INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL FLUID SCIENCES
Radiation—radiated in the form of rays, waves, or particles
Thermal Fluids—physical sciences that deal with energy and the
transfer, transport, and conversion of energy
Thermodynamics—science of energy transformations
Fluid Mechanics—science that deals with the behavior of fluids
 Fluid statics—at rest
 Fluid dynamics—in motion
Conservation of Energy—total amount of energy remains constant
BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
3 Common Phases of Matter
 Solid—fixed size and shape
 Liquid—does not maintain a fixed shape, takes on the
shape of its container
 Gas—has neither fixed shape nor a fixed volume
 Other phases:
o Plasma—occurs at very high temperature
o Liquid crystals—phase of matter in between
solids and liquids
*liquids and gases are referred to as fluids because they have the
ability to flow
Energy—lifeblood of modern society; property of matter that can be
converted to work, heat, or radiation
6 Basic Forms of Energy
1. Mechanical Energy
a. Kinetic Energy—energy by virtue of its motion
b. Potential Energy—position relative to a reference
point
i. Gravitational Potential Energy
ii. Elastic Potential Energy
2. Chemical Energy—energy locked in the bonds of molecules
3. Thermal or Heat Energy—combines microscopic, kinetic,
and potential energy of the molecules
4. Electrical Energy—movement of electrons; most useful &
versatile
5. Nuclear Energy—structural change in the nuclei
a. Fission—nucleus splits into two new atoms
b. Fusion—two small nuclei join together
6.
 Thermal Equilibrium—temperature is the same throughout
the system
Sources of Energy  Mechanical Equilibrium—no change in pressure
1. Primary Resources—without conversion  Phase Equilibrium—mass of 2 phases reaches an
2. Secondary Resources—requires substantial conversion equilibrium level and stays there
3. Renewable Resources—recover their capacity  Chemical Equilibrium—no change in chemical composition
4. Non-renewable Resources—will not recover their potential
Processes and Cycles
Systems and Control Volumes
Process—any change that a system undergoes
System—region in space chosen for study
Cycle—series of processes that returns a system to its initial state
Surroundings—region outside the system
Path—series of states through which a system passes
Boundary—real or imaginary that separates the system from its
Quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium
surroundings; can be fixed or movable
Types of Systems  system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
 slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally
1. Closed System (control mass) so properties in one part do not change any faster than
 fixed amount of mass those in other parts
 no mass can enter or leave its closed system
*a system has undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
 energy (heat & work) can cross the boundary
end of the process
 volume does not have to be fixed
TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETERS
*Isolated system—even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary
Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be
2. Open System (control volume)
exchanged between them; energy is exchanged due to a temperature
 Involves mass flow difference
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary
 Control Surface—boundaries of a control volume, can Thermal Equilibrium—two objects would not exchange energy by heat
be real or imaginary or electromagnetic radiation
 May also involve a moving boundary but most have
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics—if objects A and B are separately in
fixed boundaries
thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal
Property—any characteristic of a system equilibrium with each other
1. Extensive properties—change as mass changes Temperature—determines whether or not energy will transfer between
2. Intensive properties—independent of the mass of a system two objects in thermal contact
(i.e. density, pressure, temperature)
Thermometer
State and Equilibrium
 used to measure the temperature of a system
State—condition of a system  based on the principle that some physical property of a
system changes as the system’s temperature changes
Equilibrium states—state of balance; no change when it is isolated  These properties include
from its surroundings o The volume of a liquid
o The dimensions of a solid
o The pressure of a gas at a constant volume
 o The volume of a gas at a constant pressure Ideal Gas Model Specific heat (c)—heat capacity per unit mass or the measure of how
o The electric resistance of a conductor thermally insensitive a substance is to the addition of energy
o The color of an object  The ideal gas model can be used to make predictions that
are adequate to describe the behavior of real gases at low Calorimetry—involves heating a sample, adding it in a vessel
Temperature Scales pressures containing water, and recording the final temperature after equilibrium
 When a gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure has been reached
Celsius Scale Fahrenheit Scale is inversely proportional to its volume (Boyle’s Law)  If the temperature increases:
Freezing Point 0-degree C 32-degree F  when the pressure of a gas is kept constant, its volume is o Q and change in Temperature is positive
Boiling Point 100-degree C 212-degree F directly proportional to its temperature (Charles’s Law) o Energy transfers into the system
Increments 100 180  when the volume of the gas is kept constant, its pressure is  If the temperature increases:
Absolute zero—pressure is always zero when the temperature is directly proportional to its temperature (Gay-Lussac’s Law) o Q and change in Temperature is negative
–273.15 degree C
 P, V, T—thermodynamics variable o Energy transfers out of the system
Absolute Temperature Scale
Mole—amount of gas in a given volume (Avogadro’s Number) n=m/M
Calorimeter—a device which energy transfer takes place
1. Triple Point of water (M-molar mass, m-mass)
 single combination of temperature and pressure where Thermodynamic Variables: P, V, T Phase change—substance changes from one form to another; there is
ice, water, and steam can all coexist no change in temperature
2. Absolute Scale—Kelvin Scale CALORIMETRY
 Absolute zero occurs at 0K—temperature at zero 1. Melting—solid to liquid
pressure Internal energy—all the energy of a system that is associated with its
2. Boiling—liquid to gas
 Triple point of temperature is 273.16K microscopic components

Thermal Expansion—increase in the size of an object with an increase
in its temperature
1. Linear Expansion—expansion in only one dimension
2. Volume Expansion
3. Area Expansion
The maximum density of water (1.000 g/cm3) occurs at 4-degree C
 As the temperature increases from 0-degree C to 4-degree
C, water contracts—density increases
 Above 4-degree C, water expands normally with increasing
temperature—density decreases
Gases
 interatomic forces within gases are very weak
 there is no equilibrium separation for the atoms of gases
 volume depends on the size of the container
Gas: Equation of State
 It is useful to know how the volume V, pressure P, and
temperature T are related for a sample of gas of mass m
 low density gas is commonly referred to as an ideal gas
Heat (Q)—both the amount and the process of transferring energy due Higher-phase material—material existing at the higher temperature
to temperature difference
Latent heat—latent means hidden; energy required to change the
Calorie—was the unit used for heat; 1 calorie is the amount of energy phase
necessary to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 deg C to
15.5 deg C  Latent heat of fusion Lf—phase change is from solid to
British Thermal Unit—amount of energy transfer necessary to raise the liquid
 Latent heat of vaporization Lv—phase change is from liquid
temperature of 1lb of water from 63 deg F to 64 deg F; US Customary
system to gas
 If energy enters the system:
Substance undergoing a change of state—temperature remains o Result in melting or vaporization
constant while experiencing an inward heat flow o Amount of higher-phase2 material will increase
o Change in mass and Q are positive
Joules—SI system; heat, work, and internal energy
 If energy enters the system:
James Prescott Joule o Result in freezing or condensation
o Amount of higher-phase2 material will decrease
 received formal education from John Dalton o Change in mass and Q are negative
 establish the principle of conservation of energy and the
equivalence between mechanical energy and internal
energy
 1cal=4.186J; known as the mechanical equivalent of heat
Heat Capacity (C)—amount of energy needed to raise the temperature
of that sample by 1 deg C
  Energy Q added must be equal the negative work done on
the system (Q = —W)
 Work done on the system per cycle equals the area
enclosed by the path

Isothermal Process

 Occurs at constant temperature

 PV diagram is a hyperbolic curve called an Isotherm
 Energy Q added must be equal the negative work done on
the system (Q = —W)
 Change in the internal energy is ZERO
 PV=constant HEAT TRANSFER
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Isobaric Process Heat transfer—science that deals with the determination of rates at
State—condition of a system (state variables) which heat is transferred as a result of temperature difference
 Occurs at constant pressure
 Horizontal line on a PV diagram Conduction or Thermal Conduction
Transfer Variables—not associated with any given state of the system,  Heat and work are both non zero
only with changes in the state; always zero unless energy is  Energy transfer by heat
transferred
 W =−P(V f −V i )
 Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the
Isovolumetric Process (Isochoric) substance
Gas Volume Work
 Metals are good thermal conductors
Compressed NEGATIVE POSITIVE  Occurs at constant volume  Poor conductors: paper, asbestos, gases
Expands POSITIVE NEGATIVE  Appears as vertical line on a PV diagram  Good conductors have high k values, while good insulators
Constant Volume Constant ZERO  W=0 have low k values
Work done depends on the path taken
 If energy is added by heat at constant volume, all of the  Occurs only if there is temperature difference
In the PV diagram, curve is called the path transferred energy remains in the system as increase in
internal energy  Law of thermal conduction:
Work done on a gas equals the negative of the area under the PV  ΔEint=Q o Energy transfer from higher to lower temperature
curve  Temperature gradient—rate at which temperature varies
Adiabatic Process with position (dT/dX)
 First Law of Thermodynamics (ΔEint=Q+W)  Compound Slab—rate of energy transfer depends on the
 special case of the Law of Conservation of Energy  No energy leaves or enters the system by heat (Q=0)
 If the gas is compressed adiabatically, W is positive so materials and the temperatures as the outer edges
 only internal energy changes, only energy transfers are by  Home Insulation—for multiple layers, total R value is the
heat and work ΔEint is positive and the temperature of the gas increases
 If the gas expands adiabatically, the temperature of the gas sum of the R values of each layer; R=L/k
 Internal energy is rising: work is being done and energy is
transferring in by heat decreases Convection
 ΔEint=W
Isolated System  Energy transfer by the movement of a substance
 A form of matter transfer
 No interaction with its surroundings  Forms:
 NO ENERGY transfer by heat o Natural convection: movement results from
 Work done on the system is ZERO difference in density
 Internal energy remains CONSTANT o Forced convection: movement is forced by a fan
or a pump
Cyclic Process (closed curve)
Radiation
 Change in the internal energy is ZERO
 Process that does not require physical contact
  All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of
electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations of their
molecules
 Rate of radiation is given by Stefan’s Law
 The emissivity is also equal to the absorptivity
 Energy Absorption and Emission by Radiation
o When an object is in equilibrium with its
surroundings, it radiates and absorbs at the
same rate
o Its temperature will not change
 Temperature: Unit Kelvin
 Ideal absorbers (black body)—also an ideal radiator of
energy; absorbs all of the energy incident on it, e=1

A Dewar flask is a container designed to minimize the energy losses by

conduction, convection, and radiation

 Invented by Sir James Dewar (1842 – 1923)

 It is used to store either cold or hot liquids for long periods
of time
 The space between the walls is a vacuum to minimize
energy transfer by conduction and convection
 The silvered surface minimizes energy transfers by
radiation
 Silver is a good reflector