Nervous system ‘The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of its body by this animal’s give response to internal and external environment. Functions of Nervous System + Integrating center for homeostasis, movement, and almost all other body functions. + Integrate the different bodily functions and likewise maintains a stability or constancy of the internal environment + Necessary for the reception, storage and release of different sensory and motor information for regulating or initiating a particular behaviour of the individual + Controls overall activities of the body. + Responsible for conscious thought and perception, emotions, personality, the mind . Response to stimuli + Control of voluntary effectors (skeletal muscles), and mediation of voluntary reflexes. + Control of involuntary effectors (smooth muscle, cardiae muscle, glands) and mediation of autonomic reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure, glandular secretion, ete.) Organization of nervous system OR Classification of nervous system 1[Page sandeepbissu@gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed ith KE Seamer1. Neurons Neuron is the functional and structural units of nervous system. Neurons have specialized Properties to receive, process and transmit the information by changing the incoming information into electrical potential. This process is known as impulse generation. Structure of neuron Structure of a Typical Neuron Axon Terminals Node of Ranvier ‘Schyann’s Cells Myelin Sheath Cell Body Soma (cell body/perikaryon) ‘© Responsible of metabolic maintenance of the cell * Body of the neuron consists of a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. © The cytoplasm contains neurofibrls, Nissil bodies golgi apparatus and mitochondria . Nissil bodies or tigroid bodies (basophilic granules): protein synthesis & have the ribonucleic proteins, These granules are not present in the areas of origin of axon. ‘© Neuro have no centrosome. Absence of centrioles failure of normal regeneration, 1 Dendrites * They are fine branching extensions of the neuron that originate from cell body and serve as the receptive surface. These show heavy branching and are responsible to sense and gather incoming signals. C1 Axons ‘* This is otherwise known as nerve fibers. This is the long extension from soma to conduct information away from cell body. Axon arises from an area in the caudal soma known as axon hillock which is devoid of nissil granules. This area is said to be trigger zone where action potential is initiated (Telodendrie or termi buttons . Axon terminates into numerous branches called telodendric or terminal buttons which allows the signals to pass on simultaneously to many structures, Teladendria contain vesicles to store synaptic transmitters. Classification of neurons 2[Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerA. Anatomical classification B, Functional classification A. Anatomical classificati Based according to the number of processes that arise during embryological development 1. Apolar neuron/Nonplar Neuron- No definite dendron/axon. Cell process is either absent or if present is not differentiated in axon and dendrons, Nerve impulses radiate in all directions. Example- Amacrine cell of retina. 2. Unipolar neuron: only has one nerve process extending from the cell body: an axon that extends into dendrites. Unipolar neurons only occur in invertebrates, such as flies This process may split into ‘hwo, one conveys towards the cell body and other conveys away from cell body. Hence, they are referred to as pseudo-unipolar neuron, 3. Bipolar neuron: Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendrite extending from the cell body. Bipolar neurons are present in the retina, olfactory nerves and vestibulocochlear nerves. 4. Multipolar neuron: These have many cellular processes extending from the cell body. One of these is an axon, and other constitutes highly branched dendrites. Most commonly seen in vertebrates. in cerebellar cortex (purkinje cells), motor coterx (pyramidal cells) and ventral horn of the spinal cord. There are two types of multipolar neuron, Classified depending upon the length of the axon. Unipolar Bipolar Pseudounipolar — Multipo! cen receptor xR receptor 4). Motor nerve cell: cell with long axon, E.g. neurons in the ventral grey column of spinal cord Axons of these cells arise from the CNS to become peripheral motor nerve fiber. b). Type If Golgi cell: cell with short axon, The axon divides into many branches in the area of cell 1 Sensory or afferent (towards/ carrying): Carry information from sensors to CNS intimating CNS of external environment (sensory stimuli) and provides status reports on internal activities (visceral) that are regulated to the nervous system 2, Internuncial neurons: remain in CNS and act as a relay between two neurons 3|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner3. Motor or efferent (from/ exit): Carry instructions from CNS to the effector organs to provide appropriate action. This outflow is by two means a). Somatic nervous system - to skeletal muscles. Fibers of motor neurons that supply skeletal muscles. b). Autonomic nervous system - using sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions control the effector organ such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscles and glands @ Server Neuron —_—— Direction of ‘conduction Axon ‘As we know CNS and PNS are made up of neurons and supporting tissues known as glial cells. 2s . A. Supportive cells of CNS Supportive cells of CNS are known as Glial cells or Neuroglia, Neuroglia is a special type of interstitial tissue which provides nourishment to the neurons. Glial cells serve as a connective tissue of the CNS and provide support the neurons. Glial cells are i, Astrocytes (star shaped) * Induce formation of BBB ‘* Take up and degrade released neurotransmitter into raw materials for synthesis of more neurotransmitters by neurons Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheath in CNS Ependymal cell: ‘* Help in formation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Microglia: * Defense of brain as phagocytic scavengers B. Supporting cells of PN! i, Schwann cells: helpful in the formation of myelin sheath and provide insulation. Satellite cells: provide support and nourishment to the neuron Nerve fibers 4[Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerNeurofi Myelin sheath Nucleus of Schwann cell Neuriiomma (sheath of Schwann cell) Axons of neurons known as nerve fibres that can be either insulated or naked, The nerve fibres with myelin sheath are known as myelinated (insulated) and those without myelin sheath are known as unmyelinated fibres (naked), Myelinated fibres are seen in both CNS and PNS. M sheath formation * In €NS by oligodendrocytes . In PNS by Schwann cells. Myelin sheath have small gaps in between them called the Nodes of Ranvier. Myelin sheath provides insulation for electrical signal travelling. Not © Neurolemma / neurilemma / sheath of Schwann is the outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Schwann cells that surround the axon of neurons (Neurolemma is absent in CNS). © Unmyelinated nerve fibers are found in grey matter and myelinated nerve fibers are found in white matter of spinal cord. + In myelinated nerve fibers signals speed is proportional to the axon (nerve fibres) diameter, while in unmyelinated fibers, signal speed is proportional to the square root of the ‘axon (nerve fibres) diameter. Properties of nerve fibre/ nerve tissue/ neuron i Excitability: nerve is stimulated by suitable stimuli like mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical ii Conduetivity: Nerves once excited conduet impulse iii.AM or none law: If a stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve will give a complete response, otherwise there is no response iv. Refractory period: When a nerve fiber is once exeited, it will not respond to a second stimulus fora brief period. This period varies with the type of nerve and with species. It has two parts: a, Absolute refractory period: the period in which the excited nerve will not respond to a second stronger stimulus, Most of the axons exhibit approx 1 millisecond absolute refractory period b. Relative refractory period: the period in which the excited nerve will respond to a second stronger stimulus, Relative refractory period approx 2-4 msec in axons (higher than absolute refractory period) v Indefatigability: Nerve is not normally fatigued vi.Summation (compound action potential): Summation action potential age sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerInput information for CNS originates in external environment as well as within body pent Vv Information is received by peripheral sensory organs such as eye and car Changes in physical environment aré transduced (converted into another Torm) by sensory receptors 5 ‘This transduction is coded Initial coding ts achieved by a relatively steady change in voltage across ‘membrane of receptor “Triggers discharge of impulses-quite brief (about 1 sec), which move from receptor via neuronal process into CNS ‘Transfer of message accomplished by release of chemical secretions which Synapses are inter-neuronal junctions of physiological continuity between two neurons, Nerve signals pass from one neuron to next through Synapses. A small space of 20 nm seen between pre and postsynaptic nerve terminal is called synaptic cleft. Classific mn (types) of synapse: Chemical Synap: Electrical Synapse | i (setting etd ren? @ or neuro Cc ‘Gap junction ‘Get —9-&*) (Crore Pasar car “a (Receiving Cell) (Gacetving Cel nding on wav of conduction of impulses: Chemical synapse and Electrical synapse apse: Almost all synapses in CNS is chemical synapses. In these the presynaptic neuron secretes a chemical substance called neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft which act on post synaptic nerve terminal. The neurotransmitter either excite/inhibit the post synaptic nerve terminal depending on its action and thus called excitatory neurotransmitter or inhibitory neurotransmitter. b) Electrical synapse: these are direct channels that conduct electricity from presynaptic nerve terminal to post synaptic nerve terminal. These are proteins channels called “Gap junctions”. The gap junctions allow the free movement of ions from one cell to other. 6|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner« IEMICAL SYNAPSE VERSUS ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE en Poser Tote fee) An electrical synap 5 Tine tren eens ne direction by mea eae erat Penne ae and invertebrates Seen eee BESS mercer ree RT ist aoe ae eres nae Large in size (10-20 nm) Son eany Po) eee ete ees cere eer entre a nee eet Pires eneree efit aeeeeereertonl a ee et eee een eT erent Sr eeennt eee oetnes inigemnen toes nee NT ee er ee 2. Depending on part that form synapse Axosomatic, Axoaxonic, Axodendritic & Dentrodendritic Dendrites \ wy scm en boa is Sah * Axodendritic Synapse Axosomatic Synapse | Axoaxonic Synapse 7 sandeep! 1@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu (© seamed vith one emer‘napse between the axon of one neuron and the soma of the next. Found in spinal cord and autonomic ganglia. b) Axoaxonie: synapse between axons of pre and post synaptic neurons. Found in interneurons of mammalian spinal cord. ©) Axodendritie: synapse between axon of a neuron and dendrite of another neuron. Found in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. 4) Dentrodendritie: Synapse between dendrites of pre and post synaptic neurons, Present in the cerebellum. Structure of the svnapse (chemical) & Transmission Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter re-uptake pump Axon terminal Voltage-gated (presynaptic) ‘calcium cchagne! Neurotransmitter Synaptic cle Dendritic spine (postsynaptic) Presynaptic nerve terminal ‘These are axon terminal (round/oval) knobs of presynaptic nerve called terminal buttons/synaptic knobs, This terminal consists of mainly synaptic vesicles in which neurotransmitters are stored and mitochondria to provide ATP for synthesis and release of the neurotransmitters, Postsynaptic nerve terminal ‘These are axon/axon terminal, soma/dendrite (depending on type of synapse) of postsynaptic nerve Membrane of postsynaptic neuron have large number of receptor proteins. Receptor proteins of postsynaptic neuron have 2 components a. Transmitter binding component: projects into the synaptic cleft and bind with the neurotransmitter b, Ionophore component: are of 2 types i, Ion channels: That allows passage of specific ions through it Like Sodium channels: Allow mainly Na* (Some K* as well) Potassium channels: Allow mainly K* Chloride channels: Allow CI Excitatory transmitter: selectively opens the Na+ channels and excites the post synaptic neuron Inhibitory transmitters: Those that open K+ and Cl- separately or both of these channels together inhibit the neuron. 2 messenger activator — it activates certain substances in the cytoplasm, which in turn act as second messenger. 8/Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerTransmission of impulses through a chemical synapse * When an action potential spreads over a pre-synaptic terminal, the membrane depolarization causes emptying of small number of vesicles into the synaptic cleft, which in turn causes an immediate change in the permeability characteristic of post synaptic membrane A. Release of neurotransmitter to synaptic cleft Y The pre-synaptic terminal consists of large number of voltage gated Ca?* channels, Y when the pre-synaptic membrane depolarizes by action potential these channels open and large number of Ca“* flow into the presynaptic terminal ¥ These Ca** then binds with release sites and stimulate the synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane and finally it opens to the exterior by exocytosis. Y The amount of transmitter substance released depends on the amount of Ca++ entering the pre synaptic terminal. ‘An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. ‘gated Ga?* channels and Ca? “The depolarization opens voltage- ‘enters the coll. Calcium entry triggers exocytosis. Cf synaptic vesicle contents. Vottage- ated Gat* ——~ Shanna ° ————— ees ee eo Receptor ees B. Action of neurotransmitter on the post synaptic neuron ‘+ The neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft binds with the transmitter component of the receptor proteins in the postsynaptic neuron which in turn activate the ionophore component. Depending on the type of neurotransmitter it will open either the anionic channels (Cl- channels) or cationic channels (Nat or K+), * If the neurotransmitter opens the Na+ channels, then the postsynaptic side becomes ‘more positive and the potential developed at the postsynaptic side is called EPSP (Excitatory post synaptic potential) * But if the neurotransmitter opens the K* or Cl or both channels, then the postsynaptic side becomes more negative and prevents postsynaptic excitation by increasing the threshold required and the potential developed at the postsynaptic side is called IPSP (inhibitory post synaptic potential) nding 9|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerC. The duration of action and fate of the transmitters The channels on activation remain open for only | to 2 milliseconds (duration of action). The transmitter agent is rapidly removed (fate of the transmitters) from the cleft in the following ways: > By diffusion of the transmitter out of the cleft, into the surrounding fluid. By enzymatic destruction, within the cleft itself. By transmitter re-uptake by the pre-synaptic knobs. The extent to which each of these methods of. Removal/ fate of transmitter is different depends upon type of transmitter. Synaptic inhibition 1. Post synaptic inhibitio > > Inhibition of impulse transmission by the action of neurotransmitter on postsynaptic ‘membrane. In this neurotransmitter released open K* or Cl channels or both channels. Opening of K+ channels allow the leakage of K+ from inside to outside due to its high concentration inside than outside, making the membrane more negative. This increase in intracellular negativity is called hyper polarization and hyper polarization prevents postsynaptic excitation by increasing the threshold required. The increase in negativity beyond the normal resting membrane potential is called IPSP (inhibitory post synaptic potential), 2. Presynaptic Inhibition: > Inhibition of impulse transmission at the pre-synaptic terminal, which in turn decreases the release of neurotransmitter. > In these synapses, when the action potential reaches the terminal, it decreases the ability of Ca?* channels in the membrane to open and thereby decreases the release of. ‘neurotransmitter, jynaptic delay At every synapse the impulse gets delayed by 0.5 mil terminal. Thi L 2 3 isecond to pass from pre to post synaptic is called Synaptic delay. This is due to time taken for ‘The release of the synaptic mediator ‘The action of mediator For the action potential to occur Because of this synaptic delay the speed of conduction of impulses through a nerve tract depends on number of synapses form by the nerve Orthodromic and antidromic conduction An axon or nerve fiber can conduct the impulses in either direction. > 10|P Ifan action potential is initiated at the middle of an axon, two impulses traveling in opposite direction are set up by depolarization on either side of the initial point of stimulation. These types of impulses that pass on either direction is called antidromic impulses and conduction as antidromic conduction. age sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner> But when the impulses reach the synay pre to post synaptic terminal. This w conduction. (chemical) it allows the conduetion of impulses from irectional flow of impulses is called orthodromic ‘Transmission of impulses through a nerve fiber Resting Membrane Potential (RMP): = -70 to -90 mV RMP is the potential difference that exist in a resting membrane. In case of small nerve fiber it is around ~40 to 70 mY and in large it is -90 mY. This means that potential inside the fiber is 70-90 mY more negative when compared to outside (ECF), This is due to 2 factors. © Na-K pump ‘© Presence of Na-K leaky channels Action potential in a nerve fiber/ Generation of Action potential in neuron ‘The nerve signals are transmitted by action potential, which are rapid changes in membrane potential The successive stages of action potential are +30 | (BEPOLARIZATION REPOLARIZATION > a wits 7 meee = rh i I a, Resting stage = -70 to -90 mV In the resting stage the membrane is said to be polarized due to the large negativity inside ‘Therefore, a resting membrane is also termed as polarized membrane. b, Depolarisation = +30 mV When a stimulus is applied on a polarized membrane suddenly the membrane become permeable to Nat at that point and large number of Na+ pass to the interior of the axon and the potential rises from ~70/-90 mV to +30 mV. This is called depolarization ¢. Repolarization After depolarization, within fraction of a second the Na+ channel begins to close and the K+ channels open more than normal. The rapid diffusion of K+ to the exterior brings back the resting membrane potential 11|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerIn the next stage the Na-K pump operates which pump the K+ in Na+ out to bring back the membrane to original stage Positive after potenti Once the resting value of the membrane potential is reached, it further becomes little more negative than the normal resting value. This excess negativity is known as “Positive after potential” The after potential state can last from 50 milliseconds to as long as many second. It is principally the recharging process (the electrogenic pumping of excess Na+ outward), Negative after potential ‘At the termination of the action potential the membrane potential sometimes fails to return to its resting level (for few millisecond). The situation is due to the build-up of K+ immediately outside the membrane and the side becomes more positive than normal and this increases the time for the potential to return to the normal resting level. This less negative membrane potential through the additional few milliseconds is called the negative after potential Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) - The local depolarization events which occur at excitatory postsynaptic membranes in response to the arrival of excitatory neurotransmitter molecules which bind with and open membrane gated Na* channels, EPSPs help to trigger an action potential at the axon hillock of the postsynaptic neuron. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) - The local hyperpolarization events which occur at excitatory postsynaptic membranes in response to the arrival of inhibitory neurotransmitter molecules which bind with and open membrane gated K* channels or CI’ channels; IPSPs help to raise the threshold for firing and thus inhibit an action potential at the axon hillock of the postsynaptic neuron. > Propagation of Action potential: The action potential started at any one point on a membrane excites near portions of the membrane resulting in propagation of the action potential > Nerve Impulse: Transmission of depolarization process along a nerve fiber is called Nerve Impulse Saltatory conduction Myelin sheath is an insulator layer around the nerve fiber (on myelinated nerve fiber) it does not conduct electric current. But at nodes of Ranvier (NOR) where myelin sheath is absent membrane depolarization can occur. Therefore, in myelinated nerve fiber the wave of depolarization jumps from one NOR to the next NOR through axoplasm and extra cellular fluid. This type of conduction is known as saltatory (leaping or jumping) conduction Advantages of saltatory condition * Speed of conduction more as impulse jump from one node of Ranvier to next. . Energy required for conduction will be less as Na- K pump which is an active pump (‘e., require energy) need to operate only at Nodes of Ranvier. Saltatory Conduction Axon Within 24 h of injury: the axon breaks up into small pieces distal to site of injury. > Within few days (10 days): small debris of axon left behind and myelin sheath breaks slowly down into oily droplets. > Within 3 months: Macrophages from endoneurium invade the degenerating myelin sheath and axon and remove the debris ‘The process of degeneration is completed by 3 months, The physical destruction of myelin occupies 8-10 days and chemical destruction by 8-32 days. Changes during Regeneration > Regeneration starts along with degeneration > The cells of neurolemma (Schwann cells) divide mitotically and form cords of cells lying entirely within the endoneurial tube. They grow at a rate of | mm/day. > The cytoplasm of Schwann cell gradually fills the tube. ‘The axon from the distal cut end elongates and grows out in all direction to form hundreds of pseudopodia like structure of fibrils These fibrils are g ‘The myelin sheath begins to develop in about 15 days and follow the course of growing fibrils. Myelin sheath is formed fully by one year. > Increase in fiber diameter takes place very slowly and final diameter attained is limited by the diameter of the peripheral tube and size of parent nerve cell. v v cords. led to the other end of endoneurial tube by Sehwann ¢ v 13|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerNote: > In CNS if there is injury the glial cells proliferate and form sear tissue to heal the injury. > In PNS gaps of up to 3 cm may be bridged by Schwann cells & if the cut ends are stitched together the Schwann cells can accomplish their task more easily. Fibroblasts also play an important role by forming the scar tissue > If the regenerating axon fails to locate a band of Schwann cell, the outgrowing sprouts may end blindly in connecting tissue forming neuroma. > Many of these fibers send impulses to spinal cord and are responsible for the itching, burning and tickling sensation in case of amputed organs. The neuromas may also result in pain sensation called Phantom pain. Neurot itters Neurotransmitters are the biochemical substances which is released from the end of pre synaptic nerve fibre ((by the arrival of a nerve impulse) and diffusing across the synapse or junction, effects the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fibre or a muscle fibre. A neuro transmitter may be excitor or inhibitory causes excitation or inhibition that depends upon type of neuro transmitter and on the nature of the receptor presents on the post synaptic membrane. Dale's principle: Usually, only a single type of neuro transmitter substance is released from the nerve terminal by each neuron. But there are some exceptions in which the same nerve terminal might secrete another transmitter which may be excitatory or inhibitory. ‘More than 30 different neuro transmitters have been identified few are following Eee Terminated Alpe ei = EBay ‘stimulation by Cr— 2. Gycne — nbtory independent ‘ming cigs _}-— rrarbrane ranepont 9. Giatamic cid — Exctatory J ere er pps shorn across = pre-synaptic (Coneciedto cr Game | emorane 1. Vasopressin 7 Speciaaed ‘eons on 2.somatoetain [+] _ typothaiamus Nourotranemitore Persises eae + Reine eo fntors Souners moran 1. Nor-epinephine — Ccatocotamines| Biogenic 2. Dopamine amines: sill 2. Serotonin ——» Indotamine _ | Spectased moculating actions ‘Acetylcholine ra dnetvangponod arses 880) 1. Acetylcholine: It is secreted by neurons of the following areas: Parts of the brain such as > large pyramidal cells of the motor cortex > neurons in the basal ganglia > Motor neurons that innervate the skeletal muscles. 14[Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner> Post ganglionic neurons of the PNS, > Some of the post ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system. eine: Glycine, an amino acid, mainly secreted at synapses in the spinal cord and probably always aets as an 3. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): In addition to its secretion in the neurons of the spinal cord, it is also secreted in the neurons of the cerebellum, basal ganglia and many areas of the cortex. It always cause 4. Glutamate: Glutamate is secreted by the presynaptic terminals in most of the sensory pathways and also in many areas of the cortex. It is an exeitatory transmitter 5, Substance P: It is released by pain fiber terminals present in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. It is also found in the basal ganglia and hypothalamus. Generally, it is an excitatory transmitter. 6. Enkephalins: Enkephalins are secreted by the nerve terminals in the spinal cord, brain, stem, thalamus and hypothalamus. They act as exeitatory transmitters to the system that inhibit the transmission of pain 7. Serotonin: Serotonin is secreted by the nuclei that is present in the median raphe of the brain stem. Serotonin acts as an inhibitor of the pain pathways. 8. Dopamine: It is secreted by the neurons of the substantia nigra and the basal ganglia. The effect is usually inhibition. A deficiency of dopamine associated with cellular death in the substantia nigra results in Parkinson disease. 9. Norepinephrine: Both excitation and some inhibition It is secreted by many neurons of the brain stem, hypothalamus and pons, The later sends nerve fibers to extensive areas of the brain and function in controlling the overall activity and mood of the mind. Mostly it causes excitation in the areas and however some inhibition too, Most of the post ganglionic nerve endings of the sympathetic system secretes norepinephrine and excites some organs and inhibits the others. Other substances such as peptides, other amino acids, histamine, prostaglandins, cyclie AMP and many others also act as neurotransmitters, Note: > —— Most common neurotransmitter im brain ¥ Excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain = Glutamate ¥ Inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain = GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid). Excitatory: Acetylcholine, Glutamate, Substance P, Enkephalins, aspartate, histamine itory: Glycine, GABA, Dopamine, serotonin Both Excitatory & Inhibitory: Norepinephrine Parkinson disease: deficiency of Dopamine erotonin & Enkephalins Excitatory pain transmitter and release by pain fiber: Substance P vvvyvy Blood brain barrier (BBB) The blood capillaries of brain are surrounded by astrocytes processes and pericytes (contractile cells that wrap around the endothelial cells of capillaries and venules throughout the body). In brain capillaries, the endothelial cells are joined by tight junctions which completely seal the capillary wall so that nothing can be exchanged across the wall by passing between the cells 15|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerLipid soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol and steroid hormones penetrate these cells easily by dissolving in the lipid plasma membrane. Small water molecules also diffuse through readily. All other substances exchanged between blood and brain interstitial fluid are transported by highly selective membrane bound carriers. The transport across the capillary walls between the cells is anatomically prevented and transport through the cells is physiologically restricted. Funetion of BBB ¥ Protects the delicate brain and spinal cord from chemical fluctuations in the blood ¥ Minimizes the possibility that potentially harmful blood borne substances might reach the central neural tissue SRiem item ie lim tle Normal Blood Vessels vs. Brain Blood Vessels 1. Central neryous system Brain & Spinal cord A. Brain Caudate Nucleus Cerebral Cortex 4 9—Medulta, ‘Oblongata 16| Pace sandeepbissu@gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed ith KE SeamerThree protective and nourishing membranes (meninges) of brain Outermost: Dura mater: it is tough inelastic covering made up of 2 layers. Usually layers are adhered closely, but in some regions, they are separated to form blood filled cavities or sinuses. Middle layer: Arachnoid mater: it is delicate richly vascularized layer with a cobwebby appearance. Space between arachnoid layer and underlying pia mater is called subarachnoid space and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Inner layer: Pia mater: it is most fragile, highly vascular and closely adheres to the surfaces of brain and spinal cord Parts of Bi i 3 17 Prosencephalon (Fore brain): Fore brain is involved in processing olfactory information, integrates with other sensory information, regulates body vegetative functions. It is designated to perform complex tasks like memory processing etc. It is highest integrating system Mesencephalon (Mid brain): Mid brain is predominantly involved in co-ordinating visual, auditory or sensory information from mechanoceptors (touch/pressure) from parts of the body. It acts as a routing centre. Rombencephalon (Hind brain); Hind brain controls reflex responses and regulate involuntary behaviour (breathing, equilibrium, maintenance of body position). PARIETAL LOBE FRONTAL LOBE eccreacsaa Movement = Reading sTvaiios jnioben ‘= Body orientation and sensory essoning Gedgerrent) diserimiation Behaviour (emotions) Memory Speaking OCCIPITAL LOBE = Vision ‘= Visual reception and TEMPORAL LOBE visual interprtation ‘= Understanding language = Behaviour CEREBELLUM = Memory = Balance + Hearing = Coordination BRAIN STEM = Fine muscle control + Consciousness = Alertness/sleep. + Breathing + Body temperature + Blood pressure = Digestion + Heartbeat = Swallowing age sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner| Functions Fore-brain Cerebrum Main thinking part of the brain Cerebral hemispheres Intelligence and voluntary action Olfactory lobes Centres of smell Diencephalon Has centres of hunger, thirst, etc Motor areas | instructs muscles to do various types of jobs Mid-brain 1 Tectum Controls reflex movernents of the neck, head and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli Also controls the reflex movements of the eye Cerebral peduncle muscles, changes in pupil size and shape of the Hind-brain | Pons | Regulate respiration Relays information between the cerebellum and the cerebrum Cerebelium Maintaining posture and balance of the body | Enables us to make precise and accurate | movements. Medutla Controls involuntary actions as breathing, ete Controlling centre for reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, vorniting, etc brai > Involved in processing and integrating sensory information and coordinates behaviour. > Structures of the fore brain consists of cerebrum (telencephalon) and diencephalon or inter brain (consists epithalamus, thalamus, subthalamus and hypothalamus, posterior pituitary and pineal glands) 1. Fo A. Cerebrum It is the largest region of mammalian brain, cerebral cortex is divided into two halves (right cerebral hemisphere and left cerebral hemisphere) and connected to each other by corpus callosum (thick band consisting of 300 million neuronal axons). Corpus callosum acts as information highway, voluntary activity in body wherein the two hemispheres communicate and cooperate with each other by means of constant information exchange through neural connection. Hemispheres functions independently of each other. Each hemisphere has three parts ‘© Cerebral cortex (Wernicke’s area © Cerebral medulla © Basal ganglion ‘Speech understanding, Broca’s area=Speech formation) 18|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerPhysiologically cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes 1. Occipital lobe: Perception and recognition of Visual stimuli 2. Parietal lobe: Associated with movement, orientation, recognition, and perception of stimuli Responsible for receiving and processing sensory input 3. Temporal lobe: Auditory processing and sound 4. Frontal lobe: Voluntary motor activity, vocal ability and higher mental functions B, Hypothalamus (reflex integrator / headquarters of lim! > Present in the base of the forebrain, below the thalamus. Maintains homeostasis by controlling internal organs and interacts with ANS. system) Regulates the activity of pituitary gland If forms the part o > Hypothalamus control body temperature, osmolality of the body fluids, emotional status (via catecholamines) and the drive to eat and drink ete. known as "the vegetative functions of the body" ‘Vegetative functions of hypothalamus 1, Cardio vascular regulation: > > Regulates endocrine system and links endocrine and neural systems. > > system whieh influences emotion and behaviour Y Stimulation of posterior and lateral hypothalamus increases arterial pressure and heart rate Y Stimulation of the preoptic area depresses the blood pressure and heart rate 2, Regulation of body temperature ¥ The preoptic and anterior hypothalamus is concerned with heat loss mechanism. ¥ Posterior hypothalamus concerned with heat generating mechanisms 3. Regulation of thirst and body water balance ¥ Hyperosmolality of the body fluid stimulates the thirst center in the lateral hypothalamus 4. Regulation of uterine contraction and milk ejection Y Neuroendocrine reflex stimulation of paraventricular nuclei causes increased uterine contraction. Y Tactile stimulation of udder sends sensory impulses to hypothalamus causing release of oxytocin, which aids milk ejection Regulation of feed intake/Hunger center Y The ventromedial region as feeding center Stimulation of this center causes hyperphagia Y The lateral region of hypothalamus known as satiety centre, on stimulation reduces feeding behaviour. Y Stimulation of optic chiasma area of hypothalamus causes increased gastric secretions. 19|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner6 Sleep and wakefulness Y Stimulation of the anterior hypothalamus induces sleep ¥ The stimulation of mammillary body (caudal hypothalamus) activates the ascending reticular activating system (RAS) to produce wakefulness, 7, Reproductive functions Y Median eminence of the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a pulsatile manner, which regulates the FSH and LH release from the pituitary gland. Y In seasonal breeders and bird’s hypothalamus plays a key role to effect photoperiodism and thereby the breeding performance is regulated. 8. Center for homeostasis and emotions. C. Thalamus (relay station) Y Actas relay center, largest sensory ganglion of the bt ¥ Receive all sensory information for upward transmission except olfaction, ¥ Acts as pacemaker that regulates the cortical acti D, Epithalamus Located above the thalamus harbours pineal complex, that establishes eireadian rhythm (24-hour eycle) and secretes melatonin Limbie system / Emotional brain /Rhinencephalon Limbic system is a network of connected structures that lie between the cortex and rest of the br: Structures associated with limbic systems are hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus and olfactory bulbs. Main Functions of limbic system 1, Limbic system is involved in 3 levels of behavior, Drive, Emotions and Goal directed [Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmnerbehavior (Motivation: It is the ability to direct behaviour towards specific goals and is called as goal direct behaviour.) - mediated by cingulate gyrus, prefrontal cortex, and the hypothalamic structures. 2. Visceral automatic control: Regulation of BP, respiratory and vasomotor mechanism. 3, Olfactory processing and Neuro-endocrine control 4, Formation of memory process (Short-term memory converted to long term memory by hippocampus) Amygdala * Concerned with emotional responses of fear and aggressiveness ‘© Itis also involved in maintenance of memories of the emotion, * Known as the window of limbic system as it receives input signals from all the limbic system Hippocampus Structures convert short term memories to long term memories 2. Mid by * Relay center. Roof of midbrain is known namely optic lobes in non-mammalian species. s tectum which has pair of brain centers ‘© Tegmentum is the posterior part of midbrain that possesses fine control of muscles. * Red nucleus maintains muscle tone and equilibrium. It acts as center for righting reflex except visual writing reflex. It integrates many impulses and transmit them to spinal cord to control somatic activity © Substantia nigra plays an important role in reward and movement 3 Parts of hind brain: Cerebellum, Pons and Medulla, ind br: Hind brain presents between spinal cord and mid brain. A. Cerebellum (Little brain) It is present in all mammals. Cerebellum is absent in jawless vertebrates like hagfish, Cerebellum maintains equilibrium, positioning and posture of the body by motor coordination. B, Medulla: Medulla oblongata has centers that control reflex activities such as respiration center (for inspiratory and expiratory both), swallowing center, coughing center, vomiting center, sneezing activities and cardiae center (regulate heart rate), vasodilation and blood pressure C. Pons 2 |Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner+ Pons communicating information between medulla, cerebellum and fore br: structures, ‘* Medullary respiratory center is modulated by two respiratory centers that presents in the pons: (1) apneustic center: stimulates the inspiratory neurons of the medulla (2) pneumotaxic center: sends inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory center (switches off the inspiration) and regulating inspiratory volume and respiratory rate. pneumotaxic center and apneustic center that control respiratory rate and rhythm, * control of alertness and initiate’s sleep Respiratory center: Medulla Increase inspiration by pneumotaxie center of Pons Regulating/decrease inspiratory volume by apneustie center of Pons Center for controlling of respiratory rate and rhythm present in Pons (pneumotaxic center and apneustic center) > Purkinje cell found in Cerebellum but purkinje fiber found in heart. Brain stem Brain stem is the grouping of midbrain with the pons and medulla (hind brain). All incoming and outgoing fibers traverse between periphery and higher brain center must pass through brain stem (vith the exception of olfactory and optic nerves) Main Functions of brain stem is Y Sensation input and motor output in the head and neck via cranial nerves v ¥ The ventral tegmental area of the brain stem (just below the thalamus) consists of dopamine pathways that seem to be responsible for pleasure, Reflex control of heart, blood vessels, respiration and digestion via medulla, Brain stem 2|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerReflex activities of brain stem (by parts of brain 1 Light reflexes - Pupillary light reflex 8 ipalary Ne! 6. Swallowing reflex 2 Corneal reflexes 7. Mastication reflex v Corneal blink reflex/palpebral blink reflex . 8. Cough eflex v Lacrimation reflex 9. Sneeze reflex 3 Emetic reflex 10. Micturition reflex 4 Suckling reflex 5 Salivatory reflex Note: 1. Frontal Lobe: responsible for reasoning, planning, speech, voluntary movement, emotions and problem solving 2. Parietal Lobe: responsible for orientation, recogni sensations n_and perception of different 3. Temporal Lobe: responsible for auditory perception, memory and speech 4. Occipital Lobe: responsible for visual processing 5. Cerebellum: responsible for motor control; receives sensory input and coordinates motor output 6. Midbrai fesponsible for vision, hearing, eye movement and body movement 7. Pons: involved in motor control and sensory analysis 8. Medulla: responsible for maintaining body functions such as breathing and heart rate 9, Thalamus: regulates just about all sensory input exeept smell, act as relay center. 10. Hypothalamus: involved in functions including homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and the autonomic nervous system, ibic system: center of emotional reactions and memories. leep > Sleep is a state of reduced mental and physical activity in which consciousness is altered and certain sensory activi (ed. During sleep, there is eyes are closed, body is not active, mind is unconscious and marked decrease in muscle activity and decrease interactions with the surrounding environment > Circadian rhythm/ internal biological clock is the 24-hour internal clock present in our brain that regulates daily physiological rhythms, behavior, alertness and sleepiness cycles by responding to light changes in surrounding environment. Circadian rhythms are set by SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) of the hypothalamus, So Cireadian rhythms and SCN (SCN located in the hypothalamus) regulates the sleep-wake cyele, The SCN is sensitive to signals of dark and light. SCN projects light effect on pineal gland to release melatonin, which promotes sleep. > The hormone Melatonin/sleep hormone is secreted by the pineal gland (“third eye”). 2B/ Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerCireadian rhythm for cortisol, cortisol levels peaking in the early morning (around 3am) to promote alertness upon waking As the day unfolds, cortisol levels should gradually diminish, reaching their low point at night Reticular activating system (RAS) of sleep: > ‘The reticular activating system (RAS) is a complex bundle of nerves in the brain that’s responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions. It funetions as a filter out unnecessary noise that can interfere with the processing of messages or slow the processing of messages during sleep. The RAS has got two parts i, Thalamic part: stimulation of thalamic part is responsible for arousal from deep sleep ii, Mesencephalie part stimulation of mesencephalic part of RAS causes general consciousness, Activation of reticular formation results in inereased activity of cerebral cortex. Signals from cerebral cortex can also stimulate the RAS and cause wakefulness. Almost all sensory inputs can activate RAS. E.g. pain, bright light, alarm etc. Following arousal cerebral cortex and RAS activate each other through a positive feedback system. > Sleep center- Anterior hypothalamus - trophotrophic area > Waking center- Posterior hypothalamus - ergotrophic area Animals based upon the period of rest and activity are: . Monophasic animals: Have prolonged period of rest during night and are active during daytime (Man, birds) 2. Polyphasie animals: Show several alternate periods of rest and activity (wild animals) 3. Intermediate type: Has alternate periods of rest and activity during daytime followed by brief period of rest at night (domestic animals), Phases of sleep ‘Two distinet phases: i Slow wave sleep/ orthodox/ quiescent sleep/_non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM)- NREM sleep: 70% of sleep period. ii. Rapid _eye movement sleep (REM) sleep or paradoxical sleep- interrupts the slow wave sleep given by RES. In REM sleep low voltage fast waves are seen (beta waves). The waves are dysynehronus. Changes during sleep. Y Decrease in sensitivity and responsiveness of the individual to environmental stimuli ¥ Reduction in metabolic processes. ¥_ Fallin body temperature and BMR. Y Decrease in heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory rate ¥ Decrease in alimentary secretions and motility. Y Pupillary constriction Y Decrease in muscle tone. [Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed vith nen SeamerY Memory and learning- there will be information transfer between cerebral cortex and hippocampus during sleep. Electroencephalogram (EE EEG is graphic record of electrical activity of the brain recorded from the surface. Technique is known as Electro Encephalography It is the recording of the potential difference as rhythm (frequency) and magnitude. Rhythm of the EEG are designated as alpha, beta, theta and delta rhythm Wave ‘Characteristic [Alpha rhythm when awake, relaxed state and closed eyes. [Betarhythm [Alert cortex wakefulness and responding to a stimulus known as desynchronized Ihythm [Thetarhythm [During early stages of slow wave sleep [Delta rhythm — fstages of slow wave sleep USG: Ultrasound Sonography Echo: Echocardiography ECG/EKG: Electrocardiogram EEG: Electroencephalogram B. Spinal cord Spinal cord having segmentation at each vertebral level and each segment have a pair of spinal nerves right and left. Vigeral sensory nucle Vpcral sensory rucel erenmt/sensery Somatic metor nucle Autom motor nue Sensory fibers (afferent) enter in spinal cord at dorsal roots and motor (efferent) fibers leave the spinal cord by way of the ventral roots of spinal nerves, Cellular components form a H shaped column of cells called gray matter. Nerve fibers are found predominantly outside of the gray matter where they form the white matter of the cord. 2S |Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerAscending (Sensory) tracts of spinal cord These are bundles of nerve fibers linking the spinal cord with the higher centers of the brain. They convey information from Soma / viscera to higher level of neuroaxis (CNS) Descending (motor) tracts of spinal cord: It consists of pyramidal and extra pyramidal system 1. Pyramidal system: (absent in birds and reptiles) Y Controls the voluntary and fine motor movements in association with primary motor cortex Y Primary function is the control of spinal cord reflexes for the elicitation of motor ‘mechanisms in animals ¥ Involved in the voluntary motor control of the skeletal muscles. IL Extrapyramidal system It generates gross involuntary movements by providing muscle tone of the extensor muscle and thereby regulates posture and locomotion. ¥ It's involved in maintaining equilibrium, coordi ¥ This system is constituted by four major descending tracts - the reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, rubrospinal and tectospinal tracts that leave the brain stem to influence the spinal motor neurons eeeitine kad Deemer kes Fasciculus gracilis Ventral wh Fasciculus cuneatus commissure Goluanti Lateral ion, posture, musele tone and reflexes. Dorsal reticulospinal tract Dorsal———_ Lateral spinocerebellar corticospinal tract tract Rubrospinal Ventral tract spinocerebellar tract y reticulospinal Lateral Z ‘tract, spinothalamic tract ventral corticospinal Ventral spinothalamic uact tract \Vestibulospinal tract ‘Tectospinal tract Major motor contr ¥ The central motor control system includes the motor cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum ¥ The motor cortex controls pyramidal and extra pyramidal systems. The motor cortex- pyramidal system is associated with voluntary performance of fine skilled movements. Gross involuntary movements are generated by the motor cortex-extra pyramidal system. ¥ The primary motor cortex controls the contraction of individual muscles and evokes discrete movements. The secondary cortex regulates complex movements of head, neck, 26 [Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmnertrunk and limbs. The premotor cortex controls fine movements of hands, fingers, mouth and tongue, co-ordinated movements of eyes and head. ¥ Both the basal ganglia and the cerebellum are concerned with coordinated movements with pyramidal and extra-pyramidal systems. Slow or ramp movements is Co-ordination by basal ganglia, The cerebellum co-ordinates the fast or ballistic movements. Anim: ‘Animal their spinal cord is cut at the spinomedullary junction or their brain is destroyed by ischemia That animal must be maintained on artificial respiration because the respiratory centers of brain stem have been destroyed. Spinal animal is used for reflexes study that operated by the spinal cord. Spinal shock: in a freshly prepared spinal animal, all somatic and visceral reflex activity of the cord will be absent for some duration. This severe depression of spinal cord function is called spinal shock. The reflex activities of the spinal cord would slowly return and become almost normal within a few hours to few days. Spinal shock is not due to injury to the isolated portion of the spinal cord but is due to functional disorganization resulting from the sudden removal of the stabilizing influences from higher centers Immediately afier spinal cord transaction, there is complete atony of the urinary bladder. But the micturition reflex would return in 7- 10 days’ time but the bladder is not completely emptied at micturition. Initially there is diarrhea but by the time the micturition reflex is reestablished, defecation continues to be depressed. Vasomotor activity is severely depressed initially causing extreme peripheral vasodilatation, As a consequence, the extremities are warm to touch. REFLEX: A reflex is a specific, involuntary response to peripheral stimulation, The spinal cord reflex activity is modified by brain via descending fiber system. Reflexes involve several components of CNS and PNS connected in series. Skeletal motor system and visceral motor system (ANS) are closely related to spinal cord reflexes. Reflex Are: ‘The neural cireuit for reflex is referred to as reflex are, Components of reflex are i, Receptor organ ii, Sensory (afferent) neurons Interneurons in spinal cord or brain Motor neurons (efferent) v. Effector organ (muscle or glands) 27|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmnerification of reflex ares: five types REFLEX ARCS - TYPES SIMPLE MoNOSYNAPTIC POLYSYNAPTIC REFLEX ARC REFLEX ARC REFLEX ARC 1. Monosynaptic reflex are single synapse between sensory and motor neurons of the spinal cord (without interneuron) ¢g Myotatic reflex Polysynaptic ares Il. Series synaptic reflex ares: Several simple reflex ares are united in series to give a chain of reflex arcs, ¢.g., flexor and extensor responses related to muscle tone, Il Convergent effector reflex ares: Two or more afferent neurons are in synaptic relation with only one efferent neuron. Hence, stimulation of many receptors converges to excite a single effector IV. Divergent effector reflex are: One afferent neuron is synaptic connection with two or more efferent neuron. Stimulation of a single receptor diverge through many neurons to excite more than one effector V. Internunci: effectors reflex ares: Two or more afferent neurons are connected with two or more Properties of reflex arc One way conduction (Bell and Magendie law Dorsal root fibers of spinal cord= afferent (sensory) and these are centripetal (towards the CNS) while the ventral root fibers are efferent (motor) and these are centrifugal (away from the CNS). ‘The nerve impulses are conducted in only one way in each case a, Slow speed of conduction: Slow buildup of EPSP (excitatory post synaptic potential) to threshold stimulus causes the synaptic delay, thus slows the speed of conduction, b. Fatigue: Due to exhaustion of the neurotransmitter substance at the synapse 28 [Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerRefractory period: Show both absolute and relative refractory periods, 4. Reinforcement: (Successive induction): By discharging signals from many neurons €. Positive successive induction: Irritation at a point of the skin by a tick leads to serateh reflex £ Negative successive induction: Reciprocal stimulation and inhibition; e.g., biting reflex, reflex flexion and extension of the limbs, g. Rebound: Increased reflex response following the withdrawal of inhibitory stimulus. h, After discharge: Continuous impulse dis the original stimulation, harge from the center, even after the cessation of i, Summation: Subminimal stimuli at rapid succession develop effective EPSP, the temporal summation, j. Recruitment: Prolonged and altered intensity of stimulus progressively activates a greater number of motor neurons, k. Irradiation: Gradual increase in the intensity of stimulus excites the additional neurons, and the effectors. reflex Dorsal root EZ Ventral root A spinal reflex is the pairing of a sensory neuron and a motor neuron so that produce a motor response ycoming stimuli components of a reflex are as follows: stimulus —> receptor —> sensory neuron —> relay neuron (interneuron) — motor neuron — effector —> response ‘Types of spinal reflex: myotatic reflex, inverse myotatic reflex, withdrawal reflex, crossed extensor reflex, serateh reflex and the extensor thrust reflex. 1. Myotatie reflex The Myotatic Reflex is a monosynaptic reflex Between Afferents and the Motor Neuron. ‘The myotatic reflex is the “knee-jerk” reflex in which a muscle contracts in direct response to its stretch. 29|Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner2. Withdrawal reflex ‘The withdrawal reflex refers to the withdrawing of a limb upon painfuV/harmfal stimulation of the skin ofthe limb, It is a protective and flexion reflex 3. Crossed extensor reflex To avoid noxious (harmful) stimuli there will be withdrawal of one limb and is associated with alteration of posture involving extensors of unaffected limbs to support the body 4. Scratch reflex / multisynaptic reflex During a scratch reflex, a nearby limb reaches toward and rubs against the site on the body surface that has been stimulated. Scratching temporarily relieves the itch sensation through activation of pain-sensory fibers that can inhibit itch sensation at the level of the spinal cord Extensor thrust reflex When pressure is applied to the footpad it causes simultaneous contractions of flexors of the digits and the extensors of elbow, which extend the limb into a supporting column which are initiated by myotatic reflex. Y These reflexes are aequired or reflexes that are gained naturally or art individual during the course of their lifetime ally by the ¥ Salivary and the gastric secretions produced in response to food is a natural and inborn reflex ¥ If the animal is fed in association with the bell sound or music (neutral stimuli) and this practice is frequently repeated, it causes conditioned salivary secretion to the bell sound or music even in the absence of food. This type of response is referred to as artificial conditioned reflexes. Y Visual, olfactory, auditory, gustatory, tactile and proprioceptive stimuli have been used to evoke conditioned responses. Y Cerebral cortex plays an important role in the formation and maintenance of conditioned responses Difference between natural and conditioned reflex Natural reflex Conditioned reflex ‘Aitained by birth Developed during hife/after birth Fixed in number ‘Can be of any number No renewal needed Periodical renewal required More powerful Less powerful Controtied by brain stem By cerebral cortex Will never disappear May disappear Page sandeepbissu@gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK ScmnerNatural response [Natural/ unconditioned stimulus] Neutral/condition stimulus T. Balivation ‘Smell/sight of food Ringing the bell 2. [Milk ejection in cow [Massaging the udder or suckling by] Banging sound of milking calf vessels 3. Nausea Food poisoning Taste of food 7 [insulin secretion Ingestion of sugar Simell of food Postural reflexes This is also known as postural reactions. It is defined as the position or arrangement of the body and its limbs. It is controlled by the activity of the skeletal muscles of the neck and limbs. Control of posture by activity of motor neurons of the spinal cord. It is divided into 1. Supporting reflexes 2. Attitudinal reflexes Supporting reflexes These reflexes involve in co-ordination of skeletal muscle and fixed the limbs against pull of gravity. The supporting reflexes are two types a) Local supporting reflexes: for fixed standing posture, which prevents collapse under the force of gravity. They involve only a few segments of the spinal cord for reflex actions, b) Segmental supporting reflex: use many segments of the spinal cord, Segmental supporting reflex ares involve spinal cord and brain stem both 2. Attitudinal reflexes It involves modification of posture as a result of varying positions of the head. Displacement of one part of the body is followed by postural changes in other parts so that a new posture is assumed, This is classified into two types a. Cortical reflexes: mediated through cerebral cortex b. Extra cortical reflexes. 31 Page sandeepbissu@ gmail.com Dr. Sandeep Bissu © seamed wen OK Scmner