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Principles of Human Physiology 4th Edition Stanfield Test Bank instant download all chapter
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Principles of Human Physiology, 4e (Stanfield)
Chapter 10 The Nervous System: Sensory Systems
3) According to the law of specific nerve energies, a single sensory receptor ________.
A) responds equally to several types of stimuli
B) responds to only one type of stimulus, regardless of the strength of stimulation
C) responds best to a specific energy modality
D) type detects all the somatic sensations
E) type detects all the somesthetic sensations
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 255
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5) The perception of the position of one's joints and limbs is called ________.
A) proprioception
B) nociception
C) kinesthesiology
D) nociology
E) positionology
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 254
6) The process whereby a sensory receptor converts a stimulus modality into a change in
membrane potential is called what?
A) sensory generation
B) sensory production
C) sensory transduction
D) sensory conversion
E) modality conversion
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 255
8) A ________ refers to a single afferent neuron and all of the sensory receptors associated with
that neuron.
A) motor unit
B) neuronal field
C) sensory unit
D) second-order neuron
E) receptive unit
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 257
9) What is a region of skin that, when activated, will result in the change of activity within a
particular afferent neuron?
A) motor units
B) neuronal fields
C) labeled lines
D) second-order neurons
E) receptive fields
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 258
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10) Another name for an afferent neuron is ________.
A) multipolar neuron
B) receptor neuron
C) first-order neuron
D) second-order neuron
E) third-order neuron
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 258
11) What type of neuron in the thalamus communicates sensory information to the cerebral
cortex?
A) first-order neurons
B) second-order neurons
C) third-order neurons
D) forth-order neurons
E) afferent neurons
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 258
12) How is the intensity of a stimulus encoded during information transmittal to the central
nervous system?
A) The amplitude of action potentials transmitted to the central nervous system is greater for a
stronger stimulus.
B) The frequency of action potentials transmitted to the central nervous system is greater for a
stronger stimulus.
C) Different afferent neurons transmit information about stimuli of varying intensities.
D) Different second-order neurons transmit information about stimuli of varying intensities.
E) The neurotransmitter released from an afferent neuron differs based on the intensity of the
stimulus.
Answer: B
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 259
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14) Which of the following would NOT affect our ability to resolve the location of a specific
stimulus?
A) size of the receptive field
B) density of receptors in the area
C) extent of overlap between receptive fields
D) location of cell body of the afferent neuron
E) lateral inhibition between receptive fields
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 259
15) What is a decrease in the amplitude of a receptor potential in the presence of a continuing
stimulus called?
A) habituation
B) adaptation
C) sensitization
D) transduction
E) localization
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 256
16) Of the following areas of the body, which has the greatest tactile acuity?
A) back
B) upper arm
C) forehead
D) lips
E) hand
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 261
17) The ability to detect the direction from which a sound originates is determined by ________.
A) the time delay between that sound reaching the right and left cochlea
B) mapping of sound location on the cerebral cortex
C) differences in sound intensity as it reaches the right and left cochlea
D) lateral inhibition that occurs between the right and left cochlea
E) lateral excitation occurring between the right and left cochlea
Answer: A
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 261
18) Which of the following structures is NOT a mechanoreceptor located within the skin?
A) Pacinian corpuscles
B) hair follicle receptors
C) Meissner's corpuscles
D) Merkel's disks
E) hair cells
Answer: E
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 262
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19) Which of the following best describes the response of thermoreceptor afferents when
temperature decreases from 35°C to 25°C?
A) Afferents associated with both warm and cold receptors show a decrease in the frequency of
action potentials.
B) Afferents associated with both warm and cold receptors show an increase in the frequency of
action potentials.
C) Warm-receptor afferents show an increase in the frequency of action potentials, whereas cold-
receptor afferents show a decrease in the frequency of action potentials.
D) Warm-receptor afferents show a decrease in the frequency of action potentials, whereas cold-
receptor afferents show an increase in the frequency of action potentials.
E) Warm-receptor afferents show a decrease in the frequency of action potentials, whereas cold-
receptor afferents fire at the same frequency.
Answer: D
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 263
20) What are sensory receptors that respond to tissue-damaging stimuli or stimuli that have the
potential to damage tissue called?
A) thermoreceptors
B) proprioceptors
C) nociceptors
D) Merkel's disk
E) Meissner's corpuscle
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 262
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23) What type of receptor responds to chemicals like histamine and bradykinin that are released
from damaged tissue?
A) Ruffini's endings
B) Hair follicle receptors
C) Mechanical nociceptors
D) Polymodal nociceptors
E) Thermal nociceptors
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 264
25) A person has damage to the right dorsal columns of the spinal cord at the thoracic level. This
person would have impaired ________.
A) temperature sensation of the right leg
B) touch sensation of the right leg
C) temperature sensation of the right arm and leg
D) temperature sensation of the left leg
E) touch sensation of the left leg
Answer: B
Diff: 8 Page Ref: 266
26) Which of the following statements about the spinothalamic tract is FALSE?
A) Pain signals are transmitted along this pathway.
B) Cold signals are transmitted along this pathway.
C) Warm signals are transmitted along this pathway.
D) The pathway crosses to the contralateral side in the brainstem.
E) The first-order neuron synapses with the second order neuron in the spinal cord dorsal horn.
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 266
27) Fast pain originating from nociceptors is perceived as a ________ pain and is carried along
________ fibers.
A) sharp : A δ
B) sharp : C
C) dull : A δ
D) dull : C
E) sharp : A β
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 267
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28) Which of the following is a neurotransmitter responsible for the transmission of a painful
stimulus between first- and second-order neurons?
A) Acetylcholine
B) Norepinephrine
C) Bradykinin
D) Histamine
E) Substance P
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 267
29) How are pain signals from visceral receptors "referred" to the body surface?
A) the convergence of visceral and somatic afferents on the same second-order neurons
B) the convergence of visceral and somatic afferents on the same first-order neurons
C) signals from visceral receptors that travel to skin receptors to activate them
D) the convergence of visceral and somatic afferents on the same third-order neurons
E) the divergence of visceral and somatic afferents onto different second-order neurons
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 268
31) Which of the following is NOT part of the gate-control theory of pain modulation?
A) Inhibitory interneurons can modulate second-order pain neurons.
B) Inhibitory interneurons are activated by collaterals of Aβ fibers that are associated with
mechanical stimuli.
C) Inhibitory interneurons are inhibited by collaterals from the nociceptor afferent.
D) A non-painful stimulus can activate the inhibitory interneuron and thereby inhibit the painful
stimulus.
E) Signals that modify pain originate from higher centers of the brain.
Answer: E
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 268
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33) Amputation in diabetics is often secondary to what other problem with diabetes?
A) neuropathy
B) retinopathy
C) hyertension
D) cardiomyopathy
E) renal failure
Answer: A
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 269
35) Which of the following best describes the location of the anterior segment?
A) within the eye, between the cornea and lens
B) within the eye, between the cornea and iris
C) within the eye, between the iris and lens
D) within the ear, between the vestibular and basilar membranes
E) within the ear, between the basilar and tympanic membranes
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 270
36) The amount of light that impinges on the retina is primarily regulated by what structure?
A) cornea
B) iris
C) optic disk
D) fovea
E) ciliary body
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 270
37) The cornea and lens are ________ surfaces that cause light to converge on a ________.
A) concave : focal length
B) convex : focal point
C) concave : focal point
D) convex : focal length
E) transparent : focal length
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 272
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38) What nourishes the lens and cornea?
A) Purkinje fibers
B) the optic disk
C) the choroid
D) aqueous humor
E) vitreous humor
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 270
39) Light waves refract as they pass through what structures of the eye?
A) cornea only
B) lens only
C) cornea and lens
D) choroid only
E) cornea, lens, and choroid
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 272
40) In order to focus light coming from a near source onto the retina, the lens adjusts its
refractive power through what process?
A) accommodation
B) acclimation
C) acclimatization
D) telescoping
E) refractometry
Answer: A
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 273
41) When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the lens is relatively ________, allowing the eye to
focus on objects that are ________.
A) round : close
B) round : distant
C) flat : close
D) flat : distant
E) transparent : anywhere within the field of view
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 274
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43) In the visual system, activation of the parasympathetic nervous system causes which of the
following?
A) pupillary constriction and an increase in the refractive power of the lens
B) pupillary constriction and a decrease in the refractive power of the lens
C) pupillary dilation and an increase in the refractive power of the lens
D) pupillary dilation and a decrease in the refractive power of the lens
E) pupillary dilation and no effect on the refractive power of the lens
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 274
44) Which of the following defects in vision is incorrectly matched with its cause?
A) myopia : lens too strong
B) astigmatism : hardening of the lens
C) glaucoma : increased volume of aqueous humor
D) cataract : discoloration of the lens
E) myopia : eyeball too long
Answer: B
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 274
45) What is a condition where light, originating from a distance, is focused in front of the retina?
A) presbyopia
B) emmetropia
C) hyperopia
D) myopia
E) neurotropia
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 275
46) What is a condition where light, originating from a close up source, is focused behind the
retina?
A) presbyopia
B) emmetropia
C) hyperopia
D) myopia
E) neurotropia
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 275
47) Which of the conditions below describes irregularities in the structure of the cornea or lens?
A) cataracts
B) presbyopia
C) glaucoma
D) astigmatism
E) hyperopia
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 275
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48) Angiogenesis contributes to the cause of what visual defect in diabetes?
A) macular degeneration
B) glaucoma
C) myopia
D) hyperopia
E) cataracts
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 276
49) The radial muscles of the iris are innervated by the ________ nervous system and their
contraction causes pupillary ________.
A) sympathetic : constriction
B) sympathetic : dilation
C) parasympathetic : constriction
D) parasympathetic : dilation
E) somatic : constriction
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 276
50) The circular muscles of the iris are innervated by the ________ nervous system and their
contraction causes pupillary ________.
A) sympathetic : constriction
B) sympathetic : dilation
C) parasympathetic : constriction
D) parasympathetic : dilation
E) somatic : constriction
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 276
51) When the doctor shines a penlight into the patient’s eye, which of the following occurs?
A) The parasympathetic nervous system is activated, which causes contraction of the outer radial
muscle of the iris and pupillary constriction.
B) The sympathetic nervous system is activated, which causes contraction of the outer radial
muscle of the iris and pupillary constriction.
C) The parasympathetic nervous system is activated, which causes contraction of the inner
circular muscle of the iris and pupillary constriction.
D) The sympathetic nervous system is activated, which causes contraction of the outer radial
muscle of the iris and pupillary dilation.
E) The parasympathetic nervous system is activated, which causes contraction of the outer radial
muscle of the iris and pupillary dilation.
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 276
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52) Which of the following occurs during accommodation for near vision?
A) Ciliary muscles contract, causing zonular fibers to become tight, flattening the lens.
B) Ciliary muscles contract, causing zonular fibers to become slack, flattening the lens.
C) Ciliary muscles contract, causing zonular fibers to become tight, and the lens becomes
rounder.
D) Ciliary muscles relax, causing zonular fibers to become slack, and the lens becomes rounder.
E) Ciliary muscles contract, causing zonular fibers to become slack, and the lens becomes
rounder.
Answer: E
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 274
53) Which of the following is NOT a cell type found in the retina?
A) photoreceptors
B) amacrine cells
C) horizontal cells
D) bipolar cells
E) macular cells
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 276
54) The lateral displacement of bipolar and ganglion cells within the macula lutea allow for
________.
A) enhanced communication between bipolar and ganglion cells
B) processing of information from the rods
C) processing of information from the cones
D) an unhindered pathway for light to reach the rods of the fovea
E) an unhindered pathway for light to reach the cones of the fovea
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 276
55) What are the cones called that respond to the red spectrum of light?
A) R cones
B) G cones
C) Y cones
D) L cones
E) S cones
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 277
56) Cones that respond to the shortest wavelengths of light (S cones) respond best to what color
spectrum?
A) red
B) blue
C) green
D) yellow
E) violet
Answer: B
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 277
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57) The light-absorbing portion of the photopigment is ________; its sensitivity to a particular
wavelength of light is altered by ________.
A) retinal : opsin
B) opsin : retinal
C) transducin : phosphodiesterase
D) phosphodiesterase : transducin
E) opsin : transducin
Answer: A
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 277
58) The presence of cGMP in the cytosol of a photoreceptor will directly stimulate the
________.
A) opening of sodium channels
B) opening of potassium channels
C) closure of sodium channels
D) closure of potassium channels
E) opening of calcium channels
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 277
59) In the absence of light, the membrane potential of a photoreceptor is relatively ________ by
the presence of open ________ channels.
A) depolarized : potassium
B) hyperpolarized : potassium
C) hyperpolarized : sodium
D) depolarized : calcium
E) depolarized : sodium
Answer: E
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 278
60) The closure of sodium channels is mediated by a decrease in the cytosolic concentration of
________, which is degraded by ________.
A) cGMP : transducin
B) cGMP : phosphodiesterase
C) cAMP : transducin
D) cAMP : phosphodiesterase
E) cAMP : ATP synthase
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 278
61) When we enter a dark room, the retinal and opsin molecules within the ________ must first
________ before low light levels can be detected.
A) rods : bleach
B) rods : dissociate
C) cones : dissociate
D) rods : associate
E) cones : associate
Answer: D
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 280
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62) Which of the following is TRUE of photoreceptors in the light (relative to the dark)?
A) cGMP levels are elevated.
B) Sodium channels are open.
C) The photoreceptors are depolarized.
D) The synaptic terminal is releasing more transmitter.
E) Phosphodiesterase is more active.
Answer: E
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 278
63) What type of vision occurs in light levels that activate both rods and cones?
A) scotopic
B) photopic
C) mesopic
D) retinotopic
E) all of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 280
64) Disks of a photoreceptor are located in the ________ and contain ________.
A) inner segment : transmitter
B) outer segment : transmitter
C) inner segment : photopigment
D) outer segment : photopigment
E) synaptic terminal : transmitter
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 277
65) Which of the following is the correct order of communication of visual information in the
retina?
A) photoreceptor; bipolar cell; ganglion cell
B) photoreceptor; ganglion cell; bipolar cell
C) bipolar cell; ganglion cell; photoreceptor
D) bipolar cell; photoreceptor; ganglion cell
E) ganglion cell; bipolar cell; photoreceptor
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 280
66) Photoreceptors transmit information directly to ________ cells via the release of a
neurotransmitter, causing those cells to develop a(n) ________ potential proportional to the
intensity of the stimulus.
A) ganglion : graded
B) amacrine : graded
C) bipolar : graded
D) amacrine : action
E) ganglion : action
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 280
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67) The first neurons capable of generating action potentials in the transmission pathway for
visual information detected by rods and cones are the ________ cells.
A) ganglion
B) bipolar
C) amacrine
D) vertical
E) horizontal
Answer: A
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 280
68) Which of the following best describes ON-center, OFF-surround cells in the retina?
A) They are photoreceptors that are excited by light applied in the center of their visual fields
and inhibited by light in the surrounding regions of their visual fields.
B) They are bipolar cells that are excited by light applied in the center of their visual fields and
inhibited by light in the surrounding regions of their visual fields.
C) They are ganglion cells that are excited by light applied in the center of their visual fields and
inhibited by light in the surrounding regions of their visual fields.
D) They are photoreceptors that are excited by light striking the center of the retina and inhibited
by light striking the peripheral retina.
E) They are ganglion cells that are excited by light striking the center of the retina and inhibited
by light striking the peripheral retina.
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 281
69) Which of the following components of the visual pathway is 100% ipsilateral to the visual
field?
A) visual cortex
B) optic nerve
C) optic tract
D) lateral geniculate nucleus
E) none
Answer: E
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 281
70) In the optic chiasm, ganglion cells from the ________ portion of the retina cross over,
whereas the ganglion cells from the ________ portion of the retina remain on the same side.
A) nasal : center
B) center : nasal
C) temporal : nasal
D) nasal : temporal
E) temporal : center
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 283
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71) The ganglion cells of the retina synapse with neurons in the ________ that ascend to the
________.
A) hypothalamus : primary visual cortex
B) thalamus : primary motor cortex
C) lateral geniculate body : cerebellum
D) thalamus : primary somatosensory cortex
E) lateral geniculate body : primary visual cortex
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 283
72) The neural pathway from the lateral geniculate body to the visual cortex is called the
________.
A) optic nerve
B) optic tract
C) optic radiations
D) optic fasciculus
E) optic chiasm
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 283
73) The visual system is an excellent example of parallel processing, where visual details are
________.
A) integrated before reaching the primary visual cortex
B) integrated by bipolar cells and sent to the primary visual cortex
C) transmitted along separate pathways to the primary visual cortex where they are then
integrated
D) maintained within the optic chiasm where they are integrated
E) transmitted to the lateral geniculate body where they are integrated
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 283
74) Both the auditory and vestibular systems rely upon ________ to detect movement of fluid
within the ear.
A) hair cells
B) chemoreceptors
C) thermoreceptors
D) magnetoreceptors
E) hydroreceptors
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 283
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75) Sound waves traveling through the air initiate a vibration of the ________. The sound waves
are then transmitted along the ________ to the cochlea.
A) saccule : eustachian tube
B) oval window : ossicles
C) oval window : eustachian tube
D) tympanic membrane : ossicles
E) round window : saccule
Answer: D
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 284
76) The amplitude of a sound wave is determined by the difference in the ________.
A) number of sound waves per second
B) energy embedded in the air molecules
C) pitch of the sound
D) air molecule density in the compressed versus rarified regions of the sound wave
E) size of the air molecules in the compressed region of the sound wave
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 284
77) What structure separates the middle from the external ear?
A) round window
B) tympanic membrane
C) Eustachian tube
D) oval window
E) basilar membrane
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 283
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80) Which of the following statements about hair cells in the ear is FALSE?
A) There are three rows of outer hair cells and one row of inner hair cells.
B) Hair cells are surrounded by endolymph.
C) Only the inner hair cells of the cochlea function directly in sound transduction.
D) Both the hair cells for hearing and those for equilibrium are depolarized when bent toward the
kinocilium.
E) When potassium channels in hair cells open, potassium ions move into the cell, depolarizing
it.
Answer: D
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 288
82) The ________, projecting from the end of hair cells, are attached to the ________, which
causes them to bend when sound waves enter the cochlea.
A) stereocilia : basilar membrane
B) stereocilia : tectorial membrane
C) nitrocilia : tectorial membrane
D) kinocilia : basilar membrane
E) cilia : basilar membrane
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 288
83) The hair cells are embedded within endolymph, thus, when a potassium channel opens,
potassium moves ________ the cell, causing it to ________.
A) into : depolarize
B) out of : hyperpolarize
C) into : hyperpolarize
D) out of : depolarize
E) equally into and out of : maintain its polarized state
Answer: A
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 288
84) Bending of the stereocilia on the hair cell can induce either a closure or an opening of a
potassium channel based upon the ________.
A) size of the stereocilia
B) frequency of the sound
C) intensity of the sound
D) direction that the stereocilia move
E) acceleration of the body
Answer: D
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 288
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85) Frequency of sound is coded for by ________.
A) the number of hair cells stimulated
B) the direction that the stereocilia are stimulated
C) the amplitude of the action potentials
D) the frequency of action potentials
E) the location of the hair cell stimulated
Answer: E
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 290
86) In comparison to low pitch sound, high pitch sound will cause vibrations of the basilar
membrane ________.
A) closer to the oval window
B) closer to the helicotrema
C) closer to the tympanic membrane
D) of lesser amplitude
E) of greater amplitude
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 290
87) The transduction of sound waves into neural impulses occurs in the ________.
A) ossicles
B) cochlea
C) semicircular canals
D) utricle
E) eustachian tube
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 288
88) The anterior portion of the semicircular canal detects acceleration in which direction?
A) the rotation of the head from side to side, as in moving the ear toward the shoulder
B) rotating the head as in saying "no"
C) moving the head up and down as in saying "yes"
D) linear acceleration in the forward and backward directions
E) linear acceleration in the up and down directions
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 291
89) The posterior portion of the semicircular canal detects acceleration in which direction?
A) rotation of the head from side to side, as in moving the ear toward the shoulder
B) rotating the head as in saying "no"
C) moving the head up and down as in saying "yes"
D) linear acceleration in the forward and backward directions
E) linear acceleration in the up and down directions
Answer: A
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 291
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90) Located within the ________ of the semicircular canal, a gelatinous structure called the
________ surrounds the stereocilia and kinocilium.
A) lumen : otolith
B) cupula : otolith
C) cupula : ampulla
D) ampulla : otolith
E) ampulla : cupula
Answer: E
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 291
91) Whether the hair cell in the semicircular canal is depolarized or hyperpolarized is dependent
upon which of the following?
A) speed at which the head rotates
B) direction toward which the stereocilia are bent relative to the kinocilium
C) extent to which the stereocilia are bent
D) direction toward which ONLY the kinocilia are bent
E) speed at which the stereocilia are bent
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 291
92) The mass of the gelatinous material within the saccule and utricle is enhanced by the
presence of what type of crystals?
A) sodium carbonate
B) sodium chloride
C) potassium chloride
D) calcium carbonate
E) calcium phosphate
Answer: D
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 293
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95) Afferent neurons from the semicircular canal, the utricle, and the saccule enter the brainstem
where most terminate within the ________.
A) medial geniculate body
B) lateral geniculate body
C) lateral reticular formation
D) vestibular nuclei
E) nucleus raphe magnus
Answer: D
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 293
97) The detection of sweet by taste receptors occurs via the binding of organic molecules to
receptors on the cell membrane activating ________ that ultimately causes a ________.
A) gustducin : sodium channel to close
B) transducin : sodium channel to close
C) transducin : potassium channel to open
D) gustducin : potassium channel to close
E) Golf : potassium channel to close
Answer: D
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 295
98) The primary afferent neurons from taste receptor cells terminate within what structure of the
central nervous system?
A) thalamus
B) cerebellum
C) medulla oblongata
D) gustatory cortex
E) olfactory tubercule
Answer: C
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 295
99) What two taste qualities use a G protein during the transduction process?
A) sweet and sour
B) sweet and bitter
C) salty and sweet
D) sour and salty
E) bitter and salty
Answer: B
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 295
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100) Which cranial nerve transmits taste information to the central nervous system?
A) VII only
B) IX only
C) X only
D) both VII and IX
E) VII, IX, and X
Answer: E
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 295
101) Which of the following cells is the precursor cell for the olfactory cells?
A) support cells
B) basal cells
C) olfactory receptor cells
D) mitral cells
E) ciliary cells
Answer: B
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 297
102) The detection of odorants occurs via the binding of organic molecules to receptors on the
cell membrane, activating ________ that ultimately causes the ________.
A) gustducin : sodium channel to close
B) Golf : potassium channel to open
C) transducin : potassium channel to open
D) gustducin : potassium channel to close
E) Golf : cation channel to open
Answer: E
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 297
103) First-order olfactory neurons synapse with ________. These synapses occur in clusters
called ________.
A) mitral cells : glomeruli
B) bicuspid cells : glomeruli
C) mitral cells : cribiform areas
D) olfactory neurons : glomeruli
E) olfactory neurons : cribiform areas
Answer: A
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 298
104) Which of the following is an INCORRECT match between cranial nerve and special sense?
A) cranial nerve I - olfaction
B) cranial nerve II - vision
C) cranial nerve III - taste
D) cranial nerve VIII - hearing
E) cranial nerve VIII - equilibrium
Answer: C
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 298
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105) Which sensory system does not need to transmit information through the thalamus to get to
the cortex?
A) somatosensory systems
B) taste
C) olfaction
D) vestibular/equilibrium
E) hearing
Answer: C
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 299
106) Axons of the olfactory nerve travel through what special structure?
A) glomeruli
B) cribriform plate
C) olfactory bulb
D) cochlear membrane
E) organ of Corti
Answer: B
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 298
3) The term modality refers to the form of energy that defines a specific stimulus.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 255
4) Olfactory receptors are tonic (slowly adapting) receptors that detect odors.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 257
5) The lips are the most sensitive to the two-point discrimination threshold because their
receptive fields are relatively small.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 261
6) Merkel's disks are superficial mechanoreceptors located in both glabrous and hairy skin.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 265
10) Transcutaneous nerve stimulation describes a technique whereby current applied to the skin
stimulates large diameter afferent axons (Aβ fiber) to inhibit the transmission of a painful
stimulus from the C fiber to a second-order neuron.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 268
11) Modulation of sensory information as it is transmitted from receptors to the cerebral cortex
can only occur at synapses.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 268
12) Cytokines released during illness can cause a person to be more sensitive to pain.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 270
13) Capsaicin causes a burning sensation in the mouth because it binds to TRPV1 receptors.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 264
14) The point on the retina with greatest visual acuity is the optic disk.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 271
15) The wavelength of light that we perceive is that wavelength that has been absorbed by the
object being observed.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 271
16) Corrective lenses that are concave are used to correct myopia.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 275
17) Along a large portion of the retina, light must pass through two layers of cells before
reaching a photoreceptor.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 276
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18) The concentration of cGMP in a photoreceptor is relatively high in the dark, thereby
maintaining rods and cones in the depolarized state.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 278
19) Extensive convergence exists from the cones to the bipolar cells within the fovea.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 280
20) Extensive convergence of rods onto bipolar cells allows for greater sensitivity to light.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 279
21) The photoreceptors responsible for resetting the light/dark cycle contains a photopigment
called melanopsin.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 281
22) Information from the right visual field is perceived in the left visual cortex.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 283
24) In a neural pathway, when an excitatory synapse follows an inhibitory synapse, this is called
disinhibition.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 282
25) The eighth cranial nerve carries information about hearing and equilibrium from the ear to
the central nervous system.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 284
26) Auditory information is transmitted through the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus to
the cortex.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 290
27) Each semicircular canal can only detect rotation in one direction.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 291
28) The vestibular apparatus can only detect changes in the rate of head movement.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 291
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29) Taste receptor cells are located only on the tongue.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 293
30) Each taste receptor cell is specific to only one of the four primary tastes.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 295
32) Receptive field sizes are approximately the same over all parts of the body for a specific
modality.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 260
33) Although pain perception can vary between individuals, one person always perceives the
identical painful stimulus as being the same.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 268
34) A decrease in the amplitude of a receptor potential over time in the presence of a continued
stimulus is called habituation.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 256
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10.3 Matching Questions
A) adequate stimulus
B) modality
C) transduction
D) perception
E) appropriation
1) Mechanism by which receptors convert stimulus energies into changes in membrane potential.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 255
Answers: 1) C 2) B 3) D 4) A
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Match the following receptor types to the correct modality.
A) cold receptors
B) hair cells in semicircular canals
C) chemoreceptors
D) warm receptors
E) mechanical nociceptors
F) photoreceptors
G) osmoreceptors
H) hair cells in utricle
I) hair cells in cochlea
J) baroreceptors
5) Sound waves.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 288
7) Photons of light.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 270
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Match the following with the correct location in the brain.
15) Where the spinothalamic tract crosses over to the opposite side.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 266
A) spinal cord
B) occipital lobe
C) frontal lobe
D) parietal lobe
E) brainstem
F) thalamus
G) temporal lobe
16) Where the dorsal column pathway crosses over to the opposite side.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 266
Answers: 15) A 16) E 17) D 18) B 19) G 20) E 21) E 22) D 23) F 24) F 25) A
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Match the following structures of the eye with the correct function/description.
26) Tough connective tissue that makes up the "white" of the eye.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 270
27) Strands of connective tissue that connect the lens to muscles for accommodation.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 270
28) First refractive structure light waves must pass through as they enter the eye.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 270
33) Muscle under parasympathetic control to regulates the refractive power of the lens.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 274
34) Muscle under autonomic control that regulates the diameter of the pupil.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 276
36) The refractive power of this structure can be altered to focus light.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 270
38) Light striking this region of the retina is not detected by photoreceptors.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 271
Answers: 26) L 27) D 28) B 29) H 30) E 31) K 32) G 33) C 34) F 35) I 36) J 37) A 38) A
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For each of the following, indicate whether it describes rods, cones, or both.
A) rods
B) cones
C) both
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Match the structures of the ear with the appropriate function.
A) ampulla
B) cochlea
C) basilar membrane
D) organ of Corti
E) utricle
F) tectorial membrane
G) Eustachian tube
H) helicotrema
I) semicircular canals
J) tympanic membrane
K) external auditory meatus
44) This structure sits on the basilar membrane and contains the hair cells for sound.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 286
46) This structure includes the scala media, scala tympani, and scala vestibuli.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 286
47) Transmits sound energy from the outer ear to the middle ear.
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 283
51) Enlarged area at the base of the semicircular canals; contains hair cells.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 291
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Match the sensation of taste, olfaction, or both with the correct description.
A) both
B) olfaction
C) taste
1) The response of every sensory receptor is governed by the law of specific nerve energies.
Explain this law and its consequence for a receptor's response to low- and high-intensity stimuli,
along with the general process of sensory transduction.
Answer: The law of specific nerve energies states that a given sensory receptor is specific for a
particular energy modality. Thus, different modalities of energy, including light waves, sound
waves, pressure, temperature, etc., are ultimately transduced into electrical energy in the form of
an action potential. The specific energy modality to which a receptor responds best (low energy
state) is called the adequate stimulus. Receptors will also respond to other energy forms, but they
must be at a higher energy to activate that receptor. However, our perception of a stimulus is
linked to the receptor that has been activated. Thus, activating a photoreceptor on the retina by
pushing on the eye (pressure) will result in our perception of a flash of light even though the
stimulus was pressure. The process of converting one form of energy into another is called
transduction. For sensory transduction, a graded potential is produced, which can lead to an
action potential if the stimulus is strong enough and the receptor is a part of a neuron. However,
not all receptors are neurons (some are modified neurons or epithelial cells that can not produce
an action potential). A graded potential in these receptor cells will stimulate a proportional
release of neurotransmitter that will induce an action potential in a neighboring nerve cell.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 255
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2) All receptors, by definition, must transduce the energy from a stimulus into an electrical signal
before that information can be sent to the central nervous system. Once that electrical signal is
generated, how does the brain decode the type, intensity, duration, and location of a stimulus?
Answer: Our perception of a stimulated receptor is based upon the sensory pathway activated
and the region of the brain where those pathways terminate. Thus, activation of an auditory
neuron will result in the perception of sound independent of how that neuron was activated. The
specific pathway that transmits information is referred to as labeled lines, with each sensory
receptor having its own unique labeled line. Stimulus intensity is coded for in two ways: 1)
action potential frequency (frequency coding) and 2) the number of receptors activated
(population coding). As stimulus intensity increases, the magnitude of the graded potential will
increase, resulting in more frequent action potentials (increased frequency). Alternatively, a
stronger stimulus could activate more receptors. The number of receptors activated depends upon
the size and density of each receptor's receptive field. Slowly adapting receptors work best for
coding intensity while rapidly adapting receptors are better for coding change (not magnitude of
change). The location of a stimulus is coded by location of their receptive field. The precision
with which we can perceive location is called acuity. Acuity for a particular stimulus will depend
upon a receptive field's size, number of receptors, the extent of overlap, and its lateral inhibition.
These can vary considerably between receptive fields throughout the body. Lateral inhibition
describes a situation where input from a strongly stimulated receptor will inhibit the afferent
pathway transmitting information from nearby receptors.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 259
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3) The primary interface between the body and the external environment is the skin. Thus, a
variety of receptors exist within the skin for the detection of our external environment. List the
three classes of receptors found in the skin (with an example of each with its function), and the
pathways that those stimuli must follow to reach the somatosensory cortex.
Answer: The three types of skin receptors are mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and
nociceptors.
Mechanoreceptors: Merkel's disks - pressure; Meissner's corpuscles - vibration; free nerve
endings - light touch; Pacinian corpuscles - vibration; Ruffini's end organs - pressure.
Thermoreceptors: cold and warm.
Nociceptors: mechanical - intense mechanical; thermal - intense thermal; polymodal - intense
mechanical or thermal stimuli; or specific chemicals.
There are two main pathways by which sensory information will travel to the somatosensory
cortex: the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway and the spinothalamic tract. The dorsal
column-medial lemniscal pathway carries information from mechanoreceptors and
proprioceptors. In this pathway, the first-order neurons enter the dorsal horn of the spinal cord
where most of the collaterals from that neuron terminate. However, the main branch ascends the
spinal cord within the dorsal column to the ipsilateral brainstem. That first-order neuron synapses
in the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla with a second-order neuron. The second-order
neurons cross over to the contralateral side of the medulla along the medial lemniscus and ascend
to the thalamus. In the thalamus, the second-order neurons synapse with third-order neurons that
transmit the information to the somatosensory cortex. The spinothalamic tract carries information
from thermoreceptors and nociceptors. The first-order neurons enter the spinal cord at the dorsal
horn and travel a short distance in either direction along the spinal cord within Lissauer's tract
where they will synapse with second-order neurons. The second-order neurons cross over to the
contralateral side and ascend to the anterolateral quadrant of the spinal cord and through the
brainstem before they enter the thalamus. In the thalamus, the second-order neuron synapses
with the third-order neuron, which ascends to the somatosensory cortex.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 262
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4) Nociceptors play an important role in protecting us from damaging stimuli. Describe the two
types of pain and the difference between discriminative and affective pain. Describe the gate-
control theory of pain modulation.
Answer: Activation of nociceptors leads to the perception of pain. That perception of pain can
lead to several possible responses that include a reflex withdrawal from the stimulus, increased
autonomic response, or an emotional response. We perceive pain in two ways, which are termed
as fast pain and slow pain. Fast pain is perceived as a sharp, pricking sensation that can be easily
localized and is transmitted over Aδ fibers. Slow pain is detected as a poorly localized, dull ache
that is transmitted over C fibers. The primary afferents from nociceptors synapse with second-
order receptors in the spinal cord. The discriminative properties of pain relate directly to our
perception of pain. At the same time, activation of that pathway will stimulate (coactivate) a
second pathway that assesses the affective component of the painful stimulus. The affective
component of a painful stimulus is the aspect of pain that is not associated with the pain itself, as
in the case of an autonomic or emotional response to pain. The pathway utilized by the affective
components of pain ascend through the reticular formation of the brainstem, to the
hypothalamus, and to the limbic system. The gate-control theory of pain modulation maintains
that a non-painful somatic stimuli can inhibit pain signals at the level of the spinal cord. There
are many interneurons within the spinal cord; one type of these is inhibitory for second-order
nociceptive neurons. If this interneuron is active, then the transmission of the painful message
will be diminished and the perception of pain will be lessened. The inhibitory interneuron is
activated by Aβ fibers (associated with mechanical stimuli) and inhibited by collaterals from C
fibers (nociceptors). However, when the two neuronal tracts are activated, collaterals from the
Aβ fibers will stimulate the inhibitory interneuron, thus decreasing the transmission of the
painful message.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 267
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5) Describe the process involved in focussing an image onto the retina for objects near and far
and how that process is controlled. Identify the two common defects in our ability to focus light
on the retina and how they can be fixed.
Answer: As light moves from one transparent material to the next (cornea → aqueous humor →
lens → vitreous humor), those wavelengths of light are bent (refracted). Light is refracted as it
moves through the interface of two transparent materials of different densities. In the human eye,
the lens is capable of actively modifying its refractive power through accommodation (the
process of modifying the structure of the lens). The thickness of the lens can be altered by ciliary
muscles that are attached to the lens by zonular fibers. The ciliary muscle forms a ring around the
lens such that, when it contracts, the amount of tension on the lens from the zonular fibers is
reduced. This reduction in radial tension on the lens causes the lens to thicken due to its inherent
elasticity. As the lens thickens, light is bent to a greater extent in order to focus objects that are
close to the eye onto the retina. When viewing something at a distance, the ciliary muscle
relaxes, which increases the tension on the zonular fibers and thereby causes the lens to flatten.
Accommodation is under the control of the parasympathetic nervous system, whose activity
stimulates ciliary muscle contraction, causing the lens to thicken as it focuses on an object that is
near. A distant object is brought into focus by the relaxation of the ciliary muscle induced by a
decrease in parasympathetic activity. However, the lens is not always able to focus the light onto
the retina. In myopia (near-sightedness), the lens and cornea refract the light such that the image
is focused in front of the retina. This can be corrected by positioning a concave lens in front of
the cornea, which will cause the light to diverge before reaching the eye. Hyperopia occurs
because the lens cannot accommodate enough for near vision (the light is not refracted enough).
Thus, the object is focussed behind the retina. A convex lens in front of the cornea can correct
for this by causing the light to converge before reaching the eye.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 274
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6) Photoreceptive cells are located within the retina. Describe the general structure and the cells
present within the retina, and how light is converted into electrical energy within rods and cones.
Answer: There are three distinct layers of cells within the retina: 1) an outer layer of rods and
cones (the photoreceptive cells), 2) a middle layer of bipolar cells, and 3) an inner layer of
neurons called ganglion cells. Light must pass through the second and third layers to reach
photoreceptors. The bipolar cells, along with amacrine and horizontal cells, are involved in
processing visual information, while the ganglion cells are the neural cells that transmit the
visual information back to the visual center of the brain. The main difference between rods and
cones lies in the photopigment that detects light and the sensitivity of that pigment to particular
wavelengths of light. In rods, the photopigment is rhodopsin. The light-absorbing portion of the
photopigment (rhodopsin) is retinal. The other portion of that protein (opsin) determines the
sensitivity of rhodopsin to particular wavelengths of light. Rhodopsin is located within
membranous disks that are associated with transducin and phosphodiesterase (which degrades
cGMP). In the presence of cGMP, sodium channels on the cell membrane of the photoreceptor
are more likely to be in the open state. In the dark, phosphodiesterase is relatively inactive,
allowing cGMP to be elevated and sodium channels to be maintained in the open state, which
depolarizes the photoreceptor. This depolarization stimulates voltage-sensitive calcium channels
to remain open, which causes the release of neurotransmitter onto bipolar cells. When light
impinges on rhodopsin, the opsin molecule bleaches, activating transducin, which activates
phosphodiesterase. This will decrease the intracellular concentration of cGMP, causing sodium
channels to close and the cell to hyperpolarize. This hyperpolarization closes the voltage-
sensitive calcium channel, which decreases the release of neurotransmitter onto the bipolar cells.
Rods are sensitive to low intensities of light, whereas cones require a greater intensity of light in
order be activated. The same mechanisms that are active in the rods are active in the cones. The
color sensitivity of cones derives from the three different forms of rhodopsin found in cones.
These molecules are most sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths of light.
Diff: 8 Page Ref: 276
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7) Describe the neural pathway of vision from the photoreceptor to the primary visual cortex.
How are we able to perceive the three-dimensional character of the world around us?
Answer: Throughout the retina, varying numbers of photoreceptors converge onto a bipolar cell.
These cells are capable of generating graded potentials, the nature of which is determined by the
photoreceptor. Two types of photoreceptors are present within the retina: those that release
excitatory neurotransmitters and those that release inhibitory neurotransmitters. As
neurotransmitter release is reduced when the photoreceptor is activated by light, the bipolar cells
are either depolarized or hyperpolarized. Thus, some bipolar cells are activated by light while
others are inhibited by light. In addition, the synapse between the photoreceptor and bipolar cells
can be modulated by horizontal cells. When depolarized, the bipolar cells release their
neurotransmitter onto a ganglion cell. The direction of the response from the ganglion cell will
depend upon whether the neurotransmitter from the bipolar cells is excitatory or inhibitory.
Ganglion cells are the first-order neurons in the pathway of vision and are therefore the first cells
capable of generating an action potential. The axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve
and exit the eye at the optic disk. The two bundles of nerves combine at the base of the brain to
form the optic chiasm. In the optic chiasm, half of the axons from each eye cross over. The cells
from the nasal portion of the eye cross over to combine with the temporal portion of the eye from
the other side. The ganglion cells terminate in the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus, where
they synapse with the neurons that ascend to the primary visual cortex. Depth perception is
dependent upon the brain receiving input from both eyes. The region of the visual field that is
detected by both eyes is the binocular visual field. Within this area, we are able to perceive
depth. The cortex uses the difference in angle between the visual field of both eyes to perceive a
three-dimensional image.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 281
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8) What are the components of sound that are detected within the ear and how does that sound
reach the inner ear where it is transduced into electrical energy?
Answer: Sound waves travel and affect the gas molecules that compose the air by putting them
into motion. Sound waves traveling through the air consist of regions where the air molecules are
closer together (compressed) and regions where those molecules are further apart (rarified). The
amplitude of sound is proportional to the differences in air molecule densities between the
compressed and rarified air. Amplitude is expressed as a log scale in decibels. The pitch of the
sound is determined by the frequency of the sound waves measured as the number of waves per
second (hertz: Hz).
To detect sound, the properties of the sound wave must be transmitted to a solid structure.
That transition occurs at the ear drum where sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to
vibrate at the frequency of the sound waves. That vibration is passed along the middle ear across
three bones: from the malleus (hammer), to the incus (anvil), and finally, onto the stapes
(stirrup). The stapes is in contact with the cochlea at the oval window. Once the vibration reaches
the stapes, it is passed to the oval window, which vibrates the fluid of the cochlea. There are two
membranes within the cochlea (basilar and vestibular) that separate the cochlea into three fluid
filled compartments (scala vestibuli, scala tympani, and scala media). The tympani and vestibuli
are filled with perilymph while the media is filled with endolymph. Vibration is passed from the
oval window to the scala vestibuli onto the scala tympani. This will cause the basilar and
vestibular membranes to vibrate as well. The organ of Corti, which contains the hair cells that
detect sound, is located on the top of the basilar membrane. The stereocilia of the hair cells are
embedded within the tectorial membrane. When the basilar membrane vibrates, the stereocilia
that are attached to the tectorial membrane are sheared. This movement bends the stereocilia,
causing a change in membrane potential within the hair cell.
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 284
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9) Within the inner ear are several structures that are involved in equilibrium and balance.
Describe these structures and how they are able to detect changes in velocity and direction.
Answer: The vestibular organs in the inner ear are composed of the semicircular canals (of
which there are three) and two otolithic organs (utricle and saccule). They are able to detect a
change in linear and rotational velocity (acceleration or deceleration). The vestibular apparatus is
located within the temporal bone and consists of a membranous labyrinth that is filled with
endolymph and is surrounded by perilymph. The three semicircular canals are located
perpendicular to one another, allowing them to detect rotational movement of the head in three
planes. The anterior canal detects rotation in the up and down direction, as when nodding "yes."
The posterior canal detects motion of the head from side to side, as when the ear moves toward
the shoulder. The lateral canal detects rotation of the head from side to side, as when shaking the
head to say "no." These canals contain an enlarged region called the ampulla where the sensory
cells are located. Within the ampulla is the cupula, a gelatinous mass in contact with the
stereocilia that project from the hair cells. Bending of the stereocilia causes a change in
membrane potential of the hair cell. The sterocilia are bent by endolymph pushing against the
cupula. As the head is put into motion (accelerates), the endolymph lags behind, causing it to
move within the canal, which pushes on the cupula. This movement of the cupula bends the
stereocilia, thereby altering the membrane potential of the hair cell. If that acceleration of the
head reaches a constant velocity (acceleration is an increase in velocity whereas deceleration is a
decrease in velocity), the endolymph will stop moving within the canal as the head comes to a
constant velocity and the stereocilia will no longer be stimulated. Any change in velocity
(acceleration or deceleration) would cause the endolymph to move again within the canal and
thereby stimulate the stereocilia.
Otoliths are the small calcium carbonate crystals that are embedded within the gelatinous
mass in contact with the stereocilia of the hair cells. The hair cells of the utricle are oriented
horizontally with the stereocilia extending vertically, while the hair cells of the saccule are
oriented vertically with the stereocilia extending horizontally. Thus, the utricle can detect
forward and backward acceleration while the saccule detects upward and downward acceleration.
Again, the otolith lags behind the movement of the body, causing the bending of the stereocilia
of the hair cell that alters membrane potential of the hair cell.
Diff: 8 Page Ref: 286
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10) Taste involves a complex mixture of different receptors for particular classes of compounds
that can be present in food. Describe how taste receptors are able to detect the four primary
tastes.
Answer: The sensation of taste derives from chemoreceptors within the mouth. Those
chemoreceptors are located within structures called taste buds on the tongue and roof of the
mouth. Taste sensitive cells are modified epithelial cells with taste receptors that bind selectively
to chemicals (tastants) in the food that we ingest. In order to bind, the chemical must be
dissolved in saliva. There are four primary tastes: salt, sour, sweet, and bitter. Sour derives from
the presence of hydrogen ions that block potassium channels, which causes the cells to
depolarize. Salty foods are sensed by the increased electrochemical driving force for movement
of sodium into the cell, which would cause the cell to depolarize. Sweet is mediated by the
receptor linked to a G protein called gustducin, which binds to organic molecules such as sucrose
to stimulate the production of cAMP. This activates a protein kinase that phosphorylates a
potassium channel. This phosphorylation causes more potassium channels to remain in the
closed state, thereby depolarizing the cell. Bitter is associated with detection of nitrogenous
compounds. Bitter substances can be sensed by several different mechanisms: the direct binding
to a receptor, which causes the closure of potassium channels, and the binding to a receptor that
activates a G protein, called transducin. In that case, transducin activates the enzyme
phospholipase C, which leads to the production of IP3. An increase in IP3 stimulates the release
of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 295
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10.5 Short Answer Questions
A) ________________________________________
B) ________________________________________
C) ________________________________________
D) ________________________________________
E) ________________________________________
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2) In the figure below, identify the structures labeled A, B, C, D, and E.
A. ________________________________________
B. ________________________________________
C. ________________________________________
D. ________________________________________
E. ________________________________________
Answer: A. malleus
B. tympanic membrane
C. round window
D. cochlea
E. Eustachian tube
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 284
4) Proprioceptors provide the body with continuous information that changes little as a particular
joint angle is maintained, and are therefore an example of ________ receptors.
Answer: tonic or slowly adapting
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 257
5) ________ receptors are better able to provide information on whether a stimulus has changed,
whereas ________ receptors are better adapted to provide information on the extent of that
change.
Answer: Phasic : tonic
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 257
6) Which of the sensory receptors located within the skin are located deep within the dermis?
Answer: Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini's endings
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 263
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7) Which type of nociceptor is associated with C fibers?
Answer: polymodal nociceptors
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 265
9) Somatosensory receptors that lack identifiable specialized structures are called ________.
Answer: free nerve endings
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 262
10) (Nociceptors / warm receptors) respond best to temperatures greater than 44°C.
Answer: nociceptors
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 264
12) The absence of pain, but not other somatosensations, is called (anesthesia/analgesia)
Answer: analgesia
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 268
13) A (concave/convex) lens causes light waves to converge onto a focal point.
Answer: convex
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 272
14) During near vision, the ciliary muscle (contracts/relaxes) due to activation of the
(sympathetic/parasympathetic) nervous system. As a result, the zonular fibers to go (taut/slack),
which causes the refractive power of the lens to (increase/decrease) and the lens become
(flatter/rounder).
Answer: contracts : parasympathetic : slack : increase : rounder
Diff: 7 Page Ref: 274
15) An increase in pressure within the eye due to expansion of the aqueous humor that can
eventually compromise blood flow to the eye is called ________.
Answer: Glaucoma
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 275
17) The ________ is an indentation in the retina that contains the fovea.
Answer: macula lutea
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 276
45
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
18) Cones are most concentrated in the (fovea / optic disk)
Answer: fovea
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 276
21) Arrange the following components of the neural pathway for vision in the correct order
starting with the photoreceptor and ending with the visual cortex: photoreceptor, optic radiations,
optic tract, ganglion cell, bipolar cell, optic nerve, optic chiasm, lateral geniculate body, visual
cortex.
Answer: photoreceptor, bipolar cell, ganglion cell, optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, lateral
geniculate body, optic radiations, visual cortex
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 281
24) Describe the pathway whereby vibration, initiated by sound waves, reaches the cochlea.
Answer: The tympanic membrane is vibrated by sound waves that pass that vibration from the
malleus to the incus and finally onto the stapes, which vibrates the round window of the cochlea.
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 284
25) Sensory information about (vision / sound) is relayed through the medial geniculate body of
the thalamus.
Answer: sound
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 290
46
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
28) The stereocilia and kinocilium on the hair cells of the ampulla project into what structure?
Answer: cupula
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 291
29) What molecules within the mucus of the olfactory epithelium carry odorants to the receptor
on the cilia?
Answer: olfactory binding proteins
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 297
30) What type of cells in the olfactory mucosa maintain the extracellular environment
surrounding the receptor cells?
Answer: sustentacular cells
Diff: 4 Page Ref: 298
31) The bone overlying the olfactory epithelium is called the ________.
Answer: cribriform plate
Diff: 6 Page Ref: 297
32) The second-order neurons in the olfactory pathway are called ________.
Answer: mitral cells
Diff: 5 Page Ref: 298
47
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Another random document with
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II.
Joku aika sitten hän oli mennyt kihloihin Elli Löfbergin kanssa. Hän
oli nyt melkein valmis lääkäri, lähimmässä tulevaisuudessa hän
saattoi saada viran ja perustaa oman kodin. Hertta ei ollut nähnyt
häntä hänen kihloihin mentyään. Elli Löfberg oli Hertan
koulutovereita, joskin Herttaa useaa vuotta nuorempi. Hän oli vielä
täydellinen lapsi, pintapuolinen ja turhamainen, ilman mitään
vakavampia harrastuksia. Hammarin kihlaus oli sentähden suuresti
kummastuttanut Herttaa. Hammar, joka itse oli niin vakava, melkein
raskasmielinen, mitenkä hän oli voinut kiintyä tuohon pieneen
hupakkoon?
Antti astui salin yli Ellin huoneen ovelle. Hän kolkutti pari kertaa,
mutta kun vastausta ei kuulunut, astui hän sisään.
— Elli, jos minä pyytäisin että sinä minun tähteni luopuisit tuosta
mielihalustasi, niin tuntuisiko se kovin katkeralta?
— Kun puhut noin, Antti, niin voisin tehdä vaikka mitä sinun
tähtesi.
Mutta kun en näe sinua, niin kaikki pahat ajatukset heräävät
minussa.
Elli nyyhkytti. Antti antoi hänen itkeä. Hän siveli hänen vaaleita
kiharoitansa ja hänen valkoista otsaansa. Kuinka hieno hänen
hipiänsä oli ja kuinka punakat hänen huulensa. Antti tunsi
sydämensä värähtelevän. Mitenkä hän olikaan voinut voittaa Ellin
rakkauden, Ellin, joka oli niin hieno ja hento, joka oli kasvanut niin
aivan toisessa maaperässä kuin hän itse?
Ja hänen mieleensä johtui ensi kerta, jolloin hän Elliä oli sylissään
pidellyt. Mikä onnen huumaus oli silloin hänen olentonsa läpi käynyt.
Hän oli tullut niin arkana ja pelokkaana Ellin luo, niin kömpelösti hän
oli tunteensa sanoiksi pukenut, mutta sitten oli kaikki arkuus
kadonnut, ja hän oli nähnyt edessään vain Ellin loistavat silmät.
Siitä oli nyt puoli vuotta kulunut. Hän oli tänä aikana oppinut Elliä
tuntemaan, hän oli useasti saanut kokea, että hän oli hemmoteltu ja
oikullinen lapsi, mutta se ei ollut hänen rakkauttansa vähentänyt. Se
oli vain herättänyt hänessä halun suunnata hänen kehityksensä
oikeaan ja jaloon ja tukahduttaa lapsen heikkoudet, ennenkuin ne
olivat todellisiksi taipumuksiksi muuttuneet.
Hän sai kaikki muut puolellensa ja rouva Illman, joka ehdoitusta oli
vastustanut, koetti selittää, että hän oli aivan samaa mieltä kuin
rouva Taubekin, hän oli vain arvellut, että ehkä kaikki eivät
joulukiireiden vuoksi ehtisi ottaa niihin osaa. Hän puolestansa olisi
valmis työhön milloin hyvänsä.
— Mutta onhan täällä muitakin nuoria kuin neiti Ek, arveli joku. —
Voimmehan kysyä heiltäkin.
— Me tahdomme tanssia!
Antti saattoi hänet eteiseen. Hän tunsi äkkiä iloa ajatellessaan että
hän pian taas olisi tilaisuudessa tavata Herttaa. He voisivat uudistaa
entisen tuttavuutensa ja jatkaa yhdessäoloa aivan kuin ennenkin.
Hänellä oli mielestään niin paljon puhuttavaa Hertalle, niin paljon
kysyttävää ja hän tiesi niin varmaan saavuttavansa ymmärrystä.
IV.
Mies kääntyi ovea kohti, mutta loi vielä pitkän katseen rouva
Taubeen. Se oli niin rukoileva, ja samalla epäluuloinen. Rouva Taube
tunsi pistoksen sydämessään, olisiko hän ollut liian kova tuolle
miehelle, hän olisi ehkä todellakin ansainnut apua. Hän aikoi kutsua
hänet takaisin, antaa hänelle ruokaa, hän ehkä ei ollut syönyt koko
päivään, mutta mies vetäisi jo oven kiinni jälkeensä, ennenkuin
rouva Taube oli ennättänyt mitään tehdä.
Elsa oli aivan isäänsä. Yhä enenevällä huolella rouva Taube näki
tytön harrastusten kääntyvän kaikkeen ulkonaiseen. Ja hän näki
oman vaikutuksensa häviävän aivan mitättömiin, sillä silmittömässä
ihastuksessaan isä ei voinut tyttäreltä mitään kieltää.
Iltaa oli kappale kulunut, kun Hertta Ek astui salin ovelle. Hänen
silmänsä etsi emäntää, mutta kun hän ei häntä mistään keksinyt, niin
hän jäi arasti ovenpieleen seisomaan. Hän seisoi siinä silmät
maahan luotuina, omiin mietteihinsä vaipuneena. Hänen
yksinkertainen tumma pukunsa erosi niin jyrkästi koko hänen
ympäristöstänsä, samoin kuin hänen kasvojensa vakava ilme ei ollut
sopusoinnussa toisten ilosta hehkuvien kasvojen kanssa.
— Mitä teillä tänään oli esillä? kyseli Antti Hertalta. — Onko tullut
uusia tietoja hätämailta?