ME241 Thermodynamics I

Week 5
CHAPTER 2
Energy, Energy Transfer and General Energy Analysis
Contents

▪ Section 2.1 – 2.2: Introduction - Forms of Energy

▪ Section 2.3: Energy Transfer by Heat

▪ Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work

▪ Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

Section 2.1: Introduction
A refrigerator operating with its door open in a well-sealed and well-insulated room.

Question:
What do you think will happen to the average
temperature of air in the room?
Will it be increasing or decreasing? Or will it
remain constant?

Answer:
Depends on your decision of system boundaries!
Section 2.1: Introduction
▪ If we take the entire room – including the air
and the refrigerator (or fan) – as the system,
which is an adiabatic closed system since the
room is well-sealed and well-insulated, the only
energy interaction involved is the electrical
energy crossing the system boundary and
entering the room.

▪ As a result of the conversion of electric energy

consumed by the device to heat, the room
temperature will rise.
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
▪ Energy can exist in numerous forms such as;

thermal electric
mechanical magnetic
kinetic chemical
potential nuclear

and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.

▪ Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the total

energy. It deals only with the change of the total energy, which is what matters in
engineering problems.
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
Macroscopic forms of energy
The macroscopic forms of energy are those system possesses as a whole with respect to
some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

Microscopic forms of energy

Those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular
activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

▪ Internal energy, : The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
▪ A distinction should be
made between the
macroscopic kinetic energy
of an object as a whole and
the microscopic kinetic
energies of its molecules that
constitute the sensible
internal energy of the object.
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
Kinetic energy, KE
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference
frame.

Potential energy, PE
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field.
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
V2
KE  m  kJ  Kinetic energy
2

V2
ke   kJ/kg  Kinetic energy per unit mass
2
PE  mgz  kJ  Potential energy
pe  gz  kJ/kg  Potential energy per unit mass
V2
E  U  KE  PE  U  m  mgz  kJ  Total energy of a system
2
V2
e  u  ke  pe  u   gz  kJ/kg  Energy of a system per unit mass
2

E  me
  kJ/s or kW  Energy flow rate
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time, and it is
convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate form.

m  V   AcVavg  kg/s 

E  me
  kJ/s or kw 

𝑚̇ : mass flow rate

𝑉̇ : volume flow rate
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
The various forms of microscopic energies
T that make up sensible energy
• Sensible energy H
E
R I
M N
• Latent energy A T
L E
R
• Chemical energy N
A
L

• Nuclear energy
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
Static forms of energy are:
The forms of energy that can be contained or stored in a system.

Dynamic forms of energy or energy interactions are:

The forms of energy not stored in a system. They are recognized at the system
boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system
during a process.

Heat
Work
Mass (only for CV)
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy
Mechanical Energy
The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly
by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

▪ A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure, and a turbine
extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its pressure.
▪ Pressure itself is not a form of energy, but a pressure force acting on a fluid through a
distance produces work, called flow work.
▪ Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is convenient to view it as
part of the energy of a flowing fluid and call it flow energy.
Section 2.2: Forms of Energy

▪ Mechanical energy of a P V2
emech    gz
flowing fluid per unit mass  2
Flow energy Kinetic energy Potential energy

▪ Rate of mechanical energy  P V2 

of a flowing fluid E mech  me
 mech  m    gz 
 2 
▪ Mechanical energy change of
P2  P1 V22  V12
a fluid during incompressible emech    g  z2  z1   kJ/kg 
flow per unit mass  2

▪ Rate of mechanical energy  P2  P1 V22  V12 

change of a fluid during E mech  m emech  m    g  z2  z1    kW 
incompressible flow   2 
Section 2.3: Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat
The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat transfer mechanisms
Section 2.3: Energy Transfer by Heat

Several phrases in common use today are not

consistent with the strict thermodynamic meaning
of the term heat, which limits its use to the
transfer of thermal energy during a process.

 body heat (the thermal energy content of a body)

 heat flow (the transfer of thermal energy)
 heat addition (the transfer of heat into a system)
 heat rejection (the transfer of heat out of a system)

Energy is recognized as heat transfer only if

it takes place because of a temperature
difference.
Section 2.3: Energy Transfer by Heat
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process.
There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
1. The system is well insulated
2. Both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature

*** An adiabatic process should not be

confused with an isothermal process!
(Since temperature can change by a work interaction)
Section 2.3: Energy Transfer by Heat

 As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ (or Btu) being the most common one.
The amount of heat transferred during the process between two states (states 1 and 2)
is denoted by , or just .

 Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is

denoted and is determined from;

 The amount of heat transferred per unit time

(rate of heat transfer);

 When remains constant during a process,

this relation reduces to;
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Work
An energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference between a system
and its surroundings is work. More specifically work is the energy transfer associated
with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries
are all associated with work interactions.

 The work done per unit mass of a system is

denoted by and is determined from;

 The work done per unit time is called power

and is denoted ;
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Similarities between Heat & Work
▪ Both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
▪ Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
▪ Both are associated with a process, not a state.
▪ Both are path functions.

Path functions have inexact differentials

designated by the symbol .
Therefore, a differential amount of heat or
work is represented by or ,
respectively.
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Formal sign convention:
Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the
complete description of a heat or work interaction requires
the specification of both the magnitude and direction.

▪ Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are

positive.
▪ Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
▪ Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in
and out to indicate direction.
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Difference Between Energy Transfer by Work and Heat with an Example;

Question:
If the entire oven, including the heating element,
is taken to be the system

Answer:
It is a WORK interaction
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Difference Between Energy Transfer by Work and Heat with an Example;

Question:
If the system is taken as only the air in the oven
without the heating element

Answer:
It is a HEAT interaction
Section 2.4: Energy Transfer by Work
Electrical Work

We  VN Electrical work

We  VI W Electrical power

2
When potential difference and
We   VI dt  kJ  current change with time
1

When potential difference and

We  VI t  kJ  current remain constant Electrical power in terms of
resistance R, current I, and
potential difference V.
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

▪ There are two requirements for a mechanical work interaction between a system and
its surroundings to exist:
i. there must be a force acting on the boundary
ii. the boundary must move

The work done is proportional to the force applied (F) and the
▪ Work = Force  Distance distance traveled (s).

(kJ)

▪ When force is not constant

2
W   F ds  kJ 
1
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

Shaft Work
A force F acting through a moment arm r, generates a torque T;
T
T  Fr  F
r Shaft work is proportional to the
torque applied (T) and the number
This force acts through a distance s and its defined as; of revolutions (𝑛̇ ) of the shaft.
s   2 r  n
Then the shaft work;
T 
Wsh  Fs     2 rn   2 nT  kJ 
r
The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft
work done per unit time;
Wsh  2 nT
  kW 
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

Spring Work
When the length of the spring changes by a differential A spring under the influence
amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done is; of a force.
 Wspring  F dx  kW 
For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional
to the force applied;

F = k x (kN) k: spring constant (kN/m)

Spring work;
1
Wspring  k  x2 2  x12   kJ 
2
x1 and x2 : the initial and the final displacements
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

Solid bars behave as springs under the influence of a
force. Therefore, the equations given for a linear spring
can also be used for elastic solid bars.

Alternatively, we can determine the work associated

with the expansion or contraction of an elastic solid
bar by replacing pressure P with its counterpart in
solids, normal stress = F/A, in the work expression,
we can find the following equation;

2 2
Welastic   F dx    n A dx  kJ 
1 1
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work

Work Associated with the Stretching of a

Liquid Film
Consider a liquid film such as soap film suspended
on a wire frame. We know from experience that it
will take some force to stretch this film by the
movable portion of the wire frame.

Surface tension work;

2
Wsurface    s dA  kJ 
1

dA  2b dx F  2b s
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

1. The work transfer needed to raise a body

is equal to the change in the potential
energy of the body.

2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a

body is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy of the body.
Section 2.5: Mechanical Forms of Work
Non-mechanical Forms of Work
Some work modes encountered in practice are not mechanical in nature.
However, these non-mechanical work modes can be treated in a similar manner by
identifying a generalized force F acting in the direction of a generalized displacement x.

 Electrical work
 Magnetic work
 Electrical polarization work
End of Week 5
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