Logarithm, the exponent or power to which a base must be raised to yield a given number.

Expressed mathematically, x is
the logarithm of n to the base b if bx = n, in which case one writes x = logb n. For example, 23 = 8; therefore, 3 is the
logarithm of 8 to base 2, or 3 = log2 8. In the same fashion, since 102 = 100, then 2 = log10 100. Logarithms of the latter sort
(that is, logarithms with base 10) are called common logarithms and are written simply log n

The laws of logarithms

Introduction

There are a number of rules known as the laws of logarithms. These allow expressions involving

logarithms to be rewritten in a variety of different ways. The laws apply to logarithms of any base

but the same base must be used throughout a calculation.

The laws of logarithms

The three main laws are stated here:

First Law
log A + log B = log AB
This law tells us how to add two logarithms together. Adding log A and log B results in the logarithm

of the product of A and B, that is log AB.

For example, we can write

log10 5 + log10 4 = log10(5 × 4) = log10 20

The same base, in this case 10, is used throughout the calculation. You should verify this by

evaluating both sides separately on your calculator.

Second Law
log A − log B = log (A/B)
So, subtracting log B from log A results in log (A/B)

For example, we can write

Log10 12 – log10 2 = log10(12/2) = log10 6

The same base, in this case 10, is used throughout the calculation. You should verify this by evaluating

both sides separately on your calculator

Third Law
log An = n log A

So, for example

log10 53 = 3 log10 5

You should verify this by evaluating both sides separately on your calculator.

log 1 = 0, logm m = 1

The logarithm of 1 to any base is always 0, and the logarithm of a number to the same base is always 1.

In particular, log10 10 = 1, and loge e = 1

Exercises

1. Use the first law to simplify the following.

a) log10 6 + log10 3,

b) log x + log y,

c) log 4x + log x,

d) log a + log b2 + log c3

2. Use the second law to simplify the following.

a) log10 6 − log10 3,

b) log x − log y,

c) log 4x − log x.

3. Use the third law to write each of the following in an alternative form.

a) 3 log10 5,

b) 2 log x,

c) log(4x)2

4. Simplify 3 log x − log x2

 Answers

1. a) log10 18, b) log xy, c) log 4x2, d) log ab2c3

2. a) log10 2, b) log x/y , c) log 4.

3. a) log10 53 or log10 125, b) log x2 , c) 2 log(4x)

4. log x.

Useful formulas:

Log2 = 0.3010

Log3 = 0.4771

In electronics and communications, the Bel expresses the logarithmic ratio between two
levels of signal power, voltage, or current. The Bel was named for Alexander Graham Bell,
the inventor of the telephone.
1- Bels = log(P2/P1)

where P2/P1 represents the power ratio.

Since the bel is a rather large unit, its use may prove inconvenient. Usually a smaller unit, the Decibel or dB, is used.
10 decibels make one Bel

2-Decibels (dB) = 10 log(P2/P1)

The power ratio need not be greater than unity as shown in the previous examples. In equations [1] and [2], P 1 is
usually the reference power. If P2 is less than P1, the ratio is less than 1.0 and the resultant bels or decibels are
negative. For example, if P2 is one-tenth P1, we have

bels = log(0.1/1) = -1.0 bels

and dB = 10 log(0.1/1) = -10 dB

It should be clearly understood that the term decibel does not in itself indicate power, but rather is a ratio or
comparison between two power values. It is often desirable to express power levels in decibels by using a fixed power
as a reference. The most common references in the world of electronics are the milliwatt (mW) and the watt. The
abbreviation dBm indicates dB referenced to 1.0 milliwatt. One milliwatt is then zero dBm. Thus P 1 in equations [1] or
[2] becomes 1.0 mW. Similarly, the abbreviation dBW indicates dB referenced to 1.0 watt, with P 2 being 1.0 watt,
thus one watt in dBW is zero dBW or 30 dBm or 60 dBuW

1000 mW = 1 W

● dBm = 10log(mW) = 10log (1000) = 30 dBm

● dBW = 10log(W) = 10log (1) = 0 dBW

● dBW = dBm – 30

● dBm = dBW + 30

The logarithmic characteristic of the dB makes it very convenient for expressing electrical power and power ratios.
Consider an amplifier with an output of 100 watts when the input is 0.1 watts (100 milliwatts); it has an amplification
factor of
P2/P1 = 100/0.1 = 1000 or a gain of:
10 log(P2/P1) = 10 log(100/0.1) = 30 dB

A ratio of less than 1.0 is a loss, a negative gain, or attenuation. For instance, if 10 watts of power is fed into a cable
but only 8.5 watts are measured at the output, the signal has been decreased by a factor of

8.5/10 = 0.85

or

10 log(0.85) = -0.7 dB

Decibels are used to represent the ratio of two quantities of power: dB = 10 log P 1/P0. In the case of dBm the
reference power P0 is 1 milliwatt: dBm = 10 log P1/1mw.

Inverting this equation gives the power in terms of the reference power: P 1= P010db/10. In the case of dBm the
equation is P1= 1mw·10dbm/10.

dB (in power) = 20 log V1/V0 or dB = 20 log I1/I0

This is only useful in cases where the voltage or current is measured at the same impedance or resistance, which
allows the ratio of two powers I2R or V2/R to cancel out the R.

Examples
Find the gain in dB for a system with input power of 5W and output power of 10W.
GdB = 10 log10(Pout/Pin) = 10 log10(10W/5W) = 3.01dB

Find the output voltage for a system with input voltage of 5V and voltage gain of 6dB.
Vout = Vin⋅ 10 (GdB / 20) = 5V ⋅ 10 (6dB / 20)
 Summary
. Power Ratios
We will first consider a ratio of powers. The formula to memorize and take to your deathbed is:

Here, the square brackets mean “units of dB”. Notice that this formula is easy to remember because it has
lots of tens, hence the “deci-” in “decibels”.

Example 1-1:
An attenuator is anything that takes in a signal and spits out a weaker one. Consider the attenuator below.
How many dB’s of attenuation does this attenuator provide?

Figure 1

In this problem, our power ratio is output power over input power, often simply known as power gain.

We have learned something important (memorize this!) from the above example:

Question 1-1:
An amplifier has a power gain of 2 (if you put in one watt, you will get out two watts). How many dB’s of
power gain does this amp provide?
 ANSWER: +3 dB

Question 1-2:
You have a -10 dB attenuator. What is Pout/Pin?

ANSWER: 1/10

Figure 2

Voltage Ratios
In low frequency electronics, we are typically more concerned with voltages than power. However, the
decibel is defined with respect to power. How can we use decibels for voltage ratios? Recalling that P =
V2/R,
Example 2-1:
An RC filter provides -3 dB of voltage attenuation at a particular frequency. What is the ratio of V out/Vin?

Figure 3

Question 2-1:
If you have a component in your system that passes through signal voltage without attenuation or gain,
how many dB’s does it provide?

ANSWER: 0 dB

Question 2-2:
If you have a component in your system that completely attenuates your signal, how many dB’s does
it provide?

ANSWER: -∞ dB

Question 2-3:
Without using a calculator, how many decibels correspond to half voltage? Hint: half power is -3dB.
ANSWER: -6 dB
The following chart summarizes important ratio to decibel conversions.
Rati Power Ratio in Voltage Ratio in
o dB dB
0 -∞ dB -∞ dB
1/1 -10 dB -20 dB
0
1/2 -3 dB -6 dB
1 0 dB 0 dB
2 3 dB 6 dB
10 10 dB 20 dB
100 20 dB 40 dB

Example 2-2:
Without using a calculator, how many decibels correspond to a voltage ratio of

0.05? Notice that

But we have already memorized that 1/10 means -20 dB in voltage and ½ means -6 dB! This means we can just
add decibels to get -26 dB. If you don’t believe me, here is the rigorous math: