Problem 4: We have the nonlinear dynamic equation for a pendulum:

𝑚𝑙𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑘𝑙𝜃̇ (1)

a) The state variables:
𝑥1 𝜃
𝒙 = [𝑥 ] = [ ̇ ]
2 𝜃
The state equations:
𝑥̇ 𝜃̇
From state chosen, we get: 𝒙̇ = [ 1 ] = [ ̈ ]. Thus, from the equation (1), we get the state
𝑥̇ 2 𝜃
equations:
𝑥2
𝑓1 (𝒙)
𝒙̇ = 𝒇(𝒙) = [ ]=[ 𝑔 𝑘 ]
𝑓2 (𝒙) − sin 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑙 𝑚
b) Find all equilibria of the system:
The system is equilibria if 𝒙̇ = 0.
Hence, 𝑥2 = 0 and
𝑔 𝑘
− sin 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0 ⟺ 𝑥1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 = 𝜋
𝑙 𝑚
Therefore, the equilibria of system are:
0 𝜋
̃1 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙
𝒙 ̃2 = [ ]
0 0
c) Linearize the system around the equilibrium points:
We can define Jacobian:
𝑥2 0 1
𝜕𝒇 𝜕
𝐽= = [ 𝑔 𝑘 ]=[ 𝑔 𝑘]
𝜕𝒙 𝜕𝒙 − sin 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − cos 𝑥1 −
𝑙 𝑚 𝑙 𝑚
At equilibria points, we get linearize system with state-space form as below:
Case equilibria point at 𝒙̃ = [0 0]𝑇 :
0 1
𝒙̇ = 𝐴1 𝒙 = [ 𝑔 𝑘]𝒙
− −
𝑙 𝑚
Case equilibria point at 𝒙̃ = [𝜋 0]𝑇 :
0 1
𝒙̇ = 𝐴2 𝒙 = [𝑔 𝑘]𝒙
−
𝑙 𝑚
Check the stability:
−𝜆 1
det(𝐴1 − 𝐼𝜆) = det [ 𝑔 𝑘 ]=0
− − −𝜆
𝑙 𝑚
𝑘 𝑔
⟺ (−𝜆) (− − 𝜆) − (− ) = 0
𝑚 𝑙
𝑘 𝑔 𝑘 𝑔 𝑚 2
⟺ 𝜆2 + 𝜆+ =0 ⟹𝜆= [−1 ± √1 − ( ) ]
𝑚 𝑙 2𝑚 𝑙 𝑘
𝑔 𝑚 2
Since ( ) is positive and we know that the system is stable if all 𝜆 is complex number.
𝑙 𝑘
Therefore, the system stable if
𝑔 𝑚 2
( ) >1
𝑙 𝑘
The same calculate in case of 𝐴2 , we get:
 𝑘 𝑔 𝑚 2
𝜆= [−1 ± √1 + ( ) ]
2𝑚 𝑙 𝑘
According to this value of 𝜆 is real number, the system is unstable.