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Electromagnetic Theory

G. Franchetti, GSI
CERN Accelerator – School
Budapest, 2-14 / 10 / 2016

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 1

Mathematics of EM

Fields are 3 dimensional vectors dependent of their spatial position

(and depending on time)

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 2

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Products
Scalar product Vector product
~B
~ ~A ⇥
A ✓ ~
A ✓
~
B ~
B
~·B
A ~ = AB cos ✓ ~⇥B
A ~ = AB sin ✓v̂

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 3

The gradient operator

~ = (@x , @y , @z )
r
Is an operator that transform space dependent scalar in vector

Example: given f (x, y, z)

~ (x, y, z) = (@x f, @y f, @z f )
rf

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Divergence / Curl of a vector field

Divergence of vector field

~ y, z)
A(x, ~ · A(x,
~ y, z) =
r
@ x Ax + @ y Ay + @ z Az

Curl of vector field

~ y, z)
A(x, ~ ⇥ A(x,
r ~ y, z) =
(@y Az @z Ay )x̂+
(@z Ax @x Az )ŷ+
(@x Ay @y Ax )ẑ
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 5

Relations
~ ⇥ (B
A ~ ⇥ C)
~ = ~ · B)
(A ~ C~ + B(
~ A~ · C)
~

~ ⇥ (r
r ~ ⇥ C)
~ = ~ · r)
(r ~ C~ + r(
~ r~ · C)
~

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Flux Concept
Example with water

a
b

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 7

Volume per second

or

dV θ
a = av
dt L
dV
= Lbvcos✓
dt

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Flux
~
dA

θ
~
E
A

~ =E
d (E) ~ · dA
~

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 9

Flux through a surface

Z
~ =
(E) ~ · dA
E ~
S

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Flux through a closed surface:

Gauss theorem
Any volume can be decomposed in
small cubes

Z Z
~ · dA
E ~= ~
r·E dV
S V

Flux through a
closed surface

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 11

Stokes theorem
I
~ · d~l = Ex (0, 0, 0)
E + Ey ( , 0, 0)
y

Ey(D,0,0) Ex (0, , 0) Ey (0, 0, 0)

Ey(0,0,0)
x I ✓ ◆
~ · d~l = @Ex @Ey 2
E +
@y @x
I
~ · d~l = (r
E ~ ⇥ E)
~ z 2

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for an arbitrary surface

I Z
~ · d~l =
E ~ ⇥ E)
(r ~ · dA
~
S
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 13

How it works

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Electric Charges and Forces

Two charges
+ -

Experimental facts

+ +
+ -
- -
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 15

Coulomb law
F~
q1
r
q2

1 q1 q2
F~ = r̂
4⇡✏0 r2

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 16

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Units
System SI

1 q1 q2
F~ = 2
r̂
4⇡✏0 r

F~ Newton ✏0 = 8.8541 ⇥ 10 12
q1 Coulomb
C2 N-1 m-2
r Meters
permettivity of free space

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 17

Superposition principle

q3
F~
q1
r q2
1 q1 q2
F~ = r̂
4⇡✏0 r2

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Electric Field

q3
F~
q1
r q2

~ F~
E=
q1

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 19

F~ = q1 E
~
F~
q1
~
E

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By knowing the electric field the force on a charge is completely known

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Work done along a path

work done by the charge

Z
W =q ~ · d~l
E

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Electric potential

Z P
V (P ) = ~ · d~l
E
1
For conservative field V(P) does
not depend on the path !

Central forces are conservative

UNITS: Joule / Coulomb = Volt

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 23

Work done along a path

work done by the charge

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Electric Field ßà Electric Potential

@
Ex = V (x, y, z)
@x
In vectorial notation
@
Ey = V (x, y, z) ~ = ~
@y E rV
@
Ez = V (x, y, z)
@z

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 25

Electric potential by one charge

Take one particle located at the origin, then

Z ~
r
1 q
V (~r) = (~r1 ~r0 ) · d~l
1 4⇡✏0 (r1 r0 )3

1 q
V (~r) =
4⇡✏0 r
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Electric Potential of an
arbitrary distribution
set of N particles
q3
q1
V (~r) ~r3

~r1 q2
~r
~r2
origin

1 X q
V (~r) = p i
4⇡✏0 i (~r ~ri )2
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 27

Electric potential of a
continuous distribution
Split the continuous distribution in a grid

qi = ⇢(~ri )dV
1 X q
~ri V (~r) = p i
4⇡✏0 i (~r ~ri )2

origin

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Energy of a charge distribution

it is the work necessary to bring the charge distribution from infinity

X X 1 qi
More simply U= qj
j i=1,j
4⇡✏0 |~rj ~ri |

More simply

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 29

In integral form

Using ~ =
E ~
rV and the divergence theorem it can be proved that

E2 is the density of
✏0 energy of the electric
2 field

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Flux of the electric field

~
dA

θ
~
E
A

~ =E
d (E) ~ · dA
~

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 31

Flux of electric field through a surface

Z
~ =
(E) ~ · dA
E ~
S

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Application to Coulomb law

On a sphere
Z
~= q
~ · dA
E
S ✏0

This result is general and

apply to any closed surface

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On an arbitrary closed curve

q2

q1
Z
~ = 1 (q1 + q2 )
~ · dA
E
S ✏0

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First Maxwell Law

Z
integral form E ~= Q
~ · dA
S ✏0

for a infinitesimal
r ~ = ⇢
~ ·E differential form
small volume
✏0

(try to derive it. Hint: used Gauss theorem)

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 35

Physical meaning

If there is a charge in one place, the electric flux is different than zero

One charge create an electric flux.

~ = q
(E)
✏0

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Poisson and Laplace Equations

As ~ =
E ~
rV and r ~ = ⇢
~ ·E
✏0

combining both we find ~ · rV

~ = ⇢
r
✏0
⇢
r2 V = Poisson
✏0

In vacuum: r2 V = 0 Laplace

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Magnetic Field

There exist not a magnetic charge!

(Find a magnetic monopole and you get the Nobel Prize)
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Ampere’s experiment

I1

I1 I2
F = µ0
2⇡r

I2

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 39

Ampere’s Law
all experimental results fit with this law
I2

F~ = I2 d~l ⇥ B
~
F

~ = µ0 I v̂
B
2⇡ r

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Units
N
From F~ = dlI~2 ⇥ B
~ =T [Tesla]
Am

From ~ = µ0 I v̂
B follows
2⇡ r
7 2
µ0 = 4⇡ ⇥ 10 NA

To have 1T at 10 cm
I = 5 x 105 Amperes !!
with one cable

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 41

Biot-Savart Law
dB
~ = µ0 I v̂
B
2⇡ r
~r
d~l
I

From analogy with the electric field

~ µ0 d~l ⇥ ~r
dB =
4⇡ r3

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Lorentz force
F~ = q~v ⇥ B
~
A charge not in motion does not experience a force !

F + v

No acceleration using magnetic field !

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Flux of magnetic field

There exist not a magnetic charge ! No matter what you do..

The magnetic flux is always zero!

Z
~ · dA
B ~=0
S

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Second Maxwell Law

Z
Integral form ~ · dA
B ~=0
S

Differential from ~ =0
r·B

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Changing the magnetic Flux...

~ = ~v ⇥ B
E ~

Magnetic flux

~ = hLB
(B)
h
~
1 d (B)
E=
h dt

Following the path

L Z ~
d (B)
~ · d~l =
E
dt

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 47

Faraday’s Law

integral form

Z ~
~ · d~l = d (B)
E
dt

valid in any way

the magnetic flux
is changed !!!

(Really not obvious !!)

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for an arbitrary surface

I Z
~ · d~l =
E ~ ⇥ E)
(r ~ · dA
~
S
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 49

Faraday’s Law in differential form

Z Z
~ ⇥ E)
~ · dA
~= d ~ · dA
~
(r B
S dt S

~
@B
~ ⇥E
r ~ =
@t

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Summary Faraday’s Law

I ~
~ · d~l = d (B)
Integral form E
dt

~
@B
differential form
~ ⇥E
r ~ =
@t

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 51

Important consequence
Current creates magnetic field

magnetic field create magnetic flux

(B) = LI
L = inductance [Henry]

Changing the magnetic flux creates

an induced emf
I ~
~ · d~l = d (B)
E
dt

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I=0 h

d (B) d (B)
✏emf = dU = ✏emf Idt = Idt
dt dt
1 2
energy necessary to create the magnetic field U= LI
2
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 53

Field inside the solenoid B = µ0 N I

Magnetic flux (B) = ⇡r2 BN h

B2 B2
(B) = V olume V olume = LI
µ0 I µ0 I

Therefore

1 2 B 2
Energy density
of the magnetic
B2
U= LI = V olume field
2 2µ0 2µ0
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Ampere’s Law

B
I
I
~ · d~l = µ0 I
B

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 55

Displacement Current
I
~ · d~l = µ0 I
B

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Displacement Current
I
Here there is a
~ · d~l = µ0 I
B varying electric field
but no current !

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 57

Displacement Current

Stationary current I à electric

field changes with time

I
Z
@ ~ · dA
~
I = ✏0 E
@t S

This displacement current

has to be added in the Ampere
law

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Final form of the Ampere law

I ✓ Z ◆
~ · d~l = µ0 @ ~ · dA
~
integral form B I + ✏0 E
@t S

✓ ◆
differential form ~ ⇥B @
~ = µ0 ~j + ✏0 E ~
r
@t

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 59

Maxwell Equations in vacuum

Integral form Differential form
Z
~ · dA
E ~= Q ~ = ⇢
r·E
S ✏0 ✏0
Z
B~ · dA~=0 ~ =0
S
r·B
I ~
d (B) ~
@B
~ · d~l =
E ~ ⇥E
r ~ =
dt @t
I ✓ Z ◆ ✓ ◆
~ · d~l = µ0 @ ~ · dA
~ ~ ⇥B @
~ = µ0 ~j + ✏0 E ~
B I + ✏0 E r
@t S @t

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Magnetic potential ?
Can we find a “potential” such that ~ =
B ~
rV ?

Maxwell equation
~ ·B
r ~ = r V 2 ~ ·B
r ~ =0

r2 V = 0
it means that we cannot
But ~ ⇥B
r ~ =r
~ ⇥ rV
~ =0 include currents !!

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 61

Example: 2D multipoles
For 2D static magnetic field in vacuum (only Bx, By)

~ = rV
B ~ ~ = ( @x V, @y V, 0)
B
~ =r
B ~ ⇥A~ ~ = (@y Az , @x Az , 0)
B

@ x V = @ y Az
By + iBx = @x (A + iV )
@ y V = @ x Az
These are the Cauchy-Reimann
X That makes the function
n
By + iBx = B (bn + ian )z
n A + iV
analytic
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Vector Potential
In general we require ~ =r
B ~ ⇥A
~

~ ·A
r ~=0 (this choice is always possible)

Automatically ~ ·B
r ~ =0
~ ⇥B
r ~ = µ0 J~ ~=
r2 A µ0 J~
3/10/16 G. Franchetti 63

Solution
Electric potential Magnetic potential

⇢ ~=
r2 V = r2 A µ0 J~
✏0

Z Z ~ r~0 )
V (~r) =
1 ⇢(~ri )
dV ~ = µ0
A
J(
dV
4⇡✏0 |~r ~ri | 4⇡ |r~0 ~r|

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Effect of matter

Electric field Magnetic field

Conductors Diamagnetism
Dielectric Paramagnetism
Ferrimagnetism

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 65

Maxwell equation in vacuum are always valid, even when we consider

the effect of matter

Microscopic field Averaged field

That is the field is “local” this is a field averaged

between atoms and moving charges over a volume that contain
many atoms or molecules

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Conductors

free electrons bounded to

be inside the
conductor

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 67

Conductors and electric field

~ ext
E

bounded to
be inside the
conductor
~ =0
E

on the surface
the electric field is
surface distribution always perpendicular
of electrons

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~ = AE
(E)

Applying Gauss theorem

= ✏0 E

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 69

Boundary condition
The surfaces of metals are always equipotential

+ +
+ + +
+
+
+

-
-
-
-
-

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Ohm’s Law
l [Ω]
R= ⇢
A

free electrons ⇢ resistivity [Ωm]

A 1
= conductivity
⇢
~ = ⇢J~
E
l or

J~ = E
~

3/10/16 G. Franchetti 71

Who is who ?

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