CELL STRUCTURE

Cells are building unit or components from which livingthings are built up. They are therefore the basic
structural and functional unit from which livingthings are also composed. Therefore the scientist which
study cells organism are called cytology.

The aggregate/Group of cells are know as tissues, the aggregation of tissues are known as Organ, the
aggregation of organs are known as System.

A cell is bounded by cell membrane for (plasma membrane) within which is enclosed a complex material
called protoplasm. The protoplasm consists of a central, more dense, part called the nucleus and outer
leads dense part called the cytoplasm. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane. The cytoplasm has a fluid base (matrix) which is referred to as the cytosol or hyaloplasm.
The cytoplasm contain a number of organelles which have distinctive structure and functions. Many of
them are in the form of membranes that encloses spaces. These spaces are collectively referred to as the
vacuoplasm.

CELLS ORGANELLES

These are structures in the cytoplasm that performs what organs performs in higher animals or
organelles are specialise subunit within the cell that has a specific functions, each organelles is
separately enclosed by their own lipid bi-layers. The cells organelles suspended in cytosol include
Nucleus, Mitochondrial, Ribosome, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosome.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: It is an extensive series of interconnecting membranous canals in the

cytoplasm. It’s consists of two types , Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: It’s synthesis lipid to replace and repair membrane and also
synthesis steroid hormones. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum aids detoxification of drugs

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: It’s serves as a sites of proteins synthesis. The presence of ribosome
gives the membrane rough appearance.

NUCLEUS: It’s the largest organelles contained within the nuclear membrane with tiny pores to allow
passages of some substances between it and cytoplasm. Within the nucleus is arough spherical structure
known as nucleolus which is involved in the synthesis and assembly of the components of Ribosomes.
The nucleus synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and control cell division through genes, also store
hereditary information and transfer it from one generation to another. The nucleus send genetic
instructions through RNA messenger for protein synthesis to the cytoplasm and nucleus also control all
cellular activities

MITOCHONDRIAL: It’s is a membranous, sausage – shaped structure in the cytoplasm, commonly refers
to as the ‘power house ' of the cell. They are central to aerobic respiration through which chemical
energy (Adenosine Triphosphate – ATP) is produced in the cell and releases the energy when the cell
break it down.

The most active cell types with the greatest number of mitochondrial includes the liver, muscle and
spermatozoa. The mitochondrial involves energy production, synthesis of ATP, initiation of apoptosis
RIBOSOMES: These are tiny granules made up of 65% of RNA and 35% of proteins. Some ribosomes are
present in free units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm, while others are found on the outer surface of
the nuclear membrane and rough endoplasmic reticulum where they manufacture proteins for export
from the cells. The ribosome synthesis proteins from amino acids, using RNA as the template.

GOLGI APPARATUS: It’s is also known as Golgi body or Golgi complex. It’s consists of stacks of closely
folded flattened membranous sacs, present in all cells but larger in the cells that synthesis and export
proteins. It’s process and package synthesized problem into vesicles

LYSOSOMES: These are small membranous vesicles pinched off from the Golgi apparatus. It’s contain a
variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments of organelles and large molecules to be either
recycled or extruded as waste. The lysosome break down fragments of organelles and large molecules
such as RNA, DNA, carbohydrates, proteins and it’s also digest foreign materials such as microbes

THE CYTOSKELETON

The cytoplasm is permeated by a number of fibrillar elements that collectively form a supporting
network. This network is called cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton facilitate cell motility by forming cilia and
help to divide the cytosol into Functionally discrete areas. It’s also facilitates transport of some
constituents through the cytosol and play a roles in anchoring cell to each others

The elements that constitute the cytoskeleton consist of the following

Microfilaments: These are about 5nm in diameter. They are made up of the protein actin. Actin
filaments form a meshwork just adjacent to the cell membrane. This meshwork is called a cell cortex.
Microfilaments are the smallest fibres which provides structural support to the cells

MICROTUBULES: Microtubules are about 25nn in diameter. The basic constituent of Microtubules is the
protein tubulin . Chains of tubulin form proto filament. The wall of a Microtubules is made up of
thirteen protofilaments are stabilised by microtubules associated proteins.

Roles plays by Microfilaments are as follows

1. As part of the cytoskeleton, they provide stability to the cell, they provide tubules of
endoplasmic reticulum from collapsing
2. Microtubules facilitate transport within the cell, some proteins present in membrane of vesicles
and in organelles attach this to Microtubules and facilitate movement along the tubules. Such
transport is specially important in transport along axons
3. In dividing cell, microtubules form the mitotic spindle
4. Cells are made up of Microtubules (held together by other proteins)

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

These are so called as their diameter (10nm) is intermediate between that of Microfilaments (5nm) and
of Microtubules (25nm) . The proteins constituting these filaments vary in different types of cells. They
include cytoskeratin (in epithelial cell), neurofilament protein (in neuron), Desmin (in muscle), glial
fibrillary acidic protein (in astrocytes) , lamia ( in nuclear lamina of cells) and in Vincentia (in many types
of cells).

The roles played by intermediate filament is sa follows

 1. Intermediate filament link cells together. They do so as they are attached to transmembrane
proteins at desmosomes. The filament also facilitates cell attachment to extracellular elements
at hemidesmosomes
2. In the epithelium of the skin the filaments undergo modification to form keratin. They also form
the main constituent of hair and of nail.
3. The neurofilament of neurons are intermediate filament. Neurofibrils help to maintain the
cylindrical shape of axons
4. The nuclear lamina consist of intermediate filament

CHROMOSOMES
Chromosome means coloured bodies because chromosome can be easily stained using certain
histological body. Therefore, chromosome are nuclear materials in which hereditary material
called Gene (DNA) are carried. Chromosome are also called chromatin materials. A single
chromosome consists two arms called sister chromatic which are joined together at a
construction called centromere. Present in the centromere is a distinct unit layer or point of
attachment of fibres by which chromosome are joined or pulled to the spindle apparatus called
kinetochore

HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CHROMOSOMES

During cell division, the chromatin network in the nucleus become condensed into a number of
thread like or rod like structure called chromosome. The number of chromosomes in each cells
is fixed for a given species and in a man it is 46. This is refers to as the diploid number (diploid =
double). However in spermatozoa and in ova the number is only half of the diploid number i.e
23, this is called the haploid number (haploid = half)

AUTOSOMES AND SEX CHROMOSOMES

The 46 chromosome in each cell can again be divided into 44 autosomes and two sex
chromosomes. The sex chromosomes may be of two kinds ,X or Y. In a man there are 44
autosomes, one X chromosome, and one Y chromosome, while in a woman there are 44
chromosome and two X chromosome in each cell. Study shown that 44 autosomes consist of 22
pairs, the two chromosomes forming a pair being exactly alike (homologous chromosomes). In a
woman, the two X chromosomes form another such pair, but In a man this pair is represented by
one X and one Y chromosome. As the two sex chromosomes of a female are similar the female
sex is described as homogametic, in contrast the male sex is heterogametic.

CELLS DIVISION
Cell division is therefore a process of cell reproduction which leads to reformation of new cells
which called daughter cells
Cell division is important in vital process of life, which includes
1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Regeneration
4. Cell replacement

There are two types of cell division

1. Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division which produces two daughters cell which are identical to the two (2)
parent cells.

N = N, 2N = 2N

If the parent are haploid, the daughter cell will be haploid. Also if the parents are diploid, the
daughter cells also will be diploid

N=N

2N = 2N

The difference between these illustration above is that the N is haploid while 2N is Diploid

Mitosis is a continues process but it is often subdivided into (4) stages or phases. Namely

✓ Prophase

✓ Metaphase

✓ Anaphase

✓ Telophase

✓ Interphase

In between two mitotic stages the process enter into is known as interphase

INTERPHASE

During interphase, the cell has the appearance of Non dividing cell, the cell has a nucleus of
homogeneous matrix i e the content of the cell are indistinguishable

Interphase is subdivided into three (3) sub stages

G1: At G1 ( first growth phase) is also called first Gap. During the G1, the cell accumulate energy
metabolite and synthesis proteins with growth.

G2: At G2 formation of Microtubules

S Phase: At S phase, DNA content is doubled or synthesis. Therefore interphase is not a resting phase
rather the cell is growing and preparing for division.

NOTE: At the end of the mitosis daughter cell have the same number of chromosomes just like
original parent forms. Mitosis deserve the parental chromosome.

Mitosis can be observed in the bone marrow , where new cell are produced and in the epithelial
cells of the skin.

MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a long division, which consists of two successive stages

 1. First Meiotic division
2. Second Meiotic division

During the first Meiotic division, the parent cells split into two , then the product divided again during
the second Meiotic division to give a total of four (4) daughter cells.

Therefore, meiosis can be describe as

P1M1A1T1 and P2M2A2T2

FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE 1: The prophase of the first Meiotic division is slower and longer and more complex than the
corresponding meiotic prophase. This is because is divided into Five sub-stage

A. Leptotene
B. Zygotene
C. Pachytene
D. Diplotene
E. Diakinesis

At the stage of diakinesis, the homologue or bivalent moves apart and the exchange part on each
chromomatid are clearly seen. As this process terminated the chromosomes start to shorten and thicken
and goes to metaphase 1

It’s following sequences as

Metaphase 1

Anaphase 1

Telophase 1

SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

With the completion of the first Meiotic division, the cells will enter into a brief interphase. At this stage
the chromosomes will be difficult to see. At the second Meiotic division, the daughter cells enter into
prophase stage. The sequence is as follows

Prophase 2

Metaphase 2

Anaphase 2

Telophase 2

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS DIVISION

1. Mitosis occur during growth of body cells while meiosis occur during the formation of gamate
2. Mitosis homologous chromosomes do not associate with one another while meiosis
homologous chromosomes associate with other and later segregates
3. Mitosis daughter cells posses diploid number of chromosomes N = N, 2N = 2N while daughter
cell posses one half or haploid number of chromosomes at the parent cells in meiosis
4. Two daughters cells are produced during mitosis while Four daughter cells are produced during
meiosis
5. In mitosis, there are absence in exchange of genetic material but they occur in meiosis