### Chemistry Study Notes: Introduction and Fundamentals

#### **1. Matter and Its Properties**

- **Matter:** Anything that occupies space and has mass. It can exist
in different states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
- **Properties of Matter:**
- **Physical Properties:** Characteristics observed without
changing the composition (e.g., color, odor, density, melting point).
- **Chemical Properties:** Characteristics observed during a
chemical change (e.g., flammability, reactivity).

#### **2. Atomic Structure**

- **Atoms:** The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of
an element.
- **Subatomic Particles:**
- **Protons:** Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
- **Neutrons:** Neutral particles found in the nucleus.
- **Electrons:** Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.
- **Atomic Number:** Number of protons in an atom's nucleus,
defining the element.
- **Mass Number:** Total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.

#### **3. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures**

- **Elements:** Pure substances consisting of only one type of atom.
- **Compounds:** Substances composed of two or more elements
chemically combined in fixed ratios.
- **Mixtures:** Physical combinations of two or more substances
where each retains its own properties.
- **Homogeneous Mixtures:** Uniform composition (e.g., saltwater).
- **Homogeneous Mixtures:** Non-uniform composition (e.g.,
salad).

#### **4. The Periodic Table**

- **Organization:** Elements are arranged by increasing atomic
number in rows (periods) and columns (groups or families).
- **Groups:**
- **Alkali Metals (Group 1):** Highly reactive metals.
- **Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2):** Reactive metals.
- **Transition Metals (Groups 3-12):** Metals with varying
properties.
- **Halogens (Group 17):** Very reactive non-metals.
- **Noble Gases (Group 18):** Inert gases.

#### **5. Chemical Bonds**

- **Ionic Bonds:** Formed when electrons are transferred from one
atom to another, resulting in positively and negatively charged ions.
- **Covalent Bonds:** Formed when atoms share pairs of electrons.
- **Polar Covalent Bonds:** Unequal sharing of electrons.
- **Nonpolar Covalent Bonds:** Equal sharing of electrons.
- **Metallic Bonds:** Bonds between metal atoms sharing a "sea" of
electrons.

#### **6. Chemical Reactions**

- **Reactants and Products:** Substances that undergo change
(reactants) to form new substances (products).
- **Types of Reactions:**
- **Synthesis:** Two or more substances combine to form one
compound.
- **Decomposition:** A compound breaks down into simpler
substances.
- **Single Replacement:** One element replaces another in a
compound.
- **Double Replacement:** Exchange of ions between two
compounds.
- **Combustion:** Substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy.

#### **7. Stoichiometry**

- **Mole Concept:** A mole represents \(6.022 \times 10^{23}\)
particles (Avogadro's number).
- **Molar Mass:** Mass of one mole of a substance (g/mol).
- **Balancing Equations:** Ensuring the same number of each type of
atom on both sides of a chemical equation.
- **Calculations:** Using molar ratios from balanced equations to
calculate masses, volumes, and moles of reactants and products.

#### **8. States of Matter and Changes**

- **Solids:** Definite shape and volume.
- **Liquids:** Definite volume, no definite shape.
- **Gases:** No definite shape or volume.
- **Phase Changes:** Transitions between states (e.g., melting,
freezing, vaporization, condensation).
#### **9. Solutions and Solubility**
- **Solutions:** Homogeneous mixtures of solute dissolved in
solvent.
- **Concentration:** Amount of solute in a given amount of solution
(e.g., molarity).
- **Solubility:** Measure of how much solute can dissolve in a solvent
at a given temperature.

#### **10. Acids and Bases**

- **Acids:** Substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution.
- **Strong Acids:** Completely ionize in solution (e.g., HCl).
- **Weak Acids:** Partially ionize in solution (e.g., CH₃COOH).
- **Bases:** Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution.
- **Strong Bases:** Completely dissociate in solution (e.g., NaOH).
- **Weak Bases:** Partially dissociate in solution (e.g., NH₃).
- **pH Scale:** Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution (0-14
scale).

#### **11. Thermodynamics**

- **Energy:** Capacity to do work or transfer heat.
- **Laws of Thermodynamics:**
- **First Law:** Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred or transformed.
- **Second Law:** Entropy (disorder) of the universe always
increases.

#### **12. Kinetics and Equilibrium**

- **Reaction Rate:** Speed at which reactants turn into products.
- **Factors Affecting Rate:** Temperature, concentration, surface
area, and catalysts.
- **Chemical Equilibrium:** State where the forward and reverse
reactions occur at equal rates.
- **Le Chatelier's Principle:** A system at equilibrium will adjust to
counteract changes imposed on it.