Research Methods: An Introduction CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER ONE

RESEARCH METHODS: AN INTRODUCTION

Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business institutions.
Research as conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things.
Where there is a problem there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the
events and structures of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people.
People have defined research differently according to their perception. Here under we will see
different definitions and perceptions of scholars about research
Meaning of Research

Different scholars have interpreted the term ‘research’ in many ways. For instance, Fred Kerlinger
(1986) stated that ‘Scientific research is a systematic, controlled and critical investigation of
propositions about various phenomena. Grinnell (1993) has simplified the debate and stated ‘The
word research is composed of two syllables, ‘re’ and ‘search.
The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning ‘again’, ‘a new’ or ‘over again’. Search is
defined as a verb meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully’, ‘to test and try’, or ‘to probe’.
Together, they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Different authors in many ways have defined the word research. Research commonly refers to a
search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from known to unknown. It
is indeed a voyage of knowledge. For some people on the other hand research implies an art of
scientific investigation to the state of nature or phenomenon.

Hertz provided the most simplified definition of research. His definition referred research to the
original and creative activities. According to him, Research is the application of human
intelligence in a systematic manner to a problem whose solution is not immediately available.

Woody on the other hand defined research as an activity comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.

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An author called Klopsteg gives the most comprehensive definition of research. According to him;
'‘Research is original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the library or
in the field which endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them properly in
the light of previous knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises previously
accepted conclusion, theories and laws, and makes new application of its findings.

According to this definition, research is carried out not only in the laboratory but also it can be
carried out in different places like in the library and in the field as well. Research is not only
original and creative activity. It will not always discover new facts. It can also revise and verify
the validity of previously accepted facts theories and principles, which is the task of academic or
basic research.

Research is required because of the following reasons:

➢ To identify and find solutions to the problems

➢ To help making decisions
➢ To develop new concepts
➢ To find alternate strategies

Motivation of doing research

Research is not a trouble-free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking. Despite these all difficulties many people especially in academic institute would like
to carry out research at least once in their life.
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following:

• Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit. The graduate and postgraduate students
are required to carry out research project as a partial fulfillment to obtain their master and Ph.D.
Degree. Research is therefore, a prerequisite to complete their study.
• Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society). In academic and research
institutions publication is crucial for promotion and academic rank. “Publish or perish” is a
phrase commonly used in experienced and well-established academic institutes. This implies
an individual should carry out a research activity and publish his findings in scientific or
international journal in order to get respect and academic rank. If not the individual will

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"perish" meaning no proportion or academic rank and hence no respect is possible for that
individual in the academic environment
• Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem. Concern over a particular
problem initiates a researcher.
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. Doing or participation in some
creative activity will give some professional satisfaction to many individuals. Research will
give this opportunity.
• Directive of government. Government sometimes gives directives to its employees to carry
out a particular study and investigation for better decision-making ground. Ideally any policy
before implementation requires detail study and analysis of its impact on different parts of the
society.
• Employment condition. Some employers set as criteria at least one publication in
international journal.

Common objectives of research

Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. It is an activity amid at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or
law) accepted as true.

The Objectives of Research

Though each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got the following
common (general) objectives. The prime objectives of research are

1. To generate and discover new knowledge, principle and scientific law

2. To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the previous
work.
3. To analyze an event or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship
4. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific
and nonscientific problems
5. to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and to overcome or solve
the problems occurring in our everyday life.

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6. To find out the truth which is hidden

7. To understand lived experience of people
8. To help making decisions
9. To find alternative strategy
Types of Research

There are different bases in classifying researches; however we will see only the most common
bases. Research in social sciences is based on human behavior, which is influenced by so many
factors, such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological and economic. Like its definition
research has been classified differently.

Research can also be classified from other FIVE perspectives. However, these perspectives
are not mutually exclusive.

A. On the basis of the time required to complete research

B. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out
C. On the basis of the use of the outcome of the research
D. The research questions or objectives in undertaking the research
E. The type of information sought (data to be collected).

I. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be

a) Cross-sectional or One -time research; It is a research limited to a single time period. Cross-
sectional study is a research tool used to capture information based on data gathered for a specific
point in time. The data gathered is from a pool of participants with varied characteristics and
demographics known as variables. Age, gender, income, education, geographical locations, and
ethnicity are all examples of variables. The research findings help remove assumptions and replace
them with actual data on the specific variables studied during the time period accounted for in the
cross-sectional study.

This type of study is used across various industries. These industries include (but are not limited
to) business, social science, retail, education, religion, and government. In each of these industries,
cross-sectional research provides important data that informs all kinds of actions.

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Advantages Disadvantages
Not costly and take little time Cannot be used to analyze behavior over a
period to time
Captures a specific point in time Does not help determine cause and effect
Contains multiple variables at the time of the The timing of the snapshot is not guaranteed to
data snapshot be representative
Can be a base for an in-depth research Findings can be flawed or skewed if there is a
conflict of interest with the information source
b) Longitudinal research: Such research is also called on-going research. It is a research carried
out over several time periods.

A longitudinal design is a research study where a sample of the population is studied at intervals
to examine the effects of development. In a longitudinal design, you have a group of people and
you study something about them. Then you collect their contact information. After a set amount
of time - be it weeks, months or years - the participants are called and asked to return. Tests are
re-administered to see what changes are in the participants.

Advantages Disadvantages
Can show variable pattern over time Is costly
With actual recording, can ensure high Some participants may drop out
validity
Ensure high accuracy when it comes to Require huge amounts of time.
observation of changes.

Are flexible (their focus can be shifted while Should have a large number of subjects who
data is being collected) are willing to cooperate.

II. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out
a) Field Research
It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social science, agricultural
science, history and archeology.

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A field research or fieldwork is the collection of information outside a laboratory or a library. The
approaches and methods used across disciplines. Field research allows researchers to gain firsthand
experience and knowledge about the people, events, and processes that they study. No other
method offers quite the same kind of close-up lens on everyday life. This close-up on everyday
life means that field researchers can obtain very detailed data about people and processes, perhaps
more detailed than they can obtain using any other method

Field Experiments take place in real-life settings such as a classroom, the work place or even the
high street. Field experiments are much more common in sociology than laboratory experiments.
In fact sociologists hardly ever use lab experiments because the artificial environment of the
laboratory is so far removed from real life that most sociologists believe that the results gained
from such experiments tell us very little about how respondents would actually act in real life.

Advantages Disadvantages
It yields very detailed data. Is costly
It emphasizes the role and relevance of social Takes longer time
context.
It can uncover social facts that may not be Access problem (lack of informed consent)
immediately obvious or of which research
participants may be unaware.
b) Laboratory Research
It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly experimental research. Such
researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in general in natural sciences.

Laboratory research took place in controlled environments and is the main method used in the
natural sciences such as Physics, Chemistry and Biology. The laboratory experiment is commonly
used psychology, where experiments are used to measure the effects of sleep loss and alcohol on
concentration and reaction time, as well as some more ethically dubious experiments designed to
measure the effects of media violence on children and the responses of people to authority figures.

The logic of the experimental method is that it is a controlled environment which enables the
scientist to measure precisely the effects of independent variables on dependent variables, thus

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establishing cause and effect relationships. This in turn enables them to make predictions about
how the dependent variable will act in the future.

Advantages Disadvantages
Accuracy and Precision - Allow the precise Laboratory experiments lack external validity
effects of independent variables on dependent – sociologists hardly ever use lab experiments
variables to be measured. because the artificial environment of the
laboratory is so far removed from real-life that
most Sociologists agree that the results gained
from such experiments tell us very little about
how respondents would actually act in real life.
Controlled conditions also allow the Deception– The Hawthorne Effect (or
researchers to eliminate the effects of Experimental Effect) may reduce the validity
‘extraneous variables’. Extraneous variables of results. The Hawthorne effect is where
are undesirable variables which are not of respondents may act differently just because
interest to the researcher but might interfere they know they are part of an experiment.
with the results of the experiment.
It can uncover social facts that may not be Access problem (lack of informed consent)
immediately obvious or of which research
participants may be unaware.
c) Library Research
This method is commonly termed as document analysis. Most researches use this method to
support field and laboratory study. But in rare cases, it can be a standalone method. We may refer
reports, newsletters, magazines, bulletins, policies, strategies, plans, employee records, guidelines,
minutes, proceedings, audios and videos etc in reference to our research objective.

III. On the basis of the use of the outcome of research: Whether the research tries to solve a
particular problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be

a) Fundamental Research

Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is aimed at
investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with generalization and

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formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of knowledge
and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make a change in the fundamental
principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of research also verifies the old established
theories, principles and laws.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science.

The term Fundamental/pure or basic research refers to study that is meant to increase our scientific
knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical with the intent of increasing our
understanding of certain phenomena or behavior but does not seek to solve or treat these problems.

Pure research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest. There is no obvious commercial value
to the discoveries that result from basic research. Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental
understanding of all branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other
words, basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work
is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research.

b) Applied Research
A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by either individuals
or groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers. While pure research discovers principles
and laws, applied research discovers their application in solving some social, economic or any
other problems.

Applied research is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or

group. The study and research is used in business, medicine and education in order to find solutions
that may cure diseases, solve scientific problems or develop technology.

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• improve agricultural crop production

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• treat or cure a specific disease

• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research
and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from
global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.

Classroom Action Research is a method of finding out what works best in your
own classroom so that you can improve student learning. There are many ways to improve
knowledge about teaching. Many teachers practice personal reflection on teaching, others conduct
formal empirical studies on teaching and learning.

IV. On the basis of the purpose (The questions we ask) it can be-

a) Exploratory Research
It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at discovering,
identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies
that can be referred such research is needed. Exploratory research is an initial research conducted
to clarify and define the nature of a problem. Such research does not provide conclusive evidence.
Hence, subsequent research is expected. Examples are pilot studies, experience surveys and
secondary data analysis. Such research is done to:
• Diagnose a situation

• Screening of alternatives

• Discover new ideas

Exploratory research is an important part of any marketing or business strategy. Its focus is on the
discovery of ideas and insights as opposed to collecting statistically accurate data. When it comes
to online surveys, the most common example of exploratory research takes place in the form of
open-ended questions.

Exploratory Research Methods: You may wonder how you can explore a topic if there is little
information about it. There are several methods that are used in exploratory research. Researchers
may use primary or secondary research, or a combination of both types of research.

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Primary research is data that someone collects personally, usually from a group of people gathered
specifically for the study. Primary research is collected through the use of interviews, focus groups,
customer surveys, or any way that organizations are able to obtain feedback. For instance, social
media and blogs are a great way for business owners to obtain customer feedback.

Secondary research is the analysis and synthesis of primary research that was compiled at a
previous date. Secondary research can be gathered from marketing research data, magazines, old
reports, or any other source where relevant information has been stored.

Once upon a time, someone had the idea that the world was flat and that if you went too far, you
would surely fall off. We now know that is not true. We know this because of ER. When you
conduct ER, you are an explorer, like Magellan or Lewis and Clark or even Dora the Explorer!
Before explorers set out on a new adventure, they gather primary and secondary research. They
look at similar expeditions, talk to others about their expeditions, and gather any data that will be
helpful in guiding them on their journey. ER is the initial research conducted so you understand
where you need to focus your efforts or where to point your compass.

Example of Exploratory Research

The owner of The Cupcake King has many, many ideas for improving the bakery's sales but isn't
sure which will work. They think increasing the flavors of cupcakes the bakery sells will bring in
more customers but know they need more information. They intend to conduct ER to investigate
whether expanding their cupcake selection will lead to an increase in sales, or if there is a better
idea.

The owner starts by examining prior research available on food business improvement methods.
They hope that this will give them an idea on the types of questions and methods that were helpful
to others. Next, they develop a list of open-ended questions, or questions that let respondents
answer however they want.

b) Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it exists at
present. Such study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public
opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are

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primarily descriptive in nature. Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a

population or phenomenon being studied. Hence, descriptive research cannot describe what caused
a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where
one variable affects another. Subjects usually measured once, so it is a cross sectional data.

Descriptive research takes up the bulk of online surveying and is considered conclusive in nature
due to its quantitative nature. Unlike exploratory research, descriptive research is preplanned and
structured in design so the information collected can be statistically inferred on a population.

The main idea behind using this type of research is to better define an opinion, attitude, or behavior
held by a group of people on a given subject. Consider your everyday multiple choice question.
Since there are predefined categories a respondent must choose from, it is considered descriptive
research. These questions will not give the unique insights on the issues like exploratory research
would. Instead, grouping the responses into predetermined choices will provide statistically
inferable data. This allows you to measure the significance of your results on the overall population
you are studying, as well as the changes of your respondent’s opinions, attitudes, and behaviors
over time.

Goals of Descriptive research

➢ To provide an accurate profile of a group

➢ To describe a processes, mechanism or relationship
➢ To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
➢ To find information to stimulate new explanations
➢ To present basic background information on a context
➢ To create a set of categories or classify types
➢ To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject
c). Analytic Research

Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of nature. When
a researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you may begin
to ask “why” things are the way they are.

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Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyzes them to make a
critical evaluation of the material. Not only describe the characteristics, but also it analyzes and
explains why and how it happened or is happening. The information or facts used here can be
either Qualitative or Quantitative.

Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is, while analytical
research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be. The descriptive research uses
description, classification, measurement, and comparison to describe

Goals of Analytical Research

➢ To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory

➢ To find out which competing explanation is better
➢ To advance knowledge about an underling process
➢ To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
➢ To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
➢ To extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues
➢ To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction

Case studies
Case study is a type of analytical research in which a researcher examine many features of a very
few elements in-depth over duration of time. Case can be individual, group, organization,
movement, events, or geographic units. The data in case study are usually more detailed, varied
and extensive. Mostly data involved are qualitative data about a few cases. In a case study a
researcher may intensively investigate one or two cases.

Tracer Study

Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory research that aims at
investigating the subsequent development of individuals after a specified treatment or condition.
Tracer study is used to make an investigation on the direction of movements and predicts what is
likely to take place to the future. Tracer study is designed to establish patterns of change in the
past in order to predict future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about subjects and
environment. Common example of such study is that a researcher may conduct a tracer study of
the former graduates of the Faculty of Business and Economics to know

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• Whether all of the graduates are employed or absorbed by the labor market
• Whether there is a mismatch between the training graduates received and the type of
jobs they are handling
D. Causal Research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship between the two
variables. Like descriptive research, causal research is quantitative in nature as well as preplanned
and structured in design. For this reason, it is also considered conclusive research. Causal research
differs in its attempt to explain the cause and effect relationship between variables. This is opposed
to the observational style of descriptive research, because it attempts to decipher whether a
relationship is causal through experimentation. In the end, causal research will have two
objectives: 1) To understand which variables are the cause and which variables are the effect, and
2) to determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be
predicted.

For example, a cereal brand owner wants to learn if they will receive more sales with their new
cereal box design. Instead of conducting descriptive research by asking people whether they would
be more likely to buy their cereal in its new box, they would set up an experiment in two separate
stores. One will sell the cereal in only its original box and the other with the new box. Taking care
to avoid any outside sources of bias, they would then measure the difference between sales based
on the cereal packaging. Did the new packaging have any effect on the cereal sales? What was that
effect?

Example:

➢ What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product?

➢ What is the relationship between technology and employment?
➢ What is the effect of home environment on educational achievement?

V. On the basis of the data used in the study: That is, on the basis of data used in the research
process research can be

a) Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity or
amount. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in

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depth interviews for the purpose. Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be
expressed in terms of quantity. Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is an example of such
research.

b) Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is on the other hand is concerned with quantitative phenomenon. It is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable for phenomenon that can be expressed
in term of quantity or numbers. The common types of quantitative research are:

✓ Survey research
✓ Correlation research
✓ Causal-comparative research
✓ Experimental research

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STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Similar to any project, research also follows a systematic method and it has a sequence of few
steps. We might come across various problems in business very regularly. This is the beginning of
the research process. The administrator or the professional might be asked to frame a research
design for collecting information related to some problems. Subsequently, information is collected
as per the research design. The collected information (data) have to be processed, analyzed and
interpreted. McNabb (2002) has identified eight important steps in the research process. They have
been displayed in the following page.

Steps in the research process

1. Identify the Research Problem

What decision (s) must be made; why is the information needed?

2. Establish Research Objectives

What information is needed to improve the quality of this decision?

3. Decide Research Strategy

What is the best and most cost-effective way to gather this information?

4. Prepare a Research Plan

What specific steps must be taken to gather this information?

5. Conduct a Literature Review

Investigate and evaluate how other researchers have looked at the issue

6. Gather the Data

Monitor and manage the process to be sure the right data are collected

7. Analyze and Interpret the Data

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What do these data mean, specifically in terms of the problem?

8. Prepare and Present the Findings

What impact does this information have on the decision to be made?

1. Identify the Research Problem

Clear identification of the research problem is the first and foremost step in the research process.
It is also known as defining the study question. Research topics, rationale for the study and research
situation are some of the phrases used for this step.

2. Establish Research Objectives

What should be achieved by the research has to be brought out after identifying the research
problem. Research objectives are statements of what the researcher wants the research to achieve.
For instance, let us assume that there is a problem of high turnover and absenteeism in an
organization. One may have the following three inter-related objectives.

1. To identify the extent of turnover and absenteeism in the organization

2. To bring out the causes and effect of turnover and absenteeism on the organization in the
form of decreased productivity
3. To suggest feasible and practical administrative measures to bring down the level of
turnover and absenteeism
Initially, one may establish tentative objectives for solving / addressing the research problem.
These objectives might undergo changes after a review of the literature pertaining to the research
problem. There is a possibility that even the research problem might be redefined after conducting
the review of the literature. This is what we called redefining the problem. Let us assume that after
a thorough review of literature you decide to redefine the research problem as 'The impact of
absenteeism and turnover on organizational productivity'.

3. Decide Research Strategy

The research strategy that provides the most cost-effective method of collecting the relevant
information has to be identified. This strategy has to provide the best possible answer for the
research question. The research strategies can be either qualitative or quantitative or a combination

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of both. Depending upon the type of research strategy, there would be wide varieties of data
collecting approaches/methods, data processing and analysis techniques available to the
researcher. For instance, in the above mentioned research problem of 'the impact of absenteeism
and turnover on organizational productivity', one may decide to adopt a combination of
quantitative and qualitative research strategies. In addition to interviewing employees and
management on the issue, a researcher may decide to collect data by adopting observation
techniques, questionnaire survey etc.

4. Prepare a Research Plan

During this step, the researcher prepares a plan for the conducting the research activities.
Identifying the research respondents or subjects or the research sample, the methods planned for
collecting, processing and analyzing the collected data and the time and other resources needed
for undertaking the research project are the key components of a research plan. Decisions on (1)
the data sources (2) the research approaches (3) the data collection instruments (4) a sampling plan
(5) methods of contacting the study respondents and (6) the methods of analyzing the data might
be needed while preparing the research plan.

5. Conduct a Literature Review

This is a very important step in conducting any research project. As mentioned earlier, this might
have to take place a little earlier in the research process. The literature review has to summarize
and organize the previous research findings with respect to the topic being studied. This will help
in identifying the gaps and justifying the proposed research. While carrying out this review, it is
necessary to cite all the literature used.

A thorough investigation of the relevant literature on the study topic, the research question, and
the methodology followed by others who have studied the same or similar problems is called as
literature review. It has been defined as ‘a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for
identifying, evaluating, and interpreting the existing body of recorded work produced by
researchers, scholars and practitioners’. Review of the literature is also known as ‘the process
whereby a researcher identifies and examines research done by scholars that is relevant to the topic
under investigation’. Many different purposes have been identified for the literature review.
Denscombe (1998) felt that literature review is serving three fundamental purposes listed below.

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1. It shows those who read the research findings that the researcher is aware of the existing
work already done on the topic
2. It identifies what the researcher believes are the key issues, crucial questions, and the
obvious gaps in the field
3. It establishes a set of guiding signs that allow readers to see which theories and principles
the researcher used to shape the research design and analysis
The literature review is not intended to be just a summary of the articles and books that were read.
It should not be a list of authors with whom the researcher agrees or disagrees.

6. Gather the Data

Collecting the data needed for the study is the next step in the research process. The data to be
collected have to answer the study question. The data can be either primary or secondary or both.
Primary data are the original data that the researcher collects from original sources. Primary data
include responses to a questionnaire or an interview or observations made by the researcher using
participant/non-participant observation techniques. Secondary data are data that have been
collected by someone else for some other purpose. Statistical reports, Statistics about revenue
generation, budget data, articles in professional journals and various records of organizations are
examples of secondary data. For any research study, data could be collected from many different
sources.

7. Analyze and Interpret the Data

Once the data have been collected, the researcher must arrange the data in some order. The
meanings and implications of data have to be deciphered. This is known as interpretation of the
data. This has to be carried out in order to relate the findings to the study question / problem and
research objectives. Researchers might be interested to know the following things about a mass of
data that have been collected. Let us consider the example of the problem of high absenteeism and
turnover levels. First, the researchers would like to know what is ‘typical’ in the sample. This
means that they want to know what the averages are. In our example, the researcher might look
into the record of per day average absentees. It might be the level of turnover in the sample. It
could be the aggregate impact of absenteeism and turnover on productivity as measured by inputs
and outputs in the particular unit or division of the organization.

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Second, the researcher might wish to learn how widely individuals in the sample vary in their
responses. A cross-tabulation of data might be relevant to show such variation. Thirdly, the
researcher could be interested to see how the respondents of the study are distributed across the
study variables. Using charts or graphs to show the frequency of responses is a good method of
displaying this type of information. Fourth, the researcher would like to display how different
variables relate to each other. Fifthly, it might be relevant to describe any differences between the
two or more groups of respondents. Tabulating the responses to all items in the study is the first
step in the data analysis. Counting all the answers to each question in the questionnaire, known as
frequency distributions, counts the responses and prepares summary data. Frequency distributions
and summaries are prepared for one variable at a time, producing univariate statistics for each
variable. The following Table 1 is the example for this type. Subsequently, the researcher can have
bivariate tabulations wherein responses to one table are tabulated with a second variable. This is
generally presented in a table called cross-tabulations or cross-tabs for short.

In addition to simple counts of responses, cross-tabulations can display some summary information
for each of the responses. Table 3 can be taken as a rough example how summary information for
each cell can be displayed. In this Table, percentage for each cell has been provided. Summary
statistics can include the percentage of the total represented by the number of responses in each
cell, the cell’s percentage of the row total, and the cell’s percentage of the column. Row, column,
and total percentage values can be provided along the sides of the cross-tabulation Table. It is
suggested that you should recollect the learning on these aspects from the Statistics for
Management course completed by you.

An analysis of variable correlations or hypothesis tests would follow the bivariate data analysis.
Subsequently, many multivariate statistical processes needed to meet the objectives of the study
can be carried out. For qualitative research, the data analysis has generally been the narrative text
as mentioned by Miles and Huberman (1998). This is normally a comprehensive rewrite of the
researcher’s field notes, with the researcher’s verbal interpretation and conclusions from the data.

8. Prepare and Present the Findings

The final step of preparing and presenting the research findings is the second most important step
in the research process. Generally, it is considered as the most difficult of all the steps. Some parts

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of the report such as description of the research problem, research objectives, the review of the
literature and the rationale for the strategy adopted could be written much before as the researcher
completes the earlier steps in the research process.

Doing good research also means interpreting what the data mean in terms of the study objectives
and writing the research report clearly and effectively communicating the findings of the study.
Using an appropriate style is critical in all research writings. It refers to the words, syntax, and
punctuation that are used or not used. It is related to the way these components are placed into
sentences and paragraphs. It is concerned with the structure and organization of the report and
whether it conforms to the traditions of the respective discipline. The ways that the author’s sources
are cited, identified and credited are also part of the good research. Following an accepted style
increases the readability of the research report. This will result in greater acceptance of the research
findings.

CRITERIA OR CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.

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7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. A Good Research should be Systematic & well structured: A good research will satisfy the
steps to be taken in an orderly sequence according to a set of defined rules
2. A Good Research should be Logical reasoning in any research: This logical process used
could be induction or deduction. Induction is a process of reasoning from the part to the whole and
to induce means to draw conclusion from one or more facts or pieces of evidence
3. A Good Research should be Rigorous: One must be very careful in ensuring that the
procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
4. A Good Research should be Empirical This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Empirical means the factual investigation is possible. Its validity can be checked through reliable
sources and evidences.
5. A Good Research is Replicable, Valid and verifiable: It means the research conducted can be
repeated by any number of times. This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
6. A Good Research should be Controlled: In exploring the causality relation to two variables,
the study must be set in way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting relationship. In
social science research, however, since controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the other
variable must be quantified.

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