Received: 6 April 2021 Revised: 9 February 2022 Accepted: 25 March 2022

DOI: 10.1002/cb.2053

SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE

Lifting the curtain on cultural values, materialism and luxury

consumption: Evidence from Jordan

Eyad Shammout1 | Steven D'Alessandro2 | Felicity Small3 | Tahmid Nayeem3

1
Department of Marketing, Faculty of
Economics and Administrative Science, The
Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
2
Tasmanian School of Business and
Economics, The University of Tasmania,
Tasmania, Australia
3
School of Management and Marketing,
Charles Sturt University, New South Wales,
Australia
Correspondence
Steven D'Alessandro, Tasmanian School of
Business and Economics, The University of
Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia.
Email: steve.dalessandro@utas.edu.au
Abstract
The demand for luxury goods is growing in new emerging markets. However, there is
still minimal research on the influence of culture and materialism on consumers' pur-
chasing behaviour for luxury goods in these markets. Data were collected using an
online survey from 532 luxury customers in Jordan. This research provides empirical
evidence that adds to brand luxury studies by investigating the relationship between
cultural orientations (vertical–horizontal), dimensions of individualism and collectiv-
ism with materialism and other interpersonal factors influencing materialism and lux-
ury purchase intentions. The findings show that materialism is highly correlated with
vertical orientations. Moreover, the relationship between materialism and purchase
intentions is not significant but mediated by the bandwagon effect and status con-
sumption. This suggests that Jordanian consumers buy luxury products to help sup-
port their social status and keep up with trends within their social groups. For
marketing management strategy, to encourage purchases, communication strategies
should emphasise the social value of the purchase.

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N conditions (Aliyev & Wagner, 2018). Thus, a range of motives is fuel-

Luxury research is dynamic, and as shown in Gurzki and
Woisetschlaeger (2017) review, there is a clear cluster of research
streams covering social phenomena, economic patterns, and cultural
experiences. Recently, the drivers affecting the purchase of luxury
goods have become even more nuanced because different consumer
groups are entering the market and redefining luxury products and
consumption patterns (Creevey et al., 2021; D'Arpizio et al., 2021).
There is evidence of a growing demand for authentic luxury and pas-
sion driven by hedonism and status-seeking desire within some social
groups (Eastman et al., 2018). However, at the same time, there is evi-
dence that the motivations of luxury consumers have evolved from
seeking prestige to self-fulfilment, personal growth and status
(Balabanis & Stathopoulou, 2021; Dubois et al., 2021; Gutsatz &
Heine, 2018; O'Cass & Frost, 2002; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999;
Wong & Ahuvia, 1998) and that this varies between different cultural
ling the growth in demand in the luxury goods sector, which compli-
cates effective marketing strategies.
The global market revenue for personal luxury goods such as
fashion and accessories reached a record of US$309 billion in 2017
(D'Arpizio et al., 2017). In addition, according to Statista, the global
luxury market is expected to increase to US$388 in 2025. However,
due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, revenues were expected to
dip sharply in 2021 compared to the previous years, as the middle
class, who have driven the rise in luxury consumption, may have lost
consumer confidence with the threat of economic recession
(D'Arpizio et al., 2021). However, it is clear from the increase in com-
petition between luxury brands that luxury items are more accessible
to more people (Stathopoulou & Balabanis, 2019).
While much of the increase in demand for luxury goods has
occurred in non-Western contexts, the empirical research on how cul-
tural factors influence the demand for luxury goods has remained

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© 2022 The Authors. Journal of Consumer Behaviour published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

J Consumer Behav. 2022;21:987–1001. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cb 987


988
underdeveloped (Eastman et al., 1997; Ger & Belk, 1996; Vigneron &
Johnson, 1999). Most previous studies have focused on explaining the
effect of individualism and collectivism dimensions proposed by
(Hofstede, 1983) and other cultural values on luxury purchases (Aliyev &
Wagner, 2018; Bian & Forsythe, 2012; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998).
A few streams of research have considered how status and equal-
ity motivations (termed vertical and horizontal dimensions, respec-
tively) have influenced luxury consumption and materialism (Shavitt
et al., 2006) and the role of equality and power in individualism–
collectivism cultural values (Meyers-Levy, 2006; Oyserman, 2006). A
recent study by Kapferer and Valette-Florence (2019) explored the
relationships between the source of wealth (i.e. inheriting riches and
self-success) and luxury consumption across six countries. The find-
ings showed that materialism and a desire to express wealth as a sta-
tus symbol were clear but varied across cultures. However, most
previous studies on the multidimensional effects of vertical-status and
horizontal-equality motivations have only been conducted in Western
contexts, which differ from the cultures where the growth in demand
for luxury goods is now occurring (e.g., China the Middle East). Little is
known of the influence of cultural values on other drivers of luxury
goods purchases, such as materialism and social norms in these coun-
tries (Bahri-Ammari et al., 2020; Mainolfi, 2020).
Thus, the emergence of a phenomenon known as “masstige”
(Silverstein & Fiske, 2003), that is “mass-prestige”, is creating substan-
tive changes to this luxury buyers' segment and amplifying the mar-
keting challenges. Masstige involves new customers from the middle
class making luxury purchases, and it has triggered a significant surge
in demand for luxury goods and market growth, especially in Asia and
the Middle East (Gurzki & Woisetschlaeger, 2017; Silverstein
et al., 2008; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998). The elements of what constitutes
masstige and its functions appear to operate on a continuum of lux-
ury, with the bandwagon effect being a significant factor in purchase
decisions (Kumar et al., 2020). Moreover, the marketing concept of
“people like us, but things like this” (Godin, 2018)) has become visible
in luxury consumption research (Gurzki & Woisetschlaeger, 2017). In
Jordan, the social structure includes a large middle class, representing
49.5% of the population (Dang & Ianchovichina, 2018). Given the
increasing size of the middle class in Jordan and the rising importance
of the concept of masstige in the luxury market, it is important to
examine how social factors like culture, materialism, the bandwagon
effect, and status influence purchase intentions.
Customers in the Middle East have the highest per capita spend-
ing in the world on luxury goods at about US$1900 per year. For
instance, Chinese tourists shopping in the UK spend an average of US
$1187 on luxury goods, while tourists from the Middle East spend US
$1800 (Thomas, 2007).
The Middle East has one of the most significant young populations
globally, representing an opportunity for luxury brands to focus on mil-
lennial customers. However, Moore et al. (2000) implied that cultural
diversity and changes in the global market and the heterogeneity of the
consumer market had created challenges for luxury goods companies.
As a result, these companies try to use the international perspective of
their luxury brands and switch to public companies. Continuous
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SHAMMOUT ET AL.
changes in the marketplace, particularly for international luxury brands,
have always challenged marketers to understand market diversity and
trends and maintain awareness of shifting consumer preferences in a
global context (Paul, 2015). Marketing scholars explain the marketing
process by examining the cultural environment to understand con-
sumers' motivations for buying luxury goods.
The Arab world has a population of 422 million, uses the same
language (Islam) as a major religious belief, has multiple cultural simi-
larities, and has abundant natural resource reserves. Thus, luxury con-
sumption is a subject of particular interest in the Arab world. Two
major Arab market regions are the Levant and the Gulf (Farah &
Fawaz, 2016). As (Hofstede, 1991) pointed out, Arab societies are
more prone to accept the group's rather than individual decisions;
“unity, harmony, consensus and cooperation” are often superior to
individual initiatives (Dirani, 2008, pp. 218). For example, “in Lebanon,
individuals believe that there is a greater need to meet the expecta-
tions of local social groups rather than the broader national group
requirements” (Farah & Fawaz, 2016, p. 143). Further, Lebanon and
Jordan cultures are considered collectivist in the Levant region
because of their similar social characteristics (Alkailani et al., 2012).
Also, Lebanon and Jordan score much lower in terms of individualism
(30 and 40) when compared to The United States (91) and the
United Kingdom (89), implying that they are much more collective ori-
entated than western countries (Hofstede Insights, 2021).
Thus, while there is a growing demand for luxury products and
services, the cultural tensions between a collective culture and the
individualism and materialism of a globalised society need to be con-
sidered. There is also the paradox that needs to be explained how
countries with high collectivist values have high levels of luxury con-
sumption, often aligned with individualism and, therefore, materialism.
Materialism has been acknowledged as one of the primary drivers
of luxury goods consumption (Belk, 1985; Liao & Wang, 2009;
Richins & Dawson, 1992; Sun et al., 2014). Emerging evidence has
also demonstrated that cultural factors influence materialism
(Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Dawson et al., 2005; Garbarino
et al., 2014), which implies that materialism may mediate the relation-
ship between cultural factors and luxury goods purchase intentions.
For example, Burroughs and Rindfleisch (2002) found that highly col-
lectivist oriented values were negatively associated with materialism,
even within an individualistic culture that was the context for the
study (the USA). Understanding how materialism and cultural factors
influence luxury goods purchase intentions is particularly pertinent.
There is evidence from developing economies that traditionally non-
materialistic people appear to be becoming more materialistic
(Durvasula et al., 2001; Kaynak & Kara, 2012; Mainolfi, 2020). How-
ever, what is not clear is how collectivism and individual values drive
materialism and how a vertical (hierarchy) versus collective (group)
focus influences consumption. It is important to note that many
Middle-Eastern countries are collective but may be transitioning to
more vertical-oriented societies.
This paper then aims to examine in a developing Middle Eastern
country (Jordan), how collective versus individual values (Triandis &
Gelfand, 1998) influence luxury consumption through materialism and
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SHAMMOUT ET AL. 989

F I G U R E 1 Conceptual model. H9 Materialism ! Status Consumption ! Purchase intentions (Materialism ! Purchase intentions, n.s.). H11
Materialism ! Bandwagon effect ! Purchase intentions (Materialism ! Purchase intentions, n.s.). HI, Horizontal individualism; VI, vertical
individualism; HC, horizontal collectivism; VC, vertical collectivism; n.s., not significant

then the need for social status and the bandwagon effect. Further-
more, we argue that cultural values do not directly affect luxury con-
sumption but are drivers of materialism and that materialism only
affects luxury consumption via the need for status and the band-
wagon effect. In effect, consumer orientations (culture and material-
ism) determine consumer needs (bandwagon effect and the need for
social status), which influence luxury consumption. This study thus
adds to the literature of luxury consumption by providing further
evidence of the antecedent role of culture and that materialism is
mediated by the need for status and bandwagon effect of following
others (Eastman et al., 2018; Kassim et al., 2016; Kastanakis &
Balabanis, 2012; Leibenstein, 1950; Rehman et al., 2021).
2 | LITERATURE REVIEW AND
THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT
This research integrates previous research, starting with the cultural
orientation theories of (Hofstede, 1983; Singelis et al., 1995;
Triandis & Gelfand, 1998), the personal value of materialism
(Belk, 1985; Richins & Dawson, 1992), social influences for luxury
consumption behaviour known as the bandwagon effect and status
consumption (Eastman et al., 1999; Leibenstein, 1950; Veblen, 1899),
and purchase intention (Ajzen, 1985; Hung et al., 2011; Kim &
Zhang, 2015). The conceptual framework depicts the links between
the key constructs of the study and serves as a basis for discussion
and development of the hypotheses Figure 1.
2.1 | Cultural orientations
2.1.1 | Cultural orientations and materialism
Hofstede (1991, p. 5) defined culture as “the collective mental pro-
gramming of the people in an environment. Culture is not a character-
istic of individuals; it encompasses several people who were
conditioned by the same education and life experience.” Seminal
scholars believe that the “individualism/collectivism” dimension is the
central aspect of culture that explains the similarities and variances
between countries and cross-cultural consumer behaviour research
(Hofstede, 1983, 1991; Triandis et al., 1988).
Many researchers acknowledge that collectivism and individual-
ism traits exist in all cultures, but one archetype dominates a culture
(Kapoor et al., 2003; Stathopoulou & Balabanis, 2019; Triandis &

990
Gelfand, 1998). However, Hofstede (1991, p. 51) identified the fol-
lowing distinction between individualism and collectivism: “Individual-
ism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are
loose: everyone is expected to look after themselves and their imme-
diate family.” Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in
which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive
in-groups, which throughout people's lifetime continue to protect
them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.”
Triandis (1996) refers to individualism and collectivism as the ‘cul-
tural syndrome’. Based on previous cultural studies (Triandis, 2001;
Triandis et al., 1988; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998), individualism and col-
lectivism are multidimensional culture structures rather than a simple
dichotomy. These researchers further pointed out that individualism
and collectivism can be horizontal or vertical. People with a high verti-
cal dimension accept societal inequalities and emphasise hierarchy.
On the other side, individuals with higher levels on the horizontal
dimension believe in equality among society members and that every-
one should have the same status and rights (Garbarino et al., 2014;
Shavitt et al., 2011; Triandis, 2001; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998). A differ-
ent emphasis on the horizontal and vertical dimensions can distinguish
between different levels of individualism and collectivism, resulting in
four distinctions of “individualism and collectivism: horizontal individ-
ualism (HI), vertical individualism (VI), horizontal collectivism (HC), and
vertical collectivism (VC)” (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998, p. 118).
2.2 | Materialism
Materialism is defined as “the importance a consumer attaches to
worldly possessions” (Belk, 1984, p. 291). Richins (2004, p. 210)
defines materialism as “the importance ascribed to the ownership and
acquisition of material goods in achieving major life goals or desired
states.” Belk (1985) sees materialism as an individual's personality
trait. The author pointed out three main features that demonstrate
materialism: envy, non-generosity, and possessiveness. Conversely,
Richins and Dawson (1992) define materialism as a value consisting of
three dimensions; success, acquisition centrality, and happiness.
In the context of this study, materialism is related to the desire of
individuals to identify themselves by owning material possessions
(Eastman et al., 2018; Ger & Belk, 1996; Kuanr et al., 2020), which we
argue is more of a personality trait. However, previous studies on mate-
rialism and cultural values prove that these concepts are closely interre-
lated (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Richins & Dawson, 1992). Some
scholars recognise the importance of cultural differences in relation to
materialism (Clarke III & Micken, 2002; Ger & Belk, 1999; Kassim
et al., 2016; Mai, 2019). However, scant research has been conducted
on the linkage between cultural orientations and materialism (Garbarino
et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2014). Several scholars have found that material-
ism is positively related to individualism and negatively associated with
collectivism (Clarke III & Micken, 2002; Wong, 1997).
The link between cultural orientation and materialism is stated in
this definition of materialism as “a cultural system in which material
interest is not made subservient to other social goals” (Mukerji, 1983,
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SHAMMOUT ET AL.
p. 8). However, previous research had mixed results in this context.
Wong (1997) argued that individualism in US undergraduates was not
related to their materialistic values, although collectivism was nega-
tively connected to materialism. However, Awanis et al. (2017) argued
that the mainstream view of materialism holds that materialists are
self-prioritising persons who compete with pro-social and collective
goals in a lifestyle dominated by status, money, and possessions.
In the conceptualisation of cultural orientation, previous research
suggests that incorporating the vertical-horizontal sides of the individual-
ism dimension will further explain the relationship with materialism
(Singelis et al., 1995; Triandis, 2001). Previous literature supports the link
and finds that vertical individualism is positively related to materialism
due to power values and achievement and negatively related to horizon-
tal individualism orientations (Oishi et al., 1998). In another study, Wong
et al. (2003) stated that adults with a vertical individualism orientation
were positively associated with materialism; these results were found in
several countries (i.e. the USA, Thailand, Korea, Japan, and Singapore).
However, both V and H individualism orientations share self-
direction independence and are expected to be associated with mate-
rialism. On the other hand, materialism is assumed to be negatively
related to collectivist cultural values. VC orientation, however, empha-
sises a strong hierarchy within a group and is likely to be linked to the
desire for success associated with establishing group relationships
rather than ownership. Likewise, those displaying HC, emphasising
“egalitarianism”, are less likely to highlight the significance of
increased spending on material goods to establish their status within
the group (Garbarino et al., 2014). Therefore, in this research, vertical
and horizontal distinctions have been integrated into the
individualism–collectivism framework, leading to a significant contri-
bution to understanding the drivers of materialism. Therefore, we pro-
posed the following hypotheses:
H1. Consumers' horizontal individualism cultural orien-
tation is positively related to materialism.
H2. Consumers' vertical individualism cultural orienta-
tion is positively related to materialism.
H3. Consumers' horizontal collectivism cultural orienta-
tion is negatively related to materialism.
H4. Consumers' vertical collectivism cultural orienta-
tion is negatively related to materialism.
2.2.1 | Materialism and status consumption,
bandwagon effect, and purchase intention
Materialism is associated with conspicuous consumption when con-
sumers purchase a product for pleasure and status rather than its
functionality and utility (Flouri, 1999; Kuanr et al., 2020; Mai, 2019;
Podoshen & Andrzejewski, 2012). Luxury brands are distinctively

SHAMMOUT ET AL.
associated with premium quality and uniqueness, exclusivity, and
expensiveness (Chadha & Husband, 2010; Chevalier & Gutsatz, 2012;
Cornell, 2002; Gutsatz & Heine, 2018; Kapferer & Bastien, 2009; Ko
et al., 2019; Okonkwo, 2009; Phau & Prendergast, 2000). Thus, a lux-
ury brand can be highly desirable, not just for the functional benefits
it provides to the customer but also for the symbolic value, which
means the ability to signal more about the owner's status, success,
and wealth (Balabanis & Stathopoulou, 2021; Chevalier & using suitable goods or brands (Lascu & Zinkhan, 1999). For the luxury
Mazzalovo, 2008; O'Cass, 2004; Van, 2007; Wiedmann et al., 2009;
Wong & Ahuvia, 1998).
Based on this, luxury consumption might be related to materialis-
tic consumers (Mainolfi, 2020; Rindfleisch et al., 2000; Tatzel, 2003).
There are several reasons for this. First, materialistic consumers tend
to consume luxury goods to show their success and wealth conspicu-
ously, and they see the possession of things as a signal of success
(Richins & Dawson, 1992). Materialists often use luxury goods to
enhance their self-concept and represent their identity by combining
the symbolic aspects of these luxury goods into their appeal (Bahri-
Ammari et al., 2020; Belk, 1985; Dittmar, 1994; Richins, 2004). Sec-
ond, materialists believe personal happiness and identity goal pursuits
can be achieved by consuming luxury goods (Christopher et al., 2004;
Jiang et al., 2016; Ong et al., 2021; Richins & Dawson, 1992; Shrum
et al., 2013). Consequently, this suggests that materialistic people
devote more money to luxury goods and have greater purchase inten-
tions than other consumers. Materialistic consumers are also likely to
purchase luxury goods and services because of status consumption
and to gain acceptance (bandwagon effect); hence, the following
hypotheses are proposed:
H5. Materialism has a positive impact on status
consumption.
H6. Materialism has a positive impact on the band-
wagon effect.
H7. Materialism has a positive impact on luxury pur-
chase intentions.
Next, a more detailed explanation of the status consumption and
the bandwagon effect on luxury purchases is explained.
2.3 | Status consumption
Consumers have different personalities and perceptions of luxury
products (Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Studies prove that materialistic
customers are keen to spend more money on excessive goods and
luxury (Liao & Wang, 2009) to improve their social status and prestige
(Christopher et al., 2004; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999) and self-esteem
(Tatzel, 2003). Consequently, consumers may signal wealth and suc-
cess by purchasing luxury brands to gain social approval and engage in
meaningful social interactions with other like-minded people (Aliyev &
Wagner, 2018; Eastman et al., 2018; Liao & Wang, 2009).
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991
In this context, Status Seekers can be defined as “people who are
continually straining to surround themselves with visible evidence of
the superior rank they are claiming” (Packard, 1959, p. 5). Likewise,
status seekers are more concerned about their social standing and
often try to ingratiate themselves with others (Balabanis &
Stathopoulou, 2021; Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2014). They seek status
through interactions with other members of the right social group
brand to have a societal impact, it must confer status value and fulfil
the need to achieve social visibility (Mason, 1984; Wing et al., 2015).
Researchers conceptualise status consumption as a personal trait that
addresses a person's need to consume luxury for status; it influences
consumer purchase decision-making (Eastman et al., 1999; Eastman &
Liu, 2012; O'Cass & Siahtiri, 2013). This leads to the following
hypothesis:
H8. Status consumption has a positive impact on lux-
ury purchase intentions.
Indeed, Eastman and Eastman (2015, p. 3) defined Status Con-
sumption as the “motivational process by which individuals strive to
improve one's social and/or self-standing through consumption of
consumer products that may be conspicuous and that confer status
for the individual and surrounding significant others.” According to
the definition, materialists are motivated to consume luxury posses-
sions for the status required for themselves and others (Eastman
et al., 1999; Eastman et al., 2018). Regarding the relationship between
material and social response, materialism was positively related to the
need to belong (Zhang et al., 2020). This materialistic view illustrates
the consumers' symbolic meaning to express to others. This explana-
tion shows a positive relationship between status consumption and
materialism and purchase intentions (Goldsmith et al., 2012;
Jalees, 2007; Kassim et al., 2016). Therefore, the following hypothesis
is formulated:
H9. Status consumption mediates the relationship
between materialism and luxury purchase intentions.
2.4 | Bandwagon effect
The bandwagon effect is defined as “the extent to which the demand
for a commodity increases since others are also consuming the same
commodity” (Leibenstein, 1950, p. 189). Leibenstein also added the
“snob” effect, which means that while the number of people buying
the product increases, the preference for the same product decreases.
The bandwagon effect on consumption states that consumers are
motivated to purchase specific goods because others from the same
reference groups have previously purchased the goods (Bahri-Ammari
et al., 2020; Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012; Tynan et al., 2010). It is
also different from the concept known as the “Veblen” effect, where
the demand increases due to the price increases, which is related to
the “conspicuous consumption” concept proposed by (Veblen, 1899).

992
However, bandwagon consumers are less price-sensitive and highly
concerned with group confirmation and connection (Hudders, 2012;
Mainolfi, 2020; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). Given this relationship to
price and the bandwagon effect, masstige has been identified as a
good growth strategy in developing nations with the rise of the middle
class and more consumers able to afford and purchase mass luxury
products (Kumar et al., 2020). Thus:
H10. The bandwagon effect has a positive impact on
luxury purchase intentions.
In addition, bandwagon behaviour in general centres on goods
used by most fashionistas and celebrities (Chan & Zhang, 2007; Chu
et al., 2013), which carries social approvals within the relevant status
group because it signifies success (Belk, 1988). In return, the popular-
ity of the group and the things they consume signal to the general
public and trigger further demand for these luxury goods (Han
et al., 2010). In addition, materialists are influenced by interpersonal
influences in consumption factors (Fitzmaurice & Comegys, 2006;
O'Cass & Frost, 2002; Shukla, 2011). They think of social acceptance
and conformity with desired reference groups. In return, they value
owning and consuming publicly visible luxury brands, showing the
interaction between materialism and the bandwagon effects of luxury
consumption (Clark et al., 2007; Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012, 2014;
Mainolfi, 2020; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Therefore, it is hypo-
thesised that:
H11. The bandwagon effect mediates the relationship
between materialism and luxury purchase intentions.
3 | M E TH O DO LO GY
This study adopts a primary data collection approach using a quantita-
tive online survey. The data were collected using the Pan Arab
Research Centre (PARC), specialising in consumer research in the Mid-
dle East. Data collection via an online panel was suitable in a country
like Jordan, where the internet penetration was 87% in 2019, in a
population of 10 million. Furthermore, by 2017, Jordan ranked fifth in
Facebook penetration rates across the “Arab region (after UAE, Qatar,
Bahrain and Kuwait) with 60% of its population having a Facebook
account” (InternetWorldStats, 2019).
The study population consists of real luxury customers of
Jordan's jewellery, watches, and fashion accessory industries. A series
of screening questions and a random sampling method were used to
collect the required data to reach the maximum number of respon-
dents who belonged to this category. The pre-recruited online
research panel provided a sample of 532 responses. This sample size
allowed for detecting path coefficients of at least 0.11, with a power
level of 0.80 at p < .05, which meant sufficient statistical power to
evaluate the hypotheses (Kock & Hadaya, 2018). Preliminary data
analysis was performed using SPSS 26.0, and data analysis using SEM
was performed for hypothesis and validity testing.
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SHAMMOUT ET AL.
3.1 | The sample
The sample consisted of 54% women, with 80% of the sample being
up to 44 years old and the most popular age category 25–34 years
(51.9%). The education level was high for the respondents, with
49.2% holding a bachelor's degree. Most (60.3%) were white-collar
workers. The median income was between US$16,936 and US
$25,380. The sample was a good representation of the important cen-
tres of Jordan, with 46.5% of respondents residing in the capital
Amman.
The types of luxuries purchased during the previous 12 months
included jewellery (34.0%), watches (33.1%), and fashion accessories
(76.1%, note that respondents could select more than one item). The
reasons for the purchases included for the respondent (86.1%), for
others (family and friends, 48.1%), and a special occasion (23.1%)
(note that respondents could select more than one reason). The
degree of luxury consumption in the sample was relatively high, with
a mean number of luxury items of 11.12 purchases a year (there was a
wide variation, though, with a standard deviation of 46.39). The aver-
age annual expenditure on luxury items was US$2444.46.
3.2 | Measures
The questionnaire consisted of established and existing scales to mea-
sure all constructs. The first section of the questionnaire measured
the cultural orientations (HI, VI, HC, and VC) scale adapted by Triandis
and Gelfand (1998). This measure consisted of several factors measur-
ing the degree of vertical (V, concern about hierarchy) versus horizon-
tal orientation (H, more of a focus on groups, peers or family), and the
degree of importance of collectivism (C) versus individualism (I). Sam-
ple items included; for HI, “I'd rather depend on myself than others”;
HC, “I feel good when I cooperate with others”; VI, “Competition is
the law of nature”; VC, “It is my duty to take care of my family, even
when I have to sacrifice what I want.”
Materialism was measured using the nine-item Richins (2004)
materialism value scale (MVS). Richins (2004, p. 216) stated, “The
results concerning the short versions of the MVS are promising.” In
terms of internal criteria, the scales possess acceptable levels of reli-
ability, and their dimensional characteristics are superior to those of
the 18-item scale. Sample items of the scale were, “It bothers me that
I can't afford to buy things I'd like” and “Buying things gives me a lot
of pleasure.”
Status consumption was measured by the five-item scale Eastman
et al. (1999) proposed. Some sample items were, “I would buy a prod-
uct just because it has the status” and “A product is more valuable to
me if it has some snob appeal.” The bandwagon effect was measured
with three items developed by Kastanakis and Balabanis (2012). These
included; “A currently very popular and fashionable luxury watch that
everyone would approve of its choice”; “A luxury watch worn by
many celebrities and recognised by many people” and “A luxury watch
that most people choose as a symbol of achievement.” The final set of
measurements used in the study is shown in Table 1.
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SHAMMOUT ET AL. 993

TABLE 1 Convergent validity and composite reliability of constructs

Latent construct Composite

Construct Item loading reliability AVE SQRTAVE
Horizontal individualism
HI 1 I'd rather depend on myself than others 0.92 0.91 0.78 0.88
HI 2 I rely on myself most of the time; I rarely rely on others 0.91
HI 3 I often do “my own thing” 0.80
Vertical individualism
VI 5 It is important that I do my job better than others 0.59 0.79 0.50 0.70
VI 6 Winning is everything 0.75
VI 7 Competition is the law of nature 0.81
VI 8 When another person does better than I do, I get tense and 0.65
aroused
Horizontal collectivism
HC 9 If a co-worker gets a prize, I would feel proud 0.71 0.79 0.50 0.70
HC 10 The well-being of my co-workers is important to me 0.78
HC 11 To me, pleasure is spending time with others 0.50
HC 12 I feel good when I cooperate with others 0.80
Vertical collectivism
VC 13 Parents and children must stay together as much as possible 0.53 0.76 0.50 0.65
VC 14 It is my duty to take care of my family, even when I have to 0.64
sacrifice what I want
VC 15 Family members should stick together, no matter what 0.93
sacrifices are required
VC 16 It is important to me that I respect the decisions made by my 0.52
groups
Materialism
MAT 1 I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, clothes 0.39 0.79 0.50 0.61
MAT 2 I like to own things that impress people 0.47
MAT 6 I like a lot of luxury in my life 0.62
MAT 7 My life would be better if I own certain things I do not have 0.81
MAT 8 I'd be happier if I could afford to buy more things 0.88
MAT 9 It bothers me that I cannot afford to buy things I'd like 0.48
Status consumption
STA 1 I would buy a product just because it has status 0.85 0.82 0.54 0.72
STA 2 I am interested in new products with status 0.78
STA 3 I would pay more for a product if it had status 0.75
STA 5 A product is more valuable to me if it has some snob appeal 0.52
Bandwagon effect
BAN 1 A currently very popular and fashionable luxury watch that 0.74 0.73 0.50 0.68
everyone would approve of its choice
BAN 2 A luxury watch worn by many celebrities and recognised by 0.66
many people
BAN 3 A luxury watch that is chosen by most people as a symbol of 0.64
achievement
Purchase intentions
PI1 I have a strong possibility to purchase Luxury Brand X's 0.88 0.86 0.68 0.82
product
PI2 I'm likely to purchase Luxury Brand X's product 0.72
PI3 I have a high intention to purchase Luxury Brand X's product 0.86
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994 SHAMMOUT ET AL.

TABLE 2 Correlations among latent variables and square roots of the average variance extracted (AVE)

HI VI HC VC Material Bandwagon Status Intent Income Satisf Jord_air

HI 0.80 0.23** 0.37** 0.47** 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.20** 0.08
VI 0.23** 0.70 0.05 0.21** 0.30** 0.24** 0.22** 0.22* 0.10* 0.06 0.05
HC 0.37** 0.05 0.73 0.52** 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.12** 0.05 0.01
VC 0.47** 0.21** 0.52** 0.77 0.13** 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.09 0.02
Material 0.03 0.30** 0.03 0.13** 0.79 0.41** 0.36** 0.34** 0.15** 0.18* 0.21**
BandWag 0.04 0.24** 0.05 0.02 0.41** 0.79 0.57** 0.53** 0.24** 0.22** 0.26**
Status 0.03 0.22** 0.08 0.02 0.36** 0.57** 0.87 0.53** 0.21** 0.18** 0.18**
Intent 0.04 0.22** 0.07 0.00 0.34** 0.53** 0.53** 0.89 0.28** 0.29** 0.20**
Income 0.00 0.10* 0.12** 0.04 0.15** 0.24** 0.21** 0.28** 1.00 0.24** 0.09*
Satisf 0.20** 0.06 0.05 0.09* 0.18** 0.22** 0.18** 0.29** 0.24** 1.00 0.15**
Jord_air 0.08 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.21** 0.26** 0.18** 0.20** 0.09* 0.15** 1.00

Note: Square roots of average variances extracted (AVEs) are shown on diagonal.
Abbreviations: Material, materialism; Status, status consumption; Intent, purchase intent for luxuries; HI, horizontal individualism; VI, vertical individualism;
HC, horizontal collectivism; VC, vertical collectivism; Satisf, satisfaction with previously luxury purchase; Jord_air, quality of Jordanian airlines.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

The measure of purchase intentions was adapted from Hung
et al. (2011). This was a three-item construct consisting of the fol-
lowing, “I have a strong possibility to purchase Luxury Brand X's
product”; “I'm likely to purchase Luxury Brand X's product”, “I
have a high intention to purchase Luxury Brand X's product.” All
measures were assessed using a nine-point agree-disagree scale.
The questionnaire was developed in English first and then trans-
lated into Arabic using a translation back-translation process
(McGorry, 2000).
Ten marketing researchers and academic colleagues pretested the
questionnaire from the management discipline to check if there were
any problems with layout or language. Minor changes were made
before proceeding to the data collection stage.
4 | RESULTS
The analytical process consisted of three stages. The first was devel-
oping the measurement model, followed by path analysis using struc-
tural equation modelling. Finally, scenarios of possible outcomes were
examined.
4.1 | Measurement and structural model
The measurement model was developed using exploratory and confir-
matory structural modelling techniques. Reflective measurement eval-
uated the conceptual model (Kline, 2011). However, to assess the
initial reliability and dimensionality of the measures, Cronbach's alpha
was employed and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with varimax
rotation on each scale. The initial analysis supported the reliability and
dimensionality of the constructs. The Cronbach's alpha values for all
the constructs were above 0.70 with an average α = 0.78. Then an
EFA was performed to explore the dimensionality of each construct.
All the items loaded on their theoretical factors, suggesting that the
cultural orientation dimensions (HI, VI, HC, and VC), materialism,
bandwagon effect, status consumption, and purchase intentions are
unidimensional. All factor loadings used in the analysis exceeded the
threshold of 0.6 (Hair et al., 2010).
The structural equation results further supported convergent and
discriminant validity. As shown in Table 1, the composite reliability
(CR) values ranged from 0.70 to 0.97, exceeding the recommended
0.70 threshold value. The average variance extracted (AVE) values
were higher than the acceptable value of 0.50 for convergent validity
(Fornell & Larker, 1981). All the CR values were greater than the AVE
values, confirming the discriminant validity of the model (Hair
et al., 2010).
The overall AMOS 26.0 results for the measurement model pro-
duced a chi-square/df (cmin/df) value of 2.031, with a comparative fit
index (CFI) value of 0.96. The adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI)
was 0.94, and the root means square error of approximation (RMSEA)
value was 0.04, indicating a good model fit.
As shown in Table 2, there was evidence for discriminant validity,
as the square root of AVE of measures exceeded the correlations
between constructs (Fornell & Larker, 1981).
A further check on the response bias was conducted by examin-
ing a marker variable (Jordanian Airlines, rated from 1 to 5) correla-
tions with the study measurements (Williams et al., 2010). Hence,
there was only limited evidence for a common method bias, with cor-
relations between the marker variable (quality of Jordanian Airlines)
being significant for the Bandwagon effect (r = 0.26, p < .01), Satisfac-
tion with past luxury purchases (r = 0.23, p < .01), Materialism
(r = 0.21, p < .01), Status consumption (r = 0.18, p < .01), Intent
(r = 0.09, p < .05) and Income (r = 0.15, p < .05). Therefore, the mea-
surement model is considered satisfactory; we progressed to evaluate
the structural model (Hair et al., 2010).
 14791838, 2022, 5, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cb.2053 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [30/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
SHAMMOUT ET AL. 995

TABLE 3 Path results

Variables Estimate SE CR P Support

H1 HI à Materialism 0.05 0.01 3.71 n.s No
H2 VI à Materialism 0.22 0.02 7.82 ** Yes
H3 HC à Materialism 0.01 0.02 0.65 n.s No
H4 VC à Materialism 0.03 0.03 0.82 n.s No
H5 Materialism à Status consumption 0.52 0.05 9.65 ** Yes
H6 Materialism à Bandwagon effect 0.21 0.03 5.63 ** Yes
H7 Materialism à Purchase intention 0.05 0.05 1.12 n.s No
H8 Status consumption à Purchase intention 0.35 0.04 8.69 ** Yes
H10 Bandwagon effect à Purchase intention 0.38 0.05 7.02 ** Yes

Abbreviations: **, p < 0.01; CR, critical ratio (value); Estimate, regression weights (path estimate); HC, horizontal collectivism; HI, horizontal individualist;
P, critical value = significance value; SE, standard error; VC, vertical collectivist; VI, vertical individualist; n.s, not significant.

4.2 | Path model

The path results of the study are shown below in Table 3. Support was
found for H2 (Vertical Individualism+ ! Materialism, β = 0.22, p < .01),
H5 (Materialism+ ! status consumption, β = 0.52, p < .01), H6
(Materialism+ ! Bandwagon effect, β = 0.38, p < .01), H8 (Status con-
sumption+ ! Luxury purchase intentions, β = 0.35, p < .01) and H10
(Bandwagon effect+ ! Luxury purchase intentions, β = 0.38, p < .01).
Support was not found for H1 Horizontal Individualism+ ! Material-
ism, β = 0.05, n.s. the result was negative), H3 (Horizontal
Collectivism ! Materialism, β = 0.01, n.s), H4 (Vertical
Collectivism ! Materialism, β = 0.03, p < .01, the relationship is posi-
tive and not negative), and H7 (Materialism+ ! Luxury purchase inten-
tions, β = 0.05, n.s.).
To examine mediation hypotheses, we used the PROCESS macro
3.5 approach developed by (Hayes & Preacher, 2010). The analysis
used a bootstrap run of 5000 cases. Figure 2 shows the pattern of
results for the two mediation hypotheses. The path from materialism
to purchase intent was mediated by status consumption (H9). As FIGURE 2 Mediation effects
shown in Figure 2, there was a significant impact of materialism on
status consumption (β = 0.52, t = 9.62, p < .01, with the result within
TABLE 4 Testing mediation (indirect effects)
confidence intervals, LLCI = 0.41 to ULCI = 0.62). Status consump-
tion predicted luxury purchase intentions (β = 0.35, t = 8.80, p < .01, Indirect
Hypothesis effect Result
within the confidence interval, LLCI = 0.28 and ULCI = 0.44). As dis-
cussed, the link between materialism and luxury purchase intentions H9 Materialism à status à purchase 0.19** Full
intentions mediation
(H7) was not significant (β = 0.05, t = 1.91, p > .05 n.s., though within
H11 Materialism à bandwagon à 0.16** Full
the confidence interval, LLCI = 0.00, ULCI = 0.15). An analysis of indi-
purchase intentions mediation
rect effects showed that complete mediation was confirmed (Hayes &
Preacher, 2010) (β = 0.19, p < .01). Note: **, p < 0.01.

Mediation was also found for materialism through the bandwagon

effect for purchase intent (H11). As shown in Figure 2, materialism
was found to predict the bandwagon effect (β = 0.40, t = 8.57,
p < .01, LLCI = 0.26 and ULCI = 0.42) and the bandwagon effect, in
turn, predicted purchase intentions (β = 0.38, t = 5.96, p < .01,
LLCI = 0.27 and ULCI = 0.49). As discussed previously, the link
between materialism and purchase intentions was not significant (H7).
Thus, materialism acts indirectly through the bandwagon effect to
influence purchases. The process macro test confirmed the model's
full mediation relationship (β = 0.16, p < .01). Table 4 shows the indi-
rect mediation test results.
Overall, as shown by the coefficients of determination, the model
predicts purchase intentions well (R2 = 0.42), the Bandwagon effect

996
TABLE 5 Mental Modeler scenario results (increasing paths 0.7)
HI HC VI VC
Increase Individualism – – – –
Increase collectivism – – – –
Increase materialism – – – –
Increase status consumption – – – –
Increase bandwagon effect – – – –
Note: Changes shown are increases in the squared multiple correlations.
Abbreviations: HC, horizontal collectivism; HI, horizontal individualism; VC, vertical collectivism; VI, vertical individualism.
(R2 = 0.37), Status consumption (R2 = 0.13) and Materialism
(R2 = 0.10).
4.2.1 | Scenario outcomes with mental Modeller
While the path results show a static model of what the data repre-
sents its usefulness to management may be questionable if the situa-
tion changes. To examine possible outcomes for model parameter
changes, we used a Mental Modeller program https://www.
mentalmodeler.com/. This program uses Fuzzy-Logic Cognitive Map-
ping (FCM) (Gray et al., 2012). FCM allows for constructing path maps
based on either judgement or, in this case, actual results. Using this
existing path structure, we can construct several scenarios where the
value of parameters is increased to 0.70. The scenario results are
shown in Table 5.
As can be seen, a rise in individualism to 0.7 for all paths only
marginally increases materialism (0.01), with no effect on status con-
sumption, bandwagon effect or purchase intention. A similar increase
in collective values has no effects on variables in the model.
Increasing materialism increases (0.02) and the bandwagon effect
(0.01). An increase in status consumption slightly increases purchase
intention (0.01), while an increase in the bandwagon effect increases
purchase intention (0.02). These results mirror the mediation results
largely and show the importance of the bandwagon effect and status
consumption as primary drivers of luxury behaviour in this context.
5 | DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This research aimed to examine the relationships between cultural ori-
entations, materialism, status consumption and the bandwagon effect
on the dependent variable of luxury purchase intentions. As part of
the conceptual framework and based on previous research into cul-
tural factors, Hofstede's (1983) concepts of individualism and collec-
tivism were reframed within a multidimensional horizontal-vertical
model (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998) to help understand the influence of
culture on consumer behaviour.
Previous evidence shows that individualist cultures are more
materialistic than collectivist cultures (Wong, 1997; Wong &
Ahuvia, 1998), which our results partially confirm. The findings
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SHAMMOUT ET AL.
Materialism Status consumption Bandwagon effect Purchase intention
+0.01 No change No change No change
No change No change No change No change
– +0.02 +0.01 No change
– – – +0.01
– – – +0.02
support the relationship between the vertical-individualism with materi-
alism. These findings are consistent with previous research conducted
in countries with a higher collectivist culture, such as China and
South Korea. These studies have found VI is more positively correlated
with materialism than HI because people in vertical orientations believe
more in hierarchy and status in society. They may achieve this by pos-
sessions as the opposite of horizontal orientations (Garbarino
et al., 2014). This shows the essential influences the vertical–horizontal
dimensions have on materialism, contributing to the existing research.
However, materialism in collectivist societies can be described as tradi-
tions and norms within a cultural environment where interpersonal
influences are strong, and people tend to conform and focus on their
obligations to each other as materialism becomes their social norm
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Stathopoulou & Balabanis, 2019; Sun
et al., 2014; Tascioglu et al., 2017).
Further, this research examined if materialism influences luxury
goods purchase intentions, but the relationship in H7 was not signifi-
cant. This result is consistent with (Shukla, 2012), who found the rela-
tionship between materialism and purchase intentions regarding
luxury goods among customers in India was not significant due to
higher collectivist and interdependent self-construal, while the role
was significant in Western markets. However, the social factors of the
bandwagon effect and status consumption positively mediated the
connection between materialism and purchase intentions.
The results stipulate that consumers are mainly motivated to buy
luxuries for status and fit in, as per the bandwagon effect (Eastman
et al., 2018; Leibenstein, 1950; Shaikh et al., 2017). In addition, their
desire to interact with others who are consuming luxury goods
(Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012; Mainolfi, 2020) affects their progres-
sive purchase intentions. Hence, the bandwagon effect positively
affected luxury purchase intentions and mediator between material-
ism and purchase intentions. Indeed, consumers were attentive to
their social conformity and affiliations with the bandwagon effect.
Thus, purchasing luxury goods becomes an instrument of following
their reference group; in this case of Eastern societies, people tend to
be more influenced by their friends and family in buying the same
things, and as a result, the bandwagon effect would support the rela-
tionship between materialism and purchase intentions (Hudders,
2012; Mainolfi, 2020; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). This aligns with the
rise of masstige as more middle-class consumers adopt luxury prod-
ucts as part of a collective response.

SHAMMOUT ET AL.
Similarly, we found a positive relationship between status con-
sumption and purchase intentions that mediated the relationship
between materialism and purchase intentions. That means that more
materialistic consumers tend to make status-seeking purchases. This
suggests that consumers with highly materialistic values tend to be
more motivated to consume for status and conceivably are driven by
the “snob” effect or a need for uniqueness (Balabanis &
Stathopoulou, 2021; Eastman et al., 2018; Leibenstein, 1950), and to
appear different to others such as their family and friendship groups,
especially for those with higher collectivist cultural values (Awanis
et al., 2017; Tascioglu et al., 2017).
5.1 | Managerial implications
This study contributes to both theory and managerial practice in
understanding and implementing cultural orientation and luxury con-
sumption factors that may influence consumer intention to purchase
luxury goods. In addition, it provides greater insight for international
marketers in the Arab region by identifying the role of cultural orien-
tations on materialism and the impact on consumers' purchase inten-
tions towards luxury products.
The rise of the masstige concept in the luxury market has signifi-
cant implications for marketing luxury products. The emerging social
structures of the community show growth within the middle class,
thus increasing the bandwagon effect and associated marketing
strategies encouraging more middle-class consumers to buy conspic-
uous luxury products. The link between the bandwagon effect and
purchase intentions shows the market may reach a tipping point that
increases overall demand and consumption. Thus, a proactive
approach for managers would be to associate their brands and com-
munication strategies with a status value that makes all people feel
more prestigious. Our results show that customers consume luxury
goods to fulfil their social need for status. The drive for the social
need of status comes from materialism and the cultural value of ver-
tical individualism. The data show that this cultural variable has the
most significant attribution to materialism, which indirectly leads to
the bandwagon effect and social status to purchase intentions.
Therefore, as supported by earlier studies (Eastman et al., 2018;
Vigneron & Johnson, 1999), the messaging for luxury brands should
be framed to encourage consumers' desire to acquire luxury prod-
ucts. Ownership of these products will enable them to display their
prestige and promote their position in society and social groups
(Balabanis & Stathopoulou, 2021; Eastman et al., 2018; Kassim
et al., 2016).
The substantial influence of status and materialism allows man-
agers to utilise social phenomena related to ownership within their
campaigns. There is a clear benefit to marketing to social norms within
existing markets and expanding into emerging markets. As we found
no difference between individualist and collectivist cultural factors
with materialism, a global consumer culture may also affect the moti-
vation and direction towards purchasing luxury goods in any country
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997
(Durvasula et al., 2001; Shukla, 2012). In this way, consumers in
Jordan are also comparing themselves to consumers in other countries
when making purchase decisions for luxury products, regardless of
historical-cultural attitudes towards wealth and ownership of luxury
products.
Most importantly, the scenario results suggest that marketers of
luxury products and services should focus on promoting a bandwagon
and less consumption. For countries with high collectivist values like
Jordan, this bandwagon effect may be particularly effective.
In conclusion, considering the socioeconomic transformations in
emerging countries, it may be helpful to understand the luxury brands'
consumption motives in a new market and cultural context to develop
more effective marketing strategies for these markets. We propose
incorporating the vertical-horizontal dimensions into the
individualism–collectivism structure can provide insight and extend
our understanding of materialism. Luxury marketers should design
creative content that links the messages of status with conformity,
illustrating how luxury brands can enable them to fit in or develop
their style (Eastman et al., 2018; Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2014). The
changes in marketing trends and consumer behaviour implore luxury
retailers to develop marketing communications strategies targeting
Middle East customers due to the increased demand for luxury fash-
ion goods for markets in developing countries with growing middle
and upper classes.
5.2 | Limitations and future research
There are a few limitations to the generalisability of this study. First,
data were collected from customers in only one country. Further
research needs to be done in different countries in the Middle East,
especially the Arab world, due to the differences in culture, and to
add more evidence to the luxury consumption behaviour in this partic-
ular market, which has not been well researched compared to West-
ern markets.
Second, we use the specific product categories of jewellery,
watches, and fashion accessories. In general, watches represent
classic luxury and can signal status and success. Other product cat-
egories (e.g. cars) and luxury experiences could be used in other
studies to support the results in other environments or cultures.
Further research should be done as cross-cultural research within
Eastern emerging and Western developed markets and examining
the generational cohort's luxury consumption changes. The study
shows the importance of the vertical-horizontal dimension within
the same culture concerning materialism and how we can under-
stand the relationship with other factors related to luxury goods
purchasing.
AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S
The authors wish to acknowledge the excellent editorial work on this
paper by Mark Filmer and thank the editor and reviewers for their
input into this manuscript.

998
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available on
request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly
available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
ORCID
Steven D'Alessandro https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7480-232X
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHI ES
Eyad Shammout is an Assistant Professor at the Hashemite Uni-
versity, Department of Marketing in Jordan. His PhD is from
Charles Sturt University in Australia. His research interest is on
consumer behaviour, culture, and luxury consumption.
Steven D'Alessandro is the Professor of Marketing at the Tasma-
nian School of Business and Economics at the University of Tas-
mania. He has published widely in consumer behaviour in journals
14791838, 2022, 5, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cb.2053 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [30/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1001
such as Psychology and Marketing, International Journal of Con-
sumer Studies, Journal of Service Marketing, Marketing Letters,
and The Journal of Business Research, to name a few.
Felicity Small is a Senior Lecturer at Charles Sturt University. Her
research areas are in social marketing, consumer behaviour, mar-
keting communications and experiential marketing research. Her
PhD topic was Imagination, Social Interactions and Consumer
Decision-making. Prior to becoming an academic, Felicity worked
for a Global Trading company, selling Australian Products
(i.e. Meat/Pasta/Cotton) into Russia and Asia. She has also held a
variety of teaching roles including positions in Japan and
United Kingdom. Currently, Felicity teaches in the areas of Mar-
keting Fundamentals, Digital Marketing and Societal and Environ-
mental Marketing.
Tahmid Nayeem is a Senior Lecturer at Charles Sturt University.
His major research interest areas and ongoing studies are con-
sumer awareness and attitudes, market orientation, branding,
community engagement, and cultural influences in consumer
decision-making in the profit and non-profit sector/s. He has pub-
lished in several highly ranked marketing and communication
journals, including Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,
Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Australasian Marketing Jour-
nal, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Fashion
Marketing and Management, The International Review of Retail,
Distribution and Consumer Research among others.
How to cite this article: Shammout, E., D'Alessandro, S., Small,
F., & Nayeem, T. (2022). Lifting the curtain on cultural values,
materialism and luxury consumption: Evidence from Jordan.
Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 21(5), 987–1001. https://doi.
org/10.1002/cb.2053