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Suitability of Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) techniques for the climatic

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DOI: 10.19045/bspab.2023.120150

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Pure Appl. Biol., 12(3):1490-1500, September, 2023
http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150

Review Article

Suitability of Atmospheric Water Harvesting

(AWH) techniques for the climatic conditions
of Pakistan: A case study
Muhammad Aurangzaib1, Tahir Iqbal1,2,*, Fiaz Hussain1, Saddam
Hussain2,3, Zia ul Haq1, Muhammad Usman1,2, Muhammad Ameen Ul
Zaman1,Ubaid Ur Rehman1, Abu Saad1, Ameer Hamza1 and Muhammad
Shafqat Ullah1
1. Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi 46000,
Pakistan
2. Data Driven Smart Decision Platform, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi 46000, Pakistan
3. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Lahore, Pakistan
*Corresponding author’s email: tahir.iqbal@uaar.edu.pk
Citation
Muhammad Aurangzaib, Tahir Iqbal, Fiaz Hussain, Saddam Hussain, Zia ul Haq, Muhammad Usman, Muhammad
Ameen Ul Zaman,Ubaid Ur Rehman, Abu Saad, Ameer Hamza and Muhammad Shafqat Ullah. Suitability of
Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) techniques for the climatic conditions of Pakistan: A case study. Pure and
Applied Biology. Vol. 12, Issue 3, pp1490-1500. http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150
Received: 02/05/2023 Revised: 11/07/2023 Accepted: 19/07/2023 Online First: 21/07/2023
Abstract
This study explores the viability of Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) techniques as a cost-effective
solution for alleviating drinking water scarcity in Pakistan, considering its diverse climatic conditions. The
future prospects of AWH techniques are evaluated in terms of their ability to offer independence from
traditional water sources, climate resilience, self-sufficiency, emergency response capabilities, agricultural
applications, and promotion of renewable and sustainable development. Specifically, the study focuses on
the Vapor Compression Refrigeration (VCR) cycle and the Warka Water Tower (WWT) as potential AWH
solutions. The VCR technique demonstrates a water production capacity of 18.3 L/day, achieved by
utilizing relative humidity ranging from 60% to 80% and ambient temperatures between 15°C to 35°C.
WWT harnesses atmospheric resources such as relative humidity, fog, and dew water, making it a viable
option for water production in remote areas, including mountainous and desert regions. Under minimal
favorable climatic conditions characterized by relative humidity between 60% to 75% and temperatures
ranging from 20°C to 40°C. WWT can generate up to 100 L/day (26.4 gallons) of safe drinking water. The
portability and cost-effectiveness of the WWT, facilitated by its use of biodegradable construction
materials, make it an attractive solution that can be easily relocated as required. This study underscores the
VCR technique as the optimal AWH solution for Pakistan's arid, semi-arid, and coastal regions due to its
efficient operation, reasonable initial investment cost, and favorable Return on Investment Period (RIP) 7
to 8 months, with water production cost 40-45 Rs/L. Additionally, the WWT exhibits significant potential
of providing safe drinking water in remote areas. These findings contribute to the development of effective
AWH technologies tailored to the unique climatic conditions of Pakistan.
Keywords: Atmospheric water generator; Climatic conditions; Relative humidity; Vapor compression
refrigeration; Warka water tower

Published by Bolan Society for Pure and Applied Biology 1490


Introduction
The scarcity of drinking water is a prevailing
and persistent global threat, particularly in
remote, rural, and now the urban areas
presently confronted with substantial
challenges pertaining to the accessibility of
clean drinking water, particularly in (Arid,
Semi-Arid, Coastal & Mountainous climatic
regions) of Pakistan. The escalating demands
for water stemming from population growth,
social prosperity, and lifestyle changes have
intensified the demand for irrigation, human
consumption, and industrial usage, of these
agriculture accounts for the largest share of
water usage [1, 2].The COVID-19 pandemic
has shed light on the vital significance of
access to clean water on a global scale.
Recent studies suggest that if the current
water consumption rates persist, India,
Pakistan, China, France, and the United
States may face a shortage of safe drinking
water by the year 2040 [3]. Despite the vast
coverage of water on Earth, only a limited
portion of it, roughly (2.5%) is accessible as
freshwater. Research conducted by the World
Health Organization (WHO) reveals that a
considerable proportion, nearly one-third, of
the global population lacks access to safe
drinking water. Moreover, over three billion
people face difficulties in accessing clean
water for maintaining basic hygiene
standards in their households [4, 5].
Pakistan is facing an alarming increase in
water scarcity-related issues, particularly
concerning irrigation and safe drinking water
availability. Climate change has accelerated
glacier melting, exacerbating the situation
and placing Pakistan on the brink of acute
water shortage. Reports suggest that by 2025,
Pakistan may experience absolute water
scarcity, with less than (500m3) of per capita
water availability. To address this crisis, it is
imperative to explore alternative
technologies capable of generating safe
drinking water in remote rural areas with arid
and semi-arid climates, where the average
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Aurangzaib et al.
annual relative humidity is medium to high.
The Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) is
an innovative device that harnesses
renewable energy resources to extract water
from the air's humidity, thereby producing
clean drinking water. This machine operates
on the principle of dehumidification and
condensation, using various filters, including
carbon and UV filters, to purify the water. It
is analogous to air conditioners and freezers
in that it employs evaporative cooling.
Alternative technologies such as AWGs that
rely on sustainable energy solutions are
essential for Pakistan's sustainable growth
and future, particularly in resolving drinkable
water problems [6-8].
Especially the rural population of Pakistan
faces significant challenges in accessing
clean drinking water, particularly in arid &
mountainous regions. To address this issue,
an alternative technique, known as Warka
Water Tower (WWT), should have been
developed to provide a renewable source of
potable water. The tower is capable of
generating an average of 100 liters (26.4 Gal)
of drinking water per day, while also
providing opportunities for women to engage
in productive activities such as skills training
and community care. The WWT functions as
a vertical structure that extracts moisture
from the atmosphere by collecting rain, fog,
and dew. This method is particularly useful
in areas where conventional piping is not
feasible and water cannot be accessed
through wellbores, such as hilly regions and
deserts. By providing a sustainable and
reliable source of clean drinking water,
Warka Water Tower has the potential to
significantly improve the quality of life for
rural populations in Pakistan [9].
Suitable Atmospheric Water Harvesting
(AWH) techniques that can be adopt in
Pakistan’s climatic conditions
 Warka Water Tower WWT based
Atmospheric Water Harvesting AWH
Pure Appl. Biol., 12(3):1490-1500, September, 2023
http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration VCR
based AWG
 Peltier Effect (PE) based AWG
 Integrated Hybrid (IH) Atmospheric
Water Harvesting AWH using VCR,
Thermoelectric Cooler (TEC) solar still
based refrigeration methods
Working and design of the Warka Water
Tower WWT
The purpose of the WWT is to collect
drinkable water present in the air (It harvests
Figure 1. Hydrological cycle the premier phenomena behind Warka Water Tower working
(Picture credit: Muhammad Aurangzaib, Tahir Iqbal, and Saddam Hussain)
Material and Design consideration of
warka water technology
Warka Water Tower is madeup with keeping
in mind the locally available,
environmental friendly materials including
the bamboo, with fiber ropes, and
the bioplastic is intended to be readily
erected and maintained by the neighborhood
residents without the use of equipment or
power tools. The (Fig. 2) shows the working
principle, material, and design consideration
of WWT includes:
 Frame: Canes of split bamboo
 Ropes: made up with the banana fiber
 Polyester mesh
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dew, fog, and gathers rainfall). It is designed
to work with the nature that’s way it doesn't
need electricity and runs only on natural
processes like gravity, condensation, and
evaporation. The tower creates a social space
for the neighborhood where individuals can
spend time beneath the shadow of its
umbrella for learning and community
discussions in addition to providing a basic
necessity for the life, the (Fig. 1) describes
the pioneer phenomena behind water
extraction from WWT. [9, 10].
 Sandwich membrane, as the collector
(polyester)
 Base: Made up with the locally available
materials like mud blocks etc.
 Clay or Polyethylene terephthalate water
collecting tank
WWT weight is about 80 kg (176 pounds)
and height (9.5 m) with 5-7 years of shelf life.
The bamboo three dimensional framework
structure is designed for the stability and
durability while also being light and strong.
Additionally, it is portable and flexible,
making transportation simple. In order to
increase stability and enable the tower to
endure heavy winds, a network of ropes are

attached and tied at eight attachment points
distributed radially around the base of the
tower. Plastic mesh is placed inside the
bamboo framework, and it serves as a
collector for rainwater as well as water from
Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of Warka Water Tower extraction from the atmosphere
(Picture credit: Muhammad Aurangzaib, Tahir Iqbal, and Saddam Hussain)
Vapor Compression Refrigeration VCR
based AWG
The focus of current research involves the
development and investigation of
Atmospheric Water Harvesting AWH
technology, which utilizes the vapor
compression refrigeration cycle.
Performance studies of AWH devices have
been conducted under various climatic
conditions using a climate chamber to
simulate different climates in a controlled
laboratory setting. The study encompassed
seven distinct climates, including moist and
warm, humid and moderate, humid and cool,
dry and hot, dry and moderate, mild, and mild
humid and warm conditions. The energy
intensity of AWH devices was determined to
be 0.75 kWh liter-1 of water, with a water
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Aurangzaib et al.
the highly humidity areas. A textile canopy
reduces the water evaporation extracted from
the air and provides a covered place for
educational and cultural activities [11-12].
generation rate of 1.78 L hr-1. The findings
indicate that AWE devices exhibit optimal
efficiency in hot and humid climates, offering
valuable insights for their practical
implementation [3].
Freshwater availability globally is declining
both in quantity and quality. However, AWG
technologies have emerged as a potential
solution. Researchers has found that AWG
devices perform efficiently in hot ambient
conditions and with higher Relative
Humidity (RH) levels, especially when
utilizing the VCR technique. Notably, an
AWG device operating at 35°C and RH 95%
demonstrates a water generation rate of 1.78
L hr-1 with an energy consumption rate of
0.75 kWh liter-1 [13].
Pure Appl. Biol., 12(3):1490-1500, September, 2023
http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150
The findings indicate that VCR based AWG
in Pakistan possess a shelf life of 10 to15
years, accompanied by a favorable Return on
Investment Period (RIP) ranging from 7 to 8
months. Moreover, the per liter water
production cost falls within the range of 40-
45 Rs due to the recent increase in electricity
prices of the country. These results show the
considerable potential of AWG technologies
in generating water across diverse climatic
conditions, thereby presenting a promising
solution to combat freshwater scarcity. The
Figure 3. (a) Detailed illustration of Vapor Compression Refrigeration (VCR) cycle (b) PH
diagram illustration
The (Fig. 3b) shows a pressure enthalpy
diagram of the system. The optimum
refrigeration cycle using vapour compression
is shown in the P-H diagram. In taken at point
1, dry and saturated vapor is isentropic ally
compressed by the compressor to point 2,
which raises the pressure in the system from
the evaporator to the condenser pressure. At
point 2, the condenser experiences constant
pressure heat rejection, which causes a drop
in temperature and a phase shift while the
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(Fig. 3a) demonstrates the VCR based AWG
working procedure. The VCR cycle uses the
refrigeration concept to produce high-
pressure, high-temperature vapor using a
compressor. When this vapor reaches the
condenser, heat is removed from it, turning it
from vapor to liquid. As a result, the saturated
liquid's pressure and temperature drop in the
expansion valve. The low-temperature, low-
pressure liquid enters the evaporator, where it
gains heat, changes phases, and becomes
vapor.
latent heat is released. At point 3, the liquid
reaches its saturation temperature. The
expansion valve is next used to throttle the
liquid refrigerant while maintaining constant
enthalpy, which lowers the pressure. The
evaporator experiences continuous pressure
heat absorption from point 4 to point 1.
The (Table 1) shows the referenced studies
for methodology, water generation capacity
and key indicators for the VCR based
refrigeration systems developed by scientists.
 Aurangzaib et al.

Table 1. VCR-based Atmospheric Water Harvesting

Method of Max water
Ref. Key indicators for the VCR based refrigeration system
Refegiration production rate
VCR based AWG system to produce drinkable water from the
moisture in the air.
Relative humidity (60-80 %)
Ambient temperature (15-35 °C)
[14] VCR 18.3 liter day-1
Energy consumption rate: 2 kWh for the production of 1 liter of
water.
Ozone generator & UV light for the water purification system.
Production of drinking water that is 99% pure.

EW 30 VCR based AWG (Outdoor & Indoor testing)

Relative Humidity at night (80-85%)
Relative Humidity at day (2-30%)
[15] VCR 25 liter day-1
Temperature at night (30-33 °C)
Temperature at day (45-48 °C)
Energy consumption rate (1.13 kwh liter-1).

Solar based VCR system AWG

Hot and humid working conditions
Temperature ( 40 °C)
Relative Humidity (100 %)
[16] VCR 30 liter hr-1
Energy Intensity rate between (225-335 Wh Liter-1)
Max solar radiation rate (1kWm-2)
Max mass flow rate (3.8 kg sec-1)

VCR based hybrid AWG system

-1 Relative humidity (75 %)
[17] VCR 3 kg hr
Fuel cell of (2 Kw)
Energy consumption rate (200 Wh kg-1)

Thermoelectric /Peltier Effect (PE) based
AWG
The AWG Peltier Effect PE based comprises
three main components: a thermoelectric
module, a cold sink, and a heat sink. The
thermoelectric module consists of a series
circuit composed of two distinct
semiconductors, namely a p-type & an n-type
semiconductor. When an electric current
passes through the module, one side becomes
cold while the other side becomes hot.
Utilizing the temperature differential, the
cold side of the module is exposed to the
ambient air, causing moisture in the air to
condense on its surface. This condensation
process results in the formation of water
droplets that can be collected and stored for
drinking purposes. To dissipate the heat
generated by the Peltier effect, a heat sink is
attached to the hot side of the module. This
helps maintain the required temperature
gradient for efficient water condensation.
The AWG's operation is based on the
principles of the Peltier effect, offering a
simple and efficient method to extract water
from the atmosphere. With the shelf life of
ranging from 5 to10 years this technology
holds promise for addressing water scarcity
challenges and ensuring access to clean
drinking water [18-20].
Access to safe drinking water is crucial for
the survival of Pakistan's population
exceeding 200 million and to meet the
growing demands of agricultural activities in
water-scarce regions. Despite the presence of
the Arabian Sea, the southern coastline of
Pakistan is predominantly utilized for
agriculture. These regions, such as the

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Pure Appl. Biol., 12(3):1490-1500, September, 2023
http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150

Makran coastline, experience high levels of
humidity ranging from 70 to 80%. In order to
address the challenge of ensuring safe
drinking water using renewable resources, a
Turbine-powered Air Water Generator
(AWG) will be developed, harnessing the
energy from turbines and employing the
Peltier method. This innovative approach is
projected to produce a daily water output of
2-5 liters. This solution holds significant
potential for alleviating the water scarcity
issue in Pakistan, particularly in regions
characterized by high humidity [21]. The
(Fig. 4) shows the working and schematics of
thermoelectric PE based AWG system and
some relevant studies on thermoelectric PE
based AWG system mentioned in the (Table
2).

Figure 4: Schematic and working diagram of AWG using Thermoelectric PE based

refrigeration.

Table 2. Reference studies of PE-based Atmospheric Water Harvesting

Method of Max water
Ref. Key indicators for the PE based refrigeration system
Refegiration production rate
Portable AWG
RH (65-90 %)
Peltier Effect PE Temperature (25-35 °C)
[22] 25.1 g hr-1
based Mass of Flow rate (30-70m3 h-1)
Condensation area (0.216 m2)
Energy consumption rate (58.2 W)
Thermoelectric based AWG
Dimension (0.04 * 0.04 m2)
Thermoelectric
[23] 82 ml hr-1 Ambient air temperature (37 °C)
TE based
Relative humidity (95 %)
Intensity of thermoelectric current (1A).
Solar powered AWG based on PE
Relative Humidity (60-80%)
Peltier Effect PE
[24] 20 ml hr-1 Ambient temperature (24-31°C)
based
Air flow velocity (0.59-1 m sec-1)
Energy consumption rate (70 W)
Design and improvement of a thermoelectric TE-based cooling
module-based AWG
Thermoelectric
[25] 2 liter 12 hr-1 Relative humidity (60-80%)
TE based
Ambient temperature (30 °C)
Energy consumption rate (70 W)

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 Aurangzaib et al.

Some relevant studies on Integrated Hybrid
IH, VCR & TEC solar still based techniques
for Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH)
have been mentioned in (Table 3. While the
(Table 4) shows the Comparison of Vapor
Compression Refrigeration VCR system,
Peltier Effect Refrigeration PER system,
Warka Water Tower based AWH and
Integrated Hybrid Refrigeration IHR system
have been done to analyze the suitability,
performance, construction cost, cost of
energy and maintenance expenses of all these
Atmospheric Water Harvesting techniques
AWH in different climatic regions.

Table 3. Integrated Hybrid IH, VCR & TEC solar still based techniques of Atmospheric
Water Harvesting (AWH)
Method of Max water
Ref. Key indicators for the IH refrigeration system
Refegiration production rate
Ambient temperature (35°C) and Relative humidity (95%)
Hybrid AWG Max water Energy consumption rate (0.7423 kWh litre-1)
[26] VCR based production The AWG average cost of water production rate (3.66 litre -1)
assisted 112.1 litre day-1 Average cost of water production is calculated using the levelized
cost of energy for a solar energy system with a 19-year lifespan
Testing month ( March & April)
Testing duration (8 hours day-1)
Hybrid AWG
(8-9.5) liter 8 Relative Humidity (53-62%)
[27] VCR based
hrs-1 Ambient temperature (18-26 °C)
assisted
Water production cost from the AWG (0.07 $ liter -1)
Cost of the energy (0.06$ kwh-1)
Hybrid AWG Model A, B, C water production rate (0.07, 0.20, 0.30 mL Wh -1)
[28] TEC solar still 0.30 ml hr-1 Ambient Temperature (25-45 °C)
based assisted RH (50-90 %)
AWH by tubular solar still Absorption method testing done under
Hybrid AWG the 5 different air velocities (natural, 0.5, 1, 3 and 4 m sec -1).
[29] using tubular 467 ml m-2 day-1 Max thermal efficiency up to 25%
solar still The max water production cost ($0.2 liter-1) at the (4 m sec-1) air
flow rate

Table 4. Comparison of multiple Atmospheric Water Harvesting techniques suitability for

the production of potable water
Vapor Compression Peltier Effect Warka Water Tower Integrated Hybrid
Assessment Refrigeration VCR Refrigeration PER based AWH Refrigeration IHR
High Moderate Low High Moderate Low High Moderate Low High Moderate Low
The Impact of -
environment -
-    
Cost of the energy    
Expenses
   
on construction
Maintenance
expenses on    
AWG system
Suitability for
climates in arid    
and desert areas
Suitability for
the high-humidity    
or Coastal areas

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http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2023.120150
Conclusion
This study aimed to assess the suitability of
AWH techniques in Pakistan's diverse
climatic conditions, with a specific focus on
(desert, mountainous, arid, semi-arid, and
coastal regions). The objective was to
identify AWH methods that effectively
address drinking water scarcity challenges in
these regions while also considering their
economic feasibility. The findings indicate
that WWT technique is highly recommended
for AWH implementation in Pakistan's
(desert and mountainous regions). Its low
initial investment cost and shelf life of 5-7
years make it an attractive option for the
communities in these areas. The WWT
system's design aligns well with the unique
climatic conditions of the target regions,
facilitating efficient condensation and
collection of atmospheric moisture.
Conversely, the VCR method demonstrates
significant suitability for (arid, semi-arid, and
coastal regions). The reason behind is 10-15
years of shelf life and per liter water
production cost of 40-45 Rs. to make it a
feasible option for implementation. The VCR
method thus presents a practical and
economically viable solution for addressing
water scarcity challenges in these regions.
While the Peltier Effect PE based AWG have
the potential for water generation in arid,
semi-arid, and coastal areas, but due to low
water generation capacity and less shelf life
5-10 years as compared to VCR method
limits its large-scale commercial and
community based application. Therefore, the
WWT and VCR techniques
recommended over the Peltier effect based
AWG for tackling water scarcity in Pakistan.
The diverse climatic conditions and water
scarcity challenges in Pakistan, further
research, and development of AWH
technologies tailored to specific regional
requirements is crucial. By considering
factors such as initial investment costs,
efficiency, and compatibility with local
conditions, future AWH solutions canbe
optimized to meet the unique water needs of
different regions in Pakistan.
Authors’ contributions
Conceptualization: M Aurangzaib, T Iqbal,
F Hussain & S Hussain, Validation: M
Aurangzaib & T Iqbal, Data curation: M
Aurangzaib & T Iqbal, Writing Original
Draft Preparation: M Aurangzaib, T Iqbal &
F Hussain, Writing Review and Editing: M
Aurangzaib, ZU Haq, A Hamza and A Saad,
visualization: M Aurangzaib, M Usman,
MAU Zaman, UU Rehman, MS Ullah
Supervision: T Iqbal & F Hussain, All
authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
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