buildings
Article
Experimental Study on Inner Interface Mechanical Properties of
the ESDCM Pile with Steel Core
Hua Bao 1 , Jie Peng 1 , Zhangjianing Cheng 2, *, Junqing Hong 1 and Yuan Gao 1,3
Citation: Bao, H.; Peng, J.; Cheng, Z.;
Hong, J.; Gao, Y. Experimental Study
on Inner Interface Mechanical
Properties of the ESDCM Pile with
Steel Core. Buildings 2023, 13, 486.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings13020486
Academic Editor: Oldrich Sucharda
Received: 17 January 2023
Revised: 2 February 2023
Accepted: 7 February 2023
Published: 10 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Buildings 2023, 13, 486. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020486
1 School of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
2 College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
3 Nantong Key Laboratory of Intelligent Civil Engineering and Digital Construction, Nantong University,
Nantong 226019, China
* Correspondence: author: czjn@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract: The mechanical property of the pile-core–cement-soil interface is a crucial factor affecting
the shaft capacity of the expanded stiffened deep-cement-mixing (ESDCM) pile. The research on the
characteristics of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface is very limited, and the conventional concrete–
cement-soil interface research results cannot provide direct guidance for the engineering application
of the steel-pipe–cement-soil combination pile. Hence, in this study, we employed a model pile
with a steel-pipe–cement-soil combination. By using a confining pressure transfer test and an inner
interface shear test, the influence of confining pressure on the inner interface and shear deformation
of the inner interface were investigated. The results demonstrated that the lateral confining pressure
has almost no effect on the inner interface due to the encapsulation of the soil-cement column. The
interface shear experienced four stages: the steel pipe small deformation, which is the extra stage
compared to the common concrete–cement-soil combination form; the whole pipe compression; the
brittle failure; and the shear-slip stage. The peak shear stress at the interface is 194 KPa, and the
corresponding pile core top displacement and core bottom displacement are 5.9 mm and 5.4 mm,
respectively. The inner interface bond coefficient is only 0.052, indicating that even the smooth steel
pipe can work closely with the cement-soil at a low bonding coefficient. Further optimization of
the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface structure can be an essential means to improve the mechanical
properties of the pile. When the upper load is transferred downward, it spreads around through
the cement-soil, and as the load increases, the load that can finally be transferred to the deep part
accounts for a relatively small amount, only about 7%. This work promotes the understanding of the
interface mechanical properties of ESDCM piles and guides the application of an ESDCM pile with a
steel core in practical engineering.
Keywords: ESDCM pile; steel-pipe–cement-soil interface; model test; confining pressure
1. Introduction
Soft soils are widely distributed along rivers and coastal areas of China [1–3]. The
drawbacks of the soil, including low strength, high compressibility, and poor permeabil-
ity [4], makes it difficult for traditional engineering pile types to meet the requirements
of bearing capacity and settlement effectively and economically for engineering construc-
tion [5,6]. The expanded stiffened deep-cement-mixing (ESDCM) pile is a new technology
that has emerged and developed rapidly in recent years. It is a new type of composite pile
with an expanding shape and mechanical characteristics that is formed by concentrically
sinking a rigid pile core into a soil-cement column and expanding the body through a
cement mixing pile or core pile [7]. The basic structures of ESDCM piles are demonstrated
in Figure 1. According to the relationship between rigid pile core length lcs and soil-cement
column length lcp , the ESDCM piles can be divided into the long core pile (lcs < lcp ) and
equal-length core pile (lcs ≈ lcp ) [8]. Compared with the single “pile-soil” interface of
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column length lcp, the ESDCM piles can be divided into the long core pile (lcs < lcp) and
equal-length core pile (lcs ≈ lcp) [8]. Compared with the single “pile-soil” interface of con-
conventional
ventional piles, the ESDCM piles,
pilethe
hasESDCM pileinterface:
a double has a double interface:
an outer an outer
interface interface
consisting of consisting of
“soil–cement-soil”
“soil–cement-soil” and an inner and an inner
interface interface
consisting of consisting of “core-pile–cement-soil”
“core-pile–cement-soil” [9]. [9].

Figure 1. Basic Figure

structures of expanded
1. Basic structuresstiffened deep-cement-mixing
of expanded piles.
stiffened deep-cement-mixing piles.

In recent decades, a series

In recent of experimental
decades, studies, including
a series of experimental studies, field tests [10–12]
including field and
tests [10–12] and
indoor modelindoor
tests [13–17],
model have tests been conducted
[13–17], have been by domestic
conducted and byforeign
domestic scholars to in- scholars to
and foreign
investigate the composite-pile-bearing
vestigate the composite-pile-bearing mechanism and mechanism and interface
interface mechanical mechanical
properties [18].properties [18].
Dong et al. [19] found that when the SDCM pile bears the vertical load, the load transfer load transfer
Dong et al. [19] found that when the SDCM pile bears the vertical load, the
process from process from top
top to bottom formsto bottom forms diffusion
a “two-layer a “two-layer diffusion
pattern”, i.e., pattern”,
diffusion i.e.,fromdiffusion
the from the
inner core toinner core core
the outer to the(inner
outerlayer)
core (inner layer) and
and diffusion fromdiffusion
the outer fromcorethe
toouter core to the soil
the soil
around the pilearound
(outerthe pile (outer
layer). Wu [20] layer).
definedWuthe
[20]inner-core–outer-core
defined the inner-core–outer-core
contact surface contact
as surface as
the “first
the “first interface”, and interface”, and the outer-core–soil-contact
the outer-core–soil-contact surface as thesurface
“second asinterface”.
the “second Heinterface”. He
conducted anconducted
indoor model an indoor model test, that
test, determining determining
the shearthat the shear
strength of thestrength of the first interface
first interface
was about 0.194 times the compressive strength of the
was about 0.194 times the compressive strength of the cement-soil of the outer core. Zhou cement-soil of the outer core. Zhou
et al. [21] conducted a series of interface shearing tests to study the frictional capacity ofcapacity of the
et al. [21] conducted a series of interface shearing tests to study the frictional
concrete–cement-soil
the concrete–cement-soil interface interface and the cement-soil–sandy-soil
and the cement-soil–sandy-soil interface interface of the static drill
of the static
rooted nodular
drill rooted nodular pile, finding
pile, finding that thethat theshear
peak peak shear
stressstress
of theofconcrete–cement-soil
the concrete–cement-soil interface
was mainly controlled by the cohesion and friction
interface was mainly controlled by the cohesion and friction angle of cement-soil angle of cement-soil[22],[22],
and and the ratio
the ratio of peak shear stress and the compressive strength of the cement-soil ranged from from 0.116 to
of peak shear stress and the compressive strength of the cement-soil ranged
0.116 to 0.141;0.141; the maximum
the maximum shear shear strength
strength of concrete–cement-soil
of concrete–cement-soil interface
interface waswasmuch
much higher than
that of cement-soil–sandy-soil interface under the
higher than that of cement-soil–sandy-soil interface under the same condition [23]. same condition [23].
Several scholars Several
havescholars have also
also studied the studied
compositethe composite
pile using pile using numerical
numerical simulations simulations [24].
Tanchaisawat et al. [25] reported that the cement ratio
[24]. Tanchaisawat et al. [25] reported that the cement ratio had a significant influence on had a significant influence on the
shearof
the shear strength strength of the cement-soil
the cement-soil interface, interface, and the
and the normal normal
stress stress
on the on the and
interface interface and the
ratio of the cross-sectional area of the core pile to the cement-soil pile also affected the
the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the core pile to the cement-soil pile also affected the
shear strength of the interface, but not as significantly as the cement ratio did. Voottipruex
shear strength of the interface, but not as significantly as the cement ratio did. Voottipruex
et al. [26] investigated the bearing mechanism of SDCM piles in the form of numerical
et al. [26] investigated the bearing mechanism of SDCM piles in the form of numerical
simulation based on field tests. Zhu et al. [27] proposed a theoretical method for analyzing
simulation based on field tests. Zhu et al. [27] proposed a theoretical method for analyzing
the load transfer of SDCM piles in layer soils, then conducted model tests and three-
the load transfer of SDCM piles in layer soils, then conducted model tests and three-di-
dimensional finite element simulations. The results showed that the predictions were in
mensional finite element simulations. The results showed that the predictions were in
reasonable agreement with the simulated and experimental results, and the theoretical
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 3 of 17

method had good applicability. Wonglert et al. [28] also investigated the effect of pile core
stiffness on the performance of SDCM piles by means of numerical simulation.
However, the above-mentioned studies on the inner interface mostly focused on the
concrete–cement-soil interface [29]. Concrete pile cores often fail to meet the strength and
weight requirements when dealing with hard soil layers, or when pile foundation projects
require light weight and miniaturization; in those cases, it is necessary to seek a more
optimal pile core material. In addition, in earthquake-prone areas, the selection and design
of concrete structures is also often limited and requires careful consideration [30,31]. Steel
pipes are widely used in engineering construction because of their high strength, high
bending resistance, good elasticity, and easy manufacturing and construction. They few
scholars who have studied the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface have only conducted a
simple quantitative study of the shear stress at the interface [32]. In addition, the model box
interface straight shear approach that some researchers have taken is traditional [33], which
was different from the actual cross-section of the pile. The application of the scale model
tests also often ignored the extrusion effect of the outer confining pressure, which was
significant in practical projects [34]. The formation mechanism of shear strength at the pile
core–cement-soil interface, as well as the mechanism of evolution of frictional resistance at
both interfaces when the composite pile was deformed and damaged under the vertical
ultimate load, are not clear from the current reports [35–37]. Therefore, it is necessary to
conduct a more in-depth study on the mechanical properties of the inner interfaces of the
ESDCM pile [38–40].
In this study, we focused on the steel-pipe–cement-soil composite ESDCM pile and
investigated the influence of the outer confining pressure on the mechanical performance
of the inner interface via a series of laboratory large-scale model tests. Firstly, we designed
a confining pressure transfer test to investigate the influence of the outer confining pressure
of the ESDCM pile on the inner interface after transferring through the soil-cement column.
Afterward, we carried out a shear test at the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface. Based on the
stress-displacement relationship curves of the inner interface of the model composite pile,
we analyzed the deformation law of the inner interface of the ESDCM pile.

2. Experimental Methods
2.1. Fabrication of Test Models
2.1.1. Model Pile Preparation
The test soil was taken from the sandy powder soil at a depth of about 4 m below
ground level in Nantong City, Jiangsu Province, China. The physical and mechanical
indexes of the original soil are exhibited in Table 1.

Table 1. The physical and mechanical indexes of the test soil.

Natural Water Void Cohesive

Wet Density Dry Density Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Friction Angle
Content Ration Force
ρ (g/cm3 ) ρd (g/cm3 ) Wl (%) Wp (%) ϕ (◦ )
w (%) e C (KPa)
31.4 1.85 1.41 0.918 32.4 22.6 16.7 18.8

The schematic diagram of the physical model barrel and the model pile are shown in
Figure 2. This shows that the core pile of the model pile was made of seamless steel pipe,
with an outer diameter of 108 mm, a wall thickness of 5 mm, a length of 1200 mm, and an
elastic modulus (E) of 200 GPa. The pouring formwork was made of PVC pipe with an inner
diameter of 192 mm, a length of 1000 mm, and a wall thickness of 4 mm. The design cement
content of the model pile was about 15% and the water-cement ratio was 0.4. Since the test
in this work focused on the mechanical properties of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface,
for the convenience of loading and monitoring during the test, the expanded pile head was
not set. The steel pipe was exposed to a certain length at both ends and the length of the
composite segment was 800 mm. Compared with the size of the ESDCM pile employed in
practical projects, the scale ratios of the diameter and length were approximately 1/4.5 and
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length of the composite segment was 800 mm. Compared with the size of the ESDCM pile
employed in practical
length ofprojects, the scale
the composite ratios of
segment wasthe800
diameter and length
mm. Compared were
with the approxi-
size of the ESDCM pile
mately 1/4.5 and 1/7.5, respectively.
employed in practical A steel oilthe
projects, barrel
scalewas used
ratios as the
of the test model
diameter barrel, were approxi-
and length
with a height 1/7.5,
of 890 respectively.
mm, a bottomA steel oil
diameter barrel
of was
600 used
mm, as
and the
a test
wall model
thickness
mately 1/4.5 and 1/7.5, respectively. A steel oil barrel was used as the barrel,
of 5with
testa model
mm. height barrel,
of 890
Before the test,mm,
with a height of 890 mm, a bottom diameter of 600 mm, and a wall thickness of 5 hole
a a
hole bottom
was diameter
opened at of
the 600
centermm,of and
the a wall
bottom thickness
of the of
barrel, 5 mm.
and the Before
size ofthe test, a mm.
was
the hole was slightlyopened
Before larger at the
than
the test, center
the
a hole wasofopened
the of
diameter bottom
the ofcenter
steel
at the the
pipebarrel,
to theand
of ensure the size
that
bottom the of barrel,
thepipe
steel
of the hole was
and theslightly
size of
passed through larger than
it smoothly
the hole wasthe diameter
during
slightly the of than
the steel
test.
larger pipe to ensure
the diameter that the
of the steel pipesteel pipe passed
to ensure that thethrough it
steel pipe
smoothly during the test.
passed through it smoothly during the test.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of model size (mm).

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofmodel
modelsize
size(mm).
(mm).
2.1.2. Pressure Ring
2.1.2.
The confining Pressure
2.1.2.pressure Ring
Pressuretransferring
Ring test required the application of vertical load to
the outer fill of the The
The confining
pile inside the pressure
confining model transferring
bucket.
pressure test
To ensure
transferring required
testthe the
uniformity
required the application
of the load,of
application the
of vertical
vertical load
load to
to
the
pressure ring was outer fill
customized of the
as pile
showninside
in the
Figuremodel
3. bucket.
The size To
of ensure
the the
pressure uniformity
ring should
the outer fill of the pile inside the model bucket. To ensure the uniformity of the load, the of the load, the
be between the pressure ring
ringwas
inner diameter
pressure wascustomized
the barrelasas
ofcustomized shown
and thein
shown Figure
diameter
in Figure3.of3.
The thesize
The of the
model
size pressure
ofpile,
the and aringring
pressure should be
should
between
certain operatingbe space the
between inner
should diameter
also remain.
the inner of
diameter the barrel
Therefore, and the
the outer
of the barrel diameter
and diameter of
the diameter the model pile,
of theofpressure and a certain
the model pile, and a
operating
ring was designed to be
certain space
operating should
500 mm, the also
space inner remain.
should also Therefore,
diameter was 245
remain. the
mm,outer
Therefore, diameter
andthethe of thewas
thickness
outer diameterpressure
of the ring was
pressure
20 mm. designed to be 500 mm, the inner diameter was 245 mm, and the thickness
ring was designed to be 500 mm, the inner diameter was 245 mm, and the thickness was was 20 mm.
20 mm.

Figure 3. (a) Dimensions (mm) and (b) physical drawing pressure ring.
Figure 3. (a) Dimensions (mm) and (b) physical drawing pressure ring.
Figure 3. (a) Dimensions (mm) and (b) physical drawing pressure ring.
The pressure ring was machined with 45# manganese steel. First, the ring was cut out
by laser on the steel plate, and then the square steel with a section of 20 mm × 20 mm was
welded at equal intervals in the transverse and longitudinal directions at the bottom of the
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Buildings 2023, 13, 486 5 of 17

The pressure ring was machined with 45# manganese steel. First, the ring was cut out
by laser on the steel plate, and then the square steel with a section of 20 mm × 20 mm was
welded at equal intervals in the transverse and longitudinal directions at the bottom of
ring to ensure the compressive strength of the pressure ring. After welding, black paint
the ring to ensure the compressive strength of the pressure ring. After welding, black paint
was
was sprayed on
sprayed the surface
on the surfaceofofthe
thepressure
pressurering
ringtoto prevent
prevent rust.
rust. TheThe machining
machining process
process is is
undertaken by professional metal processing institutions.
undertaken by professional metal processing institutions.
2.2. Test Platform
2.2. Test Platform
2.2.1. Construction of Test Platform
2.2.1. Construction of Test Platform
The test platform was constructed using a jacking beam, as presented in Figure 4a.
The test platform was constructed using a jacking beam, as presented in Figure 4a.
The construction processes were as follows. First, we placed the model barrel on the bearer
The construction processes were as follows. First, we placed the model barrel on the bearer
and then used a small crane to slowly lift the model pile into the barrel. This was done
and then used a small crane to slowly lift the model pile into the barrel. This was done
carefully to ensure that the steel pipe passed smoothly through the hole. Next, a level
carefully to ensure that the steel pipe passed smoothly through the hole. Next, a level was
was used to control the levelness and verticality of the model pile. At the same time, the
used to control the levelness and verticality of the model pile. At the same time, the gap
gap in barrel
in the the barrel was filled
was filled withwhich
with soil, soil, which wasand
was filled filled and rammed
rammed 6 times,6until
times,theuntil the soil
soil cov-
covered the top of the soil-cement column of the model pile. After filling,
ered the top of the soil-cement column of the model pile. After filling, the pressure ring the pressure
ring
was was concentric
concentric with with the model
the model pileplaced
pile and and placed horizontally
horizontally above
above the soilthe
mass.soilThen,
mass.the Then,
the jacking beam was adjusted to a suitable height, and the oil-pressure
jacking beam was adjusted to a suitable height, and the oil-pressure jacks and loading jacks and loading
sensing cellswere
sensing cells wereplaced
placed symmetrically
symmetrically on pressure.
on the the pressure. Thewere
The jacks jacksslowly
werelifted
slowly lifted
until
until
their tops were slightly against the jacking beam, and the platform construction was com-was
their tops were slightly against the jacking beam, and the platform construction
completed.
pleted. DuringDuring the interfacial
the interfacial shear shear test,
test, one onejack
more more jack
was was
also alsoon
placed placed
top ofon thetop of the
steel
steel pipe core to apply the upper load. The built test platform is shown
pipe core to apply the upper load. The built test platform is shown in Figure 4b. in Figure 4b.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Construction
Construction of
ofthe
thetest
testplatform
platform(a)(a)design
designdiagram and
diagram (b)(b)
and practical testtest
practical platform.
platform.

2.2.2.
2.2.2. Test
Test Apparatus
Apparatus
To
To investigate the inner
investigate the inner interface
interfacemechanical
mechanicalproperties
properties of of
thethe ESDCM
ESDCM pile,pile,
traintrain
gauges were
gauges were pasted
pasted along
alongthe theaxial
axialdirection
directionandandsoil pressure
soil pressurecells were
cells arranged
were arrangedat five
at five
sections of the
sections theouter
outerwall
wallofofthethesteel pipe
steel at the
pipe expected
at the expectedburial depths
burial of 8 cm,
depths of 24 cm, 24
8 cm, 40 cm,
cm,
40 56 56
cm, cm,cm,
andand
72 cm
72 (Figure 5) before
cm (Figure casting
5) before the model
casting pile. The
the model soilThe
pile. pressure cells werecells
soil pressure
arranged
were in each
arranged section
in each at 180°
section at 180 ◦ alternately.
alternately. In addition, two two
In addition, moremorestrain gauges
strain gaugeswerewere
pasted along the horizontal direction at the 24 cm and 56 cm depths of
pasted along the horizontal direction at the 24 cm and 56 cm depths of the cross-section. the cross-section.
Anepoxy
An epoxyresin
resincover
cover was
was used
used as as the
the outer
outer protective
protective layer
layer on
on the
the strain
strain gauges
gauges toto pre-
prevent
vent them from moisture short-circuiting during the model pile
them from moisture short-circuiting during the model pile casting process. Holes casting process. Holes were
were drilled
drilled in advance
in advance at sections
at sections where where the steel
the steel pipepipe
waswas expected
expected to be
to be buried,
buried, i.e.,
i.e., atat0 cm,
16 cm, 32 cm, 48 cm, and 64 cm. The wires of the strain gauges and soil pressure cells were
led from the nearest borehole through the inside of the steel pipe to reduce the influence of
the wires on the inner interface structure. After the model pile was poured, cured, shaped,
and demolded, soil pressure cells were arranged at the same cross-section of the soil-cement
column’s outer wall.
 0 cm, 16 cm, 32 cm, 48 cm, and 64 cm. The wires of the strain gauges and soil pressure
0 cm,
cells 16 led
were cm, from
32 cm,
the48nearest
cm, and 64 cm.through
borehole The wires
theof the strain
inside of thegauges andtosoil
steel pipe pressure
reduce the
cells were led from the nearest borehole through the inside of the steel pipe to
influence of the wires on the inner interface structure. After the model pile was poured, reduce the
influence of the wires on the inner interface structure. After the model pile
cured, shaped, and demolded, soil pressure cells were arranged at the same cross-sectionwas poured,
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 6 of 17
ofcured, shaped, and
the soil-cement demolded,
column’s outersoil pressure cells were arranged at the same cross-section
wall.
of the soil-cement column’s outer wall.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Embedded
Embedded strain
strain gauges
gauges and
and soil
soil pressure
pressure cells (mm).
Figure 5. Embedded strain gauges and soil pressure cells (mm).
After the
After thetest
testplatform
platformwas was built,
built, nylon
nylon plates
plates were
were pasted
pasted at bottom
at the the bottom
of theofsteel
the
steel pipe
Afterand
the near
test the top
platform of
wasthe pipe
built, as
nylonthe touch
plates planes
were of
pastedthe
at displacement
the
pipe and near the top of the pipe as the touch planes of the displacement gauges. Dis-bottom of gauges.
the steel
Displacement
pipe and near
placement gauges
gauges topwere
thewere of arranged
the
arranged in
thethese
pipeinasthese two two
touch planes
planes
planes for
the accurate
ofaccurate
for measurement
displacement gauges.
measurement of
Dis-
of pile
pile deformation
placement gaugesdisplacement
were (Figure
arranged in 6);
these load
twosensors
planes were
for laid underneath
accurate the
measurement
deformation displacement (Figure 6); load sensors were laid underneath the jacks to mon- jacks
of to
pile
monitor the
deformation
itor applied
the applied load
displacement in real time.
(Figure 6); load sensors were laid underneath the jacks to mon-
load in real time.
itor the applied load in real time.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Displacement gauges (a)
Displacement gauges (a) near
nearthe
thetop
topofofthe
thesteel
steelpipe
pipeand
and(b)
(b)atat the
the bottom
bottom of of
thethe steel
steel pipe.
Figure 6. Displacement gauges (a) near the top of the steel pipe and (b) at the bottom of the steel
pipe.
2.3. Test Method
pipe.
The overall flow of the test is shown in Figure 7. When pouring the model pile,
test cube specimens of size (70.7 mm × 70.7 mm × 70.7 mm) were cast at the same
time. When the test cube specimens were cured to the 7th, 14th, 28th, and 90th day, the
unconfined compressive strength test of cement-soil was carried out according to the
standard “Specification for mix proportion design of cement-soil” (JGJ/T 233-2011) [41].
When the specimens had cured for 90 days, the model pile was lifted and the test platform
was set up, and then the confining pressure transfer test and the steel-pipe–cement-soil
interface shear test were conducted.
 cube specimens of size (70.7 mm × 70.7 mm × 70.7 mm) were cast at the same time. When
the test cube specimens were cured to the 7th, 14th, 28th, and 90th day, the unconfined
compressive strength test of cement-soil was carried out according to the standard “Spec-
ification for mix proportion design of cement-soil” (JGJ/T 233-2011) [41]. When the speci-
Buildings 2023, 13, 486
mens had cured for 90 days, the model pile was lifted and the test platform was set up,
7 of 17
and then the confining pressure transfer test and the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface shear
test were conducted.

Figure7.7.Preparation
Figure Preparationprocesses
processesofofthe
theESDCM
ESDCMPile
Pileand
andcorresponding
correspondingmeasurements.
measurements.
2.3.1. Confining Pressure Transfer Test
2.3.1. Confining Pressure Transfer Test
This test was designed to investigate the influence of the outer confining pressure of
This test
the ESDCM was
pile ondesigned
the innerto investigate
interface afterthe influence of
transferring the outer
through the confining
soil-cement pressure
column.of
the ESDCM pile on the inner interface after transferring through
The test was divided into two stages: the first stage was the monitoring of confining the soil-cement column.
The test at
pressure was
thedivided
inner andintoouter
two stages: the first
interfaces during stage
thewas theprocess.
filling monitoringOnce of the
confining
model pres-
pile
sure at the inner and outer interfaces during the filling process. Once
position was calibrated during platform construction, the soil pressure cells were connected the model pile posi-
tion
to thewas calibrated
dynamic during
collector (Figureplatform
8) to construction,
record the trend the of
soilconfining
pressurepressure
cells were at connected
the inner
interface and the outer interface of the model pile during the filling process.atAfter
to the dynamic collector (Figure 8) to record the trend of confining pressure the inner
the
interface and the outer interface of the model pile during the filling
completion of filling, the test platform was left to stand for about 14 h, followed by the process. After the
completion of filling, the test platform was left to stand for about
second stage of the test, i.e., the monitoring of confining pressure at both interfaces of the14 h, followed by the
secondpile
model stage of the
under thetest,
upper i.e.,load
the on
monitoring
soil. Sinceofthe confining
data could pressure at both interfaces
be substantially ofthe
poor after the
model
soil pile under
pressure cells hadthe been
upperresting
load on forsoil. Since
a long the data
period, theycould
werebe substantially
zeroed before thepoor after
second
the soil
stage pressure
so that cells had
the confining been resting
pressure monitored for aduring
long period,
the second they were
stage zeroed
could before the
be considered
second stage so that the confining pressure
to originate entirely from the transfer of the upper load. monitored during the second stage could be
considered to originate entirely from the transfer of the upper
As shown in Figure 9, during the test, the jacks on the pressure ring were liftedload.
synchronously, and the vertical load would be applied to the soil below the ring under
the reverse action of the jacking beam; the load would then be transferred by the soil to
form lateral confining pressure on the outside of the model pile to simulate the lateral
confining pressure condition of the composite pile in practical projects. The test used the
slow maintenance loading method, taking the classification of 5 KN, and the maintenance
time for each level of the load was not less than 60 min. When the data monitored by
the soil pressure cells reached a relatively stable state, the next level of loading could be
executed, and the loading was stopped either when the soil was compressed to the top of
the soil-cement column, or when the load could no longer be increased.
Buildings 2023,13,
Buildings2023, 12,486
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 17
18

Figure 8. The dynamic collector.

As shown in Figure 9, during the test, the jacks on the pressure ring were lifted syn-
chronously, and the vertical load would be applied to the soil below the ring under the
reverse action of the jacking beam; the load would then be transferred by the soil to form
lateral confining pressure on the outside of the model pile to simulate the lateral confining
pressure condition of the composite pile in practical projects. The test used the slow
maintenance loading method, taking the classification of 5 KN, and the maintenance time
for each level of the load was not less than 60 min. When the data monitored by the soil
pressure cells reached a relatively stable state, the next level of loading could be executed,
and the loading was stopped either when the soil was compressed to the top of the soil-
Figure
cement
Figure 8.8.The
Thedynamic
dynamic
column, collector.
or when the load could no longer be increased.
collector.

As shown in Figure 9, during the test, the jacks on the pressure ring were lifted syn-
chronously, and the vertical load would be applied to the soil below the ring under the
reverse action of the jacking beam; the load would then be transferred by the soil to form
lateral confining pressure on the outside of the model pile to simulate the lateral confining
pressure condition of the composite pile in practical projects. The test used the slow
maintenance loading method, taking the classification of 5 KN, and the maintenance time
for each level of the load was not less than 60 min. When the data monitored by the soil
pressure cells reached a relatively stable state, the next level of loading could be executed,
and the loading was stopped either when the soil was compressed to the top of the soil-
cement column, or when the load could no longer be increased.

Figure9.9.Confining
Figure Confiningpressure
pressuretransfer
transfertest
testschematic
schematicdiagram.
diagram.

2.3.2. Steel-Pipe–Cement-Soil Interface Shear Test

After the completion of the confining pressure transfer test, the jack load was main-
tained, a load sensor and a jack were placed on the top of the pile, and the shear test was
carried out on the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface (inner interface). The test still used the
slow maintenance loading method, and the loading method was carried out with reference
to the relevant provisions of the standard “Technical code for testing of building piles” (JGJ
106-2014) [42]. The graded load was taken as 1/10 of the ultimate bearing capacity of the
model pile. The test aimed to investigate the mechanical properties of the inner interface.
The influence of the expanded pile tip on the bearing capacity had been eliminated when
Figure 9.the
pouring Confining
modelpressure
pile andtransfer test the
building schematic diagram.
platform, so the predicted bearing capacity of
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 9 of 17

the model pile was about 30 KN, so the graded load was taken as 3 KN. The maintenance
time of each load level was about 60 min, and if the monitoring data reached a relatively
stable state, the next level of loading was carried out. The loading was stopped when
the displacement of the pile top reached 40 mm, or when the pile body was significantly
damaged.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
The unconfined compressive strength test results are exhibited in Table 2. The results
show that, in the three parallel tests of each group, the measured unconfined compressive
strengths of the test blocks have an aberration of less than 15% from the average value. The
standard deviations of the results are small for all groups, and the dispersion of the results
is low. Therefore, the arithmetic mean of the three measurements is taken as the unconfined
compressive strength value of the cement-soil at each age. With a cement ratio of 15% and
water-to-ash ratio of 0.4, the early strength of the cement-soil material progresses relatively
rapidly, reaching 62.3% of the 90th day strength on the 7th day, then the growth in strength
of the cement-soil material gradually slows down, with 21.7% growth in strength from the
7th to the 14th day, 19.4% from the 14th to the 28th day and only 10.3% increase in strength
from the 28th to the 90th day.

Table 2. Statistics of unconfined compressive strength test results.

Age/D Identifier Test Strength/MPa Average Strength/MPa Standard Deviation Ratio to the 90th Day Strength
#1 2.391
7 #2 2.193 2.341 0.130 62.3%
#3 2.438
#1 2.820
14 #2 2.876 2.849 0.028 75.9%
#3 2.850
#1 3.535
28 #2 3.365 3.403 0.118 90.7%
#3 3.308
#1 3.964
90 #2 3.657 3.753 0.183 100%
#3 3.638

3.2. Confining Pressure Transfer Test

The variation trend of the confining pressure at different depths of the inner and outer
interfaces of the model pile during the filling process (the first stage) are demonstrated in
Figure 10. In the early stage of filling, although there are disturbance changes of different
amplitudes, the lateral confining pressures on the outer interface of the model pile show an
overall increasing trend, and the confining pressures at the inner interface are in a slightly
disturbed state throughout the whole process. During the filling process, the external core
of the soil cement bore almost all the lateral confining pressure.
In the second stage of the test, when the upper soil load reaches 50 KN, the bottleneck
stage is entered. At this time, the pressure jack can no longer lift the load value, and the soil
around the pressure ring begins to bubble out under pressure, so the loading is stopped,
and the test is finished, as shown in Figure 11. After each stage of loading, the compression
of the soil and the pressure venting of the jacks will cause the load to rise and then slide off
before eventually leveling off to a relatively stable state. At the stage of applying load to
the soil around the pile, with the increase of the upper load, the lateral confining pressure
of the model pile is gradually transferred to the inner interface. As the outer interface has a
degree of void space at different depths, the outer confining pressures fluctuate to varying
degrees, but the overall trend is consistent with that of the upper soil load. Along the
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 10 of 17

Buildings 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

longitudinal depth, although the inhomogeneity of the soil density around the pile results
in irregular fluctuations in the lateral confinement when monitored at certain depths, the
are in a slightly disturbed state throughout the whole process. During the filling process,
overall confining pressure to the outer interface is found to increase with depth.
the external core of the soil cement bore almost all the lateral confining pressure.

Figure10.
Figure
Buildings 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
10. Variation
Variation curves
curves of
of confining
confiningpressure
pressureofofthe
the(a)(a)
outer and
outer (b)(b)
and inner interfaces
inner during
interfaces the
during
11 of 18the
fillingprocess.
filling process.

In the second stage of the test, when the upper soil load reaches 50 KN, the bottleneck
stage is entered. At this time, the pressure jack can no longer lift the load value, and the
soil around the pressure ring begins to bubble out under pressure, so the loading is
stopped, and the test is finished, as shown in Figure 11. After each stage of loading, the
compression of the soil and the pressure venting of the jacks will cause the load to rise
and then slide off before eventually leveling off to a relatively stable state. At the stage of
applying load to the soil around the pile, with the increase of the upper load, the lateral
confining pressure of the model pile is gradually transferred to the inner interface. As the
outer interface has a degree of void space at different depths, the outer confining pressures
fluctuate to varying degrees, but the overall trend is consistent with that of the upper soil
load. Along the longitudinal depth, although the inhomogeneity of the soil density around
the pile results in irregular fluctuations in the lateral confinement when monitored at certain
depths, the overall confining pressure to the outer interface is found to increase with depth.
For the outer interface, the earth pressure sensor is buried at a shallow depth of 8 cm,
and the external confining pressure is relatively low at that depth. The soil pressure cells
at the burial depths of 8 cm and 24 cm are both in the influence range of the pressure ring,
and soil spills out of the pressure ring successively during the loading process, resulting
in a steep drop and then a rise in the confining pressure curves at these two locations on
the outer interface for nearly every loading stage. The lateral confining pressure curve at
40 cm burial depth is well synchronized with the load changes; the lateral confining pres-
sure at 56 cm burial depth fluctuates around 15 KPa after an initial rise, presumably be-
cause of uneven soils and possible soil layering gaps. The lateral confining pressure at a
burial depth of 72 cm increases continuously with increasing load and does not appear to
decrease even with unloading, presumably because it is at a deeper part of the soil and is
supported by the support reactions, giving it a higher degree of soil consolidation.

Figure
Figure 11.11.Variation
Variationcurves
curvesof
ofconfining
confining pressure of of the
theexternal
externaland
andinner
innerinterfaces with
interfaces thethe
with upper
upper
load
load onon soilatatdifferent
soil differentdepths:
depths:(a)
(a) 88 cm;
cm; (b)
(b) 24
24 cm;
cm; (c)
(c) 40
40cm;
cm;(d)
(d)56
56cm;
cm;(e)
(e)7272cm.
cm.

The inner interface, on the other hand, is not influenced by the lateral pressure of the
outer interface throughout the entire process, except for a small increment of the inner
interface confining pressure with the upper soil load at a burial depth of 56 cm, as it is
located inside the semi-rigid and homogeneous soil-cement column. Combining the
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 11 of 17

For the outer interface, the earth pressure sensor is buried at a shallow depth of 8 cm,
and the external confining pressure is relatively low at that depth. The soil pressure cells at
the burial depths of 8 cm and 24 cm are both in the influence range of the pressure ring,
and soil spills out of the pressure ring successively during the loading process, resulting
in a steep drop and then a rise in the confining pressure curves at these two locations on
the outer interface for nearly every loading stage. The lateral confining pressure curve
at 40 cm burial depth is well synchronized with the load changes; the lateral confining
pressure at 56 cm burial depth fluctuates around 15 KPa after an initial rise, presumably
because of uneven soils and possible soil layering gaps. The lateral confining pressure at a
burial depth of 72 cm increases continuously with increasing load and does not appear to
decrease even with unloading, presumably because it is at a deeper part of the soil and is
supported by the support reactions, giving it a higher degree of soil consolidation.
The inner interface, on the other hand, is not influenced by the lateral pressure of the
outer interface throughout the entire process, except for a small increment of the inner
interface confining pressure with the upper soil load at a burial depth of 56 cm, as it is
located inside the semi-rigid and homogeneous soil-cement column. Combining the above
two stages of internal and outer interface force conditions, it can be concluded that the
semi-rigid soil-cement column as a transition layer resists more than 95% of the lateral
confinement well; it substantially reduces the influence of horizontal lateral confining
pressure on the pile core and ensures the vertical load-bearing capacity of the pile core.

3.3. Shear Test at the Steel-Pipe–Cement-Soil Interface

The shear test of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface was then carried out according to
the test protocol. Before the test, the core pile was first preloaded by 1.5 KN to hold the jack
in place. During the test, the horizontal strain gauges attached to the steel pipe, as well as
the vertical strain gauges at the buried depths of 24 cm and 40 cm, did not work properly,
Buildings 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
probably due to damage; the variation values of the strain gauges at the buried depths 12 of of
18

8 cm, 56 cm, and 72 cm with the top load of the pile are shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Variation curves of stress with

with upper
upper load
load on
on soil
soil at
at different
different buried
buried depths.
depths.

The strain
The strain gauge
gauge at
at aa depth
depthof of88cmcmundergoes
undergoesaaperiod
periodofoftension
tensionduring
duringthethefirst
first
2
2 levelsofofloading
levels loadingand
andenters
entersaastate
stateofofcompression
compressionfrom
fromthe
the third
third level
level of
of loading.
loading. TheThe
strain gauge,
strain gauge, buried
buried at
at aa depth
depth of
of 56
56 cm,
cm, begins
begins to
to change
change from
from compression
compression to to tension
tension atat
the fifth load level and stabilizes gradually at the seventh load level, presumably
the fifth load level and stabilizes gradually at the seventh load level, presumably because because
the gauge is partially detached from the steel pipe by friction at level five and is com-
pletely stripped at level seven. The strain gauge at a depth of 72 cm stabilizes from level
nine, presumably due to the stripping of the gauges from the pipe at this point.
The shearing stress-displacement curve of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface is
 Figure 12. Variation curves of stress with upper load on soil at different buried depths.

The strain gauge at a depth of 8 cm undergoes a period of tension during the first 2
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 levels of loading and enters a state of compression from the third level of loading. 12 ofThe
17
strain gauge, buried at a depth of 56 cm, begins to change from compression to tension at
the fifth load level and stabilizes gradually at the seventh load level, presumably because
thegauge
the gaugeis is partially
partially detached
detached fromfrom
the the
steelsteel
pipepipe by friction
by friction at five
at level leveland
fiveis and is com-
completely
pletely stripped at level seven. The strain gauge at a depth of 72 cm
stripped at level seven. The strain gauge at a depth of 72 cm stabilizes from level nine, stabilizes from level
nine, presumably due to the stripping of the gauges from
presumably due to the stripping of the gauges from the pipe at this point. the pipe at this point.
Theshearing
The shearingstress-displacement
stress-displacement curve curveofofthe thesteel-pipe–cement-soil
steel-pipe–cement-soilinterfaceinterfaceisis
shownininFigure
shown Figure13.
13.Based
Basedon onthe thetypical
typicalside
sidefriction
frictionresistance–relative
resistance–relativedisplacement
displacement
curve[43],
curve [43],combined
combined with
with thethe
testtest results,
results, thethe shearing
shearing process
process at steel-pipe–cement-soil
at the the steel-pipe–cement-
soil interface
interface can be candivided
be divided
intointofourfour stages:
stages: thethe small
small deformation
deformation stageofofthe
stage thesteel
steelpipe,
pipe,
the compression stage of the whole pipe, the brittle failure, and the shear-slip stage, asas
the compression stage of the whole pipe, the brittle failure, and the shear-slip stage,
exhibitedininFigure
exhibited Figure14.14.

Buildings 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Figure13.
Figure 13.Shearing
Shearingstress-displacement
stress-displacementcurve
curveofofsteel-pipe–cement-soil
steel-pipe–cement-soilinterface.
interface.

Figure 14. (a) Typical side friction resistance–relative displacement curve. (b) Four stages of steel
Figure 14. (a) Typical side friction resistance–relative displacement curve. (b) Four stages of steel
pipe–cement-soil interface shear.
pipe–cement-soil interface shear.

Compared
Compared with the composite
with the compositepilepileininthe
theform
formofofa conventional
a conventional concrete–cement-
concrete–cement-soil
soil combination
combination [44],[44],
the the inner
inner interface
interface of the
of the steel-pipe–cement-soil
steel-pipe–cement-soil combination
combination under-
undergoes
goes
one more stage in shear. At the preliminary stage of loading, the shear stress at theatinner
one more stage in shear. At the preliminary stage of loading, the shear stress the
inner interface increases step by step with the load, and the steel pipe core enters
interface increases step by step with the load, and the steel pipe core enters the elastic stage the elas-
tic stage
first first
before thebefore the soil-cement
soil-cement column,
column, that is thethat is the OA
OA section. section. as
However, However,
the load as the load
is relatively
islow
relatively low at this time, the modulus of elasticity of steel pipe is
at this time, the modulus of elasticity of steel pipe is relatively large, meaning thatrelatively large,
the
meaning that the compression of the steel pipe is extremely minor. The steel pipe and soil-
cement column are tightly bonded, and no relative displacement occurs.
When the load is lifted to 12 KN and the shear stress reaches 44 KPa, the steel-pipe–
cement-soil interface shear enters the elastic phase, that is, the AB section. During this
stage, the soil-cement column is compressed together with the pile core (steel pipe), after
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 13 of 17

compression of the steel pipe is extremely minor. The steel pipe and soil-cement column
are tightly bonded, and no relative displacement occurs.
When the load is lifted to 12 KN and the shear stress reaches 44 KPa, the steel-pipe–
cement-soil interface shear enters the elastic phase, that is, the AB section. During this stage,
the soil-cement column is compressed together with the pile core (steel pipe), after which
the shear stress and shear displacement remain essentially linear until the ultimate peak is
reached. The peak shear stress is 194 KPa, corresponding to a shear displacement of 5.4 mm
at the bottom of the pile core and 5.9 mm at the top of the pile core. The compression at
the top of the core is larger than the compression at the bottom. A distinct sound can be
detected coming from the model barrel before and after the peak, which should be damage
from the soil-cement column body and a massive peeling of the steel pipe and cement-soil.
In soil mechanics, the Mohr–Coulomb model is widely used because it can obtain
fairly reliable results within a certain lateral limit stress range and is easy to use. Several
scholars have also demonstrated by direct shear tests that Mohr–Coulomb law can express
the mechanical interaction between the cement-soil and the core pile material well [45].
Based on this, in combination with the results of the confining pressure transfer test and
the data obtained, we can use a more intuitive index to evaluate the bonding property of
the inner interface.
The ratio of peak shear stress to unconfined compressive strength of cement-soil is
defined as the bonding coefficient, which can be calculated according to the following
arithmetic expression:
α = τu / f cu
In the above formula, α is the bond coefficient τu is the interface peak shear stress, and
f cu is the unconfined compressive strength of cement-soil. In this paper, the peak shear
stress is 194 KPa, the unconfined compressive strength of cement-soil is the value of the
test day, that is, the average strength of the 90th day was 3.753 MPa, and the interfacial
bond coefficient α = 194/3753 = 0.052. Compared with the concrete core pile [46], the
bonding coefficient of smooth steel pipe and cement-soil is low, but the two have been
working closely and synergistically during the whole compression process, and the whole
pile still shows excellent load-bearing performance. The structure of the interface, such as
roughness, often has a large influence on the mechanical properties of the interface [47].
Therefore, in future research, the load-bearing potential of the pile will be further enhanced
if the structure of the inner interface is optimally designed.
After the peak, the interface shear proceeds to the brittle failure stage, the BC section.
Within this stage, as the relative displacement of the steel pipe and soil-cement column
further enlarges, the shear stress at the inner interface gradually decreases, the loading
process keeps emitting a bursting sound, and the soil-cement column experiences growing
damage, until the steel-pipe–soil-cement-column completely strips and loses the limits of
the bond. The top and bottom of the steel pipe displacement gradually converges, and the
steel pipe enters the shear-slip stage, that is, the CD section. The steel pipe is compressed,
and sliding friction in the soil-cement column and the shear stress gradually remains stable
as the relevant displacement grows; this is referred to as residual shear stress.
When the test was completed, the fill was excavated and the model pile was extracted
from the soil. The steel pipe core had been completely stripped from the soil-cement column,
and the column body was found to be broken into three major parts by three cracks through
the pile body, part of which further split into smaller cement-soil pieces at the top, which
resulted in brittle damage in the entire pile, as shown in Figure 15. This form of damage
is different from the common form of pile damage that occurs in actual engineering. In
actual engineering, pile damage mainly manifests as integral shear damage [48] or piercing
damage to the pile body [49], and the cracks produced by damage and fracture are mostly
local cracks [50]. Penetration cracks such as those shown in the figure rarely occur. This may
occur because, in this paper, the pile core (steel pipe) was allowed to bear the full vertical
load instead of being subjected to compression together with the outer soil-cement column
in the actual project, and the displacement of the soil-cement column is artificially restricted
 through the pile body, part of which further split into smaller cement-soil pieces at the
top, which resulted in brittle damage in the entire pile, as shown in Figure 15. This form
of damage is different from the common form of pile damage that occurs in actual engi-
neering. In actual engineering, pile damage mainly manifests as integral shear damage
[48] or piercing damage to the pile body [49], and the cracks produced by damage and
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 fracture are mostly local cracks [50]. Penetration cracks such as those shown in the figure 14 of 17
rarely occur. This may occur because, in this paper, the pile core (steel pipe) was allowed
to bear the full vertical load instead of being subjected to compression together with the
outer soil-cement column in the actual project, and the displacement of the soil-cement
in the test.
column Therefore,
is artificially when the
restricted steel
in the pipe
test. is loaded,
Therefore, whenthethe
soil-cement column
steel pipe is loaded,isthe
gradually
driven by the
soil-cement steel pipe
column from the
is gradually top by
driven to produce compression,
the steel pipe from the top and
tothe bottom
produce com-cannot be
pression,
moved dueandtothe
thebottom cannotofbethe
restriction moved
model due to the so
barrel, restriction of the model
the soil-cement barrel,
column is so
subjected
thecompression
to soil-cement column is subjected
at the top and bottomto compression
at the sameat the top Because
time. and bottom at the
of the same
expansion and
time. Becauseof
compression of the
the steel
expansion and compression
pipe core, of thecolumn
the soil-cement steel pipe core, the
expands andsoil-cement
shear expansion
column resulting
occurs, expands and in shear
cracksexpansion
from theoccurs,
innerresulting
interfaceinthat
cracks from the inner
gradually moveinterface
to the outside,
that gradually move to the outside, eventually forming multiple penetration cracks lead-
eventually forming multiple penetration cracks leading to pile damage.
ing to pile damage.

Figure 15. Model pile failure diagram.

Figure 15. Model pile failure diagram.
Buildings 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

The distribution of the axial force of the core pile is shown in Figure 16. Among these,
axial force data are missing at 24 cm and 40 cm depths. Since the length of the model pile
The distribution
is relatively of the axial force
small compared of the
to the realcore pilethe
pile, is shown
axial in Figureare
forces 16. distributed
Among these, more evenly
axial force data are missing at 24 cm and 40 cm depths. Since the length of the model pile
and smoothly inside the pile core, but it can still be seen that the axial forces at the deeper
is relatively small compared to the real pile, the axial forces are distributed more evenly
part of the pile
and smoothly tend
inside theto decrease
pile core, butwith
it can increasing vertical
still be seen that depth.
the axial forcesDuring the test, the steel
at the deeper
pipe core takes up all the vertical loads, which are spread around
part of the pile tend to decrease with increasing vertical depth. During the test, the steel the pile in a top-down
transfer
pipe coreprocess
takes upthrough the transition
all the vertical layer
loads, which areof the cement-soil,
spread around the pile andin eventually
a top-down to the depth.
transfer
At processstage
the initial through the transition
of loading, due layer
to the of relatively
the cement-soil,
lightand
load,eventually
the loadto was
the distributed
depth.evenly
more At the initial
in thestage
pileofbody,
loading, duethe
and to the relatively light
percentage load, transferred
of load the load was distrib-
to the bottom was
uted more evenly in the pile body, and the percentage of load transferred to the bottom
about 35%. However, the percentage gradually reduced to 7% as the load on the top of the
was about 35%. However, the percentage gradually reduced to 7% as the load on the top
pile increased.
of the pile increased.

Figure 16.
Figure 16.Distribution
Distributionof axial forceforce
of axial of pileofshaft.
pile shaft.

4. Conclusions and Outlooks

The double interface is one of the characteristics that distinguish the ESDCM pile
from traditional piles, and the mechanical properties of the inner and outer interfaces are
an important basis for the load-bearing performance of the pile. In this work, a series of
tests have been conducted to investigate the effect of the presence of the outer soil-cement
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 15 of 17

4. Conclusions and Outlooks

The double interface is one of the characteristics that distinguish the ESDCM pile
from traditional piles, and the mechanical properties of the inner and outer interfaces are
an important basis for the load-bearing performance of the pile. In this work, a series of
tests have been conducted to investigate the effect of the presence of the outer soil-cement
column on the transfer of the lateral confining pressure and the shear mechanical properties
of the inner interface for a rare combination of steel-pipe–cement-soil composite pile, and
the following conclusions have been obtained.
(1) In the confining pressure transfer test, the semi-rigid soil-cement column, as a transi-
tion layer, resists more than 95% of the lateral confining pressure well and substantially
reduces the influence of confining pressure on the pile core, which ensures the stabil-
ity of the vertical load-bearing performance of the pile core. In the shear test at the
steel-pipe–cement-soil interface, the shear process can be divided into four stages: the
small deformation stage of the steel pipe, which is the extra stage compared to the
common concrete–cement-soil combination form; the compression stage of the whole
pipe; the brittle failure stage; and the shear-slip stage.
(2) With the low load, the steel pipe and cement-soil were tightly bonded and did not
produce relative displacement. In the elastic compression stage, the soil-cement
column is compressed simultaneously with the steel pipe core, and the shear stress
and shear displacement remain basically linear until reaching the ultimate peak of
194 KPa, which corresponds to the displacement of 5.4 mm and 5.9 mm at the bottom
and top of the pile, respectively. In the brittle failure stage, the relative displacement
of steel pipe and the soil-cement column further increases, the inner interface shear
stress gradually decreases, and steel pipe and soil-cement column gradually strip
altogether, entering the shear slip stage. Shear stress with the relative displacement
growth gradually remains stable.
(3) The steel-pipe–soil-cement-column bonding performance is considered satisfactory.
Most of the time, the pipe and the column maintain a state of collaboration. For the
ESDCM pile with steel pipe core, the bond strength of the steel-pipe–cement-soil
interface is roughly 0.052 times the strength of the cement-soil. The smooth steel
pipe can work closely with the cement-soil even at a low bonding coefficient. Further
optimization of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface structure can be an important
way to improve the load-bearing potential of the pile. Eventually, when the steel-pipe–
cement-soil interface breaks down, multiple large cracks penetrate the soil-cement
column body, the steel pipe and the soil-cement column separate, and brittle damage
occurs throughout the pile.
(4) The steel pipe core undertakes all the upper loads, and the loads are evenly distributed
inside the steel pipe core during the downward transfer process, spreading to the
surrounding area through the transition layer of cement-soil, but the final load that
can be transferred to the deep part is minor in comparison, accounting for only about
7% of the top load of the pile.
In future research, based on existing work, we will optimize the design of the interface
structure by either adjusting the roughness of the steel pipe surface or adding steel ribs to
obtain better bonding properties. In addition, more intrinsic models, such as the modified
Cam–Clay (MCC) model, will be attempted to better describe the shear deformation under
sandy soil media.
Overall, this research demonstrates the mechanical properties of the steel-pipe–cement
soil interface. It may assist the audience to better understand the load-bearing capacity of
the ESDCM pile from the theoretical aspect and also provide guidance in the design and
construction of pile foundations in engineering.

Author Contributions: H.B., J.P. and Z.C. conceived and designed the experiments; H.B. and J.P.
performed the experiments; J.P. and J.H. analyzed the data; H.B. and J.P. wrote the original draft; J.P.,
Buildings 2023, 13, 486 16 of 17

Z.C. and Y.G. reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of the Jiangsu Higher
Education Institutions of China under Grants (22KJB560010), Postgraduate Research & Practice
Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (KYCX21_3090) and Basic science foundation of Nantong
under Grants (JC22022102, JC12022098).
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationship that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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