After soft showers: and sweet the coming on
Of grateful evening mild, the silent night,
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon,
And these the gems of heaven, her starry train:
But neither breath of morn, when she ascends
With charm of earliest birds, nor rising sun
On this delightful land, nor herb, fruit, flow'r,
Glist'ring with dew, nor fragrance after show'rs,
Nor grateful evening mild, nor silent night
With this her solemn bird, nor walk by moon,
Or glitt❜ring starlight - without thee is sweet. -Milton
APPENDIX I.
SYNONYMY .
A knowledge of the following list, containing the different words

of the same or similar signification, will be useful in all kinds of
composition, but more especially in paraphrasing. The words on
the same line are considered in most cases strictly synonymous,
or very nearly so ; but, in some instances, custom has made a
marked difference in the application and meaning. (See Precision . )
Abandon, desert, forsake, leave, quit. * | Acquainted, familiar, intimate.

Abase, degrade, dishonour, humble. Acquiesce, agree, consent.
Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen. Acts, actions, deeds, doings, conduct.
Abhor, detest, dislike, hate, loathe. Adage, maxim, proverb,
Abdicate, resign, renounce. Add, augment, enlarge, increase.
Abide, await, remain, stay. Adjacent, contiguous.
Abilities, cleverness, ingenuity, parts. Adjournment, prorogation.
Ability, capacity, power, strength. Adjust, reconcile, settle.
Abject, beggarly, low, mean. Admiration, wonder, surprise.
Abolish, abrogate, disannul , revoke. Admonish, warn, reprove, advise.
Abominable, detestable, execrable. Admonition, advice, counsel.
Absolution, pardon, remission. Ado, bustle, noise.
Abstemious, sober, temperate. Adorn, beautify.
Abstinence, fast. Adorning, dress, attire.
Absurd, inconsistent, unreasonable. Adulation, flattery.
Abundance, plenty. Advantage, benefit, profit, gain.
Abuse, affront, insult. Adversary, enemy, foe.
Abyss, gulf. Adversity, trouble, distress.
Accelerate, dispatch, hasten. Advertise, inform, notice.
Accept, receive, take. Advice, counsel, instruction.
Acceptable, pleasing, agreeable. Advocate, intercessor, pleader.
Access, admission, entrance. Affairs, business, circumstances.
Accomplish, fulfil, finish, end. Affection, love.
Accumulate, amass , heap up. Affiance, trust, dependence.
Accusation, charge. Affirm, assert, assure, maintain.
Acknowledge, confess, avow. Afresh, again, anew.
Acquirement, acquisition, attainment. Agony, pang, pain, anguish.
Acid, sharp, sour. Agreement bargain, contract.
* Note.- Pupils may be required to learn a certain number of lines daily. At the time of
repeating them, the teacher should name the first word in each line, and require thepupil to give
its synonymous words. Occasionally, this exercise may be introduced into other lessons also ;
whenever a difficult word occurs, the pupil may be asked to give another word of similar
meaning. Exercises of this kind give them a command of expression, and make paraphrasing
not only easy, but a delight.
152 APPENDIX I.
Aided, helped, assisted. Asylum, refuge, protection.

Aim, design, intention, view. Attitude, posture.
Alliance, league. Attribute, impute.
Allied, united, joined. Attire, clothing, dress.
Alien, foreigner, stranger. Audience, hearing.
Allow, own, admit. Audacity, boldness, impudence.
Allurements, attractions, charms. Austere, severe, hard, harsh.
Alone, only. Authority, command, dominion, power.
All, every. Availeth, profiteth, effecteth.
Also, likewise. Avaricious, covetous, miserly.
Always, continually, perpetually. Avoid, shun, fly.
Amazement, astonishment, surprise. Awe, fear, dread.
Ambassador, legate.
Ambiguity, equivocation. Babbler, prater, tattler.
Amend, improve. Banishment, exile.
Amends, recompense, payment. Banded, joined, united, conspired.
Amiable, lovely, charming, fascinating. Bank, beach, shore, coast.
Amusement, diversion. Barter, exchange, truck.
Ancestors, forefathers, predecessors. Battle, combat, engagement, fight.
Ancient, old, antique. Barbarous , rude, savage.
Annals, chronicles, history, records. Barren, unfruitful, sterile.
Angry, wroth. Be, exist, subsist, live.
Animal, beast, brute. Beam, ray.
Animate, incite, spur, urge. Beat, strike.
Answer, reply. Beautiful, pretty, handsome.
Antecedent, anterior, preceding. Beeves, oxen, black cattle.
Apartment, lodging. Behold, look, see, view.
Apace, quickly, hastily. Befall, happen.
Apparel, clothing, raiment. Beget, produce, bring forth.
Appear, seem. Belief, faith, opinion , conjecture.
Appearance, outside. Begotten, born, produced.
Appease, calm, quiet. Beguile, deceive, impose upon.
Arbour, bower. Behalf, favour, account, sake.
Arched, vaulted. Benediction, blessing.
Arguing, disputing. Benevolence, humanity, kindness.
Arms, weapons . Bereave, strip.
Arrogance, pride, haughtiness, vanity. Bestow, give, distribute.
Art, business, trade, profession. Besides, furthermore, moreover.
Articulate, pronounce . Between, betwixt, mediate.
Artifice, device, stratagem, trick. Bewail, lament, mourn.
Artificer, artist, artizan. Bias, inclination, propensity.
Ascend, rise. Bid, command, desire, order.
Ashamed, bashful. Bind, tie, fasten.
Ask, inquire, interrogate. Big, great, large.,
Assault, attack. Billow, surge, wave.
Assassination, murder. Bishoprick, diocese.
Assay, try, endeavour. Bitterness, sorrow, unpleasantness.
Assented, agreed . Black, negro.
Assessment, rate, tax. Blasted, withered, parched.
Assiduous, diligent, expeditious, quick. Blend, mingle, mix.
Assist, help, relieve, succour. Bliss, happiness, felicity.
Asunder, apart. Boggy, marshy.
Assurance, confidence, trust. Bounds, confines, limits.
SYNONYMY 153
Boisterous, violent, stormy. Clearly, distinctly, plainly.

Bold, daring, courageous. Circular, round, globular.
Bondage, slavery. Circumspectly, carefully, watchfully.
Bounty, generosity, liberality, gift. Clamour, outcry, noise.
Bravery, courage, valour, prowess. Cleanse, purify.
Bridleth, restraineth, checketh. Cleft, divided, separated , parted.
Brightness, light, splendour. Clemency , mercy, pity.
Briefly, shortly. Clergyman, minister, parson, priest.
Brilliancy, lustre, radiancy. Close, secret, private.
Bring , fetch. Close, stingy.
Broad, wide. Colours, flags.
Brook, rivulet, stream, current, river. Cogitations, thoughts.
Bruit, report, fame. Comely, decent, becoming.
Burden, load, baggage. Commandments, laws, statutes.
Bury, inter. Commerce, trade, traffic.
Butchery, carnage, massacre. Columns, pillars.
Burdensome, grievous, troublesome. Commend , praise.
Burnished, polished, brightened. Commodious, convenient, safe.
Buttress, prop, support. Complaisance, condescension.
Complete, entire, finished, perfect.
Calamity, misfortune, disaster. Commonwealth, people, public.
Calculate, count, reckon. Complicated, involved.
Calling, trade, profession. Communication, talk, words.
Calm, quiet, stillness. Comprehend, conceive, understand.
Care, caution, concern. Conceal, hide, dissemble, disguise.
Case, circumstance, occasion, condition. Concern, regard.
Cash, money. Condition, state, situation.
Cast, throw, fling. Conclude, infer, imply.
Catalogue, list. Conduct, guide, lead.
Cause, occasion. ' Conclusion, end, termination.
Cave, cavern, cell. Confound, confuse, perplex.
Cease, finish, leave off. Conjecture, surmise.
Celestial, heavenly. Conquer, overcome, subdue.
Celebrated, famous, illustrious. Conflict, struggle, fight.
Ceremonies, rites. Conspiracy, plot.
Certain, sure, infallible, fixed. Congealed, frozen.
Chafed, petted. Consolation, comfort, joy.
Chamber, room. Consume, waste, wear.
Chance, fortune, accident. Consternation, fear, terror.
Change, alter, vary. Continual, continued, perpetual.
Changeable, fickle, inconstant. Contrition, remorse, repentance.
Charms, graces. Contain, include, hold.
Chastise, correct, punish, chasten. Conversation, discourse.
Chastity, continence, purity, modesty. Contemn, despise, slight.
Check, hindrance. Contempt, scorn, derision.
Cheerfulness, mirth. Contend, strive, dispute.
Chief, principal, head. Contention, strife, quarrelling.
Choler, anger, rage. Continuance, lastingness, perseverance.
Choked, smothered, suffocated. Contradict, gainsay, oppose.
Choose, select, elect. Contrite, attrite, penitent.
Churlish, rude, ill-tempered. Controversy, dispute, discussion.
Clear, pellucid, transparent. Convey, carry, bring.
Clever, dexterous, skilful, adroit. Copy, model.
H 5
154 APPENDIX I.
Corruption, depravity. Diligence, zeal, earnestness.

Crime, sin, vice. Dimness, dullness, darkness.
Cry, lament, mourn, wail, weep. Diminish, lessen, subtract.
Cure, remedy. Dirt, mire, mud.
Custom, fashion, habit. Direction, command, order.
Cut, lop, prune. Discern, distinguish.
Discourse, conference, conversation.
Damsel, maid, virgin. Disclose, divulge, reveal, tell.
Dainty, costly, delicate, precious. Discover, find.
Damage, hurt, mischief, loss. Discharge, dismiss.
Danger, hazard, risk, venture. Discredit, disgrace.
Darkness, obscurity. Disciple, scholar, follower.
Daub, smear, plaster. Disdain, haughtiness.
Dearth, famine, scarcity. Distemper, malady, disease, disorder.
Deal, much. Disgraceful, scandalous, shameful.
Death, decease, departure. Discomfited, defeated.
Decay, decline, decrease. Disguise, mask.
Deceit, fraud, guile. Discontinue, cease.
Deceive, mislead, entice. Disperse, scatter, spread .
Defect, fault, imperfection. Discord, disagreement, strife.
Definition, description . Dispose, prepare, make ready.
Despondency, hopelessness, despair. Discretion, prudence, wisdom.
Delicate, tender, fine. Disfigure, spoil, make ugly.
Defeat, frustrate, overthrow. Dissertation, essay, treatise.
Delight, pleasure. Dismayed, frightened.
Defend, guard, protect. Distinction, fashion, quality
Defer, delay, procrastinate. Diversity, variety.
Defile, pollute, corrupt. Dissimulation, pretence, hypocrisy.
Defraud, cheat. Dissolve, melt.
Degree, rank, lot, station. Doubt, uncertainty, suspense.
Delusion, blindness, error. Divine, God-like.
Demonstration, proof. Dread, horror.
Denote, mark, show. Dream, imagination, vision, reverie.
Denounce, threaten. Dregs, sediment.
Deprive, strip. Drop, fall, tumble.
Deplorable, lamentable. Drowsy, sleepy, inclined to slumber.
Depose, dethrone. Drunk, intoxicated, fuddled.
Derision, mockery, ridicule. Dumb, silent, mute.
Deserts, deservings, merits. Due, fit, proper.
Deserving, worthy. Duration, durability.
Desolate, deserted, gloomy. Durable, lasting.
Destiny, fate, fortune, lot. Duty, obligation.
Detain, keep. Dwell, live.
Determine, judge, settle, fix. Dwelling, residence, house, tenement.
Determination, resolution. Dyed, stained.
Devise, contrive, plot.
Detest, abhor, hate. Earth, land, ground, soil.
Devotion, piety, religion. Eclipse, darken, obscure, shade.
Die, expire. Edification, improvement, instruction.
Diet, food, victuals. Effectual, efficacious.
Difference, distinction. Effect, consequence, production.
Different, divers, sundry, various. Effigy, image, statue.
Dignity, honour, greatness. Effort, endeavour.
SYNONYMY 155
Elegance, grace. Extreme, greatest, last.

Enemy, opponent, antagonist.
Eminent, high, noted. Fabric, texture, manufacture.
Eucomium, eulogy, praise. Fables, tales, stories.
Emolument, gain, profit, lucre. Faithless, false, fickle, inconstant.
Emulation, envy, rivalry. Fade, wither, decay.
Enough, sufficient. Falsehood, lie, untruth.
Encircle, enclose, encompass, surround . Family, lineage, posterity, progeny.
Endanger, risk, hazard. Faith, belief, trust, confidence, reliance.
End, extremity. Fame, report, praise.
Endless, everlasting. Familiar, friendly, intimate.
Endow, establish, found, institute. Famished, starved.
Endued, supplied, gifted. Fancy, imagination.
Enormous, huge, immense, vast. Fanciful, fantastical, whimsical.
Engaged, employed, bound by promise. Farewell, adieu.
Enmity, hatred, malice. Fashion, form, shape, figure.
Ensample, example, pattern. Farmer, husbandman.
Ensign, flag, standard, banner. Fatigued, tired, wearied.
Ensue, follow, pursue. Faulty, blameable, wrong.
Entry, entrance. Feeble, infirm, weak.
Environs, neighbourhood. Feebleness, weakness, imbecility.
Epistle, letter. Feel, handle.
Equity, justice, right. Feign, pretend.
Eradicate, extirpate. Feignedly, artfully.
Erected, built. Fellow, companion, equal, partner.
Error, mistake. Fellowship, partnership, company.
Erudition, learning, literature. Fertile, fruitful, prolific.
Eschew, avoid, flee from. Fenced, guarded, enclosed, hedged.
Equivocal, ambiguous. Fens, marshes.
Esteem, regard, respect, veneration. Fervency, warmth.
Especially, particularly. Fervently, earnestly, zealously,
Event, issue, incident. Fetters, chains, irons.
Everlasting, eternal, always. Flexibility, pliancy.
Evidently, clearly, plainly. Fidelity, faithfulness, sincerity.
Evil, iniquity, sin, wickedness. Fierce, furious, cruel.
Exaction, extortion, oppression. Fitly, meetly, properly.
Exalt, raise, lift. Flow, issue, proceed.
Excursion, jaunt, ramble. Foam, froth, spume.
Examine, question , test. Fluid, liquid.
Excel, outdo, surpass . Foes, enemies, ill-wishers.
Except, save, but. Foolish, simple, silly, unwise.
Expect, hope, await. Foolishness, folly.
Expedient, resource. Footsteps, track.
Exempted, cleared, freed. Forbid, prohibit.
Exercise, training, discipline. Forbearance, patience.
Exhort, beseech, beg. Foretell, predict, prophesy.
Experiment, proof, trial. Force, strength, power, violence.
Expression, word , term. Forceless, weak, feeble.
Expert, clever, well-skilled. Forcible, powerful, convincing.
Extol, laud, praise, magnify. Forlorn, helpless, deserted.
Expound, explain, make clear. Fortunate, lucky, successful.
Extend, stretch, reach out. Forth, forward, forwards.
Extravagance, prodigality, profuseness. Forthwith, immediatcly, at once.
156 APPENDIX I.
Foul, unclean, wicked. Hate, detest, abhor.

Fountain, source, spring Haughtiness, pride.
Fragments, morsels, pieces. Haunt, frequent.
Freedom, liberty. Hazarded, risked, dared.
Freely, frankly. Heap, pile.
Frequently, often. Heavy, weighty, ponderous.
Friendship, affection, love. Heed, care, attention.
Fresh, new, recent. Hear, hearken, listen, give ear.
Frontier, border, verge. Heathen, pagans, infidels.
Frugality, economy, parsimony. Heaven, paradise.
Frustrate defeat, disappoint. Heaviness, ponderosity.
Fulfil, accomplish, keep. Henceforth, henceforward.
Fulness, completion, perfection. Herd, drove, flock.
Furtherer, helper, advancer, promoter. Herb, plant.
Fury, rage, wrath. Heresy, schism, dissension.
High, lofty, exalted .
Gaiety, joy, mirth. High-minded, haughty.
Gainsay, contradict, oppose. Highways, roads, streets.
Gallant, brave, noble. Hire, wages, pay.
Garments, clothes. Hitherto, thus far.
Gaze, stare. Honesty, justice, equity.
Genealogy, pedigree. Hoary, whitish, grey with age.
Generosity, magnanimity, liberality. Hoisted, lifted, raised.
Gentry, nobility, quality. Hold, prison, ward.
Gentleness, tenderness, mildness. Holy, pious, godly.
Genius, talent. Holiness, sanctification, godliness.
Ghostly, spiritual. Holpen, aided, helped.
Gift, present. Household, family.
Give, present, offer. Hovel, hut, shed.
Glance, look. However, nevertheless, yet.
Glistening, shining, sparkling. Huge, large, very great.
Glory, honour, dignity. Humility, lowliness, humbleness.
Good-nature, good-temper. Humour, wit.
Good breeding, good manners. Hurricane, storm , tempest.
Good fortune, prosperity. Husband, spouse.
Grave, serious, sedate. Hypocritical, pretending, deceitful.
Great, sublime.
Grievousness, sadness, sorrow, trouble. Idea, notion, thought.
Grot, grotto. Ignominy, infamy, disgrace.
Grow, increase. Ignorant, unlearned.
Grudgingly, unwillingly. Illuminated, enlightened.
Guiltless, innocent. Ill, sick, not well.
Illegal, illicit, unlawful.
Halt, lame, limping. Image, likeness, picture.
Habitation, dwelling, house. Immutable, unchangeable.
Haft, handle. Immediately, instantly, presently.
Hale, healthy, strong. Impediment, obstacle, obstruction.
Hallow, reverence. Important, weak, feeble, helpless.
Hankering, longing, desiring. Impertinent, impudent, saucy.
Hap, chance, fortune. Immutability, unchangeableness .
Harbour, haven, port. Importunate, pressing, urgent.
Haste, hurry. Inasmuch, since, as, because.
Hasty, passionate, warm. Inability, incapacity, insufficiency.
SYNONYMY 157
Inclose, shut up, surround. Let, permit, allow, suffer.

Incontinent, unchaste. Lenity, mildness, mercy.
Incorruptible, imperishable. Level, smooth.
Incredulous, unbelieving. Levity, inconstancy, unsteadiness.
Indigence, need, poverty, want. Liberally, bountifully.
Indolence, sloth, laziness, sluggishness. Liberty, freedom, deliverance.
Inexorable, inflexible. License, leave, permission.
Indeed, truly, verily, really. Lift, raise.
Ineffectually, in vain, to no purpose. Libeller, defamer, lampooner, satirist.
Inexpressible, unspeakable. Likewise, also, in like manner.
Infallible, certain, never-failing. Limner, painter.
Influence, power, effect. Limit, border, boundary.
Infectious, contagious, pestilential. Lineage, race, family.
Inform, tell, teach. Linger, delay, hesitate.
Infringe, transgress, violate. Literally, according to letter.
Inhabit, dwell, live. Livid, pale, wan.
Inhabitants, dwellers, occupiers. Loathsome, disgusting, hateful.
Injurious, hurtful. Long- suffering, patience, forbearance.
Insinuate, suggest. Lot, condition, state.
Instant, moment. Lowly, humble, meek.
Intelligence, knowledge. Lunacy, insanity, madness.
Insurrection, rebellion. Lusty, stout, strong.
Intent, purpose, intention.
Interior, internal, inward, inner. Magnificence , pomp, sumptuousness.
Interpret, explain, expound. Malice, maliciousness, malignity.
Invention, contrivance. Maintain, uphold, support.
Inveigh, rail. Manners, morals, morality,
Mariner, sailor, seaman.
Jeopardy, danger, bazard, peril. Marriage, wedding, nuptials.
Joke, jest. 4 Mar, spoil, wound.
Joining, union. Matter, subject.
Judgment, sense. Mastery, power, rule, victory.
Justness, precision. Mate, companion.
Just, proper, right. Means, ways.
Melody, harmony, music.
Kin, kindred, relation. Memory, recollection, remembrance.
Meet, fit, proper, suitable.
Lake, pool, pond. Merchandise, wares.
Lack, want, destitute, Message, errand.
Lade, load. Mete, measure.
Lament, sorrow, mourn, grieve. Metamorphose, transpose.
Landscape, prospect. Methodical, regular, orderly.
Languages, tongues, speech. Middle, midst, centre.
Languish, pine, faint. Miry, muddy, dirty.
Lasciviousness , wantonness. Mirth, merriment.
Lavish, profuse, prodigal. Mischief, harm, hurt.
Laud, praise. Mitigate, moderate, soften.
Lavish, waste. Moist, damp, wet.
Lay, song, ballad. Motion, movement.
League, agreement, union. Muse, meditate, think.
Lean, meagre. Mutual, reciprocal.
Lees, dregs, Multitude, crowd, press.
Learn, study. Mutiny, insurrection.
158 APPENDIX I.
Nation, people. Procure, get, obtain.

Nativity, birth. Production, work.
Naval, nautical. Prospect, view.
Near, nigh. Promotion, advancement, forwarding.
Notes, observations, remarks. Prudence, understanding, wisdom.
Noisome, offensive, hurtful. Publicly, openly.
Nought, nothing. Purge, purify, cleanse.
Nourishing, nutritious, nutritive. Purloining, stealing.
Putrify, rot, corrupt.
Oblation, offering, sacrifice.
Obstacle, difficulty. Quake, tremble, shake.
Ocean, sea. Quantity, size.
Odour, smell, scent. Quick, alive, living.
Offspring, posterity, descendants. Quickly, soon, speedily.
Omnipotent, all-powerful.
Opinion, sentiment, thought.
Order, regularity. Rank, row.
Origin, source. Ransom, deliver, redeem.
Ostentation, parade, show. Rarely, uncommonly, seldom .
Overcome, conquer, subdue. Ready, prompt.
Reform, reformation.
Particular, peculiar, singular. Recompense, reward, amends.
Partaker, sharer, companion. Reel, stagger.
Peace, quietness, tranquillity. Regret, remorse, repentance, sorrow.
Penetrating, piercing. Rehearse, repeat, tell over.
Penury, poverty, want. Religious, pious, godly.
People, persons, folk. Rely, depend, trust.
Perilous, dangerous, hazardous. Remit, forgive, pardon.
Perceive, see. Remnant, remainder, residue.
Permit, suffer, tolerate. Renounce, desist, quit, leave off.
Persevere, persist. Remain, stay, wait.
Persuasion, religion. Reprimand, reprove, rebuke.
Perspiration, sweat. Renowned, famed, celebrated.
Plainly, clearly, distinctly. Restore, repair, amend.
Place, put. Reply, answer, rejoinder, response.
Plotteth, planneth, contriveth. Resentment, displeasure, indignation.
Pollution, uncleanness, sinfulness. Retinue, train.
Ponder, think, weigh. Resemblance, likeness.
Porter, door-keeper. Resist, withstand, oppose.
Portion, share, part. Resolved, determined.
Pray, entreat, beseech, supplicate. Respect, regard, esteem.
Preface, prelude, prologue, exordium . Reverse, contrary.
Prerogative, privilege. Riddles, rebuses, enigmas, charades.
Presumptive, presumptuous. Ridicule, raillery, derision.
Prevalent, prevailing. Rigour, severity.
Pretence, pretext. Riot, tumult, uproar.
Prevail, persuade, overcome. Road, way.
Prevent, hinder. Robust, stout, sturdy.
Pride, vanity, self-esteem. Rogue, thief, villain.
Primary, primitive. Rovers, wanderers, strayers.
Principal, chief. Rough, rugged.
Privy, private, secret. Rule, sway, government.
Proclaim, publish, manifest. Royal, kingly.
SYNONYMY 159
Salutation, greeting. Suspicion, jealousy.

Secure, safe. Symbol, type, emblem , figure.
Servant, attendant, servitor. Swerved, wandered, turned aside.
Serviceable, useful.
Shadow, shade. Tease, vex.
Shake, tremble. Tedious, slow.
Shapen, formed, made. Tenor, sense, import, meaning.
Shrubs, bushes, low trees. Termed, called, named.
Shall, will. Terrestrial, earthly.
Sigh, sob. Terrible, dreadful, fearful, frightful.
Sign, signal, token. Testament, will.
Signification, meaning. Testimony, witness, proof, evidence.
Sly, artful, cunning, crafty. Thrice, three times.
Slothful, lazy, tardy, idle. Tillage, husbandry.
Sociable, social. Timber, wood.
Solace, comfort, cheer. Torment, pain, misery.
Solitary, lonely. Touching, concerning, respecting.
Sorcery, magic, enchantment. Toward, towards.
Sort, kind, manner. Translation, version.
Sped, hastened. Tranquillity, peace, calm.
Spire, steeple. Traitors, betrayers.
Stagger, reel, totter. Transform, change.
Stature, size, height. Transgress, disobey.
Statute, law, command. Tumult, uproar, noise.
Stay, prop, supporter. Tutors, teachers.
Stammer, stutter. Tyranny, oppression.
Steadfastly, firmly, fixedly
Stem, stalk. Unemployed, unoccupied.
Strewed, scattered, spread. Unexampled, unprecedented.
Stripling, youth. Unity, peace, concord.
Struggle, strive, contend. Universe, world.
Stubborn, obstinate .
Subjection, submission, obedience.
Subtle, deceitful, cunning. Vale, valley, dale, dingle, dell,
Subvert, overturn. Vulgarly, commonly.
Succour, help, assist. Value, worth, price.
Sullen, austere, churlish, sour, surly. Variation, variety, change.
Sundry, several, various. Vesture, clothes, raiment.
Support, food, maintenance.
Supreme, highest, above all. War, hostility.
Surmise, suspicion. Warmth, heat.
Surprised, astonished, amazed. Weary, fatigued.
Sustain, uphold, maintain. Wideness, width.
160
APPENDIX II.
GLOSSARY OF OBSOLETE AND OTHER WORDS,

FOUND IN STANDARD WORKS.
In the works of Shakspeare, Milton , and other standard

authors, numerous words are to be found which are now
either obsolete or used in a different sense. The following
list contains the principal words of this description, with
the meaning of each. Advanced pupils should make them-
selves acquainted with this class of words, as passages in
which they occur will be rendered plainer and easier to be
paraphrased, by having a knowledge of their ancient
meanings :-
Words. Meanings. Words. Meanings.
Aby • to pay dear for. Bate . • • strife, contention.
Abysm . . an abyss. Batten . . to grow fat.
Address . to make ready. Beard • • . to oppose in a hostile
Advertisement admonition. manner.
Advertising attentive. Bearing carriage, demeanour.
Afeared • . afraid. Beaver . . helmet in general.
Affect • love. Becomed . becoming.
Affeered • confirmed. Beetle to hang over the base.
Affront . . to face or meet. Being abode.
Aglet-baby . a diminutive being. Belongings endowments.
Agnize . confess, acknowledge. Bent a great degree of passion.
Agood in good earnest. Benumbed immovable.
Aim • guess, encouragement. Bestraught distracted.
Alder-liefast . beloved above all things. Beteem to give, to pour out.
Ale . a merry meeting. Bewray . betray, discover.
Amort .sunk and dispirited. Bezonian . a term of reproach.
Anight in the night. Bisson . blind.
Anters • caves and dens. Blear . to deceive.
Approof • proof, approbation. Bleit . . bashful.
Argentine • silver. Blench • · . to start off.
Argosies • ships of great burden. Blent · mixed, blended.
Aroint .avaunt, begone. Blown • puffed or swollen.
Arow · • one after another. Blunt stupid.
Articulate • to enter into articles. Board • to accost.
Assay . test. Bond bounden duty.
Atomies • Bouy
Attasked • . very
small particles.
corrected. Boresor bonny hand ome.
stabs or wounds.
Attent . . attentive . Bosky . woody.
Atter • corrupt matter. Bosom wish, heart's desire.
Avaunt . contemptuous dismission. Bourn · boundary.
Aukward • adverse. Braid crafty or deceitful.
Awful • • worshipful, reverend. Brawl a kind of dance. "
Breeched • sheathed.
Baccare .sand back, give place. Broken . toothless
Balked • bathed or piled up. Brow • · height.
Bandog . . a village dog. Bury to keep secret.
Bank . to sail along the banks. Buxom . · obedient, pliant.
Banning . cursing.
Bans . curses. Cade . a barrel .
Barful · . full of impediments. Caitiff · a prisoner.
Barn • · . a child. Canstick . candlestick.
GLOSSARY OF OBSOLETE AND OTHER WORDS 161

Cantel • · a corner of any thing. Dissembling . putting dissimilar things
Cap the top, the principal. together.
Carl . clown or husbandman. Distaste . to corrupt.
Case . to strip naked. Distraught . distracted.
Certes certainly, in truth. Dole • lot, allowance.
Cess . . measure. Dout to extinguish.
Champain an open country. Dowle . a feather.
Chares . task-work. Dread epithet applied to kings.
Cheer countenance. Drugs drudges.
Chrystals eyes. Drumble . to act stupidly
Chuff rich, avaricious. Dup to lift up.
Civil grave or solemn.
Claw . to flatter. Eager . sour, sharp.
Clinquant glittering, shining. Eftest readiest.
Carlot peasant. Eld old time, or persons.
Clip to embrace, infold. Embowelled . exhausted.
Clutched grasped. Empery dominion, command.
Cobloaf . . a crusty, uneven loaf. Encave . . to hide.
Coffin the cavity of a raised pie. Enfeoff . to invest with posses
Cog to falsify, to defraud. Engross to fatten, to pamper.
Coigne . corner. Enseamed • greasy.
Coil bustle, stir. Entertain • to retain in service.
Collied . black, smutted with coal. Equipage • • stolen goods.
Colier . a term of reproach. Erewhile just now.
Colt . . to fool, to trick. Escoted paid.
Combine . to bind. Espials spies.
Complexion . humour. ' Eterne . • eternal.
Comply . . to compliment. Excrement . the beard.
Composition contract or bargain. Execute . to employ, to put to use.
Comptible . submission. Exigent • end.
Con to know. Expulsed · expelled.
Coney-catched cheated, deceived. Extend . to seize.
Confession • profession. Extern outward.
Confound . . to destroy. Extirped • rooted out.
Consist . to stand upon. Eyliads . looks, glances.
Continent . . the thing that contains. Eyne · • eyes.
Convent . to serve or agree.
Convey . manage artfully. Fadge . to suit or fit.
Conveyance .. to
theft, fraud. Fain . fond.
Copped rising to a cop, or head. Falsing falsifying.
Corky dry, husky. Familiar · . a demon.
Cote . to overtake. Fang . to seize or gripe.
Countenance • false appearance. Fans • ancient .
County count, earl. Fap drunk.
Coy . to soothe or stroke. Fast • fixed, determined.
Coystril . a mean or drunken fellow. Fat dull.
Crauts chants. Feere . a companion, a husband.
Create • compounded, made up. Fellow . companion.
Cressine increasing. Fet . fetched .
Crone . an old worn-out woman. Fico . . a fig.
Crow . to exult over. Fig . to insult.
Crown . to conclude. Fine . the conclusion.
Cry troop or pack. Fineless • • endless, boundless.
Cuisses armour for the thighs. Firk · to chastise.
Currents . occurrences. Flush . mature, ripe.
Curstness • ill-humour. Foeman . an enemy in war.
Curtail . a cur of little value. Foizon • plenty.
Customer · a common woman. Forced . false.
Fordo to undo, to destroy.
Dank wet, rotten. Forefended . forbidden.
Danskers . . natives of Denmark. Foreslow . to loiter.
Darkling in the dark. Fell . . skin .
Darraign . to put in order. Forgetive • inventive.
Dearn · lonely, solitary. Forspoke . contradicted.
Defend . . to forbid. Forthcoming . in custody.
Defiance . . refusal. Forwearied . worn out.
Delay . to let slip. Frampold peevish, fretful.
Denay . denial. Fronted opposed.
Depend . to be in service. Frontier the forehead.
Diffused . irregular.
Dint . impression. Gallow . to frighten.
Disable . to undervalue. Garish showy, gaudy.
Diseases . sayings. Gawds • . toys, baubles.
162 APPENDIX II.

Gaze . attention. Made . enriched .
Germins . seeds begun to sprout. Mammock . . to cut in pieces .
Gleek . to joke, to scoff. Mated dismayed.
Gloze · to expound, to explain. Meiny • people , domestics
Gnarled. knotted. Metal • temper.
Good-den good evening. Mewed . . confined.
Gratillity gratuity. Micher . • a truant, a lurking thief.
Greasily . grossly. Misdoubt . to suspect.
Green · not fullyformed, unripe. Misprised mistaken.
Greenly . awkwardly. Missives. messengers.
Guerdon ⚫ reward . Mistempered
Misthink . . to . angry.
think ill.
Module . model, pattern.
Happy accomplished. Moe . . to make mouths.
Hardiment bravery, stoutness. Mome . a stupid blockhead.
Harrow . to conquer. Moody melancholy.
Haviour behaviour. Moonish variable.
Haught . haughty. Mundane worldly.
Haunt . company. Mure . · a wall.
Heavy slow. Murky • • dark.
Hefted . heaved. Mutine • to rise in mutiny.
Hefts heavings.
Helmed . • steered through. • threadbare.
Hight · called. Napless .
Hit to agree. Neb, or nib the mouth.
Home in full extent. Neeld • needle.
Horologe • a clock. Neif · • fist.
Nighted . • • made dark.
Imbare . • to display, to view. Nuthook • · a thief.
Immanity · .savageness . Oe . a circle.
Inclip . to embrace. O'er-raught over-reached.
Inhibit . . to forbid. Oneyers . • accountants , bankers .
Inhooped . enclosed, confined . Out • begone.
Insculped engraven. Owe · • to own, possess.
Intendment . intention.
Irregulous . lawless.
Pack . • to bargain with.
Jaded · treated with contempt . Paid . • punished .
• to venture at. Palabras • • words.
Jump
Justicer . • Pall • . to wrap, to invest.
. judge, justice. Palmy • victorious .
Jutty . · . to project. Parlous . perilous.
Parted . shared.
Kam crooked. Pash . • to strike with violence.
Keeck . a solid lump or mass. Path . . to walk.
Keel . . to cool. Paucas . . few.
Kindless . unnatural. Pay . to beat, to hit.
Kinged • ruled by. Perfect . . certain, well informed .
Knave • a servant. Pew-fellow · a companion.
Pheeze • . to tease or beat.
Labras • lips. Pickers . . the hands.
Lag . the meanest person. Piel'd • .shaven.
Lass-lorn . forsaken of his mistress. Pight · . fixed, pitched.
Latch . to lay hold of. Pilled · pillaged.
Lated . benighted . Plant . the foot.
Leasing • lying. Platforms • plans , schemes.
Leech . a physician . Plausive • pleasing, popular.
Leer · •· complexion. Pleached · folded together.
Let . to hinder. Poize • weight or moment.
Let be to desist. Portance • • carriage, behaviour.
Lethe • · death. Potch to push violently .
Liefest dearest. Prest . ready.
Lifter . . a thief. Prevent. ⚫ to anticipate.
Like . . to compare. Prime . prompt.
Lime . . to cement. Princox . . a spoiled child.
Link . • · . a torch of light. Probal . • probable.
Lither flexible, yielding. Project . to shape or form.
Loffe . · . to laugh. Propose . • • to imagine.
Lowted . .. treated with contempt. Provand provender.
Lozel • · worthless, dishonest.
Lurch · . to win. Quail · to faint, languish.
Leiger . • . resident. Quat • • . a pimple.
Lush. . luscious , rank. Quell • . to destroy, to murder.
GLOSSARY OF OBSOLETE AND OTHER WORDS 163
Quests • reports. Sprightly • ghostly.
Quote · • . to observe. Square to quarrel.
Stale . ⚫ to allure.
Rake . ⚫ to cover. Stark . • stiff.
Rarely · happily, curiously. Statist . a statesman.
Rascal • applied to lean dear. Stead . to help or assist.
Raw . · · ignorant, unripe. Stint • to stop, to retard.
Reck . • . to care for, to mind. Subtle smooth, level.
Record • to sing. Sur-reined . over-worked.
Recure • to recover. Suspire • . to breathe.
Refell to refute. Swashing • noisy.
Regreet • exchange of salutation.
Regu erdo
Render . n . recompense, return. Tall · • • • stout, bold
. to describe. Tarre · to stimulate.
Renege • . to renounce. Teen . . sorrow, grief.
Reputing . boasting of. Tent . • . to take up residence.
Respective cool, considerate. Tetchy • peevish, fretful.
Retailed . handed down. Thewes.. . muscular strength .
Rib ⚫ to enclose. Thrift · . a state of prosperity.
Rift · split. Tilth .
Rigol . a circle. tillage.
Rivage the bank or shore. Tinct • tincture.
Roundure . . a circle. Tired • adorned with ribands.
Topple to tumble.
Roynish. • mangy or scabby. Toward • . in a state of readiness.
Ruddock . the redbreast. Toze . • to pull or pluck.
Ruth . · pity, compassion. Trenched • . cut, carved.
Sacred • accursed. Trow to believe.
Sagg • · . to sink down. Unbarbed . unshaven, untrimmed.
Salt · . tears.
Sanded • of a sandy colour. Unbated .. not blunted.
Say • silk, a sample. Unbolt . • to open, explain.
Scale to disperse. Unbookish . • ignorant .
Scamble . to scramble. Unclew. • . to draw out, to exhaust.
Scant. • . to be deficient in. Uneath scarcely, not easily.
Scarfed . . decorated with flags. Unhidden • • clear, open.
Scath destruction, harm. Unowed . what has no owner.
Scathful . mischievous. Unrest . · disquiet.
Sconce • the head. Unsmirched • clean, not defiled.
Scotched · . cut slightly. Utis . a merry festival .
Seel · to close up.
Seeling · blinding. Vail • • to let down, to sink.
Seen • versed, practised. Vast . • • waste, dreary.
Seld • seldom.
Semblably . in resemblance, alike. Waft . . to beckon.
Seniory . · seniority. Wannion vengeance.
Septentrion . the north. Wax . • to grow.
Sere, or sear . dry. Waxen . increased.
Serve . to fulfil. Wear the fashion.
Shards · . broken pots or tiles. Wee little, small.
Sheen · · · shining, splendour. Weeds garments.
Sheer • · . transparent. Ween . to imagine, to think.
Shent • scolded, disgraced. Weet . · . to know .
Shive a slice. Wen . . swollen excrescence.
Shouldered rudely thrust into. Wend . to go.
Shrift • confession. Whe'r • whether.
Shrive . to confess. Whiles • until.
Siege • . seat, stool, rank. Wimple . a hood or veil.
Sith • since. Wis, or wit . to know.
Sithence • • thence, Wits . • • senses.
Skain-mates . loose companions. Woe · · . to be sorry.
Skirr . . to ride hastily. Wood • frantic, crazy.
Slack . to neglect. Worts cabbage.
Slubber · to do a thing carelessly. Wot . . to know,
Smirched · • soiled or obscured. Wrichled . wrinkled.
Snuff hasty anger. Wroth • · misfortune.
Sooth truth .
Sorriest . . vile, worthless. Yarely • nimbly, readily,
Sowl . . to pull by the ears. Yeasty foaming or frothy.
Sprag . apt to learn. Yield . . to inform of.
Sprighted haunted. Yellowness jealousy.
164
APPENDIX III.
LAW TERMS,
WITH EXPLANATIONS.
As passages selected from law books to be paraphrased

or explained generally contain some technical terms be-
longing to that study, pupils should make themselves
acquainted with the principal law terms in general use,
and their meanings . The following list is drawn up for
their assistance : -
Arraignment the calling of a prisoner to the bar of a court, to

answer an indictment.
Arrest • the corporal seizing, or touching the defendant's
body ; after which, the bailiff is justified in
breaking open the house in which he is, even on
a Sunday, to take him.
Arson the wilfully and maliciously burning of a house.
Bankrupt • a trader who secretes himself, or does certain other
acts, tending to defeat his creditors.
Pailment a delivery of goods on trust, as a parcel to a common
carrier.
Bribery . the giving or receiving of presents for a corrupt
purpose.
Burglary • • • the act of breaking into a house during the night.
Capias • • . a writ directed to the sheriff, against a defendant,
to take him or his goods.
Chattels · real, appertain to estates ; personal, to the person.
Common law . . the ancient unwritten customs of the kingdom .
Copyhold estates . lands held of the lord of a manor, by copy of court
roll.
Demurrer • a kind of pause upon a point of difficulty in an
action.
Disseisin • an unlawful dispossessing a man of his land.
Elegit • a writ of execution for damages.
LAW TERMS, WITH EXPLANATIONS. 165
Embracery . an attempt to influence a jury, by money or other

means.
Felony any crime which formerly occasioned the forfeiture
of lands and goods.
Forgery the fraudulently making or altering a writing, with
intent to profit by it.
Gavelkind . • . a custom whereby the property of the father is
equally divided at his death among all his sons.
Guardian · • a person appointed for the care and protection of a
minor.
Heirlooms goods and chattels which go to the heir, and not to
the executors.
Hereditaments lands and advowsons.
Heriots customary tributes or fines paid to the lord at the
death of the landholder.
Indictment a written accusation of a crime made in the form of
law.
Injunction • • • a prohibitory writ issuing out of chancery.
Issue the end of all the pleadings, and the fourth stage of
an action.
Kidnapping · . the stealing away of a man, woman, or child, or
taking them by force.
Knight of the the member for the county.
Shire . }
Knight's service the most honourable species of tenure.
Larceny stealing from a person or out of a dwelling house.
Libel . • a slander on another's reputation.
Mandamus · a writ issuing from the Court of King's Bench,
directing the execution of something therein
specified.
Manslaughter • the killing of another, from sudden heat and passion.
Mayhem the disabling of one, so as to render him less able to
fight.
Murder . · • killing with malice or forethought.
Nonsuit . the dropping or termination of a law suit, in con-
sequence of some error or failure in the manage-
ment.
Outlawry . a decree by which a person is deprived of the benefit
of the law.
166 APPENDIX III.
Owling • the transportation of sheep or wool out of the

kingdom.
Parol evidence • is when a witness relates facts in open court.
Perjury . taking an oath falsely.
Piracy · • · . a robbery on the seas.
Presentment · · the notice by a grand jury of any public nuisance
or offence.
Quarter Sessions . a court held in every county, once a quarter.
Recovery · . an act by consent, for the better assurance of lands
and tenements.
Rescue . . the forcibly freeing a person from arrest or im-
prisonment.
Riot • • an unlawful assembly of persons to do an unlawful act.
Recognizance . · a security to the king to keep the peace, or for good
behaviour.
Subpoena · · a writ commanding attendance in a court under a
penalty.
Smuggling . the importation of goods without paying the duties.
Tenement · • · houses and buildings.
Treason a betraying, treachery, or breach of faith in respect
to the king or country.
Trespass an attack on one's person, or an entry on his ground,
without a lawful authority, and doing some
damage to his real property.
Villein • a name formerly given to a bondman.
Ubiquity a quality supposed to belong to a king, who is
imagined by law to be present everywhere.
Usury · the taking more than the legal interest for money
lent.
Uttering · • . a term applied to the tendering of bad money.
Warrant • a written authority from a legal magistrate for the
apprehension of a criminal.
Wittenagemote a name for the ancient parliament, so called as con-
sisting of the wites, or wise men.
LAW LATIN TERMS AND MAXIMS 167
LAW, LATIN TERMS AND MAXIMS,

WITH THEIR EXPLANATIONS.
Aula regia, or aula | The court established in his own hall by William
regis. the Conqueror.
Actio personalis mo- A personal action becomes extinct by the death
ritur cum personâ. of the plaintiff.
Amicus curiæ. A friend ofthe court. In this capacity any per-
son is entitled to set the court right, in point
of law or fact.
Audi alteram par- Hear both sides of a question.
tem.
Aliquis non debet No man ought to sit as a judge in his own
esse judex in pro- cause.
priâ causâ.
Avinculo matrimonii. From the marriage knot.
Actus non facit reum, The act does not constitute guilt unless the mind
nisi mens sit rea. be also guilty.
Ab initio. From the beginning.
Ad captandum vul- To enslave the vulgar.
gus.
Ad infinitum. To infinity, without end.
Ad valorem. According to value.
Alibi. Elsewhere, or proof of having been elsewhere.
Anno Domini. In the year of our Lord.
A priori. From a prior reason.
A posteriori. From a latter reason, or behind.
Ad referendum. For consideration.
Ad libitum . At pleasure .
A fortiori. With stronger reason.
Alias. Otherwise.
Argumentum ad ho- Personal argument.
minem.
Argumentum baculi- Argument of blows.
num.
Argumentum ad ju- An appeal to the common sense of mankind.
dicium.
Argumentum ad po- An appeal to the people.
pulum.
Bonâ fide. In reality, in good faith.
Caveat emptor. Let the buyer be on his guard.
Certiorari. A writ by which an action about to be tried in
an inferior, is brought before a superior court.
Compos mentis. A man of sound mind.
Consensusfacitlegem. The consent of parties to any legal act, consti-
tutes its validity.
Coram ipso rege. Brought before the king in person.
Corpus delic . The whole body of the offence.
Contra bonos mores. Anything against good morals, which renders an
agreement void.
168 APPENDIX III.
Cum privilegio. With privilege.

Debito justitiæ. By a claim that in justice ought to be allowed.
Dedimus. We have given; being the first word of a writ
empowering a justice of peace to act.
Distringas. The name of a writ by which the sheriff is em-
powered to distrain the goods of a defendant
for non- appearance.
Durante bene placito. During the king's pleasure.
Durante vitâ. During life.
De facto. In fact, in reality.
Dei gratiá. By the grace or favour of God.
Data. Things granted.
De jure. By right.
Desideratum . Something desirable or much wanted.
Ergo. Therefore.
Errata. Errors.
Ex officio. By virtue of one's office.
Ex par te. On the part of, or one side.
Et cætera. And the rest, contracted into & c.
Exempli gratiâ. As for example .
Extempore . Without premeditation .
Fac simile . A close imitation of a handwriting.
Femme sole . A spinster in law, or unmarried woman.
Fiat. A peremptory order from a superior power.
Finis. End.
In formâ pauperis. A suit by a poor man, who is excused from fees.
In terrorem . As a warning to others.
Item. Also, or article.
In curiâ. Before the court.
Idem. The same.
Ibidem. In the same place.
Id est. That is. In its contracted form, 'i. e. '
Imprimis. In the first place.
In propriâ personâ. In his own person,
Ipse dixit. Mere assertion.
Ipso facto. By the mere fact.
Ipso jure. By the law itself.
Januis clausis. A debate with the doors shut.
Jure divino. By divine right.
Jus gentium . The law of nations.
Jure humano. By human law.
Lex facit regem. The law makes the king.
Lex talionis . The law of retaliation.
Litera scripta manet. A writing perpetuates a fact.
Locum tenens. The deputy of an officer.
Licentia vatum. A poetical license.
Lapsus linguæ. A slip of the tongue.
Magna Charta. The great Charter of England.
Malum in se. A thing wicked in itself, without reference to
any law.
Multum in parvo. Much in a small space.
Nolens volens. Willing or not.
n compos mentis. Not of a sound mind.
LAW LATIN TERMS AND MAXIMS 169
Necessitas non habet | Necessity has no law.

legem.
Nolle prosequi. A writ to stay process.
Non constat. It does not appear in evidence before the court.
Nudum pactum. A naked bargain, one unconfirmed by the proper
formalities.
Obiter dictum . Something not of binding authority.
Ore tenus . The oral testimony of a person in a court of
justice.
Primâ facie. At first appearance of anything.
Pendente lite. During a lawsuit.
Per fas et nefas. By right or wrong.
Præmunire. A statute inflicting certain punishments for dis-
obedience.
Pro bono publico. For the public benefit.
Pro et con. For and against.
Quam diu se bene During good behaviour.
gesserit.
Quondam . Formerly.
Retraxit. The withdrawing of a party in a suit.
Rex. A king.
Regina. A queen.
Seriatim. In regular order.
Sine die. Without specifying any particular day.
Sine quâ non. An indispensable requisite or condition.
Verbatim. Word for word.
Vice versa. The reverse.
Vivâ voce. Orally, by word of mouth
Viâ. By the way of.
Vice. In the room of.
Vide ut supra. See as above.
Vi et armis. With force and arms ; this is applied to a
trespass.
Vivant rex et regina. Long live the king and the queen.
Volenti non fit in- A person consenting, cannot receive an injury.
juria.
Vox populi. The voice of the people.
Vulgo. Commonly.
I
170
APPENDIX IV.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING OR PRINTING.

Latin. English.
A.B. or B.A. Artium Baccalaureus. Bachelor of Arts.
A.D. Anno Domini. In the year of our Lord.
A.M. or M.A. Artium Magister. Master of Arts.
A.M. Anno Mundi. In the year of the world.
A.M. Ante Meridiem. Before noon.
A.R. Anno Regni. In the year of the reign.
A.S.S. Societatis Antiquariæ Socius. Fellow of the Antiquarian So-
ciety.
A.U.C. Anno Urbis conditæ. In the year of the building of
the city (Rome).
B.D. Baccalaureus Divinitatis. Bachelor of Divinity.
C.P.S. Custos Privati Sigilli. Keeper of the Privy Seal.
C.S. Custos Sigilli. Keeper of the Seal.
D.D. Doctor Divinitatis. Doctor of Divinity.
D.G. Dei Gratiâ. By the grace of God.
D. Denarius or Denarii. A penny or pence.
E.G. or e.g. Exempli Gratiâ. For example.
F.A.S. or F.S.A. Fraternitatis Antiquariorum Fellow of the Society of Anti-
Socius. quaries.
F.L.S. Fraternitatis Linneaneæ So- Fellow of the Linnean Society.
cius.
F.R.S. Fraternitatis Regiæ Socius. Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.S.A. Fraternitatis Socius Artium. Fellow of the Society of Arts.
G.R. Georgius Rex . King George.
H.S. Hic situs. Here lieth.
Ibid. Ibidem. In the same place.
Id. Idem . The same.
I.H.S. or J.H.S. Jesus Hominum Salvator. Jesus the Saviour of men.
I.E. or i.e. Id est. That is.
J.U.D. or U.J.D. Juris Doctor of Canon and Civil law.
L. Libra.utriusque Doctor. Pounds.
Lb. Libra. A pound weight.
Lib. Liber. The book.
LL.D. Legum Doctor. Doctor of Laws.
L.S. Locus Sigilli. The place of the Seal.
M.B. Medicinæ Baccalaureus. Bachelor of Medicine.
M.D. Medicinæ Doctor. Doctor of Physic.
M.S. or S.M. Memoriæ Sacrum . Sacred to the Memory.
Mem. Memento . Remember.
Nem. con. Nemine contradicente. Unanimously, or without oppo-
sition.
N.B. Nota bene. Note well. Take notice.
N.L. Non liquet. It does not appear.
No. Numero. Number .
P.M Post Meridiem . In the afternoon.
P.S. Post scriptum . Postscript, something written
after.
Per ann. Per annum . Yearly; by the year.
Per cent. Per centum. By the hundred.
Q.E.D. Quod erat demonstrandum Which was to be demonstrated.
Q.E.F. Quod erat faciendum. Which was to be done.
Q.D. Quasi dictum. As if it were said.
Q.L. Quantum libet. As much as you please.
Q.S. Quantum sufficit. As much as is sufficient.
Q. Quadrans or Quadrantes. A farthing, or farthings.
Rex. Rex or Regina. King or Queen.
R. P. Regius Professor. The King's Professor.
S. Solidus or Solidi. A shilling or shillings.
S.A. Secundum Artem. According to Art.
". Salutem dicit. He sends his respects
ABBREVIATIONS OF FREQUENT USE 171
Latin. English.
S.T.P. Sacræ Theologiæ Professor Professor of Theology.
Ult. Ultimo. Last, or of last month.
V. Vide. See.
V.G. Verbi Gratiâ. As for example.
V.R. Victoria Regina. Queen Victoria:
Viz. Videlicet. Namely, or that is to say.
& c. Et cætera. And the rest, and so forth.
OTHER ABBREVIATIONS OF FREQUENT USE.
A. Answer. MSS. Manuscripts.

Abp. Archbishop. Messrs. Gentlemen (from the
Acct. Account. French Messieurs).
Ap. Apostle, or April. Mar. March.
Aug. August. Mr. Master.
Bart. Baronet. Mrs. Mistress.
Bp. Bishop. Mon. Monday.
Capt. Captain. N. North.
Chap. Chapter. Νον. November.
Cit. Citizen. N.S. New Style.
Cl. Clerk, or Clergyman. O.S. Old Style.
Col. Colonel. Obt. Obedient .
Co. Company. Oct. October .
Cr. Creditor. Olym. Olympiads.
Dr. Debtor or Doctor. Oz . Ounce .
Dec. December. Q. Question or Queen.
Do. or ditto. The same. R.A. Royal Academician.
E. East. R.E. Royal Engineers.
Esq. Esquire. R.M. Royal Marines.
Exr. Executor . R.N. Royal Navy.
Feb. February. Rev. Reverend.
Fri. Friday. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend.
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Rt. Hon. Right Honourable.
Society. S. South.
F.H.S. Fellow ofthe Horticultural St. Saint, or Street.
Society. Sep. September.
F.C.P. Fellow of the College of Sat. Saturday.
Preceptors. Sun. Sunday.
Gen. General. Sol. Solution.
Gent. Gentleman . Spect. Spectator.
H.M.S. His or Her Majesty's Ship. Tues. Tuesday.
Inst. Instant, or of the month. Thur. Thursday .
Jan. January. W. West.
Jul. July. Wed. Wednesday.
Jun. June. W. S. Writer to the Signet.
J.P. Justice of the Peace. Xmas. Christmas.
Knt. Knight. Xn. Christian.
K.B. Knight of the Bath. Xpher. Christopher.
K.G. Knight of the Garter. Ye. the
K.T. Knight of the Thistle. Ym . them
K.P. Knight of St. Patrick. Yr. your usedwriters.
by ancient
L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. Ys. this
L.C.P. Licentiate of the College Yu. thou
of Preceptors. 4to. Quarto, the fourth part of
Ld. Lord. a sheet.
Lieut. Lieutenant. 8vo. Octavo, the eighth of a
Lp. Lordship. sheet.
M.C.P. Member of the College of 12mo. Duodecimo, the twelfth of
Preceptors. a sheet,
M.P. Member of Parliament. 18mo. Octodecimo,the eighteenth
MS. Manuscript. of a sheet.
172
APPENDIX V.
GENERAL QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

Note. The following questions and exercises are selections from those given at the
general examinations for Government Certificates and Queen's Scholarships during
the past few years.
1. Give examples of the figures of speech most commonly used in
English poetry.
2. Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following sentence : - Hard
by may be seen a coffin, said to be the receptacle of the bones of Essex,
Elizabeth's favourite, and the idol of the populace ; a man than whom
we read of few more highly gifted, few, whose lives have ended more
tragically.
3. State, and illustrate by examples, the difference between prin-
cipal,' accessory,' ' co-ordinate,' and ' subordinate sentences.'
4. Write a paraphrase of the following passage, or an analysis of the
first ten lines
He saw wide territory spread
Before him, towns, and rural works between ;
Cities of men, with lofty gates and towers ;
Concourse in arms, fierce faces threat'ning war ;
Giants of mighty bone and bold emprize ;
Part wield their arms, part curb the foaming steed,
Single, or in array of battle ranged,
Both horse and foot ; nor idle mustering stood ;
One way a band select from forage drives
A herd of beeves, fair oxen, and fair kine
From a meadow-ground, or fleecy flock,
Ewes and their bleating lambs, across the plain,
Their booty scarce with life the shepherds fly,
But call in aid, which makes a bloody fray :
Where cattle pastured late, now scattered lies
With carcases and arms the ensanguined field
Deserted. Milton.
5. Parse the words in italics in the passage from Milton, comparing

the construction in the sixth line ( Part wield,' & c. ) with that in the
ninth ( One way a band,' &c. ), and state all you know about the three
plural forms in line 10, ( A herd of beeves,' & c.).
6. Enumerate the principal figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, with an
example of each.
7. Parse the following :
Those who live in towns see few things as they came from their
Maker's hands. But they must not forget who gave the materials with
which these things were made.
GENERAL QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 173
8. Give an example of an assertion, point out its subject and predi-

cate, and define these terms. Give examples of other parts of speech
than nouns or pronouns used as subjects. In what sense are they so
used ?
9. Paraphrase this passage :-
But I should ill become this throne, O peers,
And this imperial sovereignty, adorn'd
With splendour, armed with power, if aught propos'd
And judg'd of public moment, in the shape
Of difficulty or danger, could deter
Me from attempting. Wherefore do I assume
These royalties, and not refuse to reign,
Refusing to accept as great a share
Of hazard as of honour, due alike
To him who reigns, and so much to him due
Of hazard more, as he above the rest
High honour'd sits.
10. Parse the words printed in italics in the preceding passage, and
fully explain the construction with the rest of the sentence.
11. What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive
moods ? Illustrate your answer from this passage.
12. Define a pronoun. Apply your definition to the word ' him ' in
the tenth line.
13. Define the objective case. Apply your definition to the same
word 'him' in the tenth line.
14.་ What is the precise difference of meaning between ' sovereignty '
and royalty ?' Does your answer enable you to say whether the epithet
' imperial' is idle or has a specific force in line 2 ?
15. Define the following terms, and give examples of them :--the
Subject, the Predicate, the Enlarged Subject, and the Enlarged Predicate.
Under what circumstances does the predicate require to be completed ?
Give examples of the completion of the predicate.
16. What is the difference between a word and a sentence ? Is every
collection of words a sentence ? Give the reasons of your answer.
17. Correct the following and parse it :-
The sun upon the calmest sea
Appear not half so bright as thee
18. Write out a paraphrase of the following passage, and parse the
words printed in italics :-
For meanness of employment, that which is most traduced in learned
men is that the government of youth is allotted to them ; which age,
because it is the age of least authority, is transferred to the disesteeming
of those employments which are conversant about youth. But how
unjust this traducement is (if you will reduce things from popularity of
opinion to measure of reason), may appear in that we see men are more
curious what they put into a new vessel than into a vessel seasoned ;
and what would they lay about a young plant, than a plant corroborate ;
so as the weakest terms and times of all things use to have the best
application and helps. And let it be noted that, howsoever the modern
looseness or negligence hath taken no due regard to the choice of school-
174 APPENDIX V.
masters and tutors, yet the ancient wisdom of the best times did always
make a first complaint that states were too busy with their laws and too
negligent in point of education.
19. Give the principal rules for analysing sentences.
20. Give an analysis of the following sentence :-
If it be said that we should endeavour not so much to remove igno.
rance as to make the ignorant religious ; religion herself, through her
sacred oracles, answers for me, that all effective faith presupposes know-
ledge and individual conviction.
21. Write a paraphrase of the following passage, and parse the words
printed in italics. To what three poets does it refer ?
Three poets in three distant ages born,
Greece, Italy, and England did adorn.
The first in loftiness,of thought surpass'd ;
The next in majesty ; in both the last;
The force of nature could no further go,
To make a third she joined the other two.
22. What are the three elements of every simple proposition ? Illus-
trate its structure by an example.
23. Parse the following sentence, and be careful to give in full the
syntax ofthe propositions, conjunctions, and pronouns.
For all of us have it in our choice to do everything that a good man
would desire to do ; and are restrained from nothing but what would be
pernicious either to ourselves or our fellow citizens.
24. Describe the successive steps in teaching children to parse prepo-
sitions. When do you consider a preposition fully parsed ?
25. Put the proper stops to the following passage, and explain it : -
-
The gardens of this world produce only deciduous flowers perennial
ones must be sought in the delightful regions above roses without
thorns are the growth of Paradise alone.
26. Define a principal and a subordinate sentence, and give examples
of each.
27. Paraphrase the following passage (the more briefly you can ex-
press the same sense in different words, the better will your answer be
reckoned).
Our next-door neighbour at my father's house had been a carpenter.
Fresh from the sort of reading I have mentioned, I was eager to examine
his tools, their powers, and their uses. This carpenter was a man of a
strong and vigorous mind ; and, his faculties having been chiefly con-
fined to the range of his profession, he was fertile in experiments, and
ingenious in reasoning upon these particular topics. I therefore obtained
from him considerable satisfaction ; and, my mind being set in action , I
sometimes even improved upon the hints he furnished. His conver-
sation was particularly agreeable to me. I at first worked with him
for my amusement, and afterwards, for a short time, as his journeyman.
I was constitutionally vigorous, my bones well knit, and my limbs
sinewy and powerful ; and, by the experience thus attained , I added to
the abstract possession of power, the skill of applying it when I pleased,
in such a manner as that no part should be inefficient.
28. Parse the words printed in italics in the foregoing passage.
29. I sometimes even improved upon the hints he furnished.'
GENERAL QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 175
Is this a complete construction ? If not, complete it. Parse what-

ever you insert, and give the name of the grammatical figure which
denotes the omission of words.
"
30. This carpenter was a man of a strong and vigorous mind.'
Which of these words might be omitted without injury to the sense or
grammar ?
How would you change the rest of the sentence so as to turn the
words printed in italic from the possessive to the objective case ?
How would you change it so as to make strong and vigorous the pre-
dicate ?
31. Describe accurately every step in the process of teaching the full
parsing of nouns and verbs.
32.So that to maintain and regulate these, is clearly a subsequent
consideration.'
In what sense is the word ' these ' a pronoun, and in what an ad-
jective ? What is the etymology of the word ' pronoun,' and what is its
meaning according to that etymology ? Does this imply any cuange in
the meaning commonly attached to the word ' noun ? '
33. Parse the word ' so. ' Give other instances of adverbs similarly
used. Distinguish between the meaning of so ' and ' as.'
34. Paraphrase the following passage : -
For the principal aim of society is to protect individuals in the
enjoyment of those absolute rights which were vested in them by the
immutable laws of nature, but which could not be preserved in peace
without that mutual assistance and intercourse which is gained by the
institution of social and friendly communities. Hence it follows, that
the first and primary end of human laws is to maintain and regulate
these absolute rights of individuals. Such rights as are social and re-
lative result from, and are posterior to, the formation of states and
societies : so that to maintain and regulate these, is clearly a subsequent
consideration. And therefore the principal view of human law is, or
ought always to be, to explain, protect, and enforce such rights as are
absolute, which in themselves are few and simple ; and then such rights
as are relative, which, arising from a variety of connexions will be far
more numerous and complicated.-Warren's Blackstone.
35. Paraphrase this passage :-
Ah ! gentle pair ; ye little think how nigh
Your change approaches, when all these delights
Will vanish and deliver ye to woe ;
More woe, the more your taste is now of joy ;
Happy, but for so happy ill secured
Long to continue, and this high seat your heaven,
Ill fenced for heaven to keep out such a foe
As now is entered ; yet no purposed foe
To you, whom I could pity thus forlorn,
Though I unpitied : league with you I seek,
And mutual amity, so straight, so close,
That I with you must dwell, or you with me
Henceforth ; my dwelling haply may not please,
Like this fair Paradise, your sense ; yet such
Accept, your Maker's work ; he gave it me,
Which I as freely give.'
176 APPENDIX V.
36 Parse the words in italics in the foregoing passage, and fully

explain the construction of each with the rest of the sentence.
37. Analyse the sentence beginning league with you I seek,' and
ending you with me henceforth.'
38. What is the precise office of a preposition ? Distinguish accu-
rately between a preposition and an adverb. Have any words passed
from being one to being the other ? Can prepositions be compared ?
39. Paraphrase this passage :—
So promised he : and Uriel to his charge
Returned on that bright beam, whose point now raised
Bore him slope downward to the sun, now fallen
Beneath the Azores ; whether the prime orb,
Incredible how swift, had thither rolled
Diurnal, or this less voluble earth,
By shorter flight to the east, had left him there
Arraying with reflected purple and gold
The clouds that on his western throne attend.
Now came stili evening on ; and twilight gray
Had in her sober livery all things clad ;
Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird,
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests
Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale,
Who all night long her amorous descant sung.
40. Parse the words in italics, fully explaining the construction of
each with the sentence.
41. Analyse the sentence, and Uriel to his charge,' and ending ⚫ be-
neath the Azores.'
42. Distinguish accurately between extensions and completions of
the predicate.
43. Describe the successive steps in teaching children to parse the
verb and its object.
44. Parse the words printed in italics in one of the following sen-
tences : -
(a). Here stands the oak we heard him speak of.
(b). I, a solitary student, pretend not to much knowledge of the world.
(c). He, through heaven
That opened wide her blazing portals, led
To God's eternal house direct the way;
A broad and ample road, whose dust is gold,
And pavement stars, as stars to thee appear,
Seen in the galaxy, that milky way,
Which nightly as a circling zone thou seest
Powder'd with stars.
NOTE.
For Examination Questions on the other parts of English Grammar, and on English
Literature and Language, see end of Grammar of English Grammars.'
PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE and co., NEW-STREET SQUARE, LONDON,

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

NEW AND IMPROVED EDITIONS.

GEOGRAPHICAL WORKS AND ATLASES.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, PUNCTUATION,

WITH NUMEROUS EXERCISES FOR PUPILS

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.

SPECIALLY ADAPTED ΤΟ THE TUITION OF

THE utility of Analysis of Sentences, Paraphrasing, and

Grammar, Language, and Literature,' entitled the

spent several years. The two parts were originally in-

parts, each complete in itself, and of a convenient

The references made in this part relate to the other

The part on English Parsing forms an important

upwards of thirteen thousand copies have already

smaller work, will derive much benefit by continuing

This work may also be used with any Manual of

COMPOSITION, or Style 126

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 141

APPENDIX I. Synonymy . 151

A SENTENCE is a number of words so arranged as to make

Sentences may be divided into three kinds ; namely,

In the compound sentence the several clauses or members

Each of these makes complete sense of itself, and neither

the whole sentence is complex ; it contains one main as-

EXAMPLES OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES.

1. Pleased with each other's lot, 1. A simple sentence ; it con-

3. James loves his sister, and is 3. A compound sentence ; it

4. The ship had been completely 4. A simple sentence ; it contains

5. The rain descended, the floods 5. A compound sentence ; it

6. To love the memory of all 6. Not a sentence ; it contains

7. He (whose first emotion on 7. Complex. It contains but

8. The sense of death is most in 8. Compound. It contains two

9. A diamond (though set in 9. Compound. It contains two

10. I can get no remedy against 10. A simple sentence. It has

QUESTIONS FOR PUPILS.

What is a sentence ? Is every collection of words a sentence ? What is a phrase ?

Distinguish Sentences from Phrases in the following.

Tell whether the following Sentences be Simple, Complex, or Compound.

THE PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE.

Every simple sentence contains two essential parts,

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

To analyse a simple sentence means to separate it into the

Remark. The next thing to be required of pupils is to learn to distinguish readily

The Subject may be :: -

The Predicate may be :— Examples.

The Completion may be :- Examples.

QUESTIONS FOR PUPILS.

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. Grief certainly softens the heart.

Subject. Predicate. Completion. Extension.

1. Grief softens the heart certainly.

2. The covetous is tormented night and day.

3. Vicious means cannot produce virtuous conse-

5. I have not seen my friend since last Ja-

6. Hope, the balm soothes us underevery mis-

7. The absence of is a real good.

8. True friendship will avoid a careless beha- at all times.

9. It, to live in is a great bless-