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Chapter 8: Learning
BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE
Basic Processes of Learning
Association
Conditioning Models of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dogs
How Classical Conditioning Works
The Conditioning of Little Albert
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement and Punishment
How Operant Conditioning Works
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Challenging Assumptions About Conditioning Models of Learning
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Instinctive Drift
Latent Learning
Social Learning Theory
The Interaction of Nature and Nurture in Learning
Imprinting
Imitation, Mirror Neurons, and Learning
Synaptic Change During Learning
Experience, Enrichment, and Brain Growth
Psychology in the Real World: Sleep Facilitates Learning
Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Learning: Why Do People Smoke?
Chapter Review
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE
BASIC PROCESSES OF LEARNING
• Learning is defined as enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience.
o Suggestion: Link learning and its definition to memory (Chapter 7).
Association
• Association occurs when one piece of information from the environment becomes linked
repeatedly with another and the organism begins to connect the two sources of
information.
• CONNECTION: Right now you are habituated to dozens of stimuli, including the feel
of clothing on your skin. Now you are sensitized to it. How so? (Chapter 4)
CONDITIONING MODELS OF LEARNING

• Conditioning is a form of association learning in which behaviors are triggered by
associations with events in the environment.
• There are two types of conditioning (both are forms of associative learning).
o Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a neutral
stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic,
inborn response.
o Operant conditioning is the process of changing behavior by manipulating the
consequences of that behavior.
Classical Conditioning
• Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which
one has an automatic, inborn response.
Pavlov’s Dogs
• Perhaps the most famous example is Pavlov’s dogs. Initially, Pavlov studied digestion in
dogs and he used meat powder to stimulate salivation. After doing this for a while, he
noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate even before the meat powder was presented.
• Pavlov reasoned that the dogs formed an association between a stimulus that had no
inherent deliciousness (the sound of the apparatus) and one that did (the meat powder).
To test this, he used new dogs and presented a neutral stimulus (a bell sound) just before
showing them the meat powder. After repeated presentation, dogs not only salivated to
the meat powder but also to the bell. Thus, the bell (formally neutral) has now become an
associated stimuli.
How Classical Conditioning Works
• Pavlov called the kind of learning he’d observed the conditioning of reflexes. Today this
is referred to as classical conditioning.
• An unconditioned response (UCR) is the natural automatic, inborn response to a
stimulus. In the Pavlov example, salivation is the UCR. It might help to explain to
students that unconditioned simply means “unlearned.”
• An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the environmental input that elicits an unlearned,
reflexive response. For Pavlov, this is the meat powder.
• A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to
associate with the UCS. In Pavlov’s study, the CS would be the bell ringing. It is
important to note that Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus (bell) immediately before the
UCS (meat powder).
• A conditioned response (CR) is a behavior that an organism learns to perform when
presented with the CS alone. In Pavlov’s study this was also salivation but here the
salivation was in response to the anticipation of food presentation.
• Forward conditioning is the neutral stimulus being presented just before the UCS, or the
neutral stimulus and the UCS presented simultaneously.
• Backward conditioning is a slightly less successful form of conditioning in which the
neutral stimulus follows the UCS.
• Pavlov’s criterion for successful conditioning is listed below.
1. Multiple pairings of UCS and neutral stimulus (CS) are necessary for an association
to occur, so that the CS will produce the conditioned response.
2. Temporal continuity is also important. The UCS and CS must be paired or presented
very close together in time in order for an association to form.
• Other issues in the acquisition process are stimulus generalization and stimulus
discrimination.
o Stimulus generalization is extending the association between UCS and CS to
include a broad array of similar stimuli.
o Stimulus discrimination is when a CR (such as salivation) occurs only to the exact
CS to which it was conditioned.
o Extinction is the weakening of a CR when the CS and the UCS are no longer paired
together. For example, if Pavlov stopped providing food after bell ringing would they
salivate forever? No.
• Spontaneous recovery is the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.

• Perhaps one of the best illustrations of stimulus generalization comes from Watson and
Rayner (1920), in the conditioning of Little Albert.
o A 9-month-old baby known as Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat.
Initially, Watson and Rayner brought out a white rat and showed it to Albert. He
was curious, but not afraid of it. They then presented the rat with a very loud
noise (the sound of a hammer striking a steel bar right behind Albert’s head).
Naturally, the loud sound (a UCS) startled Albert (the UCR), and he got very
upset. Eventually, the rat (CS) elicited the fear response (CR). Amazingly, Albert
further generalized the fear response to a slew of stimuli, including a rabbit, dog,
a white fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask! This generalization is very
impressive, if not disturbing, as he generalized from animate to inanimate stimuli.
o CONNECTION: The ethics of human research today would not allow Watson
do his research on Little Albert (Chapter 2).
• Thorndike believed that spontaneously emitted behavior can become favored and
reinforced when it is followed by certain consequences. He tested this using a device
called a puzzle box. Cats are placed in a specially designed cage from which they want to
escape. Simply based on its random behaviors, the cat would eventually be rewarded by
the door opening. This reward increased the probability of the now specific behavior
happening again, leading to further rewards. Moreover, this specific behavior would
occur more quickly over time. Thorndike labeled this the law of effect.
• Skinner coined the term operant to refer to behavior that acts, or operates, on the
environment to produce specific consequences.
• Operant conditioning: the process of modifying behavior by manipulating the
consequences of that behavior. That is, a behavior that is rewarded is more likely to occur
again.
Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcer is anything that increases the frequency of a behavior (e.g., receiving smiles,
money, food, oxygen, compliments, alleviation of pain).
o There are two dimensions of reinforcement: primary vs. secondary and positive
vs. negative.
▪ Primary reinforcers are innate and satisfy biological needs (e.g., food,
water, sex).
▪ Secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers are learned by association
(usually via classical conditioning). Examples include money, grades, and
peer approval.
▪ Positive reinforcement is the presentation of something, someone, or a
situation as a reward for behavior (e.g., giving a child stickers for doing
homework correctly, good grades, praise) to increase behavior.
▪ Negative reinforcement is removal of an unpleasant stimulus that
increases the probability of behavior (e.g., smoking to alleviate stress,
napping to alleviate fatigue, giving a fussy child a cookie to stop them
from crying) to increase behavior.
▪ It is important to note that students will often find these concepts difficult.
You should explain that the terms “positive” and “negative” are somewhat
misleading. They do not refer to polarity of behavior but rather the
addition or subtraction of a stimulus. For example, if you give a fussy
child a cookie that is a positive reinforcement for the child (they have
learned that fussing leads to cookies) but a negative reinforcement for the
parent (who has learned that cookies lead to quiet children).
• Punishment is any stimulus that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
o Like reinforcement, punishment can be positive or negative. Remind students this
refers to the addition or subtraction of the stimulus. That is, all punishment is meant
to decrease behavior and all reinforcement is meant to increase behavior.
▪ Positive punishment is the addition of a stimulus that may decrease behavior
(e.g., spanking in an effort to stop an undesirable behavior, electric shocks,
putting bad-tasting chemicals on a child’s thumb to assist them in stopping
undesirable thumb sucking, getting a fine for speeding). In any of these
examples, an unwanted situation/stimulus is added in the attempt to dissuade
negative behaviors.
▪ Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus in order to decrease
behavior; in other words, something that is desirable is taken away (e.g.,
grounding a child by taking away their freedom, taking an adolescent’s cell
phone away for breaking curfew, losing your license for a DUI).
How Operant Conditioning Works

• The basic idea is that any behavior that is reinforced will occur more often in the future.
• Skinner box: a simple cage used for operant conditioning in which a small animal (e.g.,
a rat) can move around, with a food dispenser and a response lever to trigger food
delivery. Using this device, Skinner demonstrated how a rat could be coaxed to perform a
desired behavior (such as lever pressing) through reinforcement of behaviors that
occurred when the rat got closer and closer to pressing the lever using shaping (the
reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior).
Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a method used in the treatment of some psychological
disorders, nicotine addiction, and learning disabilities.
• Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) is used in the treatment of autism.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• The schedules of reinforcement are the variety of conditions or rules about
presenting reinforcement. Reinforcement may be presented every time a behavior
occurs, or only occasionally.
o Continuous reinforcement is rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. For
example, giving dogs treats every time they sit on command is continuous
reinforcement.
o Intermittent reinforcement is reinforcement that does not occur after every
response. This type of reinforcement tends to produce a stronger behavioral
response than continuous reinforcement.
• Skinner identified four patterns of intermittent reinforcement. These schedules vary along
two dimensions: whether you are being reinforced based on the number of behaviors
(ratio) or the amount of time that passes (interval) and whether reinforcement occurs after
a set number or amount of time has passed (fixed) or whether this amount varies
(variable).
o A fixed ratio (FR) schedule is reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
For example, every third time Fluffy the Shih Tzu sits on command, Fluffy gets a
cookie. Interestingly, a continuous schedule is a fixed ratio where the number of
response is set at 1.
o A variable ratio (VR) schedule is the number of responses needed for
reinforcement varies. For example, playing slot machines, which reinforce
variably but at a preordained schedule, or checking your email to see if you’ve got
mail.
o A fixed interval (FI) schedule is when responses are always reinforced after a set
period of time has passed; for example, getting paid every two weeks.
o A variable interval (VI) schedule is when responses are reinforced after time
periods of different duration have passed; for example, your instructor may use
CPS questions to track attendance or reward you with points, but it varies at
which lecture and at which point in the lecture they are asked.
Challenging Assumptions About Conditioning Models of Learning

Three domains of research challenged traditional learning theory. These three domains are
conditioned taste aversion, instinctive drift, and latent learning.
Conditioned Taste Aversion

• Conditioned taste aversion is the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food if
nausea occurs at the same time as or shortly after exposure to the food.
• The Traditional Learning Model explained taste aversion as a special case of classical
conditioning.
• Garcia and his colleagues (1955) wanted to see if they could condition rats to develop an
aversion to water sweetened with saccharine—something they normally like a lot—by
pairing it with radiation (a UCS for nausea at certain doses). They began with the
following questions:
1. Could taste aversion to a preferred substance (saccharine water) be achieved by
pairing the taste with radiation (a UCS for nausea)?
2. How long would the taste aversion last without repeated exposure to radiation (the
UCS)?
• Researchers varied the conditions of groups of rats. All of the groups had access to
either plain water or saccharine water during the radiation period. One control group
had access to plain water during irradiation. The other control group got saccharine
water and no radiation. In the experimental condition, rats subjected to different
levels of radiation were given saccharine water. All of the groups that received
radiation were exposed to it for the same amount of time, 6 hours overall. In some
cases, the interval of time between when the rats were irradiated (UCS) and when
they tasted the drink (CS) lasted several minutes. The independent variable was the
radiation, and the dependent variable was measured in terms of how much saccharine
water the rats consumed after the pairing of saccharine water with radiation.
• The results indicated that regardless of radiation level, both groups of rats that had
been drinking saccharine water during irradiation consumed significantly less
saccharine water after conditioning.
• This study is important because it showed that long-lasting conditioned taste aversion
could occur even when the UCS and CS were paired only during a single session.
This is now known as the Garcia effect.
• Garcia and Koelling (1966) varied the type of aversive stimulus (UCS) to which the
rats were exposed. Nausea (the UCR) was induced by exposure to X-rays, whereas
pain (UCR) was induced by shocks through the floor. When the rat licked the
drinking tube, it received the CS of either saccharine water or “bright-noisy water”
(plain water accompanied by a light and a buzzer that went on when the rat touched
the drinking tube). The UCS for half the rats was X-rays. The other half received a
shock.
• The results indicated that the rats that were made nauseous avoided the sweet water
but not the bright-noisy water, whereas rats that were given a mildly painful shock
avoided the bright-noisy water but not the sweet water.
• The key finding here is that, contrary to the predictions of traditional learning theory,
an organism cannot be conditioned to respond to just any “neutral” stimulus paired
with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Garcia’s findings in several studies undermined two major assumptions of classical
conditioning: (1) that conditioning (learning) could happen only if an organism was
exposed repeatedly within a brief time span to the UCS and CS together and (2) that
organisms can learn to associate any two stimuli.
Instinctive Drift
• Breland and Breland (1961), two of Skinner’s students, successfully conditioned 38
different species and more than 6,000 animals. They coined the term instinctive drift,
which they defined as learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive, unlearned behavior
tendencies.
• In the biological constraint model some behaviors are inherently more likely to be
learned than others. In other words, biology constrains, or limits, options to make the
adaptive ones more likely to occur. The idea here is that constraints on learning have
positive evolutionary implications; that is, it is useful for survival. For example, if you
were attacked by a dog and did not learn a fear response, you might wind up dead.
• Instinctive drift and biological constraints provide great examples of the limits nature
places on nurture.
Latent Learning
• Latent learning is learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not
demonstrated until the reinforcement is provided at a later time.
• Tolman reasoned that these rats had formed internal cognitive maps, like pictures in their
minds, of the maze from all the practice they had received. When they ﬁnally had
rewards waiting for them, the rats could use these maps to run the maze more efficiently.
It is difficult to know whether the rats really had maps of the maze in their minds. What
is clear from these ﬁndings is that some learning can occur in the absence of
reinforcement. Running the maze, even without rewards, helped the rats in Group 3 run
much better when reinforcement was available
• Connection: People who cannot form new memories nevertheless learn. The body can
learn things of which the conscious mind is not aware (Chapter 7).
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

• Enactive learning is learning by doing.
• Observational learning is learning by watching others.
• Bandura is the father of social learning. Social learning theory describes learning that
occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of others. Modeling is Bandura's term for
the process of observing and imitating behaviors performed by others.
• People learn best those things they are rewarded for doing, whether the rewards are
external (such as praise, money, candy) or internal (such as joy and satisfaction). Bandura
realized that reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but
also for those who watch.
• A series of classic studies in the 1960s involved a Bobo doll. This research demonstrated
that those who viewed aggression were more aggressive with the doll than those who did
not see aggression. The consequences for the model also mattered. Children who saw the
aggressive adult rewarded for his aggression were more violent with the toys and Bobo
doll than those who saw the aggressive adult get punished. Those who did not see an
aggressive model did not show much aggression with the toys, nor did those who saw the
adult punished. These studies show how modeling and reinforcement can work together
to influence behavior. Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others get
rewarded for doing.
THE INTERACTION OF NATURE AND NURTURE IN LEARNING

• Four learning processes that illustrate the dynamic interplay between nature and nurture
are: imprinting, imitation, synaptic change, and brain growth with enrichment.
Imprinting
• Imprinting is the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver within a
very short period of time after birth.
• Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, and especially from the work of
Lorenz on ducklings and goslings (baby geese).
• Imprinting provides clear evidence of sensitivity periods in learning. These are periods
during which, if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation, it will learn it
very readily. Once the animal has moved beyond that period, it becomes much harder, if
not impossible, to learn certain skills or make use of certain kinds of information.
• Imprinting and sensitivity periods in learning make it clear that the mind is not a blank
slate but rather is structured in such a way that certain kinds of experiences are more or
less easily learned at different periods in life (e.g., vision, hearing, and language).
• Imprinting does not occur in human. Babies, however, do form attachments (Chapter 5)
that serve much the same function.
Imitation, Mirror Neurons, and Learning

• Imitation by infants may be a result of mirror neuron systems (MNS) in the brain.
Mirror neuron systems respond in much the same way while watching an action as they
do while making an action (Chapter 3).
CONNECTION: Mirror neurons help explains why even newborn infants imitate adult
behavior so easily (Chapter 5).
Synaptic Change During Learning

• Synaptic connections between neurons strengthen and even grow during long-term
associative learning, indicating that the brain literally grows and changes as we learn. The
development and frequent use of new synaptic connections in response to stimulation
from the environment strengthens the associated memories and makes learning easier. It
does seem as though “practice makes perfect” and you should either “use it” or you will
“lose it.”

• Later experiments showed that animals did not have to be raised from birth in an enriched
environment to benefit. However, the best way to stimulate new neural growth is to be in
an enriched environment that continues to have new and novel forms of stimulation.
• CONNECTION: Can experience and learning generate new neurons in an elderly
person? (Chapter 5)
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD: SLEEP FACILITATES LEARNING

• To learn material in a class, you have to pay attention, take in new information, form new
associations, and then store it in a form that can be recalled or used later. The processes of
consciousness, memory, and learning all come together in classroom learning; you need
sleep to do all of these things.
• A growing scientific literature shows that sleep plays an important role in learning.
Beginning in infancy, better sleep is associated with increases in cognitive functioning.
Sleep enhances and consolidates what we learn during the day.
• College students who have the most and best quality sleep have higher course grades in
psychology and higher overall GPAs than those who have disruptive and disturbed sleep
Pulling all-nighters is associated with a lower GPA.
• Before running a maze, rats had very thin electrodes painlessly implanted in their
hippocampus (learning and memory center) to measure activity patterns of specific
neurons. When the mice were running the maze, a particular pattern of neural firing was
observed. Much to the researchers’ surprise, while these rats slept, a very similar pattern of
brain activity was replayed in the hippocampus and the visual cortex. In other words, while
they slept their brain spontaneously and without effort was rehearsing and consolidating
what it learned during the day. In fact, the phenomenon of “sleeping on” a problem and
working it out spontaneously during the night and having a solution suddenly appear in the
morning is probably related to rehearsal and replay of learned experience.
• Dozens of human studies support a strong role for sleep in memory consolidation and
learning.
• The following recommendations may help students use sleep to improve school
performance.
o Get more sleep the night or two before an exam.
o Short midday naps enhance learning, alertness, and memory.
o Increase physical activity if you are having trouble getting a night's sleep.
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNECTIONS: WHY DO PEOPLE

SMOKE?
• Social learning probably offers the best explanation to how the smoking behavior is
acquired. Most smokers start smoking as teenagers, and most teens start smoking because
they seek some of the rewards that appear to come with smoking: coolness, peer
acceptance, and looking like an adult. Kids see that others who smoke get some of these
rewards for smoking. They might model the smoking behavior in order to obtain these
rewards themselves.
• Once someone has become an established smoker, operant conditioning helps maintain
smoking behavior. Smoking is bolstered by a number of positive reinforcers: arousal of
the sympathetic nervous system (the “rush” of smoking), mild relaxation of the muscles,
and in some cases, increased peer acceptance. Smoking also has a number of negative
reinforcers, such as the removal of stress, the removal of social isolation for some
smokers, and a reduced appetite.
• The power of these reinforcers, combined with the physiologically addictive properties of
nicotine, makes it very difficult to quit smoking. Moreover, the potential punishers of
smoking, a substantially increased risk of lung cancer and heart disease, are threats that
are so far off in the future for teens that they tend to ignore them.
• There are several other factors to consider.
o The first factor to consider is gender. One large-scale study indicated that gender
influences susceptibility to smoking, the way people work with their urges to
smoke, and the ability to successfully quit. For example, whether or not one’s
friends smoke plays a stronger role in whether adolescent girls attempt and
succeed at quitting smoking than it does in boys.
o The second factor to consider is personality. People who are more sociable,
impulsive, rebellious, hostile, and sensation-seeking are more likely to start
smoking and less likely to quit successfully than those who do not have these
personal characteristics. For example, not having a long-term perspective, they
fail to understand the negative effects of smoking on health.
o A final factor to is sociocultural variables. Research suggests that cultural
variables (ethnic group), social factors (availability of role models), and basic
principles of learning (observational learning) can all interact to influence whether
young people start smoking. For example, African-American children were less
likely to smoke than European-American children, and they had fewer family
members and friends who smoked.
• Behavior modification is a technique that applies principles of operant conditioning
to changing behavior. This may be particularly effective in helping people quit
smoking, especially when combined with nicotine replacement therapies (e.g., gum or
the patch), which ease the symptoms of withdrawal.
KEY TERMS
association: process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly
linked so that we begin to connect them in our minds.
behavior modification: the application of operant conditioning principles to change behavior.
biological constraint model: view on learning proposing that some behaviors are inherently
more likely to be learned than others.
classical conditioning: form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response.
conditioned response (CR): a behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with
the CS.
conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with
the UCS.
conditioned taste aversion: the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food.
conditioning: a form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations
with events in the environment.
continuous reinforcement: reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs.
enactive learning: learning by doing.
ethology: the scientific study of animal behavior.
extinction: the weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the
UCS is no longer paired with the CS.
fixed interval (FI) schedule: a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are
always reinforced after a set period of time has passed.
fixed ratio (FR) schedule: pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows
a set number of responses.
imprinting: the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after
birth.
instinctive drift: learned behavior that shifts towards instinctive, unlearned behavior tendencies.
intermittent reinforcement: reinforcement of a behavior, but not after every response.
latent learning: learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated
until later, when reinforcement occurs.
law of effect: principle that the consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood
that the behavior would be repeated.
learning: enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience.
modeling: the imitation of behaviors performed by others.
negative punishment: the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior.
negative reinforcement: removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that
behavior. An example is buckling your seat belt to stop the buzzer in the car.
observational learning: learning by watching the behavior of others.
operant conditioning: the process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of
that behavior.
positive punishment: the addition of a stimulus that may decrease behavior.
positive reinforcement: the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that
increases how often that behavior will occur.
primary reinforcers: innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (such as food,
water, or sex).
punishment: stimulus, presented after a behavior, that decreases the frequency of the behavior.
reinforcer: environmental stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior.
schedules of reinforcement: patterns of reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement
occurs after a set number of responses or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last
reinforcement.
secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers: reinforcers that are learned by association, usually via
classical conditioning.
shaping: the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Skinner box: simple chamber used for operant conditioning of small animals; includes a food
dispenser and a response lever to trigger food delivery.
social learning theory: a description of the kind of learning that occurs when we model or
imitate the behavior of another.
spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.
stimulus discrimination: restriction of a CR (such as salivation) to the exact CS to which it was
conditioned.
stimulus generalization: extension of the association UCS and CS to include a broad array of
similar stimuli.
unconditioned response (UCR): the automatic, inborn response to a stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS): the environmental input that always produces the same
unlearned response.
variable interval (VI) schedule: pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are
reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed.
variable ratio (VR) schedule: a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of
responses needed for reinforcement changes.
MAKING THE CONNECTIONS (Some of the connections are

found in the text. Other connections may be useful for lecture or
discussion.)
Basic Processes of Learning

CONNECTION: Right now you are habituated to dozens of stimuli – including the feel of
clothing on your skin. Now you are sensitized to it. How so? (Chapter 4)
o Discussion: Is habituation learning? Ask students to think about their job. How much
of what they do is automatic? That is, are they demonstrating habituation (they are
oriented to what they do and are exposed to repeatedly) or learning?
CONNECTION: Could Watson do research on Little Albert in today’s world? Review the
discussion of ethics in Chapter 2.
• Discussion: Watson, perhaps the father of the behavioral movement, is best known for
the infamous quote: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train
him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant—
chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1925, p. 82). Based
on this quotation, what would this mean if you had an IQ of 100 and wanted to be a
doctor? What if you lacked the ability for athleticism, as you were born small and weaker
than most but you wanted to be a professional football player? What would Watson say?
• Discussion: Students are generally interested in this story, and you may want to also talk
about little Peter, a follow-up study done by Mary Cover Jones (1924) under Watson’s
supervision.
CONNECTION: What is addiction? See the discussion of drugs in Chapter 6.
• Discuss alcohol addiction as it relates to reinforcement and punishment.
Instinctive Drift
CONNECTION: Every human learns a language. Why is that? (Chapter 9)
o Discussion: This might be a good time to preview Chomsky and the nativist
perspective in comparison to a learning perspective on language acquisition. Ask
students what language skills children are rewarded for, versus prewired for. Do
parents punish and correct every grammatical mistake toddlers make in speech?
Unlikely.
o Discussion: What types of language do animals display? See the bee waggle dance
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc-mtUs-eis.
Latent Learning
Connection: People who cannot form new memories nevertheless learn. The body can learn
things of which the conscious mind is not aware (Chapter 7).
o Activity: If you have Internet access in your classroom, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OmkiMlvLK to and
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymEn_YxZqZw for clips on Clive Wearing, a
man who is unable to form new memory but demonstrates learning none the less. You
may also want to use http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y
Social Learning Theory
CONNECTION: Do you think watching violence in movies and TV leads to aggressive
behavior? Overwhelmingly, the answer seems to be yes (Chapter 15).
o Activity: If you have Internet access in your classroom, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE for a video clip of Bandura
discussing his famous Bobo Doll study.
o Video: Choose any segment from Jackass: The Movie and discuss its implications for
young children who idolize these types of behaviors.
o Discussion: Ask students to consider how Bandura’s research would map onto the
violent videogames on the market today.
Imprinting
CONNECTION: Mirror neurons help explains why even newborn infants imitate adult behavior
so easily (Chapter 5).
o Video: Show Fly Away Home (1996) and discuss imprinting. Now ask students how
this model is limited in terms of human behavior and attachment.
o Activity: Show http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqZmW7uIPW4 for a brief clip
(no sound) of Lorenz with his goslings.

CONNECTION: Can experience and learning generate new neurons in an elderly person?
(Chapter 5)
o Discussion: See Chapter 7 for a review on how new proteins form and synapses
actually grow in long-term but not short-term memory formation. Tell students that
just listening to information and reading the bullets on a PowerPoint cause certain
synapses to form between neurons that were not there before.
INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION
1. Classical conditioning and your pet: Ask students to think about their pet. Ask them what
happens when they go into the kitchen. How do their fish respond when they walk over to the
tank? Why do animals get excited by these mundane behaviors? Their pet has learned to
associate these behaviors with food. If you want to continue this line of discussion, ask them
about “false alarms.” If you go into the kitchen repeatedly and then don’t give them food,
what happens? Ask students to provide additional examples of this learning by association
(e.g., how have they trained their significant other?).
2. Combining stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and

spontaneous recovery:
o Ask students to assume they were bitten (UCS) by a black and white Shih Tzu (a
toy breed of dog, the CS) and that the bite elicited a pain response (UCR) such as
crying. Ask them what would happen the next time they saw a Shih Tzu (CS).
Most likely, they would cry in fear of being bitten again (CR) but the CR could
also be running away due to fear.
o With this basic outline in place, ask them if they would generalize their fear
response to all Shih Tzus. To all dogs? To all small dogs? Or to only black and
white dogs?
o Now ask students if they would only fear the offending Shih Tzu. For example,
you can expand this by asking students to assume that they have generalized their
fear to all Shih Tzus and that they have just met a wonderful person and fallen in
love with someone who owns a Shih Tzu named Fluffy. What would they do?
Can a conditioned response be unlearned?
o Now ask students to assume that their new love had them sit down with Fluffy
over and over again so that they could make friends with his/her beloved pet (CS)
and that they never got bitten or had any unpleasant experience (UCS). How
would they feel about Shih Tzus? Chances are that the fear response (CR) would
diminish. This is extinction.
o Finally, for an example of spontaneous recovery, ask students to imagine that one
day they are out walking and a random Shih Tzu attacks and bites them. How will
they feel the next time they see Fluffy? We would predict that the fear response
(CR) to Fluffy’s next appearance would be heightened, possibly even to original
levels.
3. Differences between primary and secondary reinforcers: Students may have difficulty
discriminating the differences between these two types of reinforcements. You can use the
advertising example in the text (e.g., how reinforcers may acquire pleasant characteristics by
virtue of their association with something that is inherently reinforcing, such as food or sex,
in ads for sports cars, beer, beauty supplies, etc.). You can also discuss what types of
reinforcers are most effective for different situations. For example, ask how to get classmates
to show up at different events—the answer . . . FREE FOOD (a primary reinforcer). How
might you as a faculty member get students to attend class regularly? OFFER EXTRA
CREDIT (a secondary reinforcer).
4. Behavior modification: How should you best modify behaviors? Ask students how their
parents reinforced and punished them. Which actions were most effective? Which were most
ineffective? Skinner emphasized that reinforcement is a much more effective way of
modifying behavior than is punishment. Specifically, using reinforcement to increase
desirable behaviors works better than using punishment in an attempt to decrease undesirable
behaviors. As another example, ask students to honestly report if they have ever driven
drunk. Then ask if they were ever caught in this act. What can government do to curb drunk
driving? Should they punish people with jail sentences, major fines, etc., or should they
reward people each time they drive sober?
5. Relating classical conditioning concepts to operant conditioning principles: Have

students discuss how concepts such as stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination,
extinction, and spontaneous recovery discussed with classical conditioning can be applied to
operant conditioning.
6. Classical conditioning: Through classical conditioning, innate responses—like salivation—

can become associated with and changed by almost any experience. Vomiting is another
example of a reflex, but you can use the association between the reflex of vomiting with
something else, say drinking alcohol, to establish a taste aversion. Another example given is
the drug disulfiram, which can be used to condition alcoholics to have an aversion to alcohol.
If people drink alcohol while taking disulfiram, then they get very sick. That said, alcohol
does not become a CS for nausea when the disulfiram is discontinued. It is tough to condition
alcohol to become a CS for nausea because the intoxication it produces is a positive
reinforcer, especially for alcoholics.
7. Instinctive drift: Animals are primed from birth to readily learn some things and not others.
Humans, for example are primed to talk. Turkewitz (1993) is well known for his work on
several species of bird and “innate” skills. In humans, he looked at the development of the
brain in utero and discovered that the right hemisphere develops early (before the auditory
system is working). The left hemisphere develops later and rapidly surpasses the right in both
size and complexity. As the auditory system develops in concourse with the left hemisphere,
this is also when mom’s speech is most salient. Thus, the left hemisphere becomes
specialized for processing language and speech. The right hemisphere remains
“unspecialized” and thus is able to deal with visual information, spatial skills, and
face/pattern recognition; thus, new meaning to the term innate. Ask students for their
definition of innate. How would this research alter that view?
8. Instinctual drift is a wonderful concept that captures students’ attention. Have students
provide other examples of instinctual drift (e.g., my dachshund will sometimes begin to scoot
on her brisket after she chases her ball. She is doing what she was bred to do and that is
hunting badgers by simulating going into the brush and badger holes). Students love to
provide examples of their pets.
9. Have students buy a copy of Sniffy (the virtual rat) or, if you do not want to add to their
expenses, load the program onto your in-class computer and work through different types of
classical conditioning and operant conditioning principles discussed in class. Students very
much enjoy the interactive process, and the hands-on experience tends to clarify their
mounting
confusion over these different concepts.
10. Students will find it difficult to differentiate different types of punishments and
reinforcements. They will also find it very difficult to differentiate negative reinforcement
and punishment in general. You may wish to utilize CPS clicker questions to ascertain their
understanding of these issues before moving forward.
11. Make an additional connection between this chapter and Chapter 2 by asking students how
the Skinner box differs from Thorndike’s Puzzle Box. Students may not understand the
fundamental difference here. Review concepts of independent and dependent variables.
Remind them that Thorndike measured how long it took cats to escape. Skinner is interested
in how
many times animals perform an action.
12. Give students a homework assignment of watching television. Have them make note of
different types of aggression they see in the course of one evening (you may wish to
differentiate
physical aggression versus relational aggression). Talk to students in the next class meeting
about their observations. They will likely be surprised by just how much aggression they
saw.
Ask them how this might influence children (you can also talk about cartoon violence here).
13. How long does it take for orientation to a dark room to occur? See how long it takes you to
move from the orienting response to habituation. You are in a darkened room. Ask a friend to
enter the room with a bright light and to start a stopwatch. When your friend sees that you no
longer respond to the bright light, your friend should stop the watch. Check how many
seconds
have elapsed. Repeat this a few times and average the times that it takes you to habituate to
the
bright light in a dark room.
14. Ask students to describe any taste aversion experiences they have had.
15. If unconditioned responses are biologically built in, does that mean conditioned responses
come purely from experience? Another way to approach this would be to ask students to
provide
examples of instances in which UCR and CR differ. For example, a child is looking at his
mom’s
pretty scented candle that has been burning for several hours. The child bats at the hot wax
pooling by the wick and screams in pain when he is burnt. Several days later his mom has
another candle burning. When the child sees the candle he again screams but this time in fear.
Discuss the difference in motivation of the UCR and CR and what other possible conditioned
responses are viable in this example (e.g., crying, running away, etc.).
Suggested Media
1. Bee waggle dance: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7ijI-g4jHg

2. Fly Away Home (1996) is a good example of imprinting. It is a story of a family of
orphaned goslings who have gotten lost and imprint onto a father and daughter who
ultimately help them.
3. Traffic (2000) is a good example of social learning and operant conditioning (especially
as it relates to drug addiction. This movie intertwines four separate story lines but we
recommend you focus on that of the conservative politician recently appointed as the
U.S. drug czar who learns that his daughter is a drug addict.
5. Jackass: The Movie (2002). Choose any segment from this film and discuss its
implications for young children who idolize these types of behaviors. You can include a
discussion of evolutionary and social learning issues at play here.
6. Natural Born Killers (1994). This is a very violent film. You may not want to show clips
to illustrate and discuss social learning. You may, however, want to mention this film to
students. They have probably seen it!
7. Discovering Psychology—Learning (Annenberg)
8. The Bobo Doll experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pr0OTCVtHbU
9. Pigeons Play Ping-Pong http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4
10. Children See Children Do (Observational Learning)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw
11. Original Footage of Little Albert http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8
12. The Office (Jim classical conditions Dwight)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE8pFWP5QDM
13. Big Bang Theory (Sheldon trains Penny)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4
14. Rat basketball (operant conditioning) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAQSEO25fa4
15. Learning and the Brain (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.)
Concept Clips (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.)
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
Suggested Websites
1. Differentiating classical and operant conditioning worksheet:

http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/courses/p1110/conditioning2.htm
2. Using classical and operant conditioning (NOTE: This is a site that provides you with
scenarios and solutions. You may not want to assign it to students, though, since the
answers are posted.): http://www.utexas.edu/courses/svinicki/ald320/CCOC.html.
3. Operant conditioning worksheet:
http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/ironsmithe/Developmental/operant.htm
4. Overview of operant conditioning:
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html
5. Operant and classical conditioning scenarios and solutions
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/svinicki/ald320/CCOC.html
Suggested Readings
Alloway, T., Wilson, G., & Graham, J. (2005). Sniffy: The virtual rat. Belmont, CA: Thomson
Wadsworth.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning.
Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 67, 601–608.
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific
facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477–489.
Dinn, W. M., Aycicegi, A., & Harris, C. L. (2004). Cigarette smoking in a student sample:
Neurocognitive and clinical correlates. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 107–126.
Garcia, J., Kimeldorf, D. J., & Koelling, R. A. (1955). A conditioned aversion towards
saccharine resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Science, 122, 157–159.
Jones, M. C. (1924). A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter. Pedagogical Seminary, 31,
308–315.
Jones, M. C. (1974). Albert, Peter, and John B. Watson. American Psychologist, 29, 581–583.
Little Albert regains his identity. (January 2010). Monitor on Psychology, 41.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1983). Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures. Child
Development, 54, 702–709.
Pavlov, I. P. (1906). The scientific investigation of the psychical faculties or processes in the
higher animals. Science, 24, 613–619.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1970). On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Review, 77,
406–418.
Skinner, B. F. (1959). A case history in scientific method. In S. Koch (Ed.). Psychology—A study
of a science, Vol. 2 (pp. 359–379). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Watanabe, H., Kobayashi, Y., Sakura, M., Matsumoto, Y., & Mizunami, M. (2003). Classical
olfactory conditioning in the cockroach. Zoological Science, 20, 1447–1454.
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 3, 1–14.
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H u i s k r e k e l , zie Gryllus domesticus.
H u i s m u s c h , zie Passer domesticus.
H u i s s l a v e n , verschil der — van veldslaven, 367.
H u m b o l d t , A. von, over het verstand van muilezels, 127;

over een Papegaai die alleen de taal van een te gronde geganen stam kon
spreken, 348;
over het beschilderen van het gelaat door de wilden, II 332;
over het overdrijven der natuurlijke kenmerken door den mensch, II 342;
over het besmeren van het lichaam met roode verf door de Amerikaansche
Indianen, II 343.
H u m e , D., over sympathetische gevoelens, 193.
H u n e b e d d e n , zie M e g a l i t h i s c h e g e d e n k t e e k e n e n .
H u n n e n , platdrukken van den neus bij de oude —, II 343.
H u n t e r , J., over het aantal menschenrassen, 339;

over secundaire seksueele kenmerken, 434;
over het gewoon gedrag der vrouwelijke dieren in den paartijd, 451;
over de spieren van het strottenhoofd bij de zangvogels, II 52;
over het gekrulde haar op het voorhoofd van den stier, II 274;
over het niet toelaten van de liefkozingen van een ezel door een vrouwelijke
zebra, II 284.
H u n t e r , W. W., over de snelle toeneming van het aantal Santali’s, 76;

over de Santali’s, 361.
H u s s , Dr. Max, over tepelklieren, 285.
H u s s e y , de heer, over het onderscheiden van personen door een patrijs, II 105.
H u t c h i n s o n , Kol., voorbeeld van verstand in een jachthond, 127.
H u t t o n , Kap, over het vallen van een wilden bok op zijn horens, II 235.
H u w e l i j k , invloed van het — op de zeden, 205;

zelfbedwang bij het — onder de wilden, 75;
invloed van het — op de sterfte, 252;
de wijze waarop het — zich ontwikkeld heeft, II 355.
H u w e l i j k e n , communale —, II 352, 354;

vroege —, 250, 251.
H u x l e y , T. H., over de overeenkomst in den lichaamsbouw van apen en

menschen, 9;
over de overeenkomst der hersenen van den mensch met die van lagere dieren,
12;
over de lange jeugd van den orang, 15;
over de embryonale ontwikkeling van den mensch, 15;
[438]over het ontstaan van den mensch, 9, 17;
over de groote verscheidenheid in schedelvorm bij de inboorlingen van
Australië, 53;
over een afvoerende spier van het middelhandsbeen der pink bij de apen, 71;
over de plaats van den mensch in de natuur, 269;
over de hersenen van den mensch en de apen, 389;
over de geestvermogens van menschen en honden, 126;
over de onderorden der primaten, 272;
over de Lemuriden, 278;
over de Dinosauriërs, 280;
over de verwantschap der Ichthyosauriërs met de Amphibieën, 280;
over de verscheidenheid van den schedelvorm bij sommige menschenrassen,
339;
over de menschenrassen, 342.
Hydroporus, dimorphisme van de wijfjes van —, 438.
Hygrogomis, schitterende kleuren van —, II 18.
Hylae, zingende soorten van —, II 24.
Hyelaphus porcinus, II 292.
Hylobates, moederliefde van een —, 117;

gemis van den duim bij —, 82;
opgerichte gang van sommige soorten van —, 84;
richting der haren op de armen van sommige soorten van —, 270;
de wijfjes van — aan de onderzijde van hun lichaam minder behaard dan de
mannetjes, II 315.
Hylobates agilis, haar op de armen van —, 270;
muzikale stem van —, II 268;
wenkbrauwbogen van —, II 314;
stem van —, II 325.
Hylobates hoolock, seksueel verschil in kleur bij —, II 284.
Hylobates lar, 82;

haar op de armen van —, 270.
Hylobates leuciscus, 82.
Hylobates syndactylus, 82;

keelzak van —, II 268.
Hylophila prasinana, 576.
Hymenoptera, 551;
grootte van de hersengangliën bij de —, 86;
klassificatie van de —, 266;
seksueel verschil in de vleugels van de —, 534;
betrekkelijke grootte der seksen bij de angeldragende —, 536.
Hyomoschus aquaticus, II 292.
Hyperethra, verhouding der seksen bij —, 488.
Hypogymna dispar, seksueel verschil in kleur van —, 586.
Hypopyra, kleur van —, 585.
I.
I b i s , jongen van den scharlakenrooden —, II 196;

kleurverandering van de naakte deelen der huid van den — in den paartijd, II 77.
I b i s s e n , vlag van de vederen der —, II 70;

witte —, II 213;
witte en zwarte—, II 214.
Ibis tantalus, leeftijd van volwassen gevederte bij —, II 201;

broeden van — in onvolwassen gevederte, II 202.
Ichneumonidae, verschil der seksen bij de —, 552.
Ichthyopterygia, polydactylisme bij de —, 66.
I c h t h y o s a u r i ë r s , 280.
I d i o t e n , nabootsend vermogen van microcephale —, 137;

kenmerken en gewoonten van microcephale —, 64;
punten van gelijkenis tusschen — en dieren, 64.
Iguana tuberculata, II 30.
I m p l a c e n t a l e zoogdieren, 278.
I n b o r s t der honden en paarden, erfelijk, 118.
I n d i a a n , geëerd worden van den Amerikaanschen — als hij iemand van een
anderen stam scalpeert, 204.
I n d i ë , moeilijkheid om de rassen van inboorlingen in — te onderscheiden, 330;

Cyprinidae van —, II 16;
kleur van den baard bij de menschenrassen in —, II 315.
I n d i v i d u a l i t e i t , 132.
I n d i v i d u a t i e , 500.
Indopicus carlotta, kleuren der seksen bij —, II 167.
I n g e w a n d e n , variabiliteit der — bij den mensch, 53.
I n g e w a n d s w o r m e n (mannelijke), bijzondere organen van — om het wijfje

vast te houden, 437.
I n g e w a n d s w o r m e n , zie Entozoa. [439]
I n q u i s i t i e , invloed der —, 255.
Insectivora, II 277;
— leven niet in veelwijverij, 447.
I n s e k t e n , betrekkelijke grootte der hersengangliën bij de —, 86;

uit de pop komen der mannelijke — vóór de vrouwelijke, 440;
zoeken van de wijfjes door de mannetjes, 450;
tijdperk der ontwikkeling van seksueele kenmerken bij de —, 468;
secundaire seksueele kenmerken der —, 531;
gesjirp der —, II 324.
I n s e k t , fossiel — uit de Devonische vorming, 548.
I n s e k t e n , Gelijkvleugelige —, zie Homoptera.
I n s e k t e n , Halfvleugelige —, zie Hemiptera.
I n s e k t e n , Netvleugelige —, zie Neuroptera.
I n s e k t e n , Rechtvleugelige —, zie Orthoptera.
I n s e k t e n , Schildvleugelige —, zie Coleoptera.
I n s e k t e n , Schubvleugelige —, zie Lepidoptera.
I n s e k t e n , Vliesvleugelige —, zie Hymenoptera.
I n s e k t e n e t e r s , zie Insectivora.
Insessores, stemorganen der —, II 52.
I n s t i n k t , overwinning van het trekinstinkt op het moederlijk instinkt, 192, 197.
I n s t i n k t en verstand, 113.
I n s t i n k t e n , 113; ontstaan der samengestelde — door natuurlijke teeltkeus,

144;
mogelijke oorsprong van sommige —, 114;
sociale —, 181;
— door huisdieren na de temming verkregen, 188;
verschil in kracht der —, 192;
verschil in kracht van sociale en andere —, 197, 212;
— voor nieuwe doeleinden benuttigd, II 328.
I n s t i n k t m a t i g e aandriften, verschil in kracht van —, 195, 197;

samengaan van — en zedelijke gevoelens, 194.
I n s t i n k t m a t i g e daden het gevolg van erfelijkheid, 189.

I n s t r u m e n t a l e muziek van vogels, II 58, 62.
Iphias glaucippe, 582.
I r i s , seksueel verschil in kleur van de — bij vogels, II 68, 123.
I r i s v l i n d e r , 577.
Ithaginis cruentus, aantal sporen bij —, II 43.
J.
J a a r g e t i j d e , kleurveranderingen bij vogels met betrekking tot het —, II 77;

veranderingen in het gevederte der vogels met betrekking tot het —, II 171.
J a a r g e t i j d e n , overerving op overeenkomstige —, 460.
J a c h t h o n d e n , redeneerend vermogen van —, 127.
J a c q u i n o t , over het aantal menschenrassen, 336.
J a e g e r , Dr., over de moeilijkheid om kudden wilde dieren te naderen, 183;

over de toeneming van de lengte der beenderen, 60;
over de vervanging van een zilverlakenschen fazant die van zijn gevederte
beroofd was door een medeminnaar, II 115.
J a g u a r s , zwarte —, II 283.
J a k h a l z e n leeren wel eens blaffen van honden, 120.
J a n s o n , E. W., over de verhouding der seksen bij Tomicus villosus, 493;

over sjirpende kevers, 565.
J a p a n , aanmoediging der losbandigheid in —, 77.
J a p a n e e z e n , algemeene baardeloosheid der —, II 316;

afkeer der — van bakkebaarden, II 340.
J a r d i n e , Sir W., over den argusfazant, II 69, 93.
J a r r o l d , Dr., over wijzigingen in den schedel door onnatuurlijke houdingen, 88.
J a r v e s , over de Hawaii-eilanden, 356.

J a v a n e n , betrekkelijke lengte der seksen, II 316;
begrippen omtrent vrouwelijke schoonheid der —, II 339. [440]
J e f f r e y s , J . G w y n , over den vorm van de schelp bij de seksen van

Gasteropoda, 513;
over den invloed van het licht op de kleuren der schelpen, 515.
J e n n e r , Dr., over de stem van den roek, II 57;

over het vinden van nieuwe gezellen door eksters, II 100;
over den achterlijken toestand der voortplanting werktuigen bij sommige vogels,
II 102.
J e n y n s , L., over het verlaten der jongen door de zwaluwen, 192;

over mannelijke vogels die na den gewonen tijd zingen, II 102.
J e r d o n , Dr., over het droomen van vogels, 123;

over de strijdlustigheid van de mannelijke Bulbuls, II 39;
over de strijdlustigheid van den mannelijken Ortygornis gularis, II 42;
over de sporen van Galloperdix, II 45;
over de gewoonten van Lobivanellus, II 47;
over den lepelaar, II 57;
over het trommelen van den kalij-fazant, II 59;
over Indische trapganzen, II 61;
over Otis bengalensis, II 65;
over de kuif van Sypheotides auritus, II 70;
over de dubbele ruiing van sommige vogels, II 79;
over het ruien van honigvogels, II 79;
over het ruien van trapganzen en plevierachtige vogels, II 80;
over de wisseling van kleur der vinken in de lente, II 82;
over het pronken van mannelijke vogels, II 82;
over het pronken met de onderste staartdekvederen door den Bulbul, II 92;
over den Indischen wespendief, II 121;
over seksueele verschillen in de oogen der neushorenvogels, II 123;
over de strepen van den Tragopan-fazant, II 128;
over den nestbouw der wielewalen, II 161;
over den nestbouw der neushorenvogels, II 162;
over den Sultansmees, II 166;
over Palaeornis Javanicus, II 171;
over het onvolwassen gevederte der vogels, II 177 v.v.;
over elkander vertegenwoordigende soorten van vogels, II 180;
over de gewoonten van Turnix, II 192;
over de voortdurend toenemende schoonheid van den pauw, II 203;
over de kleur van het geslacht Palaeornis II 215.
J e v o n s , W. S., over de verhuizingen van den mensch, 78.
J i c h t , op de zelfde sekse overgeplant, 470.
J o d e n , gebruik van vuursteenen werktuigen bij de oude —, 259;

eenvormigheid der — in verschillende deelen der wereld, 362;
getalsverhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten bij de —, 477;
het tatoeëeren in zwang hij de oude —, II 332.
J o d e n a a p , zie Pithecia Satanas.
J o h n s t o n e , Luit., over den Indischen olifant, 446.
J o l l o f s , fraai uiterlijk der —, II 351.
J o n e s , Albert, verhouding der seksen bij Lepidoptera opgekweekt door —, 492.
J o n g e n s en meisjes, betrekkelijke sterfte van — in de eerste dagen der

kindsheid, 443, 478.
J u k b e e n , abnormale verdeeling van het — bij den mensch, 68.
Julus, vliezige zuigers aan de pooten der mannetjes van —, 528.
Junonia, seksueele kleurverschillen bij soorten van —, 578.
J u p i t e r , Grieksche standbeelden van —, II 341.
K.
K a f f e r s , hun wreedheid jegens dieren, 204;

luizen der —, 334;
kleur der —, II 338;
vermeestering der schoonste vrouwen door de hoofden der —, II 362;
huwelijken der —, II 366.
K a f f e r s c h e d e l , open ruimte tusschen de tanden van een —, 70.

K a k a t o e s , II 211, 213, 214;
bouwen van een nest door —, II 105.
K a k e n , in de zelfde reden ontwikkeld als de ledematen, 61;

invloed [441]van het voedsel op de grootte der —, 61;
verkleining der — bij den mensch, 85;
— bij den mensch door correlatie verkleind, II 319.
K a l k o e n , opzwellen der vleeschlappen bij den mannelijken —, II 68;

verscheidenheid van den — met een kuif, II 71;
herkenning van een hond door een —, II 106;
strijdlustigheid van de jonge mannetjes van den wilden —, II 47;
geluid van den wilden —, II 57;
het paren van wilde —sche hanen met tamme —sche hennen, II 114;
de eerste stappen bij den wilden — door de oudere wijfjes gedaan, II 116;
bos borstels op de borst van den wilden —, II 171.
K a l k o e n s c h e h a a n , schuren van den — met de vleugels langs den grond, II

58;
pronken met het gevederte van den wilden —, II 82;
gevechten van den —, II 94;
zie K a l k o e n .
Kallima, gelijkenis van — op een verdord blad, 581.
K a l m u k k e n , afkeer der — van haren op het gelaat, II 340;

huwelijken der —, II 365.
K a l i j - f a z a n t , trommelend geluid van den —, II 58;

jongen van den —, II 181.
K a m , oorsprong van den — bij kuifhoenders, 462;

ontwikkeling van den — bij vogels, 471.
K a m e e l , hondstanden van den mannelijken —, II 227, 243.
K a m e l e o n s , II 30.
K a m i c h i , II 45.
K a m m e n en vleeschlappen bij mannelijke vogels, II 94.

K a n a r i e , veelwijverij van den — in gevangen staat, 449;
verandering van gevederte na de ruiing, 471;
de best zingende mannetjes — door het wijfje gezocht, II 50;
het zingen van een onvruchtbaren bastaard —, II 50;
zingen van een wijfjes—, II 51;
keus van een groenling, II 111;
paring met een sijsje, II 111.
K a n a r i e s die personen onderscheiden, II 105.
K a n g o e r o e , seksueel verschil in kleur bij den grooten rooden —, II 277.
K a n o ’s, gebruik van —, 79, 346.
K a n o e t - s t r a n d l o o p e r , het houden der winterveeren door een —, II 78.
K a n t , Imm., over plicht, 180;

over zelfbeheersching, 195;
over het aantal menschenrassen, 339.
K a p e l a a n , borstelachtige schubben van den —, II 2.
K a p e l l e n , zie D a g v l i n d e r s .
K a p i t a a l , 246.
K a r p e r , getalsverhouding der seksen bij den —, 487.
K a r p e r v i s s c h e n , zie Cyprinidae.
K a s u a r i s , seksen en broeiing bij den —, II 193.
K a t , samengerold lichaam in het uiteinde van den staart eener —, 30;

sympathie van een hond voor een zieke —, 186.
K a t a r a c t , bij Cebus Azarae, 13.
K a t t e n , droomen van —, 123;

driekleurige —, 461, 463, 470;
— aangelokt door valeriaan, II 272;
kleuren van de —, II 283.
„K a t y - d i d ”, gesjirp van de —, 541.

K a u w s p i e r e n , invloed van de — op den schedel en de gelaatsuitdrukking der
apen, 85.
K e e n , Dr., over slangen, II 27.
K e e r k r i n g s l a n d e n , zoetwatervisschen der —, II 16.
K e e r k r i n g s v o g e l s , eerst wit, als zij volwassen zijn, II 213.
K e l l e r , Dr., over de moeilijkheid om steenen werktuigen te fatsoeneeren, 80.
K e m p h a a n , naar men meent veelwijvig, 448;

verhouding der seksen bij den —,464;
strijdlustigheid van den —, II 39, 47;
dubbele ruiing van den —, II 78, 80;
duur van de dansen van den —, II 97;
de — door schitterende voorwerpen gelokt, II 108.
K e n m e r k e n , mannelijke — bij wijfjes ontwikkeld, 458;

natuurlijke —, kunstmatige overdrijving der — door den mensch, II 340;
secundaire [442]seksueele — door beide seksen heên overgeplant, 458.
K e n n e d y , Alex., over de Maori’s, 352.
K e n t , W. S., over de vrijage bij Labrus mixtus, II 13.
K e r k u i l e n , nieuwe gezellen gevonden door —, II 101.
K e u s , door het wijfje uitgeoefend, II 98, 117.
K e u s , natuur—, zie N a t u u r l i j k e t e e l t k e u s ;
seksueele —, zie S e k s u e e l e t e e l t k e u s .
K e v e r , lichtende larve van een —, 534.
K e v e r s , 554;
geringe grootte van de hersengangliën bij de —, 86;
uitzetting van de voeten der voorpooten bij de mannetjes van vele —, 532;
blinde —, 554;
sjirporganen bij —, 564.
K i e s , atrophieeren van de achterste —, 27.

K i e v i t , knobbels op de vleugels van den mannelijken —, II 45.
K i e z e n , 27.
K i k v o r s c h , door zijn levendige kleuren beschermd, II 23.
K i k v o r s c h e n , II 22;
organen bij mannetjes der — tot opneming der eieren, 435;
mannelijke — eerder tot voortplanting gereed dan de wijfjes, 440;
stemorganen der —, II 24;
gevechten van —, II 24.
K i n d e r e n , verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige —, 477.
K i n d e r m o o r d , algemeenheid van —, 76, 77;

vermeende oorzaak van —, II 336;
algemeenheid en oorzaken van —, II 357 v.v.;
— bij de Toda’s en bij de Maori’s, 497;
bij de Sandwich-eilanders, 498;
bij de inboorlingen van Californië, 498.
K i n d e r l i e f d e , gedeeltelijk verkregen door natuurlijke teeltkeus, 191.
K i n g , W. R., over de stemorganen van Tetrao cupido, II 53;

over het trommelend geluid van boschhoenders, II 59;
over het rendier, II 229;
over het lokken der mannelijke herten door de stem der wijfjes, II 268.
K i n g en Fitzroy, over de huwelijken der Vuurlanders, II 366.
K i n g s l e y , C., over de geluiden, door Umbrina voortgebracht, II 20.
K i r b y en Spence, over het paren van insekten, 450;

over seksueele verschillen in de lengte van den snuit bij de Curculionidae, 436;
over de dekschilden van Dytiscus, 533;
over bijzonderheden aan de pooten van mannelijke insekten, 534;
over de betrekkelijke grootte der seksen bij de insekten, 536;
over het lichtgevend vermogen der insekten, 535;
over de Fulgoridae, 540;
over de gewoonten van Termieten, 551;
over het verschil in kleur bij de seksen van kevers, 555;
over de horens van mannelijke Bladsprietige Kevers, 558;
over hoornachtige uitsteeksels bij mannelijke Curculionidae, 560;
over de strijdlustigheid van het mannelijke Vliegende Hert, 563.
K l a p m u t s - r o b , kop van den —, II 269.
K l a s s i f i c a t i e , 265.
K l a u w i e r , Drongo—, II 170.
K l a u w i e r , roodkoppige, zie Lanius rufus.
K l a u w i e r e n , kenmerken der jongen van de —, II 177.
K l e u r , misschien afhankelijk van licht en warmte, 59;

verband tusschen de — en het beveiligd zijn tegen zekere vergiften en
parasieten, 363;
Lepidoptera kunnen misschien — bewonderen, 587;
verband tusschen — en sommige functies bij visschen, II 12;
verschil van — bij de seksen van slangen, II 26;
seksueel verschil van — bij hagedissen, II 32;
invloed der — bij het paren van vogels van verschillende soorten, II 111;
verband tusschen — en den nestbouw, II 160, 164;
seksueel verschil van — bij zoogdieren, [443]II 277, 283;
herkenning der — door zoogdieren, II 284;
— der kinderen bij verschillende menschenrassen, II 313;
— van de huid bij den mensch, II 373.
K l e u r e n , menschen en dieren bewonderen, 143;

schitterende — ontstaan door seksueele teeltkeus, —511;
schitterende — bij lagere dieren, 512;
schitterende — beschermend voor dagen nachtvlinders, 583;
schoone—van vlinders, 612;
overplanting van — bij vogels, II 154;
schitterende — bij mannelijke visschen, II 6, 12;
— van vogels, invloed van het klimaat op de —, II 120.
K l i e r e n van zoogdieren die een stinkende stof afscheiden, II 270, 271.
K l i m a a t , 59;
koud — gunstig voor den vooruitgang van den mensch, 214;
geschiktheid tot het wonen in een bepaald—, 332;
geschiktheid van den mensch om de uitersten van het — te verdragen, 349;
geen verband tusschen — en kleur, 363;
invloed van het — op de kleuren van vogels, II 120.
K l o k k e n van vogels, II 49.
K l o k v o g e l , seksueel kleurverschil bij den —, II 76;

kleuren van den —, II 212.
K n a a g d i e r e n , baarmoeder bij de —, 56;

— leven behalve wellicht de gewone rat niet in veelwijverij, 447;
seksueele kleurverschillen bij de —, II 277.
K n e u t j e , getalsverhouding der seksen van het —, 484;

karmozijnen voorhoofd en borst van het —, II 81;
vrijage van het —, II 91.
K n e v e l a a p , kleuren van den —, II 281, 298.
K n e v e l s bij apen, 270.
K n o r h a a n , geluid van den —, II 20.
K n o t s , oorsprong van de —, 346.
K n o x , R., over de plica semilunaris, 24;

over het foramen supra-condyloïdeum bij den mensch, 28;
over de gelaatstrekken van den jongen Memnon, 332.
K n i j p e r s , zie Chelae.
K o a l a , lengte van den blinden darm bij de —, 28.
Kobus ellipsiprymnus, verhouding der seksen bij —, 483.
K o e , verandering van haar bij de — in den winter, II 287.
K o e d o e , ontwikkeling van de horens van den —, 466;

teekening van den —, II 290.
K o e k o e k -hoenders, 471.
K o e k o e k s b e e n , 30;
in het menschelijk embryo, 17;
samengerold lichaam aan het einde van het —, 29;
in het lichaam omsloten, 92.
K o e p o k i n e n t i n g , invloed der —, 445.
K o e p o k k e n , overnemen van — door den mensch van de dieren, 13.
K o f f i e , apen zeer verzot op —, 13.
K o k e r j u f f e r s , zie Phryganidae.
K o l i b r i , raketvormige vederen in den staart van een —, II 70;

pronken met het gevederte door een mannelijken —, II 82.
K o l i b r i ’s, versiering der nesten door —, 143, II 108;

veelwijverij der —, 448;
verhouding der seksen bij de —, 485, II 207;
seksueele verschillen bij de —, 38, 144;
strijdlustigheid der —, II 39;
over de gewijzigde primaire slagpennen van de mannetjes der —, II 61;
kleur der seksen van —, II 70;
jongen der —, II 207;
nestbouw der —, II 161;
kleur der vrouwelijke —, II 161;
pronken der — bij de vrijage, II 145.
K o l o n i s t e n , voorspoed der Engelschen als —, 255.
K o n i j n , witte staart van het —, II 287.
K o n i j n e n , waarschuwen elkander voor gevaar, 184;

verlenging van den schedel bij de tamme —, 88;
wijziging van den schedel ten gevolge van het naar voren hangen van het oor,
88;
getalsverhouding der seksen bij de —, 482.
K o n i n g s k r a a i e n , over den nestbouw der —, II 161.
K o n i n g s l o r i , II 166;
onvolwassen [444]gevederte van den —, II 180;
aan zijn wijfje zeer gehecht, II 104.
K o o l v l i n d e r s , 581.
K o o r t s , het lijden van een hond aan derdendaagsche —, 14.
K o o r t s e n , negers en mulatten vrij van —, 363.
K o p , uitsteeksels op den — der mannetjes van de kevers, 557.
K ö p p e n , F. T., over den Treksprinkhaan, 541.
K o p p o o t i g e W e e k d i e r e n , zie Cephalopoda.
K o r a a l s l a n g e n , II 28.
K o r a k k e n , huwelijken der —, II 366.
K o r a l e n , schitterende kleur der —, 512.
K o r d o f a n , opgezwollen naden in het gezicht in —, II 332.
K o r h a a n , veelwijvig, 448;
verhouding der seksen bij den —, 464;
vurigheid en liefdedansen bij den —, II 42, 43;
roepen van den —, II 57;
ruiing van den —, II 79;
duur van de vrijage van den —, II 97;
seksueel kleurverschil bij den —, II 211;
karmozijn vel boven de oogen van den —, II 212;
bastaarden van — en fazant, II 109.
K o r h o e n d e r s , kenmerken van jonge —, 177, 185, zie K o r h a a n .
K ö r t e , over de verhouding der seksen bij de sprinkhanen, 494.
K o r t h o o f d i g e s c h e d e l v o r m , zie B r a c h y c e p h a l e s c h e d e l v o r m .
K o u d e , meening omtrent den invloed van —, 59;

geschiktheid van den mensch om — te verdragen, 348.
K o w a l e v s k y , A., over de verwantschap tusschen de Ascidiën en de

Gewervelde Dieren, 281.
K o w a l e v s k y , W., over de strijdlustigheid van den auerhaan, II 43;
over het paren van den auerhaan, II 47.
K r a a i , jongen van de —, II 197.
K r a a i - I n d i a n e n , lang haar der —, II 339.
K r a a i e n , II 211;
stemorganen der —, II 52;
het leven van — bij drietallen, 102;
nieuwe gezellen door — gevonden, II 100;
Indische — door hun makkers gevoed, 186.
K r a b , duivels—, 522.
K r a b , strand—, levenswijze van den —, 520.
K r a b b e n , verhouding der seksen bij —, 495.
K r a n k z i n n i g h e i d , erfelijk, 54.
K r a u s e , over een samengerold lichaam aan het einde van den staart bij een
Macacus en een kat, 30.
K r e k e l , huis—, gesjirp van den —, 541.
K r e k e l , veld—, gesjirp van den —, 542;

strijdlustigheid van het mannetje, 548.
K r e k e l s , seksueele verschillen bij —, 548.
K r i s t a l , gedragen in de onderlip van sommige vrouwen in Midden-Afrika, II 334.
K r o k o d i l l e n , muskaatachtige geur der — gedurende den paartijd, II 26.
K r o p p e r , late ontwikkeling van de groote krop van den —, 470.
K r u i d e n , vergiftige — door dieren vermeden, 113.
K r u i s b e k k e n , kenmerken der jongen bij de —, 176.
K r u i s i n g , van ratten, gevolgen van de —, 361;

voordeelig voor de vermenigvuldiging, 357.
K r u i s i n g e n bij den mensch, 338.
K u i s c h h e i d , vroege waardeering der —, 206.
K u i t s c h i e t e n der visschen, II 14, 17.
K u i v e n , der vogels, II 71;

verschil in de — bij de seksen der vogels, II 180.
K u n s t e n , bij de wilden bekend, 346.
K w a k e n der kikvorschen, II 24.
K w i k s t a a r t e n , jongen van Indische —, II 181.
K w i k s t a a r t , Ray’s —, aankomst van het mannetje vóór het wijfje, 440. [445]
L.
Labidocera Darwinii, grijporganen van de mannelijke —, 518.
Labrus, prachtige kleur van de soorten van —, II 14, 15.
Labrus mixtus, seksueele verschillen bij —, II 8;

vrijage van —, II 13.
Labrus pavo, II 14.
Lacertilia, seksueele verschillen bij —, II 29, 30.
L a f r e s n a y e , M. de, over de Paradijsvogels, II 71.
L a m a r c k , over den oorsprong van den mensch, 9.
L a m a ’s, gevechten der wilde —, II 225;

hoektanden der wilde —, II 243.
Lamellibranchiata, 513.
Lamellicornia, gesjirp van —, 566;

zie B l a d s p r i e t i g e k e v e r s .
L a m o n t , de heer, over de tanden van den walrus, II 227;

over het gebruik dat de walrus van zijn tanden maakt, II 242.
Lampornis porphyrurus, kleuren van het wijfje van —, II 161.
L a n d b o u w , waarschijnlijke oorsprong van den —, 244.
L a n d o i s , H., over het voortbrengen van geluid door de Cicadidae, 540;

over het lokken der muggen door gezang, 538;
over het sjirporgaan der krekels, 542;
over Decticus, 544;
over de sjirporganen der Acridiidae, 544;
over de rudimentaire sjirporganen van sommige vrouwelijke Orthoptera, 546;
over het gesjirp van Necrophorus, 564;
over het sjirporgaan van Cerambyx heros, 566;
over de sjirporganen van de Coleoptera, 567;
over het tikken van Anobium, 569;
over het sjirporgaan van Geotrupes, 566.
L a n d o r , Dr., over de inboorlingen van West-Australië, 200.
L a n g b e e n i g e muggen, strijdlustigheid van de mannetjes der —, 538.
L a n g h o o f d i g h e i d , zie D o l i c h o c e p h a l i e .
Lanius, II 171;
kenmerken der jongen van —, II 177.
Lanius rufus, afwijkende jongen van —, II 199.
L a n k e s t e r , E. R., schrijver van „Comparative Longevity”, 245, 248;

over den schadelijken invloed van onmatigheid, 250;
over het oor van den chimpanzee, 22.
L a n s v i s c h , geluid van den —, II 20.
L a n t a a r n d r a g e r s , zie Fulgoridae.
L a n u g o van den menschelijken foetus, 26, II 368.
L a p l a n d s c h e taal, zeer kunstig, 142.
L a r t e t , E., over de grootte der hersenen van zoogdieren, 130;

vergelijking van den inhoud der schedels van hedendaagsche en tertiaire
dieren, 87;
over Dryopithecus, 276.
Larus, winter- en zomerkleed van —, II 213.
L a r v e n , lichtgevend vermogen van de — van glimwormen, 535.
Lasiocampa quercus, het lokken der mannetjes van — door de wijfjes, 490;
seksueel verschil in kleur bij —, 586.
L a t h a m , R. G., over de veranderingen van woonplaats van den mensch, 78.
L a t o e k a , doorboren van de onderlip door de vrouwen van —, II 334.
L a u r i l l a r d , over de abnormale verdeeling van het jukbeen bij den mensch, 68.
L a w r e n c e , W., het gezicht der wilden scherper dan dat der Europeanen, 61;
over de kleur der negerkinderen, II 314;
over den hartstocht der wilden voor versiering, II 331;
over baardelooze rassen, II 340;
over de schoonheid der hoogere klassen in Engeland, II 351.
L a y a r d , E. L., over een voorbeeld van verstand bij een brilslang, II 27;
over de strijdlustigheid van Gallus stanleyi, II 42.
L a y c o c k , Dr., zijn werk over „Vital periodicity”, 14.
L a y c o c k , Prof., over idioten, 64.
L e c k y , de heer, over het plichtsgevoel, [446]181;

over zelfmoord, 204;
over de betrachting van den ongehuwden staat, 206;
zijn denkbeelden over de misdrijven der wilden, 207;
over het rijzen van het peil der zedelijkheid, 213.
L e c o m t e , de abt, over het Darwinisme en den oorsprong van den mensch, 399.
L e c o n t e , J. L., over het sjirporgaan der Coprini en Dynastini, 566.
L e e , H., over de getalsverhouding der seksen bij de forel, 487.
L e e f t i j d , beperking der overerving van kenmerken door den — bij vogels, II

175;

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Experience, Enrichment, and Brain Growth

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD: SLEEP FACILITATES LEARNING

BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNECTIONS: WHY DO PEOPLE

MAKING THE CONNECTIONS (Some of the connections are

Basic Processes of Learning

Experience, Enrichment, and Brain Growth

2. Combining stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and

5. Relating classical conditioning concepts to operant conditioning principles: Have

6. Classical conditioning: Through classical conditioning, innate responses—like salivation—

1. Bee waggle dance: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7ijI-g4jHg

1. Differentiating classical and operant conditioning worksheet:

H u i s m u s c h , zie Passer domesticus.

H u i s s l a v e n , verschil der — van veldslaven, 367.

H u m b o l d t , A. von, over het verstand van muilezels, 127;

H u m e , D., over sympathetische gevoelens, 193.

H u n n e n , platdrukken van den neus bij de oude —, II 343.

H u n t e r , J., over het aantal menschenrassen, 339;

H u n t e r , W. W., over de snelle toeneming van het aantal Santali’s, 76;

H u s s , Dr. Max, over tepelklieren, 285.

H u t c h i n s o n , Kol., voorbeeld van verstand in een jachthond, 127.

H u w e l i j k , invloed van het — op de zeden, 205;

H u w e l i j k e n , communale —, II 352, 354;

H u x l e y , T. H., over de overeenkomst in den lichaamsbouw van apen en

Hydroporus, dimorphisme van de wijfjes van —, 438.

Hygrogomis, schitterende kleuren van —, II 18.

Hylae, zingende soorten van —, II 24.

Hyelaphus porcinus, II 292.

Hylobates, moederliefde van een —, 117;

Hylobates hoolock, seksueel verschil in kleur bij —, II 284.

Hylobates lar, 82;

Hylobates leuciscus, 82.

Hylobates syndactylus, 82;

Hylophila prasinana, 576.

Hyomoschus aquaticus, II 292.

Hyperethra, verhouding der seksen bij —, 488.

Hypogymna dispar, seksueel verschil in kleur van —, 586.

Hypopyra, kleur van —, 585.

I b i s , jongen van den scharlakenrooden —, II 196;

I b i s s e n , vlag van de vederen der —, II 70;

Ibis tantalus, leeftijd van volwassen gevederte bij —, II 201;

Ichthyopterygia, polydactylisme bij de —, 66.

I d i o t e n , nabootsend vermogen van microcephale —, 137;