Flow chart for mineral identification in transmitted light microscopy

Mineral to be identified

Plane - polarised light

Opaque Table 1 Transparent

Colour / pleochroism Table 2

Shape / appearance Table 3

Cleavage Table 4

Refractive index Table 5

Cross - polarised light

Isotropic Table 6 Anisotropic

Birefringence Table 7

Extinction Table 8

Conoscopic light
(convergent polarised light)

Uniaxial Biaxial

Positive Table 9 Positive Table 10

Negative Table 9 Negative Table 10

2007 Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter,

Cornwall Campus, Tremough, Penryn, TR10 9EZ, United Kingdom
http://www.exeter.ac.uk/cornwall/csm
Please report errors to Dr. J.C. Andersen (J.C.Andersen@exeter.ac.uk)
 Note: You should always verify your
References identifications with a mineralogy
textbook.

Battey, M.H. (1981). Mineralogy for students. Longman, London and New York.

Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A. & Zussman, J. (1966). An introduction to the rock-forming
minerals. Longman, Harlow.

Gribble, C.D. & Hall, A.J. (1992). Optical mineralogy: Principles and practice.
UCL Press.

Kerr, P.F. (1959). Optical mineralogy. McGraw-Hill, New York

Moorhouse, W.W. (1959). The study of rocks in thin section. Harper & Bros.,
New York.

Notations

Occurrence

m = metamorphic rocks
p = plutonic rocks
s = sedimentary rocks
v = volcanic rocks

Optical characteristics

2V = axial angle of biaxial minerals (in degrees)

n = refractive index (air, n = 1)
∆n = birefringence
var. = variable

On bar charts, solid bars indicate the common range of properties,

hatched bars indicate the entire range of variation.

Minerals that rarely occur together

Quartz - nepheline Orthopyroxene - nepheline

Quartz - leucite Orthopyroxene - leucite
Quartz - olivine
 Occurrence of common transparent mineral groups
Olivine m,p,v,(s) Feldspars
Forsterite Plagioclase m,p,v,s
Intermediate olivine Anorthite
Fayalite Bytownite
Labradorite
Garnet m,(p),s Andesine
Pyrope Oligoclase
Almandine Albite
Spessartine Alkali feldspar m,p,v,s
Uvarovite Orthoclase m,p,v,s
Grossular Microcline m,p,v,s
Andradite Sanidine v

Aluminium silicates Silica minerals

Kyanite m Quartz m,p,v,s
Andalusite m,(p) Tridymite p,v
Sillimanite m,(p) Cristobalite p,v

Pyroxenes m,p,v,s Feldspatoid minerals

Clinopyroxene Leucite v
Alkaline Nepheline (m),p,v
Jadeite m
Aegirine-augite p,v Carbonates
Aegirine m,p,v Calcite m,p,v,s
Omphasite m,p Aragonite s
Subalkaline Dolomite m,s
Diopside m,p Siderite m
Augite m,p,v,(s)
Ferroaugite m,p,v,(s) Phosphates
Pigeonite v Apatite m,p,s
Orthopyroxene Monazite m,(p),s
Enstatite m,p,v,(s)
Bronzite m,p,v,(s) Sulphates
Hypersthene m,p,v,(s) Gypsum m,s
Anhydrite m,s
Amphiboles Baryte m,(p),s
Clinoamphibole
Hornblende m,p,v,(s)
Tremolite - actinolite m
Orthoamphibole m

Micas
Biotite - phlogopite m,p,v,s
Muscovite m,p,v,s
Stilpnomelane m

Clay minerals
Kaolinite (m),(p),(v),s
Illite (m),s
Montmorillonite (smectite) (m),(v),s
 Note: Opaque minerals appear black in
Table 1 Opaque minerals transmitted light. You cannot identify the
optical properties of opaque minerals with
the transmitted light microscope.

Common opaque minerals include:

Oxides Sulphides
Magnetite Pyrite
Ilmenite Chalcopyrite
Hematite Galena
Chromite Pyrrhotite

Note: Colour is not always diagnostic.

Table 2 Colour / Pleochroism Many of the minerals listed here can also
appear colourless.

Isotropic Anisotropic

Red Sphalerite, Rutile, iddingsite, allanite

garnet,
spinel

Pink / Violet Sodalite, Tourmaline, staurolite, glaucophane

fluorite, orthopyroxene, andalusite
garnet

Brown Sphalerite, Rutile, zircon, cassiterite, tourmaline (I),

fluorite, apatite, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene,
garnet, hornblende, biotite (I), allanite
spinel

Yellow Sodalite, Rutile, zircon, cassiterite, tourmaline,

sphalerite, staurolite, chloritoid, clinopyroxene,
fluorite, orthopyroxene, hornblende, epidote, biotite,
spinel allanite

Green Fluorite, Rutile, tourmaline, apatite, phlogopite,

garnet, chlorite, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene,
spinel alkaline clinopyroxene, jadeite, hornblende,
epidote, glauconite

Blue Sodalite, Rutile, tourmaline, apatite, glaucophane,

fluorite, cordierite
spinel
Table 3 Shape / appearance

Feature Type Minerals

Shape Acicular (needle like) Tourmaline, zeolite, serpentine,

(sometimes radial) aragonite, rutile

Foliated (flake like) Biotite-phlogopite, muscovite, talc

chloritoid, stilpnomelane

Euhedral - plutonic rocks Quartz, apatite, tourmaline

Euhedral - volcanic rocks Olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene

hornblende, biotite, plagioclase
feldspar, microcline, sanidine, quartz
tourmaline, apatite

Twins Simple Plagioclase feldspar, orthoclase

(most easily feldspar, clinopyroxene, cassiterite,
recognised in staurolite, aragonite, fluorite,
cross-polarised calcite, gypsum, spinel, sphene,
light) chloritoid, hornblende,
tremolite - actinolite

Multiple Plagioclase feldspar, leucite,

microcline, cordierite, clinozoisite,
calcite, aragonite, rutile, sphene,
stilpnomelane

Intergrowths Exsolution features Clinopyroxene with orthopyroxene

lamellae
Orthopyroxene with clinopyroxene
lamellae
Hornblende with various amphibole
lamellae
"Perthite": Microcline with plagioclase
(albite) lamellae

Myrmekitic / graphic Quartz / feldspar

Nepheline / feldspar
Feldspar / spinel (reaction between
feldspar and opaques)
Spinel / orthopyroxene (reaction
from olivine)
 Table 4

Cleavage 1 direction 2 directions 3 (or more) directions

∆n
rare or absent of cleavage of cleavage of cleavage

Garnet Halite
Fluorite
Sphalerite

Isotropic
Leucite Gypsum Orthoclase Nepheline
Quartz Chlorite Sanidine Gypsum
Apatite Topaz Microcline
Zoisite Plagioclase feldspar
Cleavage

< 0.01
Clinozoisite
Staurolite
Chloritoid

Tourmaline Cordierite Orthopyroxene Barite

Glauconite Tremolite - Actinolite Kyanite
Sillimanite Glaucophane
Wollastonite
Hornblende

0.01 - 0.03
Clinopyroxene
Jadeite
Alkaline clinopyroxene

Olivine Talc Pigeonite Calcite

Muscovite Rutile Dolomite
Biotite - Phlogopite Sphene (poor) Siderite
Stilpnomelane

> 0.03
Epidote
Monazite (poor)
Table 5 Refractive index
Fluorite m,p
Tridymite v
Zeolite m,v,s
Calcite m,p,v,s orientation dependent
Dolomite p,s orientation dependent
Leucite v
Sanidine v
Orthoclase m,p,v,s
Microcline m,p,s
Gypsum m,s
Plagioclase feldspar m,p,v,s
Nepheline m,p,v
Aragonite m,s
Serpentine m,p
Cordierite m,(p)
Talc m
Biotite - phlogopite m,p,v,s
Stilpnomelane m
Halite s
Quartz m,p,v,s
Muscovite m,p,v,s
Anhydrite s
Chlorite m
Glauconite s
Siderite m,s orientation dependent
Tremolite - actinolite m
Topaz m,p
Tourmaline m,p,v,s
Hornblende m,p,v,s
Wollastonite m
Glaucophane m
Andalusite m
Apatite m,p,(v),s
Olivine m,p,v,(s)
Jadeite m
Barite m,s
Allanite m,p,(s)
Orthopyroxene m,p,v,s
Sillimanite m,(p)
Clinopyroxene m,p,v,s
Pigeonite v
Zoisite m
Alkaline clinopyroxene m,p,v
Clinozoisite - Epidote m
Kyanite m
Chloritoid m
Iddingsite m,p
Spinel m,p
Staurolite m,(p)
Garnet m,(p),s
epoxy resin

Monazite m,p,s
Sphene m,p,s
Zircon m,p,s > 1.9
Cassiterite m,p,(s) > 1.9
Sphalerite m,(p),s > 1.9
Rutile m,p,s > 1.9

Relief Medium Low Medium High Very high

1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Refractive index, n
Table 6 Isotropic minerals

Mineral Refractive index

Fluorite 1.40 - 1.46

Halite 1.54
Garnet 1.74 - 1.89
Spinel 1.72 - 1.78
Sphalerite 2.37 - 2.47

Volcanic glass 1.48 - 1.61

Note: Birefringence varies with thickness and

Table 7 Birefringence orientation of mineral grains. The maximum
birefringence is characteristic for a mineral, and
it is consequently critical to search for the grain
that shows the highest interference colour.

Birefringence (∆n) Mineral Birefringence (∆n) Mineral

0.001 Leucite 0.015 - 0.040 Tourmaline

0.003 - 0.004 Apatite 0.016 Kyanite
0.003 - 0.004 Nepheline 0.019 - 0.026 Hornblende
0.004 Tridymite 0.020 - 0.023 Sillimanite
0.004 - 0.011 Chlorite * 0.020 - 0.032 Glauconite
0.004 - 0.017 Serpentine 0.021 - 0.031 Clinopyroxene
0.005 - 0.011 Clinozoisite * 0.021 - 0.033 Pigeonite
0.006 - 0.018 Zoisite * 0.022 - 0.027 Tremolite - actinolite
0.007 Sanidine 0.029 - 0.037 Alkaline clinopyroxene**
0.007 Microcline 0.030 - 0.050 Talc
0.007 - 0.013 Plagioclase feldspar 0.030 - 0.110 Stilpnomelane
0.007 - 0.011 Andalusite 0.033 - 0.059 Biotite - phlogopite
0.007 - 0.011 Cordierite 0.035 - 0.041 Olivine
0.008 Orthoclase 0.037 - 0.041 Muscovite
0.009 Gypsum 0.038 - 0.044 Iddingsite
0.009 Quartz 0.044 Anhydrite
0.008 - 0.016 Orthopyroxene 0.049 - 0.051 Monazite
0.009 - 0.010 Topaz 0.060 - 0.062 Zircon
0.010 - 0.015 Staurolite 0.092 - 0.141 Sphene
0.010 - 0.030 Allanite 0.097 Cassiterite
0.012 Barite 0.156 Aragonite
0.012 - 0.013 Jadeite 0.172 Calcite
0.013 - 0.016 Chloritoid 0.180 - 0.190 Dolomite
0.013 - 0.018 Glaucophane 0.234 - 0.242 Siderite
0.014 Wollastonite 0.286 - 0.287 Rutile
0.014 - 0.045 Epidote

* minerals can show anomalous interference colours (blue, brown) due to a

large dispersion of light of different colours
** includes aegirine, aegirine-augite and omphacite
 Note: Extinction is determined in relation to a reference direc-
Table 8 Extinction tion within the mineral observed. This can be cleavage or crys-
tal surfaces. Twin planes and lamellar exsolution phenomena
are usually not suitable.

∆n Straight or symmetric ( 5 ) Inclined (>5 )

Nepheline, andalusite, Plagioclase feldspar,

< 0.01

cordierite orthoclase, sanidine,

microcline

Orthopyroxene, zoisite, Hornblende, tremolite -

0.01 - 0.03

epidote, staurolite, actinolite, clinopyroxene,

sillimanite, tourmaline, pigeonite, jadeite,
serpentine clinozoisite, epidote,
kyanite, chloritoid

Olivine, sphene, zircon, Monazite, alkaline

> 0.03

iddingsite, tourmaline, talc, clinopyroxene

muscovite, biotite - phlogopite
anhydrite, cassiterite, aragonite,
calcite, dolomite, siderite

Extinction

Kerr (1959). Optical Mineralogy, McGraw Hill

 Minerals in brackets are biaxial with
Table 9 Uniaxial minerals low 2V and can appear uniaxial

Uniaxial negative n ∆n

Nepheline 1.527 - 1.547 0.003 - 0.004

Apatite 1.630 - 1.655 0.003 - 0.004
(Sanidine) 1.517 - 1.526 0.007
Tourmaline 1.613 - 1.698 0.015 - 0.040
(Stilpnomelane) 1.612 - 1.745 0.030 - 0.119
(Biotite-phlogopite) 1.541 - 1.638 0.033 - 0.059
Calcite 1.486 - 1.658(var.) 0.172
Dolomite 1.500 - 1.716(var.) 0.180 - 0.190
Siderite 1.596 - 1.875(var.) 0.234 - 0.242

Uniaxial positive n ∆n

(Chlorite) 1.571 - 1.597 0.004 - 0.011

Quartz 1.544 - 1.553 0.009
(Pigeonite) 1.680 - 1.744 0.021 - 0.033
Zircon 1.925 - 1.993 0.060 - 0.062
Cassiterite 1.996 - 2.093 0.097
Rutile 2.603 - 2.903 0.286 - 0.287

Determination of optical sign of uniaxial minerals

by use of gypsum λ-plate

Yellow Blue Blue Yellow

Blue Yellow Yellow Blue

Uniaxial positive Uniaxial negative

 Uniaxial Biaxial positive Biaxial negative Uniaxial
positive negative
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Pigeonite v
Chlorite m
Sillimanite m
Serpentine m, (p) antigorite crysotile
Table 10

Sphene p, m, (v)
Iddingsite p
Zoisite m
Tridymite v
Chloritoid m
Anhydrite m, s
Cordierite m, (p)
Barite p, m, (v)
Zeolite v
Topaz m, p
Gypsum m, s
Clinopyroxene m, p, v
Clinozoisite - epidote m
Jadeite m
Biaxial minerals

Plagioclase feldspar m, p, v
Staurolite m
Olivine m, p, v
Andalusite m, (p)
Kyanite m
Tremolite - actinolite m
Microcline (alkali feldspar) v
Orthoclase (alkali feldspar) m, p, v
Alkaline clinopyroxene * m, p, v
Orthopyroxene m, p, v
Hornblende m, p, v
Glaucophane m
Wollastonite m
Muscovite m, p, v
Glauconite s
Talc m
Biotite - phlogopite m, p, v
Aragonite s
Sanidine (alkali feldspar) m, p, v
Stilpnomelane m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
* Includes aegirine, aegirine-augite and omphacite
Axial angle, 2V
 Table 10 Biaxial minerals

Determination of optical sign of biaxial minerals

by use of gypsum λ-plate

Blue Yellow

Yellow Blue
Blue Yellow

Biaxial positive Biaxial negative

Optical axial angle

After Moorhouse (1959). The study of rocks

in thin section. Harper & Bros. New York