UNIT 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND

SYMBOLS
FINITE – if the number of elements is countable
SET – well-defined collection of distinct objects
INFINITE – if the numbers of elements cannot be
WELL DEFINED SET – elements in a set are
countable
specifically listed(ex. Set of all positive numbers)
NOT WELL – DEFINED – (ex. Set of all delicious
food)
NOTATION
x ∈ S means that x is an element of set S.
x ∉ S means that x is not an element of set S.
SET BUILDER NOTATION – uses a variable, braces,
and a vertical bar | that is read as “such that.”
Ex. EQUAL – set with exactly same elements and

The set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be written in set builder cardinality

notation as: EQUIVALENT – set with the same number of

 the set R contains the elements 2, 4, and 6. elements or cardinality

 the set of all x such that x is an even natural

number and x is less than 7.
 the set W contains the elements red, yellow,
and blue.
 the set of all x such that x is a primary color.
JOINT – sets with common elements (intersection)
 is the set of all integers (strictly) between -2
DISJOINT – sets with no common elements

UNIVERSAL SET – set of all elements, denoted as

letter U
and 5
A = {1,2,3,4,5}
CARTESIAN SET OF NUMBERS
B = {3,4,5,6,7}
U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
EMPTY/NULL SET – set that contains no element,
denoted as ∅ or { }
UNION – list of elements on the sets, denoted as ∪
CARDINALITY
INTERSECTION - list of all common elements on
both sets, denoted as ∩

UNIT 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND

SYMBOLS

RELATION – rule that relates values from a set of

SUBSET AND SUPERSET values (called the domain) to a second set of values
(called the range)
– set of ordered pairs
DOMAIN – is a set of independent variables.
RANGE – is a set of dependent variables.
ORDERED PAIRS – denoted as (x, y) where x is the
domain and y is the corresponding range of the
domain.
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
COMPLEMENT
 Cartesian product of set A and set B denoted
as A × B
 The elements of the multiplier will be the
domain of the cartesian product. And the
elements of the multiplicand will be the
range. Or can be shown as:
A × B = {(a, b)| a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
 So, A × B is not the same as B × A
Example, A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v},
 Solve for A × B
A × B = {(1, u), (1, v), (2, u), (2, v), (3, u), (3, v)}
  Solve for B × A – elements of the domain can be
B × A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)} imagined as input to machine that applies a rule so
 Consider the cardinality: that each input corresponds to only one output
n(A) = 3 and n(B) = 2 – set of ordered pairs, (x, y), such that no
n(A × B) = 6 and n(B × A) = 6 ordered pairs have the same x value
RELATION AS A SUBSET REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS AND
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define relation, R, RELATIONS
from A to B as follows:  TABLE
 Given any (x, y) ∈ A × B,
(x, y) ∈ R means that x−y
State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and
which are in R
A × B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3)}
• Apply x−y/2 to all ordered pairs and check if
the result is an integer or not.

 ORDERED PAIRS

The ordered pair is an element of relation R if the

result is an integer. Therefore,
R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2, 2)}
We can say that R is a subset of A × B, written as:
R⊂A×B
 MAPPING DIAGRAM

 GRAPH
Domain = {1, 2} (all first numbers of ordered pairs)
Range = {1, 2, 3} (all second numbers of ordered
pairs)
FUNCTION – relation where each element in the
domain is related only to one value in the range by
some rules
 NEGATION
 FUNCTION  STATEMENT
– PSG will win Saturday.
– I took a shower today.
– My car is clean.
 NEGATION
– PSG will not win Saturday.
– I did not take a shower today.
– My car is not clean.

UNIT 3: LOGIC
STATEMENT – declarative sentence that can be
objectively determined to be true or false, but not both
 Most scientists agree that global warming is
a threat to the environment.(STATEMENT)
 Is that your laptop? (NOT)
SIMPLE STATEMENT – contains only one idea
 Man, that hurts! (STATEMENT)
 My dorm room has three beds in it.
 8 – 2 = 6 (STATEMENT)
 Boracay Beach is in Panay Island.
 This book is about database management.
COMPOUND STATEMENT – formed by joining two
(STATEMENT)
simple statements with what is called a connective.
 Everybody should watch reality shows.
 BASIC CONNECTIVES
(NOT)
– and is called a conjunction
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS – involve terms such as
– or is called a disjunction
all, each, every, no, none, some, there exists, and at
– if . . . then is called a conditional, and
least one
– if and only if is called a biconditional
 UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIERS
EX.
– either include or exclude every element of
– John studied for 5 hours, and he got
the universal set(all, each, every, no, none)
1.50. (conjunction)
 Every student taking GEC4 will
– You will participate in math quiz bee or
pass.
you will not have an additional grade.
 None of the TUPC students are
(disjunction)
involved on fraternity.
– If the study is finished, then it’s a “Yes”.
 EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS
(Conditional)
– show the existence of something, but do not
– You will pass GEC4 if and only if you got
include the entire universal set(some, there
at least 75%. (Biconditional)
exists, at least one)
SYMBOLIC NOTATION
 Some students are athletic and also
excel on mathematics.
 There is at least one professor in
this school who does not have
brown eyes.
TRUTH VALUE TAUTOLOGY – statement that is always true, some
 truth value of a simple statement is uses it to emphasize
either true (T) or false (F).
 truth value of a compound statement
depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives
TRUTH TABLE - table that shows the truth value of a
compound statement for all possible truth values of its
simple statements
 NEGATION
SELF CONTRADICTION – statement that is always
false

 CONJUNCTION

EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
 DISJUNCTION – two statements are equivalent if they both
have the same truth value for all possible
truth values of their simple statements
– have identical truth values in the final
columns of their truth tables
– notation p ≡ q is used to indicate that the
statements p and q are equivalent
 CONDITIONAL

 BICONDITIONAL
 Conclusion:
100 is an even number.
INDUCTIVE REASONING TO PREDICT NUMBER

UNIT 3: PROBLEM SOLVING& REASONING

INDUCTIVE REASONING
– specific data to generalized conclusion
– making generalized conclusions out of particular
instances
Data:
1. My Math instructor is good looking.
CONJECTURE – conclusion or proposition based
2. The math instructor from other room is also
from tentative data without proof
good looking.
INDUCTIVE REASONING TO MAKE A
Conclusion:
CONJECTURE
Therefore, all Math instructors are good looking.
Data:
1. 4 is an even number
2. 6 is also an even number
3. 8 is also an even number.
Conclusion:
Even numbers are divisible by 2
DEDUCTIVE REASONING – general data to specific
conclusion
– concluding specific fact
out of general information
Data:
1. All Math instructors are good looking.
2. I am a Math instructor.
Conclusion:
I am a good looking instructor.
Data:
1. All even numbers are divisible by 2
2. 100 is divisible by 2.
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING TO MAKE A
CONJECTURE

COUNTER EXAMPLE – statement is true provided it

is true in all cases but if you can find a case that will
not satisfy the statement, then the statement is false

UNIT 3: PROBLEM SOLVING& REASONING

GEORGE POLYA
 published the book “How To Solve It” (1945)
 a four-step method to solve all kinds of
problems.
– Understand the problem
– Devise a plan
– Carry out the plan
– Look back
POLYA’S FIRST PRINCIPLE: UNDERSTAND THE
PROBLEM
 You have to understand the problem.
 What is the unknown? What are the data?
DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN GEOMETRY What is the condition?
 Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the
condition sufficient to determine the
unknown? Or is it insufficient? Or redundant?
Or contradictory?
 Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
 Separate the various parts of the condition.
Can you write them down?
On research,
 Background of the Study
 Statement of the Problem
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and Limitation
 Review of Related Literature
 • Eliminate possibilities
POLYA’S SECOND PRINCIPLE: DEVISE A PLAN • Solve a simpler problem
• Find the connection between the data and • Use symmetry
the unknown. You may be obliged to consider • Use a model
auxiliary problems if an immediate connection cannot • Consider special cases
be found. You should obtain eventually a plan of the • Work backwards
solution. • Use direct reasoning
• Have you seen it before? Or have you seen • Use a formula
the same problem in a slightly different form? • Solve an equation
• Do you know a related problem? Do you • Be ingenious
know a theorem that could be useful? On research,
• Look at the unknown! Try to think of a  Methodology
familiar problem having the same or a similar  Research Design & Methods
unknown.  Respondents
• Here is a problem related to yours and  Materials and Equipment
solved before. Could you use it?  Procedure
• Could you use its result? Could you use its POLYA’S THIRD PRINCIPLE: CARRY OUT THE
method? Should you introduce some auxiliary PLAN
element in order to make its use possible?  Persist with the plan that you have chosen.
• Could you restate the problem? Could you  If it continues not to work discard it and
restate it still differently? Go back to definitions. choose another.
• If you cannot solve the proposed problem,
 Check each step.
try to solve first some related problem. Could you
 Can you see clearly that the step is correct?
imagine a more accessible related problem? A more
 Can you prove that it is correct?
general problem? A more special problem? An
POLYA’S FOURTH PRINCIPLE: LOOK BACK
analogous problem? Could you solve a part of the
 Can you check the result? Can you check
problem? Keep only a part of the condition, drop the
the argument?
other part; how far is the unknown then determined,
 Can you derive the solution differently? Can
how can it vary?
you see it at a glance?
• Could you derive something useful from the
 Can you use the result, or the method, for
data? Could you think of other data appropriate to
some other problem?
determine the unknown? Could you change the
On research,
unknown or data, or both if necessary, so that the new
 Results and Discussion
unknown and the new data are nearer to each other?
 Conclusion
• Did you use all the data? Did you use the
 Recommendation
whole condition? Have you taken into account all
essential notions involved in the problem?

• Guess and check

• Look for a pattern
• Make an orderly list
• Draw a picture