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Scientists (STUDY THESE LAST U NEED TO KNOW UR MATH FIRST)

- Pt 1. The ancients
- Greeks - thought humanities were more important than hard sciences
- Socrates
- Believer of this
- Plato
- Logic over experimenting and observing
- Think about it, predictions over trying to test it out
- Empedocles
- World made of 4 avatar elements
- Aristotle agreed and Empedocles idea became accepted
- Word ‘Chemistry’
- Egyptians - ‘khem’ - means ‘black earth’, egyptian name for egypt
- Brought into Greek - ‘khemia’ - mean transmutation
- Brought into arabic - ‘al-khemia’ - means same thing
- Brought into english - ‘akhemia’ → ‘alchymia’
- ‘Al’ dropped to make ‘chymistry’ →chemistry
- Pt 2. The alchemists
- BSed and mixed random stuff together to see what happens
- Developed modern lab equipment + basic techniques
- Beaker - distillation
- Flask
- Crucibles
- Balances
- Weird and spiritual and magical
- Worked in secret and independently bc they gatekeep
- Bc they try to Make Philosopher stone (turn metal to gold), and
Elixir of life (drinker get eternal life)
- Jabir ibn Hayyan
- Islamic Chemist
- Hot/cold - dry/moist table
-
Hot Cold
 Dry Fire Earth

Moist Air Water

- Paracelsus
- Put alchemistry into medicine
- Army surgeon
- World made of 3 things (‘tria prima’) - Mercury(called quiksilver),
sulfur, salt
- Each element was a part of the human (?)
- Robert Boyle
- Sceptical Chymist - Boyles book that challenged alchemy
- First to come up with idea of an element
- Believed in testing and experimenting
- Made basic match w/ phosphorus and sulfur
- Started hunt for elements
- Brought out openness in science, use scientific method,
more modern experiments
- Pt 3. The Chemists
- Pt 3.1 FInding elements
- Hennig Brand
- Heated up Urine, thinking it would make gold (they both
yellow)
- Got Phosphorus
- More an alchemist tho
- Phlogiston - ‘Essence of fire’
- Wood = Ash + Pure Wood + Phlogiston
- Factor that makes things burn
- Henry Cavendish
- Found Phlogiston?
- Mixed metal and acid to make ‘inflammable air’
- Actually found Hydrogen
- Joseph Priestly
- Heat Mercuric Oxide to make Oxygen
- Lit it which made the Splint light back up again
- Thought this was ‘dephlogisticated air’
- Antoine Lavoisier
- Tested Phlogiston
- Very precise in measuring
- Did Priestly Experiment but reverse
 - Proved Phlogiston did not exist
- Debate between Lovoisier vs Priestly over who found O
- Pt 3.2 Map Periodic Table
- Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
- Triads - Groups of 3 elements have same properties
- Jons Jacob Berzelius
- Sort elements lightest to heaviest by atomic weight
- John Newlands
- Law of Octaves
- Every Octave (every 8th element) had same property,
this repeated
- Dmitri Mendeleev
- Sorts both by Atomic weight and Groups with same Property
- Pt 4. Atomic Theory
- Democritus (greek)
- Idea of indivisible units of matter - first definition of atom
- Idea was theoretical
- John Dalton
- Made Atomic Theory
- Elements made of atoms
- Atoms of an element are all same (is wrong, bc isotopes)
- Law of Definite Proportion
- Compound will has a small whole number ratio of between
the number of atoms/mass elements that make up it
- Law of Multiple Proportion

-
- Law of Conservation of Mass
- In chem reactions, ur two sides of equation should add up to
be equal.
- Pt 5. Atoms but more
- JJ Thomsom
- Use Cathode Ray Tube to shoot particles, found the Electron
- Plum Pudding model (is wrong tho)

-
- Robert Millikan
- Oil Drop Experiment - Charge of Electron
- Ernest Rutherford (ft. Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)
- Shot positive charged Alpha Particles at gold foil
- 1 out of like 8 thousand shot back
- Meant that a positive core in the center of a gold atom
reppelled the positive particle (Opps repel each other)
- Found the NUCLEUS
- Developed Planetary Model (good but also wrong)

-
- James Chadwick
- Find Neutrons by shoot Alpha particles at sheet of beryllium,
- Pt 6. Radioactive
- Wilhelm Rontgen
- Work with Cathode rays to find X-Rays
- Henri Becquerel
- Use Uranium salts and photographic plates to expose diff radiation
than Rontgen
- Marie Curie / Pierre Curie
- Found same radioactivity in their new elements and found
radioactivity
-
- Elements
- Periodic Table
- Modern Table
- Ordered by Atomic number (proton count)
- Lanthanides, actinides split and placed below to save space
- Transuranium - elements past 92 (U)
- Radioactive, Artificial, unstable
- Metals/Semimetal/Nonmetals
- Metals are everything left of staircase except H
- Conductor
- Malleabo i’m le, ductile (can shape it)
- High density
- Shiny
- SemiMetal is everything touching staircase except Al
- Aka Metalloids
- Properties of both nonmetal and metal
- Semiconductor
- NonMetals is everything right of staircase
- Non conductor
- Brittle
- Low density
- Dull
- MOST ELEMENTS usually solid at room temperature, some
are gas, are rarely liquid
- Groups / Families - Vertical Columns
- Got the same properties
- Periods - Horizontal rows
- TABLE

IA 1 Alkali Metal

IIA 2 Alkali Earth Metal

IIIB-IIB 3 - 12 Transition Metals

VA 15 Pnictogens

VIA 16 Chalcogens
 VIIA 17 Halogens

VIIIA 18 Noble Gases

- Notations
- Atomic Symbol

-
- Atomic Number (A)
- Proton count, its spot on periodic table
- Mass number (Z)
- Protons + Neutrons
- Roughly its weight in AMU
- Naming it \
- ‘Element’ - ‘Mass #’
- Ionization
- Charge of the given element
- Atomic # - (Charge #)
- Just seeing a + or - means 1 charge in that way
- NA
- + charge (CATION)
- # Protons > # electrons
- - charge (ANION)
- # Protons < # Electrons
 - Writing these other things

-
- 𝛃 particle:
0
- −1
𝛃-
- Gammas
0
- 0
Ɣ

Sciencing Stuff

- Sort out Matter

- Anything with Mass , Volume
- 3 states of matter
- Solid - Atoms ordered, packed tight together
- Liquid - Close, slide past each other
- Gas - far apart, loose, move freely

-
 - Substances - All made up of same ‘X’, X = either compound or element

-
- Element - Substance w/ only 1 element making it up
- Compound - Substance w/ 2 or more elements making it up in a
definite proportion
- Medicines, drugs
- Mixture - 2 or more substances, not chemically combined
- Heterogenous - not mixed, ‘chunks’
- Homogenous - mixed in evenly
- Intensive vs Extensive
- Intensive - DOES NOT depend on amount of substance (Property is IN it)
- Temperature, hardness, density, concentration, pressure, melting
point
- Extensive - DOES depend on the amount of the substance
- Volume, mass, energy
- Ratio between 2 EXTENSIVES give the measure of an INTENSIVE
- EX. m/V = d
- Chemical vs Physical
- Changes
- Chemical Changes - New Substance made
- Include chemical reaction
- Include color change/making of new gas or solid
- Physical change - No new Substance made
- Any type of cutting or breaking
- Changes in state of matter
- Properties
- Physical Property - seen with senses?
- Density, specific gravity, color, hardness, Odor, Taste,
Solubility, State of Matter, Melting/Boil/Freeze Point, Bend
ability + conducting (metallic) ,
- Mass and Volume not used to identify a substance
- Chem Properties - seen during Chemical reaction
- Combustibility
- Reactions w/ water or acid
- pH
- Toxicity
 - Corrosiveness
- Specific Gravity - No units, equal to density, Ratio of density of a
substance to density of reference substance (always water)
- Error
- Systematic Error
- Experiment Setup
- All measurements will be similarly off from actual value
- Ex. U dont know how to measure it right, bad equipment
- Random Error
- Just the Random offness you inevitably get while measuring
by chance
- Scattered randomly around actual value
- Precision
- How close measurements are to each other
- Clustered together, regardless of where it is, is Precise
- Not precise == Random Error
- Use RANGE or DEVIATION
- Accuracy
- How close a measurement is to actual value
- Has to be at the actual value to be ‘Accurate’
- Not accurate == Systematic error
- Use AVG(MEAN)
- Mathing

-
- Absolute Error - in units of what is being measured
- Relative/Percentage Error - in %
- Va = Measured Value, Ve = True Value
-

Radioactive Decay
- Alpha Particles
 - When nucleus too heavy
- Beta minus
- When n/p too high, neutron count too high
- Neutron becomes a proton
- Positron / Beta Plus
- When n/p too low, neutron count too low
- Proton becomes a neutron
- Electron Capture
- Same thing as positron
- Takes electron from shell closest to nucleus, combine with proton to make
neutron
-

Nuclear Generator
- CONTROLLED FISSION OF U-235!!!
- Nuclear energy heats up water and its steam turns generator
- Moderator
- Water or Heavy Water (Water with Deuterium)
- SLOWS DOWN NEUTRONS so they can chain reaction
- Control Rods
- Absorb free neutrons in reactor so it can regulate the rate at which Fission
is occurring.
- Rods taken out to increase rate of fission, put back in to decrease it.
- Shield - thick concrete walls

Problem Solving

- Proton , Neutron , Electron count

-
-
- FIND
- # Neutrons?
- Mass # - Atomic # (top # - bottom #)
- # Protons?
- Atomic # (bottom #)
- # electrons?
- Atomic # - (Charge #) (bottom # - exponent #)
- Find FROM …\
- Name Notation? (EX. Carbon-14)
- Convert to atomic symbol
14
- 6
𝐶
- Go from there
- Z=?,A=?
- Convert to atomic symbol (Z = 12. A = 26)
- Remember A to Z (A goes on top)
26
- 12
Mg
- GO from there
- Table?
- Use all this previous info. Work backwards from what u got. Be careful, be
exact
- Nuclear Stability, Binding Mass, E = MC2||
- Mass defect - (-) Number, how much more the parts of the atom weigh
than the atom itself
- Binding energy - Energy needed to break up nucleus, energy used to
create nucleus. This is energy was made via the mass lost in the mass
defect
- Binding Energy Per Nucleon = BINDING ENERGY / NUCLEON(particle in
nucleus, basically mass #)
- Solving it
- 1. Given (atomic symbol) at X amu, find mass defect
- First Figure out p, n, e count based on the given element.
- Then find their total mass in AMU (should be the ones that go
1.000xx..)
- Subtract Given number from this new one
- Given - New
- Should be (-)
- 2. Convert ur mass defect (AMU → KG)
- -(mass defect) / (6.022 * 10^26)
 - Positive vers of mass defect over (avogadros which
converts to g and then time 10^3 to convert to kg)
- 3. Plug into e = mc^2
- E (J) = M (kg) C^2 (3.00*10^8 m/s)
- E (J) is BINDING ENERGY IN JOULES
- Typically 3 sig figs
- 4. Now find Binding Energy per Nucleon
- Ur answer from 3. / Mass # (the top number, A)
- Typically also 3 sig figs
- Half life ratios
- Elapsed time / Time of 1 half life = # of half life
- Initial amount / Amount left = 2 ^ # of half life
- Initial amount / 2 ^ # of half life = Amount left after half life
- Times Elapsed / # of half lives in time elapsed = Length in time of Half life
- If u have to, use logarithms
- log2(x) = ln(x) / ln(2) = # of half lives
- Where x = (mass/atoms u started with) / (mass/atoms u got left)
- Prolly gon be a decimal, round it as needed
-