The diagram below shows that when an atom loses (or donates) an electron it becomes a positively charged and

when an atom gains (or accepts) an electron it becomes a

negatively charged.

When sodium loses one electron it is losing one negative charge.

The sodium atom then has 10 negatively charged electrons and 11
positively charged protons so overall it has a net charge of 1+, this
is written as Na+.
When a chlorine atom gains an electron, it is gaining one negative
charge. The chlorine atom then has 18 negatively charged
electrons and 17 positively charged protons so overall it has a net
charge of 1-, this is written as Cl-.

An ionic bond is formed by one atom transferring electrons to

another atom to form charged particles called ions. Oppositely
charged ions attract each other, this force of attraction creates
the ionic bond. For example positively charged sodium ions are
attracted to negatively charged chloride ions, these ions bond together and form sodium chloride.

Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond forms when two atoms share a pair of valence electrons. Hydrogen gas (H2) forms the simplest
covalent bond - a molecule is formed by two individual hydrogen atoms joining together by sharing their single
valence electron.

Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents the total
chemical change that occurs in a
chemical reaction using words or
symbols for the substances involved.
Reactants are the substances that are
changed, and products are the substances
that are produced in a chemical reaction.

Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium Chloride

A chemical formula of a compound tells
you how many atoms of each element the
molecule contains.

For example, sodium and chlorine react

together to form a compound called
sodium chloride, in this example the reactants are sodium and chlorine, and the product is sodium chloride,
the word equation for this reaction would be written as shown below, Individual substances are separated by a
plus sign, an arrow between the reactants and the products represents the reaction.

Balanced Equations
Balanced equations give the symbols and formulas of the substances involved in a reaction. One reaction you
will need to know for biology is the respiration reaction, respiration is a chemical process in which energy is
released from food substances, such as glucose. The word equation for this reaction is:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ Energy)

In the respiration reaction if we replace the words shown above with the correct chemical formulas we will get
an unbalanced equation, as shown here:
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O (+ energy)

Atoms are not lost or made during a chemical reaction so we need to make things equal or balanced, we need to
adjust the number of units of some of the substances until we get equal numbers of each type of atom on both
sides of the arrow.
Here is the balanced symbol equation for the respiration reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy)
Here are some examples of more simple balanced equations:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

The compounds that make up living organisms fall into two types - organic compounds and inorganic
compounds.

Organic Compounds
The term organic compound comes from the fact that most of the original organic compounds studied by
scientists came from living things, however now we are able to make some organic compounds in the
laboratory.
Organic compounds can be recognised from their formulae - they all contain the elements carbon and hydrogen.
Examples of organic compounds are carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and nucleic acids. These may be
classified as (a) small biological molecules and (b) large biological molecules and polymers.

Proteins are organic compounds that contain the elements nitrogen and oxygen as well
as carbon, hydrogen. Proteins are often considered to be the central compound
necessary for life. There are many types of proteins, but they are all made from smaller
units called amino acids. Proteins vary in length, complexity and shape is based on the
number and type of amino acids they are built from. The specific shape of a protein
determines its function, if the shape of a protein is altered it will not perform its
function as expected (see Enzymes review).

Inorganic Compounds
These are compounds that are not made by living things. They usually do not contain the element carbon but
there are a few exceptions (e.g. carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide). Other examples of inorganic compounds
are water (which exists as molecules) and salts (which contain ions such as potassium, calcium, and chloride).

pH Summary
 pH scale measures hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a substance and therefore how acidic or
basic/alkaline a substance is.
 Acids have a pH lower than 7, the lower the number the stronger the acid.
 When acids dissolve in water they produce hydrogen ions (H+).
 When bases are dissolved in water they are known as alkalis, they produce hydroxide ions (OH–).
 Alkalis have a pH greater than 7, the higher the number the stronger the alkali.
 Substances with a pH of exactly 7 are neutral.
 Cellular processes are generally restricted to the middle of the pH scale between pH6 and 8.

This is a scale from 0 – 14. The pH scale measures hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a substance and therefore
how acidic or basic/alkaline a substance is. It ranges from 0 (strongest acid) to 14 strongest base), a pH of 7 is
neutral. An indicator is a chemical that changes colour when in contact with an acid or a base.

Acids
Acids have a pH lower than 7 (1 to 6), the lower the number the stronger the acid. Acidic solutions turn blue
litmus paper red and turn universal indicator paper red if they are strongly acidic, and orange or yellow if they
are weakly acidic.
Acids are corrosive when they are strong, examples of strong acids include battery acid and hydrochloric acid
which is found in the stomach. Weak acids are an irritant, examples of weak acids include tomato juice and
black coffee.
When acids dissolve in water they produce aqueous hydrogen ions (H+)

Bases/ Alkalis
Substances that can react with acids and neutralise them are called bases. Bases that dissolve in water are
called alkalis.
Alkaline solutions have a pH greater than 7 (8 to 14). The higher the number the stronger the alkali. Alkaline
solutions turn red litmus paper blue and turn universal indicator paper dark blue or purple if they are strongly
alkaline (e.g. bleach), and blue-green if they are weakly alkaline (e.g. Sea water).
When alkalis dissolve in water they produce aqueous hydroxide ions (OH–)

Neutral Solutions
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. They do not change the colour of litmus paper, but they turn universal
indicator paper green. Distilled water is an example of a neutral substance.
When the H+ ions from an acid react with the OH– ions from an alkali, a neutralisation reaction occurs to form
water.

Acid-Base balance in the Human body

Cellular processes are generally restricted to the middle of the pH scale between pH6 and 8. A change in pH can
cause proteins in the body to denature and alter the function of enzyme activity, it can alter hormone action and
disrupt cell and tissue function. Therefore it is important to maintain acid-base balance in the body.

The body has a buffer system to help neutralize the blood if excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions are produced.
Buffers help to keep the pH in the normal range by combining with the excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions. The
most common buffers in the body are bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). Bicarbonate is produced
by the kidneys and released into the bloodstream. It can combine with excess hydrogen ions to keep the pH of
the blood in the normal range. When bicarbonate combines with excess hydrogen ions, it forms carbonic acid,
which keeps the pH of the blood from going too low. However, if the pH of the blood gets too high, carbonic
acid breaks apart to release some hydrogen ions, which brings the pH back into balance.