A06_final Report PD1-PD2_SEM 22'23

SEMESTER 2 2022/2023
BKC4934 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II
PRODUCTION OF 40,000 MTPA OF UREA FROM METHANE
SUPERVISOR: DR. SITI KHOLIJAH BINTI ABDUL MUDALIP
PREPARED BY: GROUP A06
NAME STUDENT ID
SUVEETHA A/P SUKUMARAN KA19178
RAJA ANAS NAZRIN BIN RAJA SHUHAIMI KA19070
NURUL IFFAH BINTI ABDUL HAMID KA19094
JASMINE HACQUEEN BT MOHD FARID KA19033
A design project submitted to the Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology

Universiti Malaysia Pahang
JUNE 2023
Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology
The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Chemical and
Process Engineering Technology for acceptance, a design project entitled production of 40,000
MTPA of Urea from Methane submitted by
SUVEETHA A/P SUKUMARAN KA19178
RAJA ANAS NAZRIN BIN RAJA SHUHAIMI KA19070
NURUL IFFAH BINTI ABDUL HAMID KA19094
JASMINE HACQUEEN BT MOHD FARID KA19033
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the B.Eng. (Hons.) Chemical Engineering.
Supervised by,
(DR SITI KHOLIJAH BINTI ABDUL MUDALIP)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor, Dr. Siti
Kholijah Binti Abdul Mudalip for her aspiring guidance, patience, motivation and friendly advice
during the design project work. Without her assistance and dedicated involvement throughout the
process, this design project would have never reach to a completion. We are highly indebted for
her guidance and constant supervisions as well as providing necessary information regarding the
project and her experience in completing the report project.
Apart from that, we would like to convey our gratitude towards all our panels for giving us
suggestions and constructive comments on our work for further improvements. Finally, we would
like to thank to each member of Group A06 for always been there for each other through thick and
thin. This plant design project report could not be completed without the cooperation of all the
group members. Furthermore, we would like to thank our family for the endless support, help and
motivation given to us. We are always in debt to them for their help especially the financial support
in preparing this report. Finally, we apologize all other unnamed who helped me in various ways
to complete our project.
We hope that this report will give the readers some insight about our urea production plant from
its planning stages until it is ready for start-up and commissioning.
Thank you.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The purpose of this project is to design to produces of urea from the methane by decomposition of
methane technology. This is because the urea is high demand and widely used in the agriculture
industry. To fulfil 20% of Malaysia market demand, the production plant was designed to produce
40,000 MTPA of urea and plant located at Kerteh Industrial Land, Terengganu.
In this process, there are three main reactions will be occurred. The first reactions are methane is
decomposed to produced carbon and hydrogen under the operating conditions of 1200°C and 1
atm. The second reaction is ammonia synthesis reaction by Haber-Bosch. In this reaction the
nitrogen and hydrogen will be reacted to produce the ammonia under the operating conditions of
480°C and 202 atm. The last reaction is urea synthesis reaction. In this reaction, the ammonia will
be reacted with the carbon dioxide to produce urea and water under the operating conditions of
185°C and 118 atm. The product was able to sell at a good price as high purity was achieved to
increase the overall production profit. The plant was designed follow heuristic analysis including
current process technologies, raw material supply, synthesis routes, site selection, and separation
technologies. All aspects were analysed, and process of mass and energy balance were manual
calculated and then compare with simulated from Aspen Plus model to make sure it is at optimum
condition. Then, heat integration, equipment sizing, and costing was calculated to minimize the
investment cost. Next, the control system, safety and environment aspect were analysed to
minimize the possible hazard and to make sure the waste are non-hazardous before it disposed to
environment. Lastly, economic analysis was complete for this project.
Chapter 1: Introduction
In this chapter, the chemical characteristics, physical properties, and uses of urea were discussed.
Then, a market survey was conducted to evaluate the plant’s production capacity by analysing
existing and future net demand on the global market and Malaysia market. The process technology
was chosen after a comparison with a few existing technologies, and the synthesis route were then
explained in detail. Next, with a draft plant layout, the appropriate location was chosen to
manufacture the proposed facility. Lastly, all the decisions were made based on a discussion and
comparison of many factors were discussed in Chapter 1.
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Chapter 2: Process Screening and Synthesis
In this chapter were separate into three sections, Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. For Level 1, process
synthesis route was screened by comparing the profit margin, reaction conversion, operating
condition, catalyst type, safety, and many other factors among all the requirements. Next, for Level
2 were made based on the process need and heuristics. Furthermore, by using polymath software,
the operating temperature, pressure, and feed ratio were tested to identify the best conditions. In
Level 3, the unreacted components will be recycled back. Thus, the waste is directly discharged.
Lastly, using the overall material balance equation obtained in this chapter, the economic potential
for Level 2 and Level 3 was estimated to provide a preliminary estimate of the plant.
Chapter 3: Process PFD &MEB
In this chapter, the process flow diagram was developed, and each equipment function was
discussed. Manual mass and energy balance calculations have been done and compared to
simulation results where Aspen Plus software is used. To ensure the accuracy of the outcome, the
error variation between manual and simulation was less than 5% for mass balance and 20% for
energy balance. In addition, for economic potential Level 4, the estimated utilities required for
process operation were determined.
Chapter 4: Heat Integration
In this chapter, based on the plant design, the equipment utility and heat integration. Heat
integration is carried out using pinch technology, the result for energy saving is 41.08% and 100%
for cold and hot utilities, respectively. The hot and cold utilities are computed when the pinch is
determined, and the heat exchanger network is shown on the process flow diagram. Steam, cooling
water, and electricity were taken in the account for utilities. After heat integration, the total utilities
cost is RM 56,989,707.63.
Chapter 5: Equipment Sizing & Costing
In this chapter, for the part sizing of all the equipment involved in the design of this plant was be
done for major (reactor, distillation column, flash column, and separator) and minor equipment’s
(compressor, mixer, pump, storage tank, heat exchanger, and valve). Fluid allocation for hot and
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cold fluid will be done for each heat exchanger and types of trays for the column are determined.
The calculated specifications, such as dimensions and mechanical data for each major unit were
tabulated and the cost was determined. All design calculations and mechanical calculations are
attached at the appendices for further understanding.
Chapter 6: Process Control and Safety
In this chapter, for the procedure for control system design are outlined and control system are
designed for every type of equipment in the plant. Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is
then constructed based on the equipment control. Then, identifications of hazards, the properties
of each chemical are summarized. HAZOP is carried out to identify the possible deviations of
equipment and its causes and consequences. Necessary actions and safeguards are recommended
for the equipment. Lastly, the PFD diagram will be updated to P&ID based on the addition control
system and requirements from HAZOP analysis.
Chapter 7: Waste Management and Pollution Control
In this chapter, the waste generated which including flue gas and wastewater from the production
plant was summarized. Besides, the treatment system was designed to treat the waste to comply
with the standard that set by Department of Environment (DOE). Conceptual waste treatment
system is designed to discharged comply with the environmental acts. The process description is
outlined, and the design specifications of waste treatment is tabulated. The total treatment cost for
gas, liquid and solid waste were calculated as RM 2,252,957.19
Chapter 8: Economic Analysis
The subject of this chapter is the economic analysis of the designed plant. First, the grass root
capital cost for all the equipment will be calculated. The Fixed Capital Investment is discussed,
and the Total Capital Investment will be calculated. The direct manufacturing cost will be
calculated by summing up all the raw material, utilities, waste treatment, and operating labour cost.
The fixed manufacturing cost and the general expenses are calculated. Then, cash flow analysis is
to be done, and cumulative non-discounted cash flow analysis, cumulative discounted cash flow
analysis, payback period, financial ratio and operating margin ratio will be roughly discussed and
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calculated. Finally, after calculating the gross profit margin and the net profit margin, the final
feasibility of the designed plant will be determined.
Chapter 9: Conclusion
In this chapter, will be conclude on the feasibility of setting up the plant from Chapter 1 to Chapter
8 and the economic feasibility will also be summarized.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .........................................................................................................................................iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................ iv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................... xvii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................................... 1
PROJECT BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Background of Urea ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Physical & Chemical Properties ................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Toxicity of Urea ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.3.1 Mechanism of Toxicity ............................................................................................................... 3
1.1.3.2 Safety and Precautions .............................................................................................................. 4
1.2 APPLICATION OF UREA .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Agriculture ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Automobile system.......................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Laboratory.......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.4 Medical Use ........................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 MARKET SURVEY ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Overview of Urea.............................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.2 Global Market .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Global Supply and Demand of Urea ........................................................................................ 10
1.3.4 Urea in Asia Pacific ....................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.5 Urea in Malaysia ............................................................................................................................ 13
1.3.6 Market Analysis for Urea ........................................................................................................... 14
1.3.7 Market Analysis for Raw Materials ........................................................................................ 15
1.3.7.1 Methane ....................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.7.2 Hydrogen ..................................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.8 Plant Capacity ................................................................................................................................ 18
1.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 19
1.4.1 Partial oxidation of methane .................................................................................................... 19
1.4.2 Steam Methane Reformer .......................................................................................................... 20
1.4.3 Decomposition of methane ....................................................................................................... 21
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1.4.4 Comparison ..................................................................................................................................... 22
1.5 SITE SELECTION & PLANT LAYOUT ................................................................................................. 23
1.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 23
1.5.2 Site Selection Factors .................................................................................................................. 23
1.5.3 Overview of strategic locations ............................................................................................... 25
1.5.4 Comparison of potential site location ................................................................................... 35
1.5.5 Plant Layout .................................................................................................................................... 40
1.6 OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................................ 52
PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS ............................................................................................................. 52
2.1 LEVEL 1: PROCESS SELECTION .......................................................................................................... 52
2.1.1 Comparison of Hydrogen Production Routes from Methane........................................ 52
2.1.2 Economic Potential 1 (Profit Margin) ................................................................................... 56
2.1.2.1 Profit Margin for Partial oxidation of methane ............................................................. 56
2.1.2.2 Profit Margin for Steam Methane Reforming (SMR).................................................... 60
2.1.2.3 Profit Margin for Catalytic decomposition of Methane (CDM) ................................. 64
2.1.3 Selection of Synthesis Route ..................................................................................................... 69
2.1.4 Decision of Process Mode .......................................................................................................... 71
2.2 LEVEL 2: INPUT & OUTPUT STRUCTURE BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM ...................................... 72
2.2.1 Raw Material Selection and Impurities Management ..................................................... 72
2.2.2 Output materials determination and decision of destinations .................................... 73
2.2.3 Input-Output Block Flow Diagram (Bfd) For Urea Production .................................... 75
2.2.4 Block Flow Diagram of Decomposition of Methane ......................................................... 76
2.2.4.1 Mole Balance in Terms of Extent of Reaction ................................................................. 76
2.2.4.2 Degree of Freedom Analysis ................................................................................................. 76
2.2.4.3 Stoichiometry ............................................................................................................................ 77
2.2.4.5 Yield, Selectivity and Material Balance for Decomposition of Methane ............... 79
2.2.5 Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor ....................................................... 79
2.2.5.3 Stoichiometry ............................................................................................................................ 81
2.2.5.4 Reaction Kinetics ...................................................................................................................... 81
2.2.5.6 Yield, selectivity and Material Balance of ammonia synthesis reactor. ............... 82
2.2.6 Block Flow Diagram of Urea Plant .......................................................................................... 84
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2.2.6.3 Stoichiometry ............................................................................................................................ 86
2.2.6.4 Reaction Kinetics ...................................................................................................................... 87
2.2.6.5 Yield, selectivity, conversion and material balance of urea reactor` .................... 87
2.2.7 Economic Potential Level 2 ....................................................................................................... 88
2.3 LEVEL 3: REACTOR AND RECYCLE STRUCTURE .......................................................................... 92
2.3.1 Decision on Recycle Stream ...................................................................................................... 92
2.3.1.1 Urea Plant.................................................................................................................................... 92
2.3.1.2 Ammonia Plant .......................................................................................................................... 92
2.3.2 Decision on Reactor Type .......................................................................................................... 93
2.3.2.1 Decomposition of methane Reactor .................................................................................. 93
2.3.2.2 Ammonia Reactor ..................................................................................................................... 93
2.3.2.3 Urea Reactor .............................................................................................................................. 93
2.3.3 Block Flow Diagram for Urea Plant ........................................................................................ 94
2.3.3.1 Degree of Freedom Analysis ..................................................................................................... 94
2.3.3.2 Material Balance for Urea Plant .............................................................................................. 95
2.3.3.3 Reactor Design ............................................................................................................................... 97
2.3.3.3.1 Reaction Kinetics ................................................................................................................. 97
2.3.3.3.2 Heat Effects ............................................................................................................................. 98
2.3.4 Block Flow Diagram for Ammonia Plant ............................................................................ 101
2.3.4.1 Degree of Freedom Analysis ................................................................................................... 101
2.3.4.2 Material Balance Level 3 .......................................................................................................... 102
2.3.4.3 Reactor Design ............................................................................................................................. 103
2.3.4.3.1 Reaction Kinetics ............................................................................................................... 103
2.3.4.3.2 Heat Effects ........................................................................................................................... 104
2.3.5 Economic Potential level 3 ...................................................................................................... 107
2.3.5.1 Reactor cost .............................................................................................................................. 107
2.3.5.2 Compressor Cost ..................................................................................................................... 112
2.3.5.3 Catalyst cost.............................................................................................................................. 117
CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 119
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE ............................................................................................................ 119
3.1 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM ................................................................................................................ 119
3.1.1 Process Description ................................................................................................................... 119
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3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram............................................................................................................... 121
3.2 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE MANUAL CALCULATION ............................................... 124
3.2.1 Material Balance for Minor Equipment .............................................................................. 125
3.2.1.1 Heater (E-101) ......................................................................................................................... 125
3.2.1.2 Cooler (E-102) ......................................................................................................................... 125
3.2.1.3 Cooler (E-103) ......................................................................................................................... 126
3.2.1.4 Cooler (E-104) ......................................................................................................................... 126
3.2.1.5 Heater (E-105) ......................................................................................................................... 127
3.2.1.6 Cooler (E-106) ......................................................................................................................... 127
3.2.1.7 Cooler (E-107) ......................................................................................................................... 128
3.2.1.8 Mixer (M-101).......................................................................................................................... 129
3.2.1.9 Mixer (M-102).......................................................................................................................... 129
3.2.1.10 Splitter (M-103) .................................................................................................................. 130
3.2.1.11 Mixer (M-104) ..................................................................................................................... 131
3.2.1.12 Compressor (C-101) .......................................................................................................... 131
3.2.1.13 Compressor (C-102) .......................................................................................................... 132
3.2.1.14 Pump (P-101) ...................................................................................................................... 133
3.2.2 Material Balance for Major Equipment............................................................................... 133
3.2.2.1 Reactor (R-101) ........................................................................................................................... 133
3.2.2.2 Reactor (R-102) ........................................................................................................................... 134
3.2.2.3 Reactor (R-103) ........................................................................................................................... 135
3.2.2.4 Separator (V-101) ....................................................................................................................... 136
3.2.2.5 Flash Column (V-102)................................................................................................................ 137
3.2.2.6 Separator (V-103) ....................................................................................................................... 137
3.2.2.7 Distillation Column (T-101).................................................................................................... 138
3.2.3 Energy Balance for Minor Equipment ................................................................................. 139
3.2.3.1 Heater (E-101) ............................................................................................................................. 139
3.2.3.2 Cooler (E-102) .............................................................................................................................. 140
3.2.3.3 Cooler (E-103) .............................................................................................................................. 140
3.2.3.4 Cooler (E-104) .............................................................................................................................. 141
3.2.3.5 Heater (E-105) ............................................................................................................................. 142
3.2.3.6 Cooler (E-106) .............................................................................................................................. 142
3.2.3.7 Cooler (E-107) .............................................................................................................................. 143
3.2.3.8 Mixer (M-101) .............................................................................................................................. 144
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3.2.3.9 Mixer (M-102) .............................................................................................................................. 144
3.2.3.10 Splitter (M-103) ...................................................................................................................... 145
3.2.3.11 Mixer (M-104).......................................................................................................................... 146
3.2.3.12 Compressor (C-101) .............................................................................................................. 147
3.2.3.13 Compressor (C-102) .............................................................................................................. 147
3.2.3.14 Pump (P-101)........................................................................................................................... 148
3.2.4 Energy Balance for Major Equipment ................................................................................. 149
3.2.4.1 Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101) ....................................................................................................... 149
3.2.4.2 Ammonia Reactor (R-102) ...................................................................................................... 150
3.2.4.3 Urea Reactor (R-103) ................................................................................................................ 151
3.2.4.4 Separator (V-101) ....................................................................................................................... 152
3.2.4.5 Flash Column (V-102)................................................................................................................ 153
3.2.4.6 Separator (V-103) ....................................................................................................................... 154
3.2.4.7 Distillation Column (T-101).................................................................................................... 155
3.3 PROCESS SIMULATION ....................................................................................................................... 156
3.3.1 Process Flow Diagram from Aspen Plus ............................................................................. 156
3.3.2 Summary of Simulation Results ............................................................................................ 158
3.4 COMPARISON OF MANUAL CALCULATION AND ASPEN SIMULATION ............................... 166
3.4.1 Material Balance Manual and Simulation .......................................................................... 166
3.4.2 Energy Balance Manual and Simulation ............................................................................. 167
3.4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 168
3.5 UTILITIES USAGE AND COST ............................................................................................................ 168
CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................................................................................................... 170
UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION............................................................................................................... 170
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 170
4.2 HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK ........................................................................................................ 170
4.2.1 Pinch Technology........................................................................................................................ 171
4.2.2 Construction of Stream Table................................................................................................. 171
4.2.3 Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature ............................................................... 172
4.2.4 Shifting of temperature stream table. ................................................................................. 172
4.2.5 Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram ............................................................. 173
4.2.6 Cascade Diagram ......................................................................................................................... 175
4.2.7 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) Design Based on Pinch Point .................................. 177
4.2.8 Maximum Energy Recovery .................................................................................................... 179
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4.3 PROCESS UTILITIES............................................................................................................................. 180
4.3.1 Steam ............................................................................................................................................... 180
4.3.2 Cooling Water Consumption ................................................................................................... 181
4.3.3 Electricity Consumption ........................................................................................................... 182
4.3.4 Economic Potential 4 ................................................................................................................. 184
CHAPTER 5 .......................................................................................................................................................... 186
PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING .......................................................................................... 186
5.1 MAJOR EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................................ 186
5.1.1 REACTOR........................................................................................................................................ 186
5.1.2 DISTILLATION COLUMN (T-101) ........................................................................................... 190
5.1.3 MEMBRANE SEPARATOR ......................................................................................................... 192
5.1.4 FLASH COLUMN............................................................................................................................ 194
5.2 MINOR EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................................ 197
5.2.1 COMPRESSOR ............................................................................................................................... 197
5.2.2 MIXER .............................................................................................................................................. 199
5.2.3 PUMP ............................................................................................................................................... 202
5.2.4 STORAGE TANK ........................................................................................................................... 204
5.2.5 HEAT EXCHANGER ...................................................................................................................... 205
5.2.6 VALVE .............................................................................................................................................. 213
CHAPTER 6 .......................................................................................................................................................... 215
PROCESS CONTROL AND SAFETY STUDIES .............................................................................................. 215
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 215
6.1.1 General Safety Procedure ........................................................................................................ 215
6.1.2 Chemical Storage......................................................................................................................... 216
6.1.3 Transportation ............................................................................................................................ 216
6.1.4 Permit Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 217
6.1.5 General Worker Safety.............................................................................................................. 217
6.1.6 Emergency Response Plan....................................................................................................... 219
6.1.7 Waste Disposal Operation ....................................................................................................... 220
6.2 EQUIPMENT CONTROL....................................................................................................................... 221
6.2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 221
6.2.2 Standard Symbols of Control Elements .............................................................................. 222
6.2.3 CONTROL SYSTEM OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 225
6.2.3.1 Control System of Reactor, R-101 ..................................................................................... 225
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6.2.3.4 Control System for Separator............................................................................................. 230
6.2.3.7 Control System of Distillation Column, T-101.............................................................. 234
6.2.4 CONTROL SYSTEM OF MINOR EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 237
6.2.4.1 Control system of mixer ....................................................................................................... 237
6.2.4.2 Control system of splitter, M-103 ..................................................................................... 238
6.2.4.3 Control system of compressor, C-101 and C-102 ........................................................ 239
6.2.4.4 Control system of pump, P-101 ......................................................................................... 240
6.2.4.5 Control system of storage tank, TK-101 ......................................................................... 241
6.2.4.6 Control system of heat exchanger .................................................................................... 242
6.2.5 P&ID................................................................................................................................................. 245
6.3 IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS ....................................................................................................... 246
6.3.1 FLAMMABILITY ....................................................................................................................... 246
6.3.2 FLAMMABLE PREVENTION ................................................................................................. 246
6.3.3 FIRE EXTINGUISHER .............................................................................................................. 247
6.3.4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS) .................................................................... 247
6.4 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDIES (HAZOP) ....................................................................... 250
6.4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 250
6.4.2 HAZOP for Major Equipment .................................................................................................. 253
6.4.2.1 HAZOP for Reactor ................................................................................................................. 254
6.4.2.2 HAZOP for Separator ............................................................................................................. 257
6.4.2.3 HAZOP for Distillation Column .......................................................................................... 261
6.4.3 HAZOP for minor equipment .................................................................................................. 262
6.4.3.1 HAZOP for Mixer ..................................................................................................................... 263
6.4.3.2 HAZOP for Splitter.................................................................................................................. 264
6.4.3.3 HAZOP for Compressor ........................................................................................................ 265
6.4.3.4 HAZOP for Pump ..................................................................................................................... 267
6.4.3.5 HAZOP for Storage Tank ...................................................................................................... 268
6.4.3.6 HAZOP for Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................. 269
CHAPTER 7 .......................................................................................................................................................... 271
WASTE MANAGEMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL............................................................................. 271
7.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 271
7.2 SOURCES OF WASTE............................................................................................................................ 273
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7.3 RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL ACT ................................................................................................... 276
7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 ........................................................................................... 276
7.3.2 Sewage Service Act 1993 (Act 508) ............................................................................................. 280
7.3.3 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards ............................................................................... 280
7.3.4 Standard Quality of Discharged Air and Water ...................................................................... 282
7.3.5 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B ........ 283
7.4 WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 284
7.4.1 Waste treatment (gas) .............................................................................................................. 284
7.4.2 Wastewater treatment system............................................................................................... 289
7.4.2.1 Wastewater Effluent Characteristics............................................................................... 289
7.4.2.2 Process Flow of Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................ 290
7.4.2.3 Process Description for Wastewater Treatment ........................................................ 291
7.4.3 Sizing and Costing of Equipment ........................................................................................... 294
7.5 SUMMARY OF COSTING ...................................................................................................................... 297
CHAPTER 8 .......................................................................................................................................................... 298
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS....................................................................................................................................... 298
8.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 298
8.2 COSTING .................................................................................................................................................. 299
8.2.1 Equipment Cost and Bare Module Cost ............................................................................... 299
8.2.2 Grass Root Capital Cost ............................................................................................................. 300
8.2.3 Fixed Capital Investment ......................................................................................................... 301
8.2.4 Manufacturing and Operational Expenses ........................................................................ 302
8.3 PROFORMA FINANCIAL STATEMENT ........................................................................................... 307
8.3.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis ............................................................ 308
8.3.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis...................................................................... 310
8.3.3 Net Present Value (NPV) .......................................................................................................... 313
8.4 FINANCIAL RATIOS.............................................................................................................................. 314
8.4.1 Activity Ratios .............................................................................................................................. 314
8.4.2 Profitability Ratio ....................................................................................................................... 314
8.4.3 Rate of Investment (ROI) ......................................................................................................... 315
8.5 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................... 316
CHAPTER 9 .......................................................................................................................................................... 317
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................................... 317
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................................... 320
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APPENDIX A: POLYMATH CODING .............................................................................................................. 327
APPENDIX B: MASS BALANCE LEVEL 2 MANUAL CALCULATION...................................................... 336
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION OF ENERGY BALANCE .............................................................................. 343
APPENDIX D: SIZING AND COSTING OF EQUIPMENT ........................................................................... 355
APPENDIX E: ASPEN SIMULATION REPORT ............................................................................................ 495
APPENDIX F: MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS) .................................................................... 538
APPENDIX G: SIZING AND COSTING FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT ......................................... 556
APPENDIX H: INDUSTRIAL AND UMP PANEL’S COMMENT ON FINAL PRESENTATION ............ 569
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1: 2D Structure of Urea Compound................................................................................. 1

Figure 1. 2: Market share of application of urea in percentage ...................................................... 5
Figure 1. 3: Urea Market Share, By Grade and by volume ............................................................ 8
Figure 1. 4: Global Urea Capacity by Region............................................................................... 10
Figure 1. 5: Urea Supply and Demands Based on Trading Economics ........................................ 10
Figure 1. 6: Asia Pacific Fertilizer Market (2022-2028) .............................................................. 13
Figure 1. 7: Urea Market Snapshot ............................................................................................... 15
Figure 1. 8: U.S. Coal Bed Methane Market Size ........................................................................ 17
Figure 1. 9: U.S. Hydrogen Generation Market............................................................................ 18
Figure 1. 10: Block Flow Diagram of Partial Oxidation of Methane ........................................... 19
Figure 1. 11: Block Flow Diagram of Steam Methane Reformer................................................ 20
Figure 1. 12: Process Flow of Steam Methane Reformer ............................................................. 21
Figure 1. 13: Decomposition of methane to produced economy hydrogen .................................. 22
Figure 1. 14: Map of Industrial Land Kerteh, Terengganu ........................................................... 27
Figure 1. 15: Map of Pasir Gudang Tanjung Langsat Industrial Land ......................................... 30
Figure 1. 16: Map of Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang ................................................................. 32
Figure 1. 17: Map of Kidurong Industrial Area Bintulu, Sarawak ............................................... 34
Figure 1. 18: Plant Layout of Urea Production Plant.................................................................... 41
Figure 2. 1: Process flow in partial oxidation ............................................................................... 56
Figure 2. 2: Block Flow Diagram of Production of Urea via Steam Methane Reforming ........... 60
Figure 2. 3: Carbon dioxide free production of hydrogen ............................................................ 64
Figure 2. 4: Block Flow Diagram of Urea Production.................................................................. 75
Figure 2. 5: Block Flow Diagram of Decomposition of Methane ................................................ 76
Figure 2. 6: Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor .............................................. 79
Figure 2. 7: Graph of Yield Vs Conversion for Ammonia Reactor .............................................. 83
Figure 2. 8: Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor .............................................. 83
Figure 2. 9: Block flow diagram for Urea plant............................................................................ 84
Figure 2. 10: Block Flow Diagram of Urea Reactor ..................................................................... 87
Figure 2. 11: Graph of Economic potential 2 with different conversion ...................................... 91
xvii
Figure 2. 12: Block Flow Diagram for Production of Urea .......................................................... 94
Figure 2. 13: BFD for ammonia process ..................................................................................... 101
Figure 2. 14: Cost of ammonia reactor at different conversion .................................................. 110
Figure 2. 15: Bare Module Factors for Equipment ..................................................................... 113
Figure 2. 16: Cost of compressor at different conversion ........................................................... 114
Figure 2. 17: Equations for Bare Module Cost for Equipment ................................................... 116
Figure 2. 18: Bare Module Factors for Equipment ..................................................................... 116
Figure 2. 19: Cost of catalyst at different conversion ................................................................. 118
Figure 3. 1: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Urea Production from Methane (Microsoft Visio)
..................................................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 3. 2: Diagram of Heater (E-101)...................................................................................... 125
Figure 3. 3: Diagram of Cooler (E-102) ..................................................................................... 125
Figure 3. 6: Diagram of Heater (E-105)...................................................................................... 127
Figure 3. 9: Diagram of Mixer (M-101) ..................................................................................... 129
Figure 3. 10: Diagram of Mixer (M-102) ................................................................................... 129
Figure 3. 11: Diagram of Splitter (M-103) ................................................................................. 130
Figure 3. 12: Diagram of Mixer (M-104) ................................................................................... 131
Figure 3. 13: Diagram of Compressor (C-101) ........................................................................... 131
Figure 3. 14: Diagram of Compressor (C-102) ........................................................................... 132
Figure 3. 15: Diagram of Pump (P-101) ..................................................................................... 133
Figure 3. 16: Diagram of Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101).................................................................. 133
Figure 3. 17: Diagram of Ammonia Reactor (R-102)................................................................. 134
Figure 3. 18: Diagram of Urea Reactor (R-103) ......................................................................... 135
Figure 3. 19: Diagram of Separator (V-101) .............................................................................. 136
Figure 3. 20: Diagram of Flash Column (V-102) ...................................................................... 137
Figure 3. 21: Diagram of Separator (V-103) ............................................................................. 137
Figure 3. 22: Diagram of Distillation Column (T-101) .............................................................. 138
xviii
Figure 3. 23: Flow diagram of Heater (E-101) ........................................................................... 139
Figure 3. 24: Flow diagram of Cooler (E-102) ........................................................................... 140
Figure 3. 27: Flow diagram of Heater (E-105) ........................................................................... 142
Figure 3. 30: Flow diagram of Mixer (M-101) ........................................................................... 144
Figure 3. 32: Flow diagram of Splitter (M-103) ......................................................................... 145
Figure 3. 34: Flow diagram of Compressor (C-101) .................................................................. 147
Figure 3. 35: Flow diagram of Compressor (C-102) .................................................................. 147
Figure 3. 36: Flow diagram of Pump (P-101) ............................................................................. 148
Figure 3. 37: Flow diagram of Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101) ......................................................... 149
Figure 3. 38: Flow diagram of Ammonia Reactor (R-102) ........................................................ 150
Figure 3. 39: Flow diagram of Urea Reactor (R-103) ................................................................ 151
Figure 3. 40: Flow diagram Separator (V-101) .......................................................................... 152
Figure 3. 41: Flow diagram of Flash Column (V-102) ............................................................... 153
Figure 3. 42: Flow diagram of Separator (V-103) ...................................................................... 154
Figure 3. 43: Flow diagram of Distillation Column (T-101) ...................................................... 155
Figure 3. 44: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Urea Production from Methane (Aspen Plus V12)
..................................................................................................................................................... 157
Figure 4.1 Temperature Interval Diagram .................................................................................. 174
Figure 4.2 : Cascade Diagram for Pinch Analysis ...................................................................... 176
Figure 4.3 : Heat Exchanger Network for Integration of Heat Duty .......................................... 177
Figure 4.4 : Heat Exchanger Network for Integration of Temperature ...................................... 178
Figure 4.5 : Integrated Process Flow Diagram ..............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6. 1: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-101) ................................................. 225
Figure 6. 2: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-102) ................................................. 227
Figure 6. 3: Control and Feedback System of R-103.................................................................. 229
xix
Figure 6. 4: Control and Feedback System of V-101 ................................................................. 230
Figure 6. 5 : Control and Feedback System of V-102 ................................................................ 232
Figure 6. 6: Control and Feedback System of V-103 ................................................................. 233
Figure 6. 7: Control and Feedback System of T-101 .................................................................. 235
Figure 6. 8: Control and Feedback System of Mixer .................................................................. 237
Figure 6. 9: Control and Feedback System of M-103 ................................................................. 238
Figure 6. 10: Control and Feedback System of C-101................................................................ 239
Figure 6. 11: Control and Feedback System of C-102................................................................ 240
Figure 6. 12: Control and Feedback System of P-101 ................................................................ 241
Figure 6. 13: Control and Feedback System of TK-101 ............................................................. 242
Figure 6. 14: Control and Feedback System of Heater ............................................................... 243
Figure 6. 15: Control and Feedback System of Cooler ............................................................... 243
Figure 7. 1: Flare system of waste gas disposal .......................................................................... 285
Figure 7. 2: Process Flow Diagram for Wastewater Treatment Plant ........................................ 290
Figure 8. 1:Graph of Cumulative Non-discounted Cash Flow Analysis .................................... 308
Figure 8. 2: Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis........................................... 310
Figure 8. 3: Graph of NPV vs Interest Rate ................................................................................ 313
xx
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of Ammonia, Methane and Urea............................ 2

Table 1. 2: Details of Industry Trends ............................................................................................ 8
Table 1. 3: Comparison of three different routes .......................................................................... 22
Table 1. 4: Site Selection Factors ................................................................................................. 24
Table 1. 5: Score and Interpretation of Evaluation for Site Location ........................................... 35
Table 1. 6: Potential Site Selection ............................................................................................... 35
Table 2. 1: Description of ratings for each synthesis route........................................................... 52
Table 2. 2: Summary comparison of hydrogen production from methane synthesis route .......... 52
Table 2. 3: Profit Margin Calculation for Partial Oxidation of Methane...................................... 59
Table 2. 4: Profit Margin Calculation for Steam Methane Reforming ......................................... 63
Table 2. 5: Cost and Molecular Weight of Raw Materials and Products ..................................... 64
Table 2. 6: Profit Margin Calculation for Decomposition of Methane......................................... 69
Table 2. 7: Guideline for choosing between batch operation or continuous operation. ............... 71
Table 2. 8: Process Requirement for Production of Urea ............................................................. 72
Table 2. 9: Purity and prices data for raw material ....................................................................... 72
Table 2. 10: Boiling Point and output destination ........................................................................ 73
Table 2. 11: Mole balance of methane decomposition on level 2 decision .................................. 76
Table 2. 12: Degree of freedom (decomposition of methane) ...................................................... 77
Table 2. 13: Stoichiometry table for hydrogen synthesis ............................................................. 77
Table 2. 14: Summary of species flow for Decomposition of Methane ....................................... 79
Table 2. 15: Mole Balance of Ammonia Reactor on Level 2 Decision ........................................ 80
Table 2. 16: Degree of freedom analysis for ammonia synthesis process .................................... 80
Table 2. 17: Stoichiometry table for ammonia synthesis process ................................................. 81
Table 2. 18: Summary of species flow for Ammonia Reactor ..................................................... 84
Table 2. 19: Mole Balance of Urea Synthesis Reactor on Level 2 Decision ................................ 85
Table 2. 20: Degree of freedom analysis for urea synthesis process ............................................ 85
Table 2. 21: Stoichiometry table for Urea Synthesis Process ....................................................... 86
Table 2. 22: Stoichiometry of Side Reaction of the Production of Urea ...................................... 86
Table 2. 23: Summary of species flow for Urea Reactor .............................................................. 88
xxi
Table 2. 24: Cost of items ............................................................................................................. 89
Table 2. 25: Degree of freedom analysis for urea synthesis process ............................................ 94
Table 2. 26: Summary of Material Balance for Level 3 ............................................................... 96
Table 2. 27: Coefficient values for heat capacity equation and Standard Enthalpy of Formation
from Elementary Principle of Chemical Process, 2005 (Daniela et al., 2021). ............................ 98
Table 2. 28: References of CO2, NH3, Ammonium carbamate, Urea, H2O (v, 25°C) ................. 99
Table 2. 29: Summary of Ammonia Reactor material balance ................................................... 102
Table 2. 30: Summary of Separator material Balance ................................................................ 102
Table 2. 31: Coefficient values for heat capacity equation ......................................................... 105
Table 2. 32: References of NH3, H2, N2 (v, 25°C) ...................................................................... 105
Table 2. 33: References of NH3, H2, N2 (v, 35°C) ...................................................................... 106
Table 2. 34: Specification of the Ammonia Plant ....................................................................... 109
Table 2. 35: Properties of Catalyst used in Ammonia Synthesis Reactor. ................................. 117
Table 3. 1: Equipment description of Urea from methane.......................................................... 122
Table 3. 2: Material Balance for E-101 ...................................................................................... 125
Table 3. 3: Material Balance for Cooler (E-102) ........................................................................ 125
Table 3. 6: Material Balance for Heater (E-105) ........................................................................ 127
Table 3. 9: Material Balance for Mixer (M-101) ........................................................................ 129
Table 3. 10: Material Balance for Mixer (M-102) ...................................................................... 130
Table 3. 11: Material Balance for Splitter (M-103) .................................................................... 130
Table 3. 12: Material Balance for Mixer (M-104) ...................................................................... 131
Table 3. 13: Material Balance for Compressor (C-101) ............................................................. 132
Table 3. 14: Material Balance for Compressor (C-102) ............................................................. 132
Table 3. 15: Material Balance for Pump (P-101) ........................................................................ 133
Table 3. 16: Material Balance for Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101) .................................................... 134
Table 3. 17: Material Balance for Ammonia Reactor (R-102) ................................................... 135
Table 3. 18: Material Balance for Urea Reactor (R-103) ........................................................... 136
xxii
Table 3. 19: Material Balance for Separator (V-101) ................................................................. 136
Table 3. 20: Material Balance for Flash Column (V-102) .......................................................... 137
Table 3. 23: Energy Balance of Heater (E-101) ......................................................................... 139
Table 3. 24: Energy Balance of Cooler (E-102) ......................................................................... 140
Table 3. 27: Energy Balance of Heater (E-105) ......................................................................... 142
Table 3. 30: Energy Balance of Mixer (M-101) ......................................................................... 144
Table 3. 32: Energy Balance of Splitter (M-103) ....................................................................... 145
Table 3. 34: Energy Balance of Compressor (C-101)................................................................. 147
Table 3. 35: Energy Balance of Compressor (C-102)................................................................. 148
Table 3. 36: Energy Balance of Pump (P-101) ........................................................................... 148
Table 3. 37: Energy Balance of Pyrolysis Reactor(R-101)......................................................... 149
Table 3. 38: Energy Balance of Ammonia Reactor (R-102) ...................................................... 150
Table 3. 39: Energy Balance of Urea Reactor (R-103)............................................................... 151
Table 3. 40: Energy Balance of Separator (V-101) .................................................................... 152
Table 3. 41: Energy Balance of Flash Column (V-102) ............................................................. 153
Table 3. 44: Stream result for production of Urea from methane from Aspen Plus. .................. 158
Table 3. 45: Comparison of material balance between manual and simulation ......................... 166
Table 3. 46: Comparison of Energy Balance Between Manual and Simulation ........................ 167
Table 3. 47: Cost estimation of utilities ...................................................................................... 168
Table 4.1 : Summary of Hot and Cold Streams .......................................................................... 171
Table 4.2 : Shifted Source and Target Temperature for Hot and Cold Streams ......................... 172
xxiii
Table 4.3 : Summary of Heat Exchanger Duty Before and After Heat Exchanger Network (HEN)
..................................................................................................................................................... 179
Table 4.4 : Energy Saving with Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) ............................................. 180
Table 4.5: Type of Steam Used in Equipment ............................................................................ 180
Table 5. 1: Quantity of Equipment ............................................................................................. 186
Table 5. 2: Design Specification Sheet of Pyrolysis Reactor, R-101 ......................................... 187
Table 5. 3: Design Specification Sheet of Reactor, R-102 ......................................................... 188
Table 5. 4: Design Specification Sheet of Reactor, R-103 ......................................................... 189
Table 5. 5: Design Specification Sheet of Distillation Column, T-101 ...................................... 190
Table 5. 6: Design Specification Sheet of Separator, V-101 ...................................................... 192
Table 5. 7: Design Specification Sheet of Flash Column, V-102 ............................................... 194
Table 5. 8: Design Specification Sheet of Flash Column, V-103 ............................................... 195
Table 5. 9: Design Specification Sheet of Compressor, C-101 .................................................. 197
Table 5.10: Design Specification Sheet of Compressor, C-102 ................................................. 198
Table 5. 11: Specification Data Sheet of Mixer, M-101 ................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5. 12: Specification Data Sheet of Mixer, M-102 ............................................................. 200
Table 5. 13: Specification Data Sheet of Splitter, M-103 ........................................................... 201
Table 5. 14: Specification Data Sheet of Mixer, M-104 ............................................................. 201
Table 5. 15: Specification Data Sheet of Pump, P-101............................................................... 203
Table 5. 16: Specification Data Sheet of Storage Tank, TK-101 ............................................... 204
Table 5. 17: Specification Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger, E-101 .............................................. 205
Table 5. 20: Specification Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger. E-104 .............................................. 209
Table 5. 24: Type of Pressure Reducing Valves used in Industry .............................................. 213
Table 5. 25: Design Specification Sheet of Valve, VLV-101..................................................... 214
Table 6. 1: Type of Personal Protective Equipment ................................................................... 218
Table 6. 2: Instrument Identification System .............................................................................. 222
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Table 6. 3: Symbol Used in P&ID to show the valve, instrument & control loops .................... 223
Table 6. 4: General Function of Control Element....................................................................... 224
Table 6. 5: Control and Feedback System of R-101 ................................................................... 226
Table 6. 6: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-102) ................................................... 227
Table 6. 7: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-103) ................................................... 229
Table 6. 8: Control and Feedback System of Separator, V-101 ................................................. 231
Table 6. 9: Control and Feedback System of Flash Column, V-102 .......................................... 232
Table 6. 10: Control and Feedback System of Flash Column, V-103 ........................................ 234
Table 6. 11: Control and Feedback System of Distillation Column, T-101 ............................... 235
Table 6. 12: Control and Feedback System of Mixer (M-101, M-102 and M-104) ................... 237
Table 6. 13: Control and Feedback System of Splitter (M-103)................................................. 238
Table 6. 14: Control and Feedback System of Compressor, C-101 and C-102 .......................... 240
Table 6. 15: Control and Feedback System of pump, P-101 ...................................................... 241
Table 6. 16: Control and Feedback System of storage tank, TK-101 ......................................... 242
Table 6. 17: Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-107) ..................... 243
Table 6. 18: Types of Hazards .................................................................................................... 250
Table 6. 19: HAZOP Guide Word .............................................................................................. 252
Table 6. 20: Deviation and typical causes .................................................................................. 252
Table 6. 21: HAZOP analysis for pyrolysis reactor (R-101) ...................................................... 254
Table 6. 22: HAZOP analysis for Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-102) ................................... 255
Table 6. 23: HAZOP analysis for reactor (R-103) ...................................................................... 256
Table 6. 24: HAZOP analysis for Separator (V-101) ................................................................. 257
Table 6. 25: HAZOP analysis for Flash Column (V-102) .......................................................... 258
Table 6. 26: HAZOP analysis for Flash Column (V-103) .......................................................... 260
Table 6. 27: HAZOP analysis for Distillation Column (T-104) ................................................. 261
Table 6. 28: HAZOP analysis for mixer (M-101, M-102, and M-104) ...................................... 263
Table 6. 29: HAZOP analysis for Splitter (M-103) .................................................................... 264
Table 6. 30: HAZOP analysis for Compressor (C-101 and C-102)............................................ 265
Table 6. 31: HAZOP analysis for Pump (P-101) ........................................................................ 267
Table 6. 32: HAZOP analysis for Storage tank (TK-101) .......................................................... 268
Table 6. 33: HAZOP analysis for Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-107) ........................................ 269
xxv
Table 7. 1: Summary of Waste in Mainstream ........................................................................... 273
Table 7. 2: List of Regulations and Orders Enforced Under the Environmental Quality Act, 1974
by the Department of Environmental (Environmental Requirements, 2010) ............................. 277
Table 7. 3: Stack Gas Emission Standard in Malaysia (Environmental Requirements, 2010) ... 280
Table 7. 4: Recommended Malaysia Air Quality Guideline (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
..................................................................................................................................................... 282
Table 7. 5: Recommended Malaysia Secondary Guidelines (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
..................................................................................................................................................... 283
Table 7. 6: Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B Environmental Quality (Sewage
and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 2009 (Environmental Requirements, 2010) ................... 283
Table 7. 7: Wastewater streams S9 and S21 ............................................................................... 286
Table 7. 8: Effluent information of stream 30 ............................................................................ 289
Table 7. 9: Characteristics of wastewater based on Standard B ................................................. 289
Table 7. 10: The properties of influent and effluent from primary clarifier ............................... 291
Table 7. 11: The property of influent and effluent from aeration tank ....................................... 292
Table 7. 12: The property of influent and effluent from secondary clarifier .............................. 293
Table 7. 13 : Comparison on Treated Effluent and Standard B .................................................. 293
Table 7. 14: Specification of Primary Clarifier .......................................................................... 294
Table 7. 15: Specification of Aeration Tank ............................................................................... 294
Table 7. 16: Specification of Secondary Clarifier ...................................................................... 295
Table 7. 17: Specification of Neutralization Tank ...................................................................... 296
Table 7. 18: Specification of Sludge Thickener.......................................................................... 296
Table 7. 19: Specification of Press Filter .................................................................................... 297
Table 7. 20: Equipment and Cost Estimation ............................................................................. 297
Table 8. 1: Bare Module Cost for All Equipment ....................................................................... 299
Table 8. 2: Summary of Grass root capital cost 𝐶𝐺𝑅 ................................................................. 301
Table 8. 3: Estimation of Total Capital Investment (TCI) .......................................................... 301
Table 8. 4: Summary of Raw Material Cost ............................................................................... 303
Table 8. 5: Summary of Utilities Cost ........................................................................................ 303
Table 8. 6: Summary of Waste Treatment Cost .......................................................................... 303
xxvi
Table 8. 7: Estimation of Operating Labour Cost (COL) ........................................................... 304
Table 8. 8: Cost of Manufacturing (depreciation and without depreciation) .............................. 305
Table 8. 9: Direct Manufacturing Cost ....................................................................................... 305
Table 8. 10: Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) .......................................................................... 306
Table 8. 11: General Manufacturing Cost................................................................................... 306
Table 8. 12: Total Manufacturing Cost (TMC) .......................................................................... 306
Table 8. 13: Total Revenue Calculated Per Annum ................................................................... 307
Table 8. 14: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profit........................................................................ 307
Table 8. 15: Non-discounted Cash Flow Analysis...................................................................... 309
Table 8. 16: Cumulative non-discounted cash flow.................................................................... 311
Table 8. 17: Net Present Value at Different Interest Rate .......................................................... 313
Table 8. 18: Summary of Economic Analysis ............................................................................ 316
xxvii
CHAPTER 1
PROJECT BACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Background of Urea
Urea, commonly known as carbamide which is the carbonic acid’s diamide. The chemical
formula for urea is CH4N2O. This compound is made up of a carbonyl group (C=O) group attached
to two nitrogen groups (NH2). A carbonyl carbon is the one that is double bonded to oxygen.
Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 provides a clearer view of the urea molecule. Urea is a clear, crystalline
material that melts around 132.7 ℃ and decomposes before boiling. The density of urea is 1.335
g/cc, and it is a non-combustible material. Urea has a high solubility in water and has a pKa close
to zero. Essentially, urea is produced by humans and by many other mammals. However, by a
scientific breakthrough, urea is managed to be artificially synthesized using inorganic compounds
to be used as a raw material in industry sector.
Figure 1. 1: 2D Structure of Urea Compound
(Source: Urea. American Chemical Society. (2022). Retrieved November 2022, from
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/molecule-of-the-week/archive/u/urea.html )
The primary raw material used to manufacture urea is natural gas which ties the cost
directly to gas prices. Consequently, the new plants of urea are only being built in areas with
natural gas reserves where prices are lower. For example, in Malaysia, FGV Fertiliser Sdn Bhd
(FGVF) is the biggest compound fertilizer manufacturers in Malaysia and own the first production
1
of plant in the world that has the flexibility to produce urea. The price of urea manufactured by
FGV is also low which is RM 1.36/kg (FGV, 2022). The market price for urea is directly related
to the world price of natural gas and the demand for agricultural products. The price of urea can
be very volatile and unpredictable at certain times. The chemical company in the world is
positioned to know the world markets and keep the prices of urea is competitive.
Nowadays, synthetic urea is created from synthetic ammonia and carbon dioxide. Synthetic
urea can be produced whether in liquid or solid forms due to the process that involved. The process
of dehydrating ammonium carbamate under conditions of high heat and pressure in producing urea
was first implemented in 1870 until today. Urea uses in the industry are numerous and therefore
the production is high. Urea serves as an essential purpose as fertilizer, feed additive, building
block to produce polymers and a medicine (PubChem, 2004). Therefore, approximately one
million pounds of urea is manufactured in the United States alone each year, most of it is used in
fertilizers. In 2012, urea is produced on an industrial scale with a worldwide production capacity
of approximately 184 million tons (Market Study of Urea, 2013). From here, urea can be
concluded as the most important and useful chemical compound which being used in most every
industry sector.
1.1.2 Physical & Chemical Properties
Chemical properties can be defined as the properties that can be observed or measured when
a substance undergoes a chemical change. Meanwhile, the physical properties are properties that
can be observed without bringing a chemical change. In order to understand and use of the material
such as ammonia, methane and urea, the understanding in their physical and chemical properties
is important. This is because the properties will be helpful for us to identify the materials before
using it in a process. The main chemical compounds in this reaction are ammonia, methane and
urea. Therefore, the list of physical and chemical properties of these materials are listed as in Table
1.1.
Table 1. 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of Ammonia, Methane and Urea
Chemical Compound
Properties Ammonia Methane Urea
2
Molecular mass 17.03 g/mol 16.04 g/mol 60.06 g/mol
Colour Colourless Colourless Colourless to white
Physical state Gas (at room Gas Liquid

temperature)
Solid
Odour Sharp, Irritating Odourless Almost odourless
Density 0.7710 g/L (gas) 0.554 g/L 1.34 g/L
0.6818 g/L (liquid)
Flash point 11℃ -188℃ -
Melting point -77.7℃ -182.57℃ 132.7℃
Boiling point -33.35℃ -161.50℃ Decomposes
Heat of vaporization 23.3 kJ/mol 8.19 kJ/mol 14.6 kJ/mol
Heat of combustion -316 kJ/mol -890.8 kJ/mol -635 kJ/mol
Heat of formation -46.0 kJ/mol -74.6 kJ/mol -333.39 kJ/mol
1.1.3 Toxicity of Urea
1.1.3.1 Mechanism of Toxicity
Urea that is naturally produced is normally harmless and excreted in urine. However,
the introduction of urea in industry, especially as a protein supplement to domestic ruminants may
lead to poisoning. Therefore, understanding urea toxicity is highly desirable. For example, the
behaviour of cattle accidentally poisoned by the ingestion of urea fertilizer was reported by Fraser
(1963). Based on observation by Pieterse and de Knock (1962), the rapid onset of tetany, excess
salivation, rapid breathing, ataxia, bloat, convulsions and death are the symptoms of cattle
ingesting urea on an empty stomach. Urea-poisoned cattle also may show a syndrome like
3
strychnine poisoning which is almost immediate appearance of ruminal stasis, tympany, salvation,
regurgitation and death (Szwabowicz, 1962).
Other than that, urea can also be irritating to skin, eyes and the respiratory tract. Dermatitis
also may occur due to repeated or prolonged contact with urea in fertilizer form. Urea also can
cause algal blooms which is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in
freshwater or marine water systems which produce toxins. The presence of algal blooms in the
runoff from fertilized land may also increase the toxic blooms (Coombs A, 2008). In this context,
urea pollution can trigger ocean algae to produce a deadly toxin called domoic acid. In 1987,
contaminated shellfish poisoned 100 people on Prince Edward Island in Canada which killed 3
people and most cases of amenia.
1.1.3.2 Safety and Precautions
In order to avoid urea pollution, synthesis and high-pressure recovery should be changed
to low-pressure recovery and followed by purification (The Snumprogatti Urea Technology,
2014). Ammonia and CO2 reaction is favoured at high pressure due to Le Chatelier’s principle and
because of it is an exothermic reaction. Therefore, in purification of urea, pressure will be reduced
to 27 bars in the first recycle to recover unreacted ammonia and CO2 and in the 2nd cycle, pressure
is reduced further to decompose ammonium carbamate to reactants for separation and recycle to
the reactor. Urea solution is concentrated and processed in a final granulation process (Hijfte and
Vanmarcke, 1985). The change from high-pressure recovery to low-pressure recovery gives plenty
of benefits. Some of the benefits are low cost of urea production, high reliability, sustainable
environmental pollution, easy and safe operation and maintenance with minimal corrosion.
1.2 APPLICATION OF UREA
Based on Figure 1.3 below, the percentage (%) of market share by application of urea is
shown based on different sector. From the pie chart below, we can conclude that the percentage of
application urea as urea formaldehyde (UF) and melamine resins is the highest than other
applications.
4
Figure 1. 2: Market share of application of urea in percentage
(Source: Corp. (n.d.). Global Urea Market Report and Forecast 2023-2028. Urea Market Report,
Size, Share, Price, Demand, Analysis 2023-2028. Retrieved November 30, 2022, from
https://www.expertmarketresearch.com/reports/urea-market)
1.2.1 Agriculture
Function of fertilizers is to provide three primary nutrients which are Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). Each nutrient has its own functions. Nitrogen is useful in
supporting vegetative growth, phosphorus is for improving roots and flowering meanwhile
potassium is for strength resistance to environmental assaults, from extreme temperatures and pest
attacks. Urea which contains 46% of nitrogen is the most important nitrogenous fertilizer in the
market. Urea is neutral in pH and can adapt to almost all kinds of soils. Until now, urea is used
widely in the agriculture sector as fertilizer and as animal feed additive.
The main function of urea fertilizer is to provide the plants with nitrogen which promotes
green leafy growth and makes the plants look lush. Urea also aids the photosynthesis process of
plants. Since urea fertilizer did not contain any phosphorus or potassium, it is primarily used for
bloom growth. There are plentiful advantages of urea as fertilizer which are high nitrogen content,
low production cost, non-flammable and have a neutral pH.
5
The correct way in using urea as fertilizer, urea should be applied during sowing and should
not be in contact with seeds. Urea also can be applied as a top dressing. Since urea has a high
nitrogen content, it should be used in combination with earth or sand before its application. Then,
urea also should be applied when the soil contains free water or is likely to remain wet for 3 or 4
days after the application. Urea also can be blended with other fertilizer, but urea must not be
mixed with any superphosphate because it will produce a damp material that is hard to store or
apply.
1.2.2 Automobile system
Automotive urea AdBlue or also known as Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) is the registered
trademark for AUS32 which contains 32.5% aqueous urea solution. The function of AdBlue is to
reduce the harmful emissions from the internal diesel combustion engines. AdBlue is made from
mixing urea with demineralized water which results in 32.5% aqueous urea solution. After the
mixing process, the urea solution AdBlue 32.5% will be cooled and transferred to the storage tanks.
The ratio of the concentrated urea and the demineralized water must be controlled to ensure the
desired concentration of the final product.
1.2.3 Laboratory
Urea with concentration up to 10M is a powerful protein denaturant because it can disrupt
the noncovalent bonds in the proteins. Due to this property, it can increase the solubility of some
proteins. Other than that, a mixture of urea and choline chloride is used as a deep eutectic solvent
(DES) which is a substance like ionic liquid. Urea can gradually denature the protein that is
solubilized when used in a deep eutectic solvent (Durrand et al., 2012). Then, urea with
concentration up to 8M can be used to make fixed brain tissue transparent to visible light while
still preserving fluorescent signals from labelled cells. This allows for much deeper imaging of
neuronal processes.
1.2.4 Medical Use
Urea is used to treat dry or rough skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, corns, callus etc.
and some nail problems such as ingrown nails. Urea also may be used to help remove dead tissue
6
in some wounds to help wound healing. Urea which is also known as keratolytic can increase the
moisture in the skin by softening or dissolving keratin that holds the top layer of skin cells together.
This effect helps the dead skin cells from falling off and helps the skin to stay moisture.
Urea also can be used in the urea breath test when labelled with carbon-14 or carbon-13.
This test is to detect the presence of bacterium Helicobacter pylori in the stomach and duodenums
of humans associated with peptic ulcers. This test is also to detect the characteristic of enzyme
urease which is produced by Helicobacter pylori. It can help in reducing the acidity of the stomach
environment.
1.3 MARKET SURVEY
1.3.1 Overview of Urea
A market survey is the survey research and analysis of the market for a particular product
which includes the investigation into customer inclinations. Market surveys are usually conducted
to gather data so that better marketing, growth, and product decisions can be made. Market survey
is a study of various customer capabilities such as investment attributes and buying potential.
Market surveys are tools to directly collect feedback from the target audience to understand their
characteristics, expectations, and requirements. It is an important component of business study and
a major factor in maintaining competitiveness. Market research helps to identify and analyse the
needs of the market, the market size and the competition. Its techniques encompass both qualitative
techniques such as focus groups and quantitative techniques such as customer surveys, and
analysis of secondary data.
Urea, also known as carbamide, is a nitrogenous compound with the molecular formula
CO(NH2)2. Some of the major operating in the Urea market are BASF SE, Yara, CF Industries
Holdings Inc., China National Petroleum Corporation, EuroChem, Jiangsu sanmu group Co, Ltd.,
Koch Fertilizer LLC, Nutrient Ltd., OCI Nitrogen, Petrobras, Qatar Fertiliser Company, SABIC,
Notre Chemical Industries Plc, and others.
7
1.3.2 Global Market
The global urea market size was valued at USD 107.28 billion in 2021. The market is
projected to grow from USD 129.52 billion in 2022 to USD 150.61 billion by 2029, exhibiting a
CAGR of 2.2% during the forecast period. The urea market experienced significant growth as its
demand reached 190 million tonnes in 2021 and is expected to achieve a healthy CAGR of 4.15%
in the forecast period (Chemanalyst, 2021).
Figure 1. 3: Urea Market Share, By Grade and by volume
(Source: Urea Market Size, Growth | Industry Analysis & Forecast, 2035. (n.d.). Retrieved
November 2022, from https://www.chemanalyst.com/industry-report/urea-market-666 )
In this report, Urea market has been segmented into following categories, in addition to the
industry trends which have also been detailed in Table 1.2 below.
Table 1. 2: Details of Industry Trends
(Source Table 1.2: Urea Market Size, Growth | Industry Analysis & Forecast, 2035. (n.d.).
Retrieved November 2022, from https://www.chemanalyst.com/industry-report/urea-
market-666 )
Attribute Details
Market size volume by 190 million Tonnes
2021
Growth Rate CAGR of 4.15% from 2022 to 2035
8
Base year for estimation 2020
Historic Data 2015 – 2019
Forecast period 2022 – 2035
Quantitative units Demand in Million Tonnes and CAGR from 2021 to 2035
Report coverage Revenue forecast, demand & supply, competitive analysis,
competitive landscape, growth factors, and trends
Segments covered By Grade: (Fertilizer, Feed, and Technical)
By End-Use: (Agriculture, Chemical, Automotive, Medical, and
Others)
By Sales Channel: (Direct Company Sale, Direct Import,
Distributors & Traders)
Regional scope North America; Europe; Asia Pacific; South America; Middle
East & Africa
Country scope United States; Mexico; Canada; China; India; Japan; South
Korea; Taiwan; Singapore; Germany; Belgium; France; United
Kingdom; Spain; Italy; Sweden; Austria; Saudi Arabia; Iran;
South Africa; Brazil; Argentina
Key companies profiled BASF SE, Yara, CF Industries Holdings Inc., China National
Petroleum Corporation, EuroChem, Jiangsu sanmu group Co,
Ltd., Koch Fertilizer LLC, Nutrient Ltd., OCI Nitrogen,
Petrobras, Qatar Fertiliser Company, SABIC, Notre Chemical
Industries Plc, and others.
Customization scope Free report customization with purchase. Addition or alteration to
country, regional & segment scope.
Pricing and purchase Avail customized purchase options to meet your exact research
options needs. Explore purchase options
Based on figure 1.4, Asia Pacific is the largest consumer of Urea by region. 70% of the
world’s demand comes from the Asia-Pacific area, followed by North America and Europe
(Merchant Research & Consulting ltd, 2022). Moreover, Indian is the largest consumer of urea by
9
country which recorded almost 37.62% of global demand. The top 5 countries others which are
Russian Federation, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Canada account for 79.78% of it (Knoema, 2020).
Figure 1. 4: Global Urea Capacity by Region
(Source: Urea: 2022 world market outlook and forecast up to 2031. (n.d.). Retrieved November
2022, from https://mcgroup.co.uk/researches/urea )
1.3.3 Global Supply and Demand of Urea
According to Trading Economics, urea decreased 268.50 USD/T or 31.09% since the
beginning of 2022, according to trading on a contract for difference (CFD) that tracks the
benchmark market for this commodity (Trading Economics, 2022).
Figure 1. 5: Urea Supply and Demands Based on Trading Economics
10
(Source: Urea2022 data – 2019-2021 historical – 2023 forecast – price – quote – chart. Urea –
2022 Data – 2019-2021 Historical – 2023 Forecast – Price – Quote – Chart. (n.d.).
Retrieved November 2022, from https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/urea )
Global ammonia consumption in 2020 was estimated at nearly 190 million tons, driven
primarily by urea consumption, which in turn is mainly a function of fertilizer demand. Based on
the Chemanalyst, the demand reached 190 million tonnes in 2021 and is expected to achieve a
healthy CAGR of 4.15% in the forecast period so for 2022 is expected 197.885 million tonnes. For
urea supply reached 178.32 million tonnes in 2021 and expected CAGR 0.8% in the forecast
period. In 2022, the urea supply reached 179.75 million tonnes (Chemanalyst, 2021). The net
demand is calculated based on the value from 2021 from Chemanalyst:
Demand = 197.885 million tonnes/year

Supply = 179.75 million tonnes/year
Net demand = 197.885 million tonnes/year – 179.75 million tonnes/year
= 18.14 million tonnes/year
The demand urea for 2022 was calculated based on the CAGR from Chemanalyst which is
4.15% from the demand 2021 which is 190 million tonnes/year. The supply urea for 2022 was
calculated based on the CAGR from Chemanalyst which is 0.8% from the supply 2021 which is
178.32 million tonnes/year. The net demand was calculated by demand 2022 – supply 2022.
From the calculation, the future net demand of urea globally is 18.14 million tonnes in the
year 2022. Although the net demand of urea is known but we cannot decide our plant design solely
based on this prediction, market survey by region needs to be conducted in order to get a clear
picture of urea by region, especially when Malaysia is in Asia Pacific.
1.3.4 Urea in Asia Pacific
Asia Pacific (excluding China and India) accounts for about 11 – 12% of the global
capacity for urea, which is about 29 million tonnes of urea in 2018. Indonesia, accounting for about
30% of the capacity in the region, is the largest urea producer in Asia Pacific. Recent additions in
11
the region have been a result of Pupuk Kaltim starting up new urea facilities, with a capacity of
1.1 million tonnes in 2015 and Pupuk Sriwidjaja starting up a 900 000 ton per year urea unit in
2016. Taiwanese investors are exploring investment opportunities for two ammonia plants in
Indonesia. The first ammonia plant is expected to have a production capacity of about 600 000 ton
per year and the other plant is expected to have a production capacity of about 1.8 million ton per
annum. However, Nexant considers these announcements as speculative, as financial closure has
not yet been reached (World Fertilizer Magazine, 2018).
Pakistan and Bangladesh are the next largest producers of urea, with a capacity of 8.2 million
ton per annum and 3.1 million ton per annum, respectively, in 2018. Shahjalal Fertilizer Company
and Urea Fertilizer Factory started operations of their 630 000 ton per annum urea units in
Fenchuganj, Bangladesh in 2015 (World Fertilizer Magazine, 2018).
In India, more than a dozen ammonia/urea projects, based on gas as well as coal, are under
consideration. However, only 3 to 4 projects are expected to materialize in the next 5 years. Gas
supply issues, as well as the huge backlog of government subsidies, may deter private sector
company investment in the fertilizer sector. Chambal Fertilizers and Chemicals is building a 790
000 ton per annum ammonia plant and a 1.44 million ton per annum urea plant, which are expected
to begin operation by 2019. New ammonia urea units are being built in Barauni, Bihar, Sindri, and
Jharkhand, and expected to come on-steam in 2021 (World Fertilizer Magazine, 2018).
The Asia Pacific region is home to countries with the highest population rates in the world.
To this end, regional governments have been focusing on improving the quality and quantity of
crop yields to cater to the ever-expanding population base. According to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, the national per capita grain share
was estimated at 483 kilograms during 2021, about 20.75% higher than internationally recognized
security standard of 400 kg (Graphical Research, 2022).
12
Figure 1. 6: Asia Pacific Fertilizer Market (2022-2028)
(Source: Graphical Research. (n.d.). Asia Pacific Fertilizer Market Size forecasts 2028.
Graphical Research. Retrieved November 29, 2022, from
https://www.graphicalresearch.com/industry-insights/1616/asia-pacific-fertilizer-market )
Based on Figure 1.7, the Asia pacific market for urea grow to 116 USD billion in 2028 from
97.4 USD billion in 2021.
1.3.5 Urea in Malaysia
Fertilizer used in Malaysia is primarily imported. Large quantities of urea, ammonium-

based, and organic fertilisers are manufactured, however the urea used in Malaysian agriculture is
not a product of the country. This is because Malaysian urea is exported since it sells for a high
price on the global market. Malaysia now produces for 1.8 million tonnes of urea capacity, with
the start-up of Petronas is 1.2 million ton per annum urea and 600,000 ton per annum at FGV.
Petronas Chemicals Fertiliser Sabah (PCFSSB) is a world-class plant located on 211 acres of
leasehold land in Sipitang Oil & Gas Industrial Park, Sabah, with nameplate capacity of 1.2 million
tonnes per year for urea, and 740,000 tonnes per year for ammonia. PCFSSB is the largest single-
train ammonia and urea plant in Southeast Asia, and the third largest urea plant in the Asia-Pacific
with dedicated power cogeneration units, as well as a port facility at PCFSSB that is operated
internally. Current land utilization is about 20%, thus implying substantial room for future
expansion (The Edge Market, 2018). The main output from PCFSSB is granulated urea, which is
mainly used as fertilisers for the agriculture sector. Urea may also be used as industrial feedstock
13
for resins (plywood), adhesives and melamine. Ammonia produced by PCFSSB’s plant is largely
used as feedstock for its downstream urea plant (The Edge Market, 2018).
Besides, FGV Fertiliser Sdn. Bhd. (FGVF), which was incorporated in 1975, serves as the
commercial arm on fertiliser manufacturing and sales of FGV Holdings Berhad. FGVF is one of
the biggest compound fertiliser manufacturers in Malaysia and own the first production plant in
the world that has the flexibility to produce either Urea or Ammonium Sulphate-based compounds,
making FGVF a unique and very competitive compound fertiliser producer in the region. The plant
was built with the assistance of experts from the International Fertiliser Development Centre
(IFDC) (FGV Holding, 2022). FGVF has the capacity to produce more than 600,000 Metric Ton
of fertilizer annually of various product range to suit customers’ requirements. Customers are
offered FGVF’s own fertilizer brands such as SunBear, SunFlower and Felda Series including
customized formulations (FGV Holding, 2022).
1.3.6 Market Analysis for Urea
Rising demand for urea as a fertilizer in agriculture and growing agrochemical industry are
expected to drive market revenue growth. Urea, also known as carbamide, is a by-product of
ammonia and carbon dioxide that has high demand in polymer and agricultural industries. Urea,
containing 46% nitrogen, is used as a nitrogen-based fertilizer and for manufacturing melamine
that is used in paper, plastics, plywood, and paints for its fire-retardant property. In addition, it is
also used for manufacturing adhesives and urea-formaldehyde resins and producing glue,
feedstock, and commercial products in the market. Moreover, high content of nitrogen in urea and
property of converting ammonia into soil quickly makes it a significant nitrogenous fertilizer,
which is expected to increase demand for urea in the market. For instance, on 18 May 2022, India
announced to export 1.7 hundred thousand tons of urea and Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) to
Nepal (Reports and Data, 2022).
14
Figure 1. 7: Urea Market Snapshot
(Source: Urea Market. Reports and Data. (n.d.). Retrieved November 2022, from
https://www.reportsanddata.com/report-detail/urea-market )
Different advantages of urea, such as higher nutrient density, nitrogen storage properties,
good handling, and cost per pound of nitrogen, are increasing its efficiency in different industries
including agriculture and pharmaceuticals. Urea is a highly soluble compound that gets easily
dissolved in water and the solution can be applied to soil surface for generating more nitrogen to
grow plants, add in irrigation water, and spray onto plant foliage. Enfrost is a liquid formation with
43% urea and can be used in field crops, fruit trees, vegetables, and ornaments for reducing frost
damage. It was registered for use as a frost protectant pesticide, which modifies protein produced
by ice-nucleating bacteria to provide frost protection. It also works as a stabilizer, intensifier,
inhibitor, and as an ingredient in pesticides which is driving revenue growth of the urea market
(Reports and Data, 2022).
1.3.7 Market Analysis for Raw Materials
1.3.7.1 Methane
Methane (CH4) is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas. Methane is

also a greenhouse gas (GHG), so its presence in the atmosphere affects the earth’s temperature and
climate system. Methane is emitted from a variety of anthropogenic (human-influenced) and
15
natural sources. Anthropogenic emission sources include landfills, oil and natural gas systems,
agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion, wastewater treatment, and
certain industrial processes (Grand View Research, 2022).
Methane is the second most abundant anthropogenic GHG after carbon dioxide (CO2),
accounting for about 20 percent of global emissions. Methane is more than 25 times as potent as
carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the atmosphere. Over the last two centuries, methane
concentrations in the atmosphere have more than doubled, largely due to human-related activities.
Because methane is both a powerful greenhouse gas and short-lived compared to carbon dioxide,
achieving significant reductions would have a rapid and significant effect on atmospheric warming
potential. The fertilizer industry uses natural gas, of which about 95% is methane, both as fuel and
as a main ingredient for ammonia and urea products farmers buy for their fields (Grand View
Research, 2022).
The global coal bed methane market size was valued at USD 16.0 Billion in 2019 and is
expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.9% from 2020 to 2027. The
increasing consumer demand for power across numerous sectors such as residential, industrial,
and commercial and changing preferences to use coal bed methane as power generating source to
meet the increasing demand for electricity across the regions are keys factors that are projected to
drive the overall coal bed methane market over the estimated period. Coal bed methane (CBM) is
an unconventional form of Natural Gas (NG) obtained from coal seams and deposits. This is
formed during the coalification process and is generally extracted from the underground after the
coal mining process (Grand View Research, 2022).
16
Figure 1. 8: U.S. Coal Bed Methane Market Size
(Source: Coal bed methane market size: Industry Report, 2020-2027. Coal Bed Methane Market
Size | Industry Report, 2020-2027. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from
https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/coal-bed-methane-industry )
1.3.7.2 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a clean alternative to methane, also known as natural gas. It’s the most
abundant chemical element, estimated to contribute 75% of the mass of the universe. Here on
earth, vast numbers of hydrogen atoms are contained in water, plants, animals and, of course,
humans. The global hydrogen generation market size was valued at USD 129.85 billion in 2021
and is expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.4% from 2022 to 2030.
The global hydrogen generation market is likely to be driven by the demand for cleaner fuel,
coupled with increasing governmental regulations for the desulphurization of petroleum products.
Hydrogen is an effective energy carrier, and this quality is expected to contribute significantly to
its further penetration into newer markets. The global electricity demand is expected to witness an
increase of nearly two-thirds of the current demand during the forecast period. Focus on the
projects related to distributed power & utility, expected to bolster demand for the hydrogen
generation market growth, during the forecast period (Grand View Research, 2022).
17
Figure 1. 9: U.S. Hydrogen Generation Market
(Source: Global hydrogen generation market size report, 2030. Global Hydrogen Generation
Market Size Report, 2030. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from
https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/hydrogen-generation-market )
1.3.8 Plant Capacity
According to the market survey that have been done in section 1.3 above, the global net
demand has concluded a value of 18.14 million MTPA of urea in 2022 whereas for Malaysia net
demand has concluded a value of 181,400 MTPA of urea in 2022. Based on the net demand in
Malaysia, the most suitable plant capacity to be estimated for our plant is around 20% of net
demand in Asia Pacific. For this case, 20% will be selected. Thus,
181,400 MTPA × 20% = 36,280 MTPA
From the calculation above, we will take 40,000 MTPA for our plant. The reason for not
supplying fully of net demand as our plant is a small-scale plant, also is to prevent affecting of
urea price in the world and avoid overproduction in future which cause by decreasing in demand
and increasing in number of competitors. Besides, as India is the largest Urea consumption
country, the plant will fabricate and mainly focus on Malaysia. Therefore, a plant capacity of
40,000 MTPA is selected to contribute 20% to market net demand.
18
1.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
The major goal of this part is to determine the current technology that are used, as well as
the technical quality and economic analysis of the various urea production methods. There are
several synthesis routes to produce urea using methane as raw material. The process technologies
for producing urea are partial oxidation of methane, steam methane reformer, and decomposition
of methane. The primary priority in determining the optimum synthesis route is to select the most
profitable way to use safe technologies. The production of urea will be further discussed in 1.4.1,
1.4.2, and 1.4.3.
1.4.1 Partial oxidation of methane
The system refers to a two-step process for making urea from natural gas.
1. Ammonia and carbon dioxide are produced using natural gas (methane).
2. Production of urea
The invention specifically deals with creating stoichiometric and super stoichiometric
amounts of urea from natural gas. In the first step of the process, nitrogen is bound as ammonia,
and at the same time, methane is used to create carbon dioxide. Then, in the second step of the
procedure, urea is created from the ammonia and the carbon dioxide. Figure 1.11 shows the block
flow diagram of this process as shown as below.
CO2
Methane Urea
Step 1 Step 2
Air
(Partial oxidation) NH3 Urea
Figure 1. 10: Block Flow Diagram of Partial Oxidation of Methane
According to (William et al, 2006), The inventive method for the catalytic production of
ammonia from a nitrogen/hydrogen mixture, used in the first method step, was described in
German patent 100 55 818 [US 2004/0028595]. A raw synthesis gas is created in a partial oxidation
reformer by combining methane with some oxygen at temperatures between 900 and 1200 °C,
19
pressures between 40 and 100 bar, and the presence of a catalyst. This synthesis gas has a dry
calculation of a 55% to 75% by volume H2, 15% to 30% CO, 5% to 30% CO2 and a 1.6% to 4%
H2:CO volume ratio. The raw synthesis gas is then removed from the partial oxidation reformer,
cooled, and put through a catalytic process to turn the CO into H2.
1.4.2 Steam Methane Reformer
In this process, it refers to three steps to produce urea.

1. Methane undergoes steam reformer to produce hydrogen
2. Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to produce ammonia
3. Ammonia reacts with CO2 to produce urea
Figure 1.12 below is block flow diagram for production of urea by methane steam reformer
process.
Methane Syngas, N2 Ammonia NH3 Urea Urea

Steam
reforming Plant Plant
Air
Figure 1. 11: Block Flow Diagram of Steam Methane Reformer
According to (U.S Department of Energy, 2022), most hydrogen produced in the United
States is made via steam-methane reforming, a mature production process in which high-
temperature which is 700ºC to 1000ºC is used to produce hydrogen from a methane source,
such as natural gas. In steam-methane reforming, methane reacts with steam under 3 bar to 25
bar pressure in the presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a
relatively small amount of carbon dioxide (Bo Zhang et al, 2019). Steam reforming is
endothermic, so heat must be supplied to the process for the reaction to proceed.
CH4 + H2O (+ heat) → CO + 3H2
20
Then, using a catalyst, the carbon monoxide and steam are reacted to produce carbon
dioxide and additional hydrogen in a process known as the water-gas shift reaction. Carbon
dioxide and other impurities are eliminated from the gas stream in the final step of the process,
known as pressure-swing adsorption, leaving basically pure hydrogen.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)
Figure 1. 12: Process Flow of Steam Methane Reformer
(Source: Gibreel Abdullah Hamud Muqbel et al, 2022)
1.4.3 Decomposition of methane
According to (Shamimie, et al, 2020), methane decomposition is an endothermic reaction,

therefore without a catalyst, it needs a high operating temperature of about 1200 °C. The reaction
temperature can be lowered with an appropriate and reliable catalyst. The efficiency of a catalyst
during methane decomposition may be affected by a variety of significant variables, including
catalyst support, metal loading, particle size, and reaction conditions. As a result of the direct
decomposition of methane, which can reduce CO emissions by about 27%, affordable hydrogen is
produced, which may help to slow the effects of climate change. Methane can be decomposed into
carbon and hydrogen according to the following reaction:
21
𝐶𝐻4 → 𝐶 + 2𝐻2
Via selling the carbon as a filler or building material, it is possible to decrease the price of
the hydrogen produced by decomposition of methane method. Figure 1.13 shows the flow of
methane decomposition process.
Figure 1. 13: Decomposition of methane to produced economy hydrogen
(Source: Luis Alves, et al. 2021)
1.4.4 Comparison
Table 1.3 present the advantages and disadvantages of using partial oxidation of methane,
steam methane reformer and decomposition of methane in production of urea.
Table 1. 3: Comparison of three different routes
Routes Advantages Disadvantages
Partial oxidation • Faster start-up times and • Decreased hydrogen

of methane transient response production efficiencies and
• Not required external heat carbon monoxide production.
that will increases the
compactness of reaction
system
22
Steam methane • Produce the highest yield of • Increased heat load resulting
reformer hydrogen from large endothermic
• Great energy efficiency reaction and the continuous
• Most used currently for large supply heat to the reaction.
operation scale
Decomposition • Single reactant • Catalyst deactivation

of methane • Produced H2 with high purity • Low purity of by-product
• Produced carbon in solid
form
1.5 SITE SELECTION & PLANT LAYOUT
1.5.1 Introduction
The preliminary site selection is very crucial for the construction of proposed new chemical
processing plant. It is important to determine the suitability of the recommended location to
produce urea by comparing some of the aspects such as availability of raw materials, market
potential of the products, land availability and the utilities provided (Gard, 1967). In this
petrochemical related plant design, selecting a suitable site location is crucial to minimize the cost
of transportation of material to site. The location of the plant can also have a crucial effect on the
profitability of a project.
1.5.2 Site Selection Factors
The location of the plant can also affect the operability of a project. Thus, several site
selection factors need to be considered when selecting the most appropriate site. Therefore, Table
1.4 below shows the overall factors for site selection (Geoffrey, 2008).
23
Table 1. 4: Site Selection Factors
1. Accessibility of For site selection, the availability of sources of raw materials are one of the most
Raw Material important factors. The cost of transporting raw materials can be greatly reduced
by the availability of petrochemical source from nearby location (Voogd, 1963).
Since our raw material is hydrogen gas, therefore we need to decide the best
location for the plant design. The site location must near to the source of raw
material in order to reduce the transportation and storage charges.
2. Market Area The cost of product distribution and the amount of time needed for shipping are
influenced by the location of markets or intermediary distribution centres. Being
close to the main markets is crucial when choosing the location of the plant
because buyers typically find it advantageous to acquire from nearby suppliers.
3. Availability of Both the construction and operation of a plant will demand a large amount of
Labor labour (’Steyn & ’Buys, 2017). Before designing a plant, it is crucial to consider
the availability of labour.
4. Land availability The cost of the land should also be considered when choosing a location because
it may have an impact on the plant’s capital expenditures.
5. Transport To transport the final product to the market area or to transport the raw materials
Facilities to the manufacturing site, transportation infrastructure is crucial. Depending on
the marketing area, a few different transportation methods such as land, sea, and
air transportation can be used (Sinha, 2014).
6. Utilities All facilities must be taken in considerations includes water supply and power
resources. Electricity power supply needed to run the plant and large amount of
water supply will be needed in order to comply with the production.
7. Government It is very significant to know that both the federal and state governments in
Incentives and Malaysia provide incentives to business owners and investors in specific places
Legal in order to have a balanced regional growth of sectors. Similarly, local
Restriction
24
regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects and other facilities can
have a major influence on the final choice of the plant site.
8. Waste and The most important part that should be taken seriously is waste management
Disposal and disposal process as involved agency will impose fine or even stop the plant
Facilities if the waste and effluent disposal do not achieve the standard that set by
government (Geoffrey, 2008).
1.5.3 Overview of strategic locations
The production of 40,000 MTPA of Urea has proposed at these locations. Therefore,
several strategic locations are being selected to be considered as the site selection, which are listed
below.
1) Kerteh, Terengganu
Kerteh is located 52.9 km from Kemaman town. This location is known as major
petrochemical industrial area in Terengganu.
a) Raw Material
Hydrogen gas from decomposition of methane is used as a raw material in the

manufacturing of urea. The closest supplier of methane is Petronas Gas Berhad,
Terengganu. The distance between Kerteh and the supplier company, it takes 14.92 km
away.
b) Transport Facilities
- Road
Roads and railroads both provide access to the Kerteh Industrial region. In addition,
the integrated petrochemical complex in Kerteh (Terengganu) is connected to Gebeng and
25
Kuantan Port by a railway link. This railroad connection improves the already strong
chemical and petrochemical connections between Gebeng and another industrial hub.
- Port Transportation
There is only one port, Kerteh Port, located in Kerteh, Terengganu whereas another
port is available at Kemaman. Kerteh Port is about 6.72 km from the land but quite small
compared to Kemaman Port.
- Air Transportation
There are two airport facilities near the land in where Kuala Terengganu Airport is
across 109.15 km. Besides, the land is 16.82 km from the Kerteh Airport.
c) Land availability
The following summarizes the land options in Kerteh, Terengganu. The cost of land
is around RM230,769.23 per acre. 10% of the purchase price, or RM 113,158, is required
as a down payment for this industrial land. This property has a 3.6% interest rate and a 35-
year loan duration. 130 acres of land are available in total. The industrial land is priced at
RM 30,000,000 in total (Kerteh Industrial Land for Sale, 2022).
d) Availability of Labour
There are a few local educational establishments in Terengganu, including Institute

of Technology Petroleum Petronas (INSTEP), the Industrial Training Institute (ILP),
Terengganu Plastic Technology Training Centre, Mara University of Technology, Kolej
Komuniti and the University of Malaysia Terengganu.
e) Utilities
- Electrical Supply
The source of electricity power supply is from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB).
- Water Supply
26
The source of water is Syarikat Air Terengganu Sdn Bhd. The amount of water
available is adequate for industrial use.
f) Government Incentives and Legal Restriction
Major incentives of setting up a plant operation in Kerteh Terengganu. The

incentives are as follows (SUSTAINABILITY AT THE CORE, 2021):
- Pioneer Status
- Investment Tax Allowance
- Re- investment Allowance
- Tariff – related Industries
- Accelerated Capital Allowance claim
g) Waste and Effluent Facilities
Majlis Bandaraya Kuala Terengganu offers a garbage and disposal facility.
Figure 1. 14: Map of Industrial Land Kerteh, Terengganu
(Source:(Kerteh Industrial Land for Sale, 2022))
27
2) Pasir Gudang, Johor
Pasir Gudang is a city in Johor Bahru District, Johor, Malaysia. Transport and logistics,
shipbuilding, petrochemicals, and the storage and distribution of palm oil are the main industries.
These efforts were mostly concentrated in Tanjung Langsat and Johor Port.
a) Raw Material
Accessibility of raw material which is methane is important because it can save the
costs if is easy to get and near the plant set up. Cost of transportation can be reduced when
the petrochemical feedstock supplier is near to the plant.
b) Availability of Labor
Universiti Technology Malaysia (UTM), Industrial Training Institute Pasir

Gudang, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn (UTHM) and Johor Skills or PUSPATRI are a few
of the local institutions in Johor (INSTEDT). The institution offers technical training for
managers, operators, and technicians. In addition, experienced personnel can be found
outside of Pasir Gudang, while unskilled labourers from both the local and international
workforce will be used to operate the plant.
The following list summarises the land options in Pasir Gudang, Johor. The cost of
land is around RM 1,470,150/acre.7 acres of land are available in total.
d) Transport Facilities
- Road
The location of Pasir Gudang Tanjung Langsat Industrial Land is very feasible
because of its proximity using Senai-Desaru Highway, Pasir Gudang Highway and JB
East coast Highway. Besides that, have railway line to Kempas Bahru Railway station.
- Port transportation
28
Johor Port, Tanjung Pelepas Port and TLP Terminal Sdn Bhd are the major ports in
Pasir Gudang. The trip from Pasir Gudang to Johor Port is 10 kilometres and 66.7 km from
Tanjung Pelepas Port whereas 4.1 km from TLP TERMINAL SDN BHD.
e) Utilities
- Electrical Supply
The source of the electricity is Pasir Gudang Energy in Johor. 729 MW of energy
are produced by the plant. Tenaga Nasional Berhad is the plant’s owner (TNB).
- Water Supply
Water is supplied by Syarikat Air Johor (SAJ). The amount of water available is
adequate for industrial use.
Major incentives of setting up a plant operation in Pasir Gudang, Johor. The

incentives are as follows (SUSTAINABILITY AT THE CORE, 2021),
- Pioneer Status
Waste and disposal facility provided by Majlis Bandaraya Pasir Gudang to manage
the industrial waste.
29
Figure 1. 15: Map of Pasir Gudang Tanjung Langsat Industrial Land
(Source: Industrial Land for Sale in Malaysia with Tanjung Langsat Industrial Park, 2022)
3) Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang
The Gebeng Industrial Park is a thriving hub of commercial activity where numerous
multinational corporations in the petrochemical sector are head quartered.
a) Raw material
Hydrogen gas from decomposition of methane is used as a raw material in the

manufacturing of urea. Through the Peninsular Gas Utilisation pipeline owned by Petronas
Gas Berhad, natural gas is obtained. At each City Gate Station, odorant is injected into the
gas as part of the safety standards. From there, feeder lines and distribution lines spread
out over Peninsular Malaysia are used to deliver natural gas across our Natural Gas
Distribution System (NGDS).
b) Availability of Labour
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP), International Islamic University Malaysia

(IIUM), Pahang Skill Development Centre (Pusat Pembangunan Kemahiran Pahang) and
Mara Skills Training Institute are a few of the local educational institutions in Pahang. The
institution offers technical training for managers, operators, and technicians. Apart from
that, skilled personnel can be found outside of Gebeng, and both local and international
labourer’s will be used to operate the factory.
30
The following list outlines the land options in Gebeng, Pahang. The cost of the land
is RM1,100,000 per acre. There are 100 acres of total land that are available. The site’s
location is 6.7 km from Kuantan Port and 140 km from Sultan Ahmad Shah Airport.
-Road
The road links are East Coast Expressway and railway line connecting to Gebeng
and Kuantan Port.
Kuantan Port is the only port located in Gebeng, Pahang. It takes 13 minutes to go
as it is 6.7 km from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kuantan Port.
Sultan Ahmad Shah Airport and Gebeng are separated by a 138 km route.
e) Utilities
- Electrical Supply
Electrical supply is obtained from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB).
- Water Supply
Water is supplied by Pengurusan Air Pahang (PAIP). The amount of water available
is adequate for the industrial use.
Major benefits of establishing a plant in Gebeng, Kuantan. The following are the
incentives offered by the government to investors in Pahang.
- Pioneer Status
31
Indah Water Consortium oversees wastewater treatment (Kuantan).
Figure 1. 16: Map of Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang
(Source:(iproperty.com.my, 2022))
4) Kidurong Industrial Area Bintulu, Sarawak
Since the 1980s, the Kidurong Industrial Area has served as the area’s main industrial hub
thanks to the oil and gas industry (Bintulu Port, n.d.). The huge projects such as ABF (Asean
Bintulu Fertilizer) plant, MLNG-1 (Malaysia Liquefied Natural Gas), SMDS (Shell Middle
Distillate Synthesis) and MLNG-2 are all located in this industrial zone.
a) Raw Material
Accessibility of raw material which is methane is important because it can save the
costs if is easy to get and near the plant set up.
32
b) Availability of Labor
Local technical institutions that will provide full strength manpower to assist in
plant operation such as University Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS).
The following list summarises the land options in Kidurong, Bintulu, Sarawak. The
cost of the land is approximately RM 8,791,544/acre. In addition, 3.8 acres of land are
available in total (iproperty.com.my, 2022).This property has a 3.6% interest rate and a 35-
year loan duration.
- Road
Roads go to the industrial district of Kidurong. Kidurong Highway that link Bintulu
town to Kidurong Industrial Area.
The distance from the proposed plant to Bintulu Port is only 4.5km.
The distance from the proposed plant to Bintulu Airport is only 27.7km.
e) Utilities
- Electrical Supply
The facility is owned by Sarawak Energy Berhad.
- Water Supply
For water supply, Syarikat Air Sarawak Sdn Bhd will be responsible to supply
treated water to the new plant.
33
Major incentives of setting up a plant operation in Kidurong, Bintulu, Sarawak. The

incentives are as follows:
- Pioneer Status
Bintulu Development Authority offers a garbage and disposal facility to manage

industrial trash.
Figure 1. 17: Map of Kidurong Industrial Area Bintulu, Sarawak
(Source:(Bintulu Port, n.d.)
34
1.5.4 Comparison of potential site location
Based on the four possible locations for site selection in 1.5.4, the locations are evaluated based on Table 1.6 and rated based on
Table 1.5 below.
Table 1. 5: Score and Interpretation of Evaluation for Site Location
Score Interpretation
1 Unfavourable
2 Moderately Favourable
3 Strongly Favourable
Table 1. 6: Potential Site Selection
Criteria Industrial Land Kerteh, Pasir Gudang Tanjung Gebeng Industrial Park, Kidurong Industrial Area
Terengganu Langsat Industrial Land, Pahang Bintulu, Sarawak
Johor
Raw Material Petronas Gas Berhad, Linde Pasir Gudang Petronas Gas Berhad, Sarawak Energy Bhd
Accessibility Terengganu. Terengganu Malaysia LNG Tiga Sdn Bhd
Linde Gas Products
Sdn Bhd (Kerteh CO2).
35
Rating 3 2 2 3
Road Facilities - East Coast - Senai-Desaru Highway - East Coast Expressway - Kidurong Highway that link
Expressway - Pasir Gudang Highway - Railway line connecting to Bintulu town to Kidurong
- 39 km to Kemaman - Railway line to Kempas Gebeng and Kuantan Port. Industrial Area.
- Railway line Bahru Railway station
connecting to Gebeng -JB East coast Highway
and Kuantan Port.
Rating 3 3 2 2
Port Availability • 6.7 km from • 4.1 km from TLP • 6.72 km from • 4.5 km from Bintulu
Kerteh Port TERMINAL Kuantan Port Port
• 44.31 km from SDN BHD • Samalaju Port
Kemaman Port • 10 km from Johor
Port
• 66.7 from Port
Tanjung Pelepas
Rating 2 3 3 3
36
Airport Facilities • 109.15 km • 56.0 km from • 140 km from Sultan • 27.7 km from Bintulu
from Kuala Senai Airport Ahmad Shah Airport Airport
Terengganu
Airport
• 16.82 km from
Kerteh Airport
Rating 3 3 1 3
Land Price RM 230,769.23/acre RM 1,470,150/acre RM 1,100,000 per acre RM 8,791,544/acre
Rating 3 2 2 1
Land 130 acres 7 acres 100 acres 3.8 acres

Availability (iproperty.com.my, 2022)
Rating 3 1 2 1
Utilities Tenaga Nasional Tenaga Nasional Berhad Tenaga Nasional Berhad Sarawak Energy Berhad
(Electricity) Berhad (TNB) (TNB) (TNB) Tariff D – RM 0.28 / kWh
Tariff D – RM 0.38 / Tariff D – RM 0.38 / kWh Tariff D – RM 0.38 / kWh
kWh
Rating 2 2 2 3
37
Utilities Syarikat Air Syarikat Air Johor (SAJ) Pengurusan Air Pahang Syarikat Air Sarawak Sdn Bhd
(Water Supply) Terengganu Sdn Bhd (PAIP)
Rating 3 3 3 3
Labor Supply - Institute of - Universiti Technology - Pahang Skill Development - Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Technology Petroleum Malaysia (UTM) Centre (Pusat Pembangunan (UNIMAS)
Petronas (INSTEP) - Industrial Training Kemahiran Pahang)
- Industrial Training Institute Pasir Gudang - Mara Skills Training
Institute (ILP) - Johor Skills or Institute
- Terengganu Plastic PUSPATRI - Universiti Malaysia
Technology Training - Universiti Tun Hussein Pahang (UMP)
Centre Onn (UTHM)
- Mara University of
Technology
- Kolej Komuniti
- University of
Malaysia Terengganu.
Rating 3 2 2 1
38
Government - Investment Tax Allowance
Incentives and - Pioneer Status
Legal Restriction - Reinvestment Allowance
- Accelerated Capital Allowance claim and income tax exemption of 100% on qualifying capital expenditure
(Petrochemical & Polymer Industries Division, 2004)
Rating 3
Waste and - Majlis - Majlis Bandaraya - Indah Water - Bintulu Development

Disposal Bandaraya Johor Bahru Consortium Authority
Facilities Kuala (Kuantan)
Terengganu
Rating 3 3 3 3
Total Rating 31 27 25 26
39
In conclusion, according to the score computed above on several potential site location,
thus Industrial Land Kerteh, Terengganu is selected as the best site location for urea production
plant among the others by referring the total ranking from interpretation for raw material, land
price and availability, market, transportation, power supply, water supply, plant requirements, and
labour.
In general, industrial areas must be undivided and of uniform shape, totally flat, near
industrial power, water, and drainage supplies, and effectively served by transportation
infrastructure. As a result, it has been selected as meeting all the requirements for the proposed
petrochemical plant location. The major reason for the choice is the availability of property 130
acres and costs around RM 230,769.23/acre, which is a reasonable price for such a strategic
location.
1.5.5 Plant Layout
Plant Layout is a coordinated effort to achieve the final objective to integrate machines,
materials and personnel for economic production (D.R. Kiran, 2019). In this section, the layout of
the urea production plant will be planned. Hazardous procedures must be kept a safe distance away
from neighbouring structures. The site’s potential expansion must be considered (’Towler &
’Sinnott, 2013).
40
Figure 1. 18: Plant Layout of Urea Production Plant
41
1.6 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this plant design is to produce 40,000 MTPA of urea using methane as
petrochemical feedstock. The reason of producing 40,000 MTPA is because of 20% of annually
demand rise in Malaysia. Hence, production of 40,000 MTPA of urea is a reasonable amount
to be produced and less risk in future. Future expansion has been considered if the deficit of
market in Malaysia keeps increasing.
In this plant design, flow sheeting, process synthesis route selection will be presented
to assess the feasibility and profitability. Furthermore, type of reactor, unit operation, heat
integration, process control and safety, waste management pollution control, and economic
potential analysis are evaluated to make sure the plant can be operated successfully. The
evaluation and calculations are supported by simulation for reactor and unit operation sizing,
mass and energy balance to achieve the targeted production capacity.
51
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS
2.1 LEVEL 1: PROCESS SELECTION
The best synthesis route was made based on rating on economic potential, safety and
environmental aspect of reaction, availability of raw materials as well as the operating
temperature and pressure.
2.1.1 Comparison of Hydrogen Production Routes from Methane
Presented in Table 2.2 below is the summary of different technologies comparison

between the processes and Table 2.1 indicates the rating which 1 is poor; 2 is moderate and 3
indicate excellent. The process technology will select based on the highest rating among all
process technology.
Table 2. 1: Description of ratings for each synthesis route.
Descriptions Ratings
Poor 1
Moderate 2
Excellent 3
Table 2. 2: Summary comparison of hydrogen production from methane synthesis route
Route Decomposition of
Partial oxidation of
Steam Methane Reforming Methane
methane
(SMR)
Reaction 1 1. 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 O → CO + CH4 → C + 2H2

𝐶𝐻4 + 𝑂2 ↔ 𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻2
2 3𝐻2
2. 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 O → 𝐶02 + 𝐻2
52
3 2 3
Raw Material Methane Methane Methane
3 3 3
Operating Requiring temperatures 1𝑠𝑡 ∶ High temperature High operational

Temperature between 700°C and 900°C around 700°C to 1000°C & temperature at
to ensure complete used nickel based as a approximately 1000
conversion (Carole et al, catalyst °C without help of the
2022) 2𝑛𝑑 : catalyst (Hasnan et al.,
● On low temperature 2020)
shift process (on
200°C & used
Copper (II) Oxide as
a catalyst)
● On high temperature
shift process (on
350°C & used Iron
(III) Oxide as a
catalyst)
2 1 2
Operating Atmospheric pressure 3-25 bar pressure Atmospheric pressure

Pressure
3 2 3
Yield 72% 74% 75%
1 2 3
Catalyst Direct partial oxidation Catalytic steam reforming -

Technology
53
1 1 3
Advantages - No external heating - High production of - As the process

so that the system hydrogen does not
will be more - High-cost produce CO or
compact. effectiveness CO2 as by-
- producing high - Can be carried out products, the
methane isothermally need for the
conversion and - High efficiency water-gas shift
high hydrogen - Relative stable and CO2-
selectivity. during transition removal
operation stages, as
- Heat generated can required in
be used to drive SR conventional
reaction with overall hydrogen
higher system production
efficiency. methods (e.g.,
- Produced CO2 as by- SMR and
product will be used partial
for urea synthesis oxidation), is
process. eliminated.
- Only solid
carbon is
obtained as
reaction by-
product.
1 3 2
Disadvantages - Nitrogen must be - High number of - Unreacted

removed using a stages in the unit methane in out
separate gas operation stream.
separation process, - Thermodynamic
which adds to the constraints
54
operation’s cost (if
air is utilised).
1 2 3
Economic High hydrogen produced Produced the highest yield Large carbon amounts
Consideration with less stoichiometric of hydrogen but for every kg must be considered.
amount of oxygen. of hydrogen produced, 7 kg
of carbon dioxide will be
released too.
1 2 2
Safety and High temperature could High amounts of carbon High-pressure drop
Environmental damage the reactor which dioxide released from the caused by carbon
Aspects could lead to non- process will increase the deposition can affect
isothermal conditions and greenhouse gases to the and stop the reaction
cause an explosion. atmosphere and cause owing to safety
climate change, respiratory concerns (Raza et al.,
disease, etc (National 2022).
Geographic, 2019).
1 2 3
Profit Margin 87.89 % 87.88% 85.83 %
3 2 1
EP 1 RM 137,115,684.20/yr RM 137,105,603.10 /yr RM 133,897,942.30/yr
3 2 1
Total Score 21 24 29
55
2.1.2 Economic Potential 1 (Profit Margin)
2.1.2.1 Profit Margin for Partial oxidation of methane
Figure 2. 1: Process flow in partial oxidation

(Source: Global Syngas Technologies Council, n.d)
Partial oxidation of methane (POM) reaction
1
𝐶𝐻4 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐶0 + 2𝐻2
Catalytic conversion
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2
Ammonia production
3𝐻2 + 𝑁2 → 2𝑁𝐻3
Production of urea using ammonia
2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝐶𝐻4 𝑁2 𝑂(𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎) + 𝐻2 𝑂
Based on stoichiometric rate, 1 kmol of urea requires 2 kmol of ammonia and 1 kmol of CO2.
Production rate of urea:
40,000 MT 1000 kg kmol

× × = 666000.667kmol/yr
yr MT 60.06kg
56
Mass of NH3:
666000.667kmol 17.03kg
2× × = 22,683982.7kg/yr
yr kmol
Mass of CO2:
666000.667𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 44.01𝑘𝑔
1× × = 29,310689.4 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on the stoichiometric rate of production of ammonia, 2 kmol of ammonia requires 3

kmol of hydrogen and 1 kmol of N2.
No of moles (NH3):
22683982.7 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
× = 1,332001.33 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 17.03𝑘𝑔
Mass of N2:
1332001.33 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 28.02𝑘𝑔

0.5 × × = 18,661338.6 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Mass of H2:
3 1332001.33 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 2.016 𝑘𝑔

× × = 4,027972.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
2 𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on stoichiometric rate of methane, 1 kmol of CH4 and 0.5 kmol of O2 produces 1 kmol
of CO and 2 kmol of H2.
No of moles (H2):
4027972 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
× = 1998001.98 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 2.016 𝑘𝑔
57
Mass of CH4:
1 1998001.98 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 16.04 𝑘𝑔

× × = 16,023975.9 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Economic Potential 1 (EP1) = Revenue – Raw Material Cost
Profit margin will be calculated by the formula as below:
𝐄𝐏𝟏
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐢𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧 (%) =
𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐞
Some assumption will be made to calculated profit margin. Which are:
- 100% conversion
- Focus on main reaction
Main Reaction; CH4 + 0.5O2 + N2 → NH2CONH2
For methane, CH4
kmol NH2 CONH2 1 kmol of CH4 kmol CH4

666000.667 × 1 kmol NH = 666000.667
yr 2 CONH2 yr
kmol CH4 RM 0.51 16.04 kg

666000.667 × × kmol CH = RM 5 448 151.86/yr
yr kg 4
For nitrogen, N2
kmol NH2 CONH2 1 kmol of N2 kmol N2

666000.667 × 1 kmol NH = 666000.667
yr 2 CONH2 yr
kmol N2 RM 0.72 28.02 kg

666000.667 × × kmol N = RM 13 436 163.9/yr
yr kg 2
For urea, NH2CONH2
666000.667 kmol 60.06 kg RM 3.90

× × = RM 156,000,000/Yr
yr kmol kg
58
Table 2. 3: Profit Margin Calculation for Partial Oxidation of Methane
Chemical Methane Oxygen Nitrogen Urea
Chemical CH4 O2 N2 NH4CONH2

structure
Stoichiometry 1 0.5 1 1
Molecular 16.04 16.00 28.02 60.06

weight
Mass (kg) 16.04 8.00 28.02 60.06
kg/kg urea 0.2671 0.1332 0.4665 1.000
Price RM/kg 0.51 - 0.72 3.90
EP1 = RM 156 000 000/yr – (RM 5 448 151.86/yr + RM 13 436 163.9/yr)
= RM 137 115 684.20/yr
RM137 115 684.20/yr

Profit margin = × 100% = 87.89%
RM156 000 000/yr
59
2.1.2.2 Profit Margin for Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
Figure 2. 2: Block Flow Diagram of Production of Urea via Steam Methane Reforming
1. Steam methane reforming reaction:
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂(+ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡) → CO + 3𝐻2
2. Water-gas shift reaction:
CO + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2
3. Pressure-swing adsorption reaction:
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 → 𝐻2 (Other impurities are removed and leaving

essentially pure 𝐻2 )
4. The Haber-Bosch process reaction:
by using the pure 𝐻2 from steam methane reforming reaction,
3𝐻2 + 𝑁2 → 2𝑁𝐻3
5. Decomposes of ammonium carbamate to produce urea and water reaction:
by using ammonia from previous reaction,
60
2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐻2 𝑁𝐶𝑂2 → 𝐶𝐻4 𝑁2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Production rate of urea:
40,000 𝑀𝑇 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

× × = 666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 1 𝑀𝑇 60.06 𝑘𝑔
Mass of NH3 required:
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 17.03 𝑘𝑔

2× × = 22683982.82 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Synthesis equation of ammonia:
3𝐻2 + 𝑁2 → 2𝑁𝐻3
Based on stoichiometric ratio, 2 kmol of NH3 requires 3 kmol of H2 and 1 kmol of N2.
No of moles of NH3:
22683982.82 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
× = 1332001.34 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑦𝑟
Mass of N2 required:
1332001.34 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 28.02 𝑘𝑔

½𝑥 × = 18661338.77 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Mass of H2 required:
1332001.34 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 2.016 𝑘𝑔

3/2 𝑥 × = 4027972.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Synthesis equation of methane:
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂(+ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡) → CO + 3𝐻2 (1.1)
CO + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 (1.2)
The equation 2.1 is simplified based on the equations of 1.1 and 1.2.
61
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 4𝐻2 (2.1)
Based on stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of CH4 and 1 kmol of H2O produces 1 kmol of carbon
monoxide and 3 kmol of hydrogen.
No of moles of H2:
4027972.05 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
× = 1998002.01 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑦𝑟
Mass of CH4 required:
1 1998002.01 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 16.04 𝑘𝑔

× × = 10682650.75 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑟
Main reaction: CH4 + H2O + N2 → CH4N2O + H2
For methane, CH4
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4

× = 666000.67
𝑦𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 𝑦𝑟
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4 𝑅𝑀 0.51 16.04 𝑘𝑔 5448151.88

× × = 𝑅𝑀
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4 𝑦𝑟
For nitrogen, N2
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2

× = 666000.67
𝑦𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4𝑁2𝑂 𝑦𝑟
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑅𝑀0.72 28.02 𝑘𝑔 13436163.90

× × = 𝑅𝑀
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑦𝑟
For water, H2O
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑂 666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑂

× =
𝑦𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4𝑁2𝑂 𝑦𝑟
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑂 𝑅𝑀 0.00084 18.02 𝑘𝑔 𝑅𝑀 10081.12

× × =
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑂 𝑦𝑟
For urea, CH4N2O
62
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑅𝑀3.90 60.06 𝑘𝑔 156000000
× × = 𝑅𝑀
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑟
For hydrogen, H2
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝐻2

× = 666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑦𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 𝑦𝑟
666000.67 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑅𝑀 1.90 2.02 𝑘𝑔 2556110.57

× × = 𝑅𝑀
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑦𝑟
Table 2. 4: Profit Margin Calculation for Steam Methane Reforming
Component CH4 H2O N2 CH4N2O H2
Stoichiometry 1 1 1 1 1
Molecular 16.04 18.02 28.02 60.06 2.02

weight
Mass 16.04 18.02 28.02 60.06 2.02
Kg/kg urea 0.2671 0.3000 0.4665 1.000 0.0336
Cost 0.51 0.00084 0.72 3.90 1.90
EP 1 = RM 156000000/yr – (RM 5448151.88/yr + RM 13436163.90/yr + RM10081.12/yr)
= RM 137105603.10/yr
Profit Margin = [(RM 137105603.10/yr) / (RM 156000000)] x 100% = 87.88%
63
2.1.2.3 Profit Margin for Catalytic decomposition of Methane (CDM)
Figure 2. 3: Carbon dioxide free production of hydrogen
(Source: Carbon dioxide free production of hydrogen – Scientific Figure on ResearchGate.

Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Process-flow-diagram-
1_fig1_318890424 [accessed 26 Nov 2022])
Production rate of urea is determined to be 40,000 MTPA. Plant operating hours are
assumed to be 333 days per year or 8000 hours per year. The remaining 32 days are reserved
for plant maintenance. Assumption of 100% conversion is made for economic potential 1
calculation. The molecular weight and price for raw material and product are listed in Table
2.1.2 below. Prices of each material are converted to RM per kg based on the current rate 1USD
= RM4.58 on 19/11/2022.
Table 2. 5: Cost and Molecular Weight of Raw Materials and Products
Raw Materials and Molecular Weight Cost (RM/kg) Source

Product (kg/kmol)
Methane gas 16.04 0.51 Petronas Gas Berhad
Nitrogen gas 28.02 0.72 Linde Gas Malaysia Sdn

Bhd
Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.80 Air Liquide Malaysia Sdn
64
Bhd
Hydrogen gas 2.02 1.90 Product
Ammonia 17.03 2.51 Product
Urea 60.06 3.90 Product
Carbon 12.01 2.51 Product
Water 18.02 0.00084 Product
1. Hydrogen gas synthesis reaction:

CH4 → C + 2H2
Methane → Carbon + Hydrogen
2. Ammonia synthesis reaction by Haber-Bosch:

N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3
Nitrogen + Hydrogen ↔ Ammonia
3. Urea synthesis reactions:

2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2COONH4 (1.1)
NH2COONH4 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O (1.2)
The equation 2.1 is simplified based on the equations of 1.1 and 1.2.
2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O (2.1)

Ammonia + Carbon dioxide ↔ Urea + Water
OVERALL CHEMICAL EQUATION

CH4 + N2 + H2 + CO2 ⇆ C + NH2CONH2 + H2O
Production Capacity
Conversion of production rate
65
40,000 metric tons 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1000 kg kmol 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2
× ×
annum 1 metric ton 60.06 kg 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2
666000.666 kmol 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2
=
annum
Price of Urea
666000.666 kmol Urea 60.06 kg RM 3.90 RM 156000000

× × =
annum kmol kg annum
Urea synthesis reactions: 2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O
Based on stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of NH2CONH2 requires 2 kmol of NH3 and 1 kmol of
CO2. To yield 40,000 MTPA of urea, 666000.666 kmol of urea per year need to be produced.
Mass of NH3 required =
666000.666 kmol 17.03 kg kg

2× × = 22683982.68
annum kmol annum
Mass of CO2 required =
666000.666 kmol 44.01 kg kg

× = 29310689.31
annum kmol annum
Synthesis equation of ammonia: N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3
Based on stoichiometric ratio, 2 kmol of NH3 requires 1 kmol of N2 and 3 kmol of H2.
No of moles of NH3 =
kg kmol kmol
22683982.68 × = 1332001.332
annum 17.03 kg annum
Mass of N2 required =
1 1332001.331 kmol 28.02 kg kg

× × = 18661338.66
2 annum kmol annum
66
Mass of H2 required =
3 1332001.331 kmol 2.02 kg kg

× × = 4035964.036
2 annum kmol annum
Hydrogen gas synthesis reaction: CH4 → C + 2H2

Based on stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of CH4 produces 1 kmol of C and 2 kmol of H2.
No of moles of H2 =
4035964.036 kg kmol kmol

× = 1998001.998
annum 2.02 kg annum
Mass of CH4 required =
1 1998001.998 kmol 16.04 kg kg

× × = 16023976.02
2 annum kmol annum
MAIN REACTION
CH4 + N2 + H2 + CO2 ⇆ C + NH2CONH2 + H2O
For Methane, CH4

kmol 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 kmol of CH4 kmol 𝑪𝑯𝟒
666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑦𝑟 2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 yr
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻4 𝑅𝑀 0.51 16.04 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻 = 𝑅𝑀 5,448,151.85/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 4
For Nitrogen, N2
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑦𝑟 2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 𝑦𝑟
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑅𝑀 0.72 28.02 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × = 𝑅𝑀 13,436,163.84/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
For Hydrogen, H2
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑅𝑀 1.90 2.02 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × = 𝑅𝑀 2,556,110.56/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
67
For Carbon dioxide, CO2
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2

666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑅𝑀 0.80 44.01 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × = 𝑅𝑀 23,448,551.45/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
For Carbon, C
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 𝑅𝑀 2.51 12.01 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × = 𝑅𝑀 20,059,940.06 /𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
For Ammonium Carbamate

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑀 2.67 1 𝑚3 96.09 𝑘𝑔
666000.666 × × 1000 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝑀 170869.33/yr
𝑦𝑟 𝑚3
For Urea, NH2CONH2

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 𝑅𝑀 3.90 60.06 𝑘𝑔
666000.666 × × = 𝑅𝑀 156,000,000/𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2
For H2O
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝐻2 𝑂 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
666000.666 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻 = 666000.666
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑅𝑀 0.84 1 𝑚3 18.02 𝑘𝑔

666000.666 × × × = 𝑅𝑀 10081.12 /𝑦𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑚3 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
68
Table 2. 6: Profit Margin Calculation for Decomposition of Methane
Chemical Methane Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Carbon Urea Water

gas gas dioxide gas
Chemical CH2 N2 CO2 H2 C NH2CONH2 H2O

Structure
Stoichiometry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Molecular 16.04 28.02 44.01 2.02 12.01 60.06 18.02

weight
Mass (kg) 16.04 28.02 44.01 2.02 12.01 60.06 18.02
Kg/kg Urea 0.2671 0.4665 0.7328 0.0336 0.2 1 0.3000
Price RM/kg 0.51 0.72 0.80 1.90 2.51 3.90 0.00084
RM/kmol 8.18 20.17 35.21 3.84 30.15 234.23 0.015
EP1 = 𝑅𝑀 156,000,000/𝑦𝑟 + 𝑅𝑀20,059,940.06 + 𝑅𝑀170869.33 -

(𝑅𝑀 5,448,151.85/𝑦𝑟 + 𝑅𝑀 13,436,163.84/𝑦𝑟 + 𝑅𝑀 23,448,551.45/𝑦𝑟)
= RM 133,897,942.30/yr
𝑅𝑀 133,897,942.30/𝑦𝑟
Profit Margin = × 100
𝑅𝑀 156,000,000/𝑦𝑟
= 85.83 %
2.1.3 Selection of Synthesis Route
There is a total of three process synthesis routes that are being reviewed in the process
technology part. In this section, all the synthesis route aspects will be compared to choose the
best synthesis route for hydrogen gas production from methane. In this section, all of synthesis
route of hydrogen gas from methane will be further discuss based on their production
information and aspect such as the operating conditions, availability of the raw materials, safety
and environmental aspect of the reaction and components, technologies employed for
69
synthesis, profitability based of gross profit calculation, conversion of raw materials,
selectivity, and catalyst used. All the aspects would be compared to determine and select the
best synthesis route.
Partial oxidation of methane, steam methane reforming (SMR) and decomposition of

methane are the most common process technologies used to produce hydrogen. Based on Table
2.2, a comparison is completed, and decomposition of methane has the highest rating followed
by SMR and partial oxidation of methane.
First, in terms of raw materials availability and types of raw materials, all the synthesis
routes were using the same type of raw materials which methane. The raw material are available
in abundance based on the market research done on the supply of methane. Hence, all the
synthesis route is considered at the same level for raw materials availability and type of raw
materials aspect. Next, the operating temperature for decomposition of methane is relatively
high as decomposition is an endothermic process and requires high operational temperature at
approximately 1000°C without the help of a catalyst. So, more cost and risk for decomposition
of methane than other two processes. However, the step of decomposition of methane is the
simplest and less equipment needed compared to partial oxidation of methane and SMR.
Besides, the selectivity of yield for decomposition is the highest at 75% followed by SMR 74%
and partial oxidation of methane 72%.
For catalysts, partial oxidation of methane used direct partial oxidation as the catalyst
technology, for SMR used catalytic steam reforming as catalyst technology and for
decomposition of methane do not use the catalyst technology. Compared to all process
technology, decomposition of methane has the lowest risk because when high-pressure drop
caused by carbon deposition occur, it can affect and stop the reaction owing to safety concerns,
while for partial oxidation of methane it can explode when high temperature could damage the
reactor and lead to non-isothermal condition and for SMR it can cause the climate changes and
respiratory diseases.
In conclusion, decomposition of methane is selected as the process technology to

produce the hydrogen with profit margin 83.56% which is slightly lower than steam methane
reforming and partial oxidation. However, simplest reaction step, highest safety condition and
relatively high profit are much preferable.
70
2.1.4 Decision of Process Mode
There are 2 types of mode of operation which are batch process and continuous process.
Generally, the batch process is applied on small scale operation or testing the new process that
has not been fully developed. Batch process is a series of operations that are carried out over a
period on a separate, identifiable item or parcel of materials. A continuous process is suitable
for operating on a large scale and allows a steady state of operation. The guideline for choosing
the mode of operation is shown in Table 2.6 from the reference of (Sinnott, 2015).
Table 2. 7: Guideline for choosing between batch operation or continuous operation.
Description Batch Continuous
Production rates Less than 500 MTPA More than 500 MTPA
Production types Multiple product Single product
Fouling Severe fouling No severe fouling
Lifespan of catalyst Short Long
Market of product Newly established Well established
Based on guidelines in Table 2.7 above, a continuous mode is chosen for this plant
design to produce 40,000MT of urea per annum. Furthermore, as there are catalysts and
membranes used in the separation process in the plant, long lifespan of the catalyst and reduced
fouling on the catalyst and membranes are favoured in the decision.
71
Table 2. 8: Process Requirement for Production of Urea
Process Requirement
Capacity 40,000 MTPA/year of Urea
Raw material delivery Methane gas: Pipeline connected to supplier plant

Nitrogen: Tanker Truck
Product delivery: Urea Deliver to port using tanker trucks
Operational flexibility 1 product only
Feedstock availability Consistent supply
Safety Low risk
Generally, methane gas is desired to transfer via pipeline as methane is an extremely

flammable gas. Storage of methane in compressed liquid form in tank may arise the explosion
risks when it is mix with air. Next, nitrogen gas can be transported by tanker truck in batch
mode. This is due to nitrogen can be stored in the tank for preparation for supplying to the
plant.
2.2 LEVEL 2: INPUT & OUTPUT STRUCTURE BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM
2.2.1 Raw Material Selection and Impurities Management
The raw materials used in this process are methane, nitrogen, and water. Methane is
available in Petronas Gas Berhad, Terengganu with the purity of 99.99 percent and water can
be greatly available locally in Malaysia. Therefore, pre-treatment unit is not necessary for
reactants before entering to the reactor. All the raw materials with purity as stated in the table
2.9 can be purchased in Malaysia.
Table 2. 9: Purity and prices data for raw material
Raw Materials Purity (%) Cost (RM/kg) Source Sources of

and Product Prices
(References)
Methane gas 99.99 0.51 Petronas Gas Berhad Sigma-Aldrich
72
Nitrogen gas 99.99 0.72 Linde Gas Malaysia Sdn Sigma-Aldrich
Bhd
Water 99.99 0.00084 Syarikat Air Terengganu (SATU, n.d.)
2.2.2 Output materials determination and decision of destinations
Before any more specifics are added to the design, the cost of the raw materials, which
normally ranges from 33 to 85% of the total processing cost, must be estimated (Douglas,
1988). The boiling point was used to classify the output destination for all components involved
in the operation. Table 2.10 below indicates the purity and pricing of the product, as well as
the information of the chemical components involved.
Table 2. 10: Boiling Point and output destination
Component Boiling point (ºC) Destination Codes
Urea 135 Main product
Water, H2O 100 Wastewater Treatment Plant
Ammonium Carbamate 140 By-product
CO2 -78.46 Purge and recycle
Ammonia -33.34 Recycle
The target for plant design production is 40,000 metric tonnes per annum of urea which
is equivalent to 83.25 kmol/h by assuming 8,000 working hours per year. As a rule of thumb
in process design, it is desirable to recover more than 99 percent of all valuable materials. In
this process, urea is our main product while the unreacted carbon dioxide and ammonia will be
recycled back to the reactor or purged. Besides, water is sent to wastewater treatment plant.
73
2.2.3 Input-Output Block Flow Diagram (Bfd) For Urea Production
Figure 2. 4: Block Flow Diagram of Urea Production
75
2.2.4 Block Flow Diagram of Decomposition of Methane
Block flow diagram of decomposition of methane is shown in Figure 2.6 below:
Methane
CH4 Methane Decomposition
Reactor Carbon
Hydrogen
Figure 2. 5: Block Flow Diagram of Decomposition of Methane
2.2.4.1 Mole Balance in Terms of Extent of Reaction
Extent of reaction balances allow a general treatment that can be applied to problems
of diverse complexity involving different types of equilibrium, either in the gas phase or in
solution such as acid-base, complexation, precipitation, and redox reactions (Juan et al., 2014).
The symbols of 𝜉1 are used to indicate the extent of the reactions. The mole balance of all the
chemical species is generally computed using the correlation as in the Eq 2.2.3.1. Hence, the
final flow rate from Figure 2.6 can be summarized as in Table 2.11.
ń𝑖 = ń𝑖𝑜 + v̇𝑖 𝜉 ------------ Eq 2.2.3.1
CH4 → C + 2H2 ------------- 𝜉1
Table 2. 11: Mole balance of methane decomposition on level 2 decision
Components Inlet Change Outlet
Methane FCH4,0 - 𝜉1 FCH4 = FCH4,0 – 𝜉1
Carbon - +𝜉1 FC = 𝜉1
Hydrogen - +2𝜉1 FH2 = 2𝜉1
2.2.4.2 Degree of Freedom Analysis
Degree of freedom analysis is for more complex problems than the single-component
or single-operation problems. This analysis is to determine if a problem is even solvable given
the information that obtained (Wikibooks, 2019). This analysis is done to determine the
76
required information in order to solve the material balance. In total, there are five unknowns
which are FCH4, FC and FH2. The degree of freedom analysis is tabulated in Table 2.12.
Table 2. 12: Degree of freedom (decomposition of methane)
Number of unknown species +4
Number of independent equations +1
Number of independent reactive species -3
Number of independent nonreactive species -1
Total degree of freedom 1 (Conversion)
Based on the calculation above, the degree of freedom is 1 which is the conversion. The
remaining information will be obtained using polymath software as shown in Appendix.
2.2.4.3 Stoichiometry
A stoichiometric chemical reaction is where the quantities of the reactants and the
products are such that all the reactants are consume and none is remained after completion of
the chemical reaction (Corrosionpedia, 2022). Stoichiometry is based on the law of
conservation of mass, which states that the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass
of the products for the chemical reaction equation to be balanced. Table 2.13 shows the
stoichiometry reaction for hydrogen synthesis in term of flow rate.
CH4 → C + 2H2
A → B + 2C
Table 2. 13: Stoichiometry table for hydrogen synthesis
Components Initial Change Remaining
CH4 FCH4,0 -FCH4,0X FCH4 = FCH4,0 (1-X)
77
C 0 +FCH4,0X FC = FCH4,0 (θC + X)
H2 0 +2FCH4,0X FH2 = FCH4,0 (θH2 + 2X)
2.2.4.4 Reaction Kinetics
During the modelling and optimization process, a few assumptions were considered,
including steady state circumstances and an isothermal reaction occurring at constant volume.
A relationship known as the rate law can be used to link the rate of a chemical reaction to the
concentration of its active chemical species (Inayat et al., 2012). The active chemical species
include the reactants, products and the catalysts involved. One of the methods of modelling the
kinetic of the process is by using the empirical global equation. In this method, equation below
is used to predict the reaction rate, rA of the process.
𝑑𝐶𝐴
-rA = − = knPAn
𝑑𝑡
Where.
CA = concentration of the species A
PA = partial pressure of the species A
Kn = the rate constant
n = order of the reaction = 1
The value of kn is determined as a function of temperature with an Arrhenius type of equation

as follows:
Kn = Aexp (-Ea/RT)
Where;
A = Arrhenius coefficient = 1.39 x 1016 s-1
T = reactor temperature (K)
R = universal ideal gas constant = 1.987 kcal/mol.K
Ea = activation energy = 47769 kcal/kmol
78
2.2.4.5 Yield, Selectivity and Material Balance for Decomposition of Methane
The material balance is determined based on the conversion value of methane which is 80%
(Shah et al., 2001). Table 2.14 below shows the summary of species flow in term of mole and
mass.
Table 2. 14: Summary of species flow for Decomposition of Methane
Component Inlet Molar Inlet Mass Outlet Molar Outlet Mass

Flowrate Flowrate (kg/h) Flowrate (kmol/h Flowrate (kg/h)
(kmol/h)
CH4 345.90 5548.24 207.54 3328.94
C - - 138.36 1660.32
H2 - - 276.72 558.97
2.2.5 Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
From Figure 2.6, the block flow diagram of ammonia synthesis reactor is shown:
Figure 2.10: Block flow diagram for Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
Figure 2. 6: Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
The extent of reaction method can be used to examine the mole balance in this plant
design. While the superscript number indicates the number of equations, the symbol is used to
indicate the extent of the reaction (’M. Felder &’W. Rousseau, 2005). The following
correlations are used to calculate the general equation of mole balance:
ń𝑖 = ń𝑖𝑜 + v̇𝑖 𝜉
79
Main Reaction for ammonia production:
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 --------------- 𝜉1

Whereby, the symbols ξ1 used to denote the extents of reactions.
Table 2.15 below shows the mole balance for the second level of decision for all the species
involved in the ammonia synthesis process.
Table 2. 15: Mole Balance of Ammonia Reactor on Level 2 Decision
Ammonia 0 2𝜉1 FNH3 = 2𝜉1
Hydrogen FH2, o - 3𝜉1 FH2 = FH2, o – 3𝜉1
Nitrogen FN2, o - 𝜉1 FN2 = FN2, o – 𝜉1
whereby Fi, o denotes inlet molar flow rate of species I while Fi denotes outlet molar flow rate
of species i.
The degree of freedom (DOF) analysis based on the extent of reaction is performed in
order to determine the required information in solving the mole balance (’M. Felder &’W.
Rousseau, 2005). DOF helps to determine the required information and assumption in the
calculation in order to solve the material balance. The degree of freedom analysis is done and
shown in Table 2.16 below.
Table 2. 16: Degree of freedom analysis for ammonia synthesis process
No of unknown variable (FH2, o, FN2, o, FH2, FN2) +5
No of independent equation +1
Independent reactive species -3
80
Feed ratio of nitrogen hydrogen (3: 1) -1
No degree of freedom 1
Based on the calculation above, the degree of freedom is equal to 1. The remaining information
will be obtained using polymath software as shown in Appendix.
Stoichiometry is the relationship between reactants and products in a quantitative form

undergoing a chemical reaction. Table 2.17 below shows the stoichiometry of reaction for
ammonia synthesis in term of Flow Rate.
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3
A + 3B = 2C
Table 2. 17: Stoichiometry table for ammonia synthesis process
Ammonia FNH3, o = FN2, o 𝜃𝑁𝐻3 2FN2, oX FNH3 = FN2, o (𝜃𝑁𝐻3 + 2X)
Nitrogen FN2, o - FN2, oX FN2 = FN2, o (1 – X)
Hydrogen FH2, o = FN2, o 𝜃𝐻2 - 3FN2, oX FH2 = FN2, o (𝜃𝐻2 – 3X)
Fi0
Where θi = , I is species.
FI
The stoichiometric equation for the reversible reaction of ammonia synthesis is as

shown below.
𝑵𝟐 + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 = 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑
For a fundamental approach, most of the published work on ammonia synthesis

revolves around kinetic aspects of the reaction. Referring to a journal from the Department of
Inorganic Chemistry, the development of the analytical rate equations was accompanied by a
81
series of developments of analytical rate equations. According to the ammonia synthesis
reaction is thermodynamically favourable at high pressure and low temperature (Qian, 2018).
The rate equations were expressed by the Langmuir–Hinshelwood mechanism. The prototype
equation is given as follow.
𝑷𝑯𝟐𝟑 𝟎.𝟓 𝑷 𝟐
−𝒓𝑵𝑯𝟑 = 𝟐[𝑲𝟏𝟐 𝑷𝑵𝟐 ( ) − 𝑲𝟐 ( 𝑵𝑯𝟑 )𝟏−𝟎.𝟓 ]
𝑷𝑵𝑯𝟑𝟐 𝑷𝑯𝟐𝟑
α = 0.5 to 0.75 (Kobayashi, 2016)
In common industrial processes, Fe- or Ru-based catalysts are used to accelerate the
rate of reaction, even though the actual plant-operation temperature is still quite high at 400–
600 °C. Such temperatures are required because the large bond dissociation energy of N2 makes
it difficult to be activated. As stated by Hoyt C. Hottel et al. (2008), the Arrhenius relation for
rate constant in ammonia synthesis is shown as below,
𝐸
𝐾1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇
𝐸
𝐾2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇
A1= Arrhenius coefficient = 2.5 × 108 𝑠 −1
A2 = 2.457 × 1011 𝑠 −1
E1 = 28122 kcal/mol
E2 = Activation Energy = 40765 kcal/kmol
R = Universal Gas Constant = 1.987 kcal/kmol. K
T = Temperature (K)
2.2.5.6 Yield, selectivity and Material Balance of ammonia synthesis reactor.
The relationship between the yield and conversion at feed ratio of nitrogen hydrogen which is
1:3 is shown in Figure 2.7 below.
82
Figure 2. 7: Graph of Yield Vs Conversion for Ammonia Reactor
Figure 2.1 above shows the relationship between yield and conversion of nitrogen. It
can be concluded that the yield decreases proportionally with the conversion. The optimum
yield and conversion for the reactor is 41.28 % and 95% respectively. In our process, we take
95% conversion of nitrogen. The equation of yield against conversion can be derived from non-
linear regression equation by using polymath, with R square of 1 fits the correlation as follow:
Y= (-6.8267)x + 6.89819
Block diagram of ammonia synthesis reactor is shown below:
Ammonia Synthesis
Nitrogen,N2 Reactor
Ammonia,NH3
Hydrogen,H2
Figure 2. 8: Block Flow Diagram of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
The material balance is determined based on the conversion value of nitrogen which is
95%, 78% selectivity of ammonia and 3.5% of yield value (Miho et al., 2011). The research
findings were supported by using polymath. The material balance is performed based on
83
assumptions on the ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen is (3:1) as a stoichiometric ratio and
maintained throughout the ammonia synthesis loop from (Bhaskar & Chandra, 2007). Table
2.18 below shows the summary of species flow in term of mole and mass.
Table 2. 18: Summary of species flow for Ammonia Reactor
Inlet Molar Inlet Mass Outlet Molar Outlet Mass

Component Flowrate (kmol/h) Flowrate (kg/h) Flowrate (kmol/h) Flowrate (kg/h)
Hydrogen 276.72 558.97 13.83 27.94
Nitrogen 92.24 2584.56 4.61 129.17
Ammonia 0 0 175.26 2984.68
2.2.6 Block Flow Diagram of Urea Plant
The figure 2.9 below showed the block flow diagram for urea synthesis reactor:
Figure 2. 9: Block flow diagram for Urea plant
84
Main reaction:
2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2COONH4 --------------- 𝜉1
Ammonia + Carbon dioxide = Ammonium Carbamate
Side reaction
NH2COONH4 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O --------------- 𝜉2
Ammonium Carbamate = Urea + Water
Table 2.19 below shows the mole balance for the second level of decision for all the species
involved in the urea synthesis process.
Table 2. 19: Mole Balance of Urea Synthesis Reactor on Level 2 Decision
Ammonia, NH3 FNH3, o −2ξ1 FNH3
Carbon dioxide, CO2 FCO2, o −ξ1 FCO2
Ammonium Carbamate, NH2COONH4 0 ξ1 FNH2COONH4
whereby Fi, o denotes inlet molar flow rate of species I while Fi denotes outlet molar flow rate
of species i.
Table 2. 20: Degree of freedom analysis for urea synthesis process
No of unknown variable +7
No of independent reactive species -5
Feed ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide (2: 1) -1
Production rate of Urea -1
85
Based on the calculation above, the degree of freedom is equal to 2. The remaining 2 addition
information required are the conversion of ammonia and selectivity of product which can be
obtained using polymath software as shown in Appendix.
The stoichiometry for main reaction of the production of urea is shown in table below.
CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2 COONH4

A + 2B → C
Table 2. 21: Stoichiometry table for Urea Synthesis Process
Carbon dioxide, CO2 FCO2o - FCO2o X FCO2= FCO2o (1 – X)
Ammonia, NH3 F𝑁𝐻3.𝑜 = FCO2,o θ𝑁𝐻3 - 2 FCO2o X FNH3 = FCO2o (θ𝑁𝐻3 – 2X)
Ammonium Carbamate, + FCO2o X FNH2COONH4 = FCO2o (θC + X)

F𝑁𝐻2𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻4,𝑜 = FCO2,o θC
NH2COONH4
In addition, the stoichiometry of side reaction of production of urea is shown in table below.
NH2 COONH4 → NH2 CONH2 + H2 O

A→B+C
Table 2. 22: Stoichiometry of Side Reaction of the Production of Urea
Species Symbol Initial Change Remaining
NH2 COONH4 ,
A FA0 −FA0 X FA = FA0 (1 − X)
Ammonium Carbamate
NH2 CONH2 , Urea B FB0 = FA0 θB FA0 X FB = FA0 (θB + X)
H2O C FC0 = FA0 θC FA0 X FC = FA0 (θC + X)
86
Flowrate of urea is denoted as FNH2CONH2, carbamate as FNH2COONH4, carbon dioxide as

FCO2 ammonia as FNH3 and water as FH2O. The total flowrate as FT of the components will be
the sum of all individual flow rate. The rate law used for this reaction is as below (Ben Li,
2013):
−Ea1
r1 = A1 e [FCO2 ][FNH3 ]2
RT
−Ea2
r2 = A2 e [FNH2 CONH2 ]2
RT
According to (Ben Li, 2013), A1 and A2 represent the frequency factors, Ea1 and Ea2 represent
the activation energy, R represent the gas constant, T represent the temperature in Kelvin (K),
[FCO2], [FNH3], and [FNH2CONH2] represent the concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia,
and urea respectively.
A1 = 1.71 × 1011 S −1
A2 = 2.35 × 108 S −1
Ea1 = 248 kJ/mol
Ea2 = 110 kJ/mol
2.2.6.5 Yield, selectivity, conversion and material balance of urea reactor`
Block flow diagram of urea reactor is shown below:
Water,H2O
Ammonia,NH3 Carbon dioxide,CO2
Urea Reactor
Carbon dioxide,CO2 Urea,NH2CONH2
Ammonia,NH3
Ammonium Carbamate, NH2 COONH4
Figure 2. 10: Block Flow Diagram of Urea Reactor
87
The material balance is determined based on the conversion value of CO2 which is 95%,
34% selectivity of urea and 72% yield value (Bhaskar & Chandra, 2007). According to
(Bhaskar & Chandra, 2007), in terms of moles, the ratio of NH3 to CO2 is about 2:1. So, assume
the feed of the raw materials of NH3 to CO2 is 2:1. Table 2.23 below shows the summary of
species flow in term of mole and mass.
Table 2. 23: Summary of species flow for Urea Reactor
Inlet Molar Inlet Mass Outlet Molar Outlet Mass

Component Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate
(kmol/h) (kg/h) (kmol/h) (kg/h)
Carbon dioxide, CO2 87.63 3856.60 4.38 192.76
Ammonia, NH3 175.26 2984.68 8.76 149.18
Water, H2O 0 0 83.25 1498.5
Urea, NH2CONH2 0 0 83.25 5000.00
2.2.7 Economic Potential Level 2
This EP2 consider the costs of raw materials and product at various conversion.
Economic potential at this level can be calculated by using the formula:
Plant 2
RM
EP2 ( ) = Main Product Value − Raw Material Costs
year
Reactions:
2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2COONH4
NH2COONH4 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O
Main Reaction
2NH3 + CO2 ⇆ NH2CONH2 + H2O
88
Table 2. 24: Cost of items
Raw Materials and Cost (RM/kg) Source

Product
Carbon dioxide 0.80 Air Liquide Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Ammonia 2.51 Product
Urea 3.90 Product
Water 0.00084 Product
Hydrogen 1.90 Product
Nitrogen gas 0.72 Linde Gas Malaysia
Methane gas 0.51 Petronas Gas Berhad
Carbon 4.35 Product
40,000 metric tons 1000 kg RM 3.90

Urea Price = × ×
year 1 metric ton kg
Urea Price = RM 156,000,000/year
83.25 kmol 18.02 kg RM 0.00084 8000 h

Water Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Water Cost = RM 10,081.11/year
175.26 kmol 17.02 kg RM 2.51 8000 h

Ammonia Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Ammonia Cost = RM 59,897,138.02/year
87.63 kmol 44.01 kg RM 0.80 8000 h

Carbon Dioxide Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Carbon Dioxide Cost = RM 24,682,216.38/year
89
RM
EP2 ( ) = 156,000,000 − 59,897,138.02 − 24,682,216.38
year
= RM 71,420,645.60/year
Plant 1
345.90 kmol 16.04 kg RM 0.51 8000 h

Methane Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Methane Cost = RM 22,638,802.88/year
276.72 kmol 2.02 kg RM 1.90 8000 h

Hydrogen Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Hydrogen Cost = RM 24,682,216.38/year
175.26 kmol 17.02 kg RM 2.51 8000 h

h kmol kg 1 year
Ammonia Cost = RM 59,897,138.02/year
92.24 kmol 28.02 kg RM 0.72 8000 h

Nitrogen Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Nitrogen Cost = RM 14,887,093.25/year
138.36 kmol 12.01 kg RM 4.35 8000 h

Carbon Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Carbon Cost = RM 57,827,285.28/year
RM
EP2 ( ) = 24,682,216.38 + 57,827,285.28 − 22,638,802.88
year
= RM 59,870,698.78/year
RM
EP2 ( ) = 59,897,138.02 − 14,887,093.25 − 24,682,216.38
year
= RM 20,327,828.39/year
Total EP2 for both plants= RM 110,963,516.00/year
90
Figure 2. 11: Graph of Economic potential 2 with different conversion
Based on Figure 2.12, it shows the value of economic potential (EP) 2 increases when
the conversion of carbon dioxide increases. Hence, in order to gain revenue based on economic
potential level 2 analysis, the conversion of carbon dioxide should at least greater than 0.7.
However, the economic potential calculated in level 2 does not involve any capital cost and
utilities cost, the analysis of economic potential level is done based on the revenue of product
and cost of raw materials only. Hence, further economic analysis that include other factors and
costs will carry out in next level decision to determine the feasibility of the process.
91
2.3 LEVEL 3: REACTOR AND RECYCLE STRUCTURE
In this section, recycling streams including the reactor used are focused and decisions
to recycle reactant are justified. Besides, economic potential for level 3 is calculated by
considering recycle stream and reactor cost.
2.3.1 Decision on Recycle Stream
2.3.1.1 Urea Plant
According to (Bhaskar & Chandra, 2007), in terms of moles, the ratio of NH3 to CO2 is
2:1, therefore it is compulsory to have a recycle stream. It is necessary to recycle CO2 in order
to maximize the usage of raw materials and to increase conversion (Reza et al., 2020). Besides,
compressed CO2 enters the CO2 stripper acting as a stripping agent and decomposing unreacted
carbamate into NH3 and CO2, which are therefore stripped off from the liquid phase. Nitrogen
N2 is not recycled back as gas is difficult to pump it back and besides, it is an infinite supply
from atmosphere.
Reactive species which are ammonia and carbon dioxide are feed to the reactor. In
reactor, carbon dioxide will react. The outlet of the reactor will also contain unreacted
ammonia, carbon dioxide, and ammonium carbamate. Unreacted ammonia, carbon dioxide,
and ammonium carbamate will be recycled from top product of first distillation column. Urea
(main product) and water (by-product) will be discharged from the separator. Meanwhile, water
will undergo another treatment to be treated at wastewater treatment plants.
2.3.1.2 Ammonia Plant
Ammonia is continuously condensed out of the loop and fresh synthesis gas is added.
Because the synthesis gas contains small quantities of methane and argon, these impurities
build up in the loop and must be continuously purged to prevent them from exceeding a certain
concentration. Besides, the amount of ammonia formed in a single pass through a converter
was far too low to be of commercial interest. In order to produce more ammonia from the
makeup gas, thus it is necessary to have a recycle and purge stream. Besides, for the ammonia
reactor the nitrogen conversion is 95%, therefore it is compulsory to have a recycle stream. The
feed ratio of nitrogen and hydrogen is 1:3. Almost 95% of nitrogen have been reacted while
the unreacted nitrogen must be recycled again together with the unreacted hydrogen to the
ammonia reactor.
92
2.3.2 Decision on Reactor Type
2.3.2.1 Decomposition of methane Reactor
Decomposition is a method of producing synthesis gas (hydrogen and carbon).

Decomposition of methane (DOM) reactor is a furnace containing a burner, which provides a
large amount of heat through the combustion of fuel, and a tube containing a catalyst. In order
to minimize the methane content in the synthesis gas, while maximizing H2 production and
preventing the formation of elemental carbon and preventing its deposition on the catalyst
(Linde Engineering, 2021). As the condition of pyrolysis reactor is at 1200℃ and 1 atm
pressure. There are various types of reactors in chemical industries such as continuous stirred
tank reactor (CSTR), packed-bed reactor, batch reactor and plug flow reactor. Pyrolysis of
methane is an equilibrium reaction, which begins to produce carbon and hydrogen. Plug flow
reactor is choose among those reactors for the process pyrolysis of methane. This process can
be done with tubular reactor but since our feed capacity is large amount, thus we chose plug
flow reactor. Plug flow reactor is widely used equipment in chemical related industries. Firstly,
it is good for large scale production. Next, it is also good for the process which having high-
temperature reactions.
2.3.2.2 Ammonia Reactor
The condition at this reaction is temperature at 480℃ and 203 atm of pressure. Plug
flow reactor will be best fit or this reaction because we need a large capacity production for
ammonia to produce urea in the next step. Plug flow reactor can be suitable for high pressure
and temperature reaction and synthesis. By considering ammonia synthesis is an adiabatic plug
flow reactor with an inlet stream consisting of a stoichiometric feed (1:3) of nitrogen and
hydrogen.
2.3.2.3 Urea Reactor
The commercial production of urea is based on the reaction of ammonia (NH3) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) at high pressure (150 to 160 bar) and temperature (180 to 190°C) to form
ammonium carbamate, which is dehydrated into urea and water. The synthesis of urea is purely
a thermal reaction and does not require any catalyst (MacDowell et al., 2010). For the urea
synthesis, it was considered the inlet CO2 stream temperature of 40°C, the same temperature
after being recovered at step 1, and the condensate NH3 stream, from step 2, at 30°C. In the
rector, the temperature reaches 185°C. Packed bed reactors, also called fluidized bed reactors,
93
are usually used in catalytic process. Moreover, using the plug flow model as the reactor,
minimize the volume required for the reaction according to the Levenspiel diagram.
2.3.3 Block Flow Diagram for Urea Plant
In this section, recycling streams including the reactor used are focused and decisions
to recycle reactant are justified. Besides, economic potential for level 3 is calculated by
considering recycle stream and reactor cost.
Figure 2. 12: Block Flow Diagram for Production of Urea
Table 2. 25: Degree of freedom analysis for urea synthesis process
No of unknown variable +6
No of independent reactive species -5
Feed ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide (2: 1) -1
Conversion of Carbon Dioxide and yield -2
94
2.3.3.2 Material Balance for Urea Plant
Material balance of level 3 is performed based on the result of degree of freedom

analysis, whereas the material balance for separator part is same as that for reactor part because
there is no more reaction occur in separator that will affect our flow rates.
Assumptions:
1. Plant operating hours are assumed to be 333 days per year or 8000 hours per year.
2. The total conversion of carbon dioxide was assumed to be 95% according to (Bhaskar &
Chandra, 2007).
40,000𝑀𝑇 1000𝑘𝑔 1000𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 1ℎ

FNH2CONH2 = × × × × ×
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 1𝑀𝑇 1𝑘𝑔 60.06𝑘𝑔 8000ℎ 3600𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 23.1250
𝑠
Carbon Dioxide
FNH2CONH2
FCO2,o =
Y
mol
23.1250 s
FCO2,o =
0.70
mol
FCO2,o = 33.0357
s
Unreacted Carbon Dioxide

FNH2CONH2
FCO2 = (1 − XCO2 )
Y
mol
23.1250 s
FCO2 = (1 − 0.95)
0.70
mol
FCO2 = 1.6518
s
Ammonia
FNH3,o = 2FCO2,o
95
mol
FNH3,o = 2 × 33.0357
s
mol
FNH3,o = 66.0714
s
Unreacted Ammonia
FNH3 = FNH3 (1 − XNH3 )
mol
FNH3 = 66.0714 (1 − 0.95)
s
mol
FNH3 = 3.3036
s
Ammonium Carbamate
2FNH2CONH2
FNH2COONH4 = (1 − Y)
Y
mol
23.1250 s
FNH2COONH4 = 2× (1 − 0.7)
0.7
mol
FNH2COONH4 = 19.8214
s
Water
2FNH2CONH2
F H2 O = (1 − Y)
Y
mol
23.1250 s
F H2 O =2× (1 − 0.7)
0.7
mol
F H2 O = 19.8214
s
Table 2. 26: Summary of Material Balance for Level 3
Inlet Flow Rate Outlet Flow Rate

Unit Component Symbol
(kmol/h) (kmol/h)
FCO2,o 118.9285 -
Reactor Carbon Dioxide
FCO2 - 5.94648
96
FNH3,o 237.8570 -
Ammonia
FNH3 - 11.8930
Water F H2 O - 71.3570
Ammonium
FNH2COONH4 - 71.3570
Carbamate
Urea FNH2CONH2 - 83.25
Carbon Dioxide FCO2 - 5.94648
Ammonia FNH3 - 11.8930
Water F H2 O - 71.3570
Separator
Ammonium
FNH2COONH4 - 71.3570
Carbamate
Urea FNH2CONH2 - 83.25
Separation system is used to separate unreacted raw materials from product (urea). The
unreacted raw materials are recycled to mixer and feed to reactor since large amount of
ammonium carbamate, ammonia and carbon dioxide remaining after reaction occurred. Then
these products are further separated to achieve desired purity. Recovery efficiency of separator
is assumed to be 100% in level 3 to ease the calculation as the focus is on reactor.
2.3.3.3 Reactor Design
2.3.3.3.1 Reaction Kinetics
The main and side reaction for production of urea is shown as below.
A + 2B → C
A→B+C
97
The rate law used for this reaction is as below (Ben Li, 2013):
−Ea1
r1 = A1 e [FCO2 ][FNH3 ]2
RT
−Ea2
r2 = A2 e [FNH2 CONH2 ]2
RT
Where A1 and A2 represent the frequency factors, Ea1 and Ea2 represent the activation energy,
R represent the gas constant, T represent the temperature in Kelvin (K), [FCO2], [FNH3], and
[FNH2CONH2] represent the concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea respectively.
A1 = 1.71 × 1011 S −1
A2 = 2.35 × 108 S −1
Ea1 = 248 kJ/mol
Ea2 = 110 kJ/mol
2.3.3.3.2 Heat Effects
The study of reactor heat effect involves the following assumptions:

1. System not accelerating, ΔĖk=0
2. System not moving vertically, ΔĖp=0
3. No shaft work, Ẇs=0
4. Pressure change is neglected.
Table 2.27 below shows the heat capacities of the involved components taken from (Smith el
at, 2005) and calculated using equation below.
𝐶𝑃
Eqn.1: (J/kmol. K) = A+ B[T] + C [T]2
𝑅
𝑇2 𝐶𝑝
Eqn. 2: Ĥ = ∫𝑇1 𝑑𝑇
𝑅
Table 2. 27: Coefficient values for heat capacity equation and Standard Enthalpy of
Formation from Elementary Principle of Chemical Process, 2005 (Daniela et al., 2021).
98
𝑘𝐽
ΔHv ( )
ΔHf 𝑘𝑔
Components A 𝑏 c d
𝑘𝐽
(𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) (Cengel &
Boles, 2002)
Carbon 4.23 2.89 × 10−8 7.46 × 10−12
−2
3.61 × 10 -393.5 -
Dioxide × 10−5
Water (l) 3.61 × 10−2 - - - -285.84 -
3.45 × 10−2 6.88 7.60 × 10−9 −3.59 × 10−12
Water (g) -241.83 -
× 10−6
3.52 × 10−2 2.95 4.42 × 10−9 −6.69 × 10−12
Ammonia -67.20 -
× 10−5
Ammonium -
1.5018 0.0069 - -642.5 -
Carbamate
4.98 −8.61 × 10−7
Urea 38.43 7.05 × 10−4 -333.39 -
× 10−2
Urea Reactor (R-103)
Table 2. 28: References of Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Ammonium carbamate, Urea, Water
(v, 25°C)
Components In (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol) Out (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol)
Ammonia 237.8570 Ĥ1 11.8930 Ĥ3
Ammonium - - 71.3570 Ĥ4
Carbamate
Urea - - 83.25 Ĥ5
Carbon dioxide 118.9285 Ĥ2 5.94648 Ĥ6
Water - - 71.3570 Ĥ7
Ĥ1 : NH3 (g, 25℃) → NH3 (g, 185℃)
99
185
Ĥ1 = ∫ (3.52 × 10−2 ) + (2.95 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (4.42 × 10−9 )𝑇 2 + (−6.69 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 6.13 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ2 : CO2 (g, 25℃) → CO2 (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ2 = ∫ (3.61 × 10−2 ) + (4.23 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (2.89 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (7.46 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 6.55 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ3 : NH3 (g, 25℃) → NH3 (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ3 = ∫ (3.52 × 10−2 ) + (2.95 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (4.42 × 10−9 )𝑇 2 + (−6.69 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 6.13 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ4 : NH2 COONH4 (g, 25℃) → NH2 COONH4 (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ4 = ∫ (1.5018) + (0.0069)𝑇 𝑑𝑡
25
= 356.21 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ5 : NH2 CONH2 (g, 25℃) → NH2 CONH2 (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ5 = ∫ (38.43) + (4.98 × 10−2 )𝑇 + (7.05 × 10−4 )𝑇 2 + (−8.61 × 10−7 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 8217.65 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ6 : CO2 (g, 25℃) → CO2 (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ6 = ∫ (3.61 × 10−2 ) + (4.23 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (2.89 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (7.46 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 6.55 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ7 : H2 O (g, 25℃) → H2 O (g, 185℃)

185
Ĥ7 = ∫ (3.45 × 10−2 ) + (6.88 × 10−6 )𝑇 + (7.60 × 10−9 )𝑇 2 + (−3.59 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
25
= 5.65 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
100
2.3.4 Block Flow Diagram for Ammonia Plant
Figure 2. 13: BFD for ammonia process
This section will discuss about degree of freedom for overall process of ammonia
reactor and separator. There are 5 unknown variables (FN2, I, FH2, I, FN2, O, FH2, O, FNH3, O) for
overall process. Hence, DOF of overall process is shown as below:
No. of unknown variables (FN2, I, FH2, I, FN2, O, FH2, O, and FNH3, O) 5

No. of independent reactive species (N2, H2, and NH3) -3
No. of degree of freedom 2
DOF for reactor is shown as below:
No. of unknown label variables 5

(FN2, I, FH2, I, FN2, O, FH2, O, and FNH3, O)
No. of independent reactions 1
No. of independent reactive species (N2, H2, and NH3) -3
Feed ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen (1:3) -1
Stoichiometric relation nitrogen to hydrogen -1
Optimum conversion obtained in level 2 -1
101
DOF for separation is shown as below:
No. of unknown label variables (FN2.O, FH2, O, FNH3, O) 3

No. of independent reactive species (N2, H2, NH3) -3
2.3.4.2 Material Balance Level 3
Optimum conversion of nitrogen obtained from polymath result is 95%. Table 2.29
shows material balance for ammonia reactor at optimum conversion and Table 2.30 shows
material balance for separator.
Table 2. 29: Summary of Ammonia Reactor material balance
Species Inlet Outlet Recycle
Molar Mass Molar Mass Molar Mass

Flow Rate Flow Rate Flowrate Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate
(kmol/h) (ton/yr) (kmol/h) (ton/yr) (kmol/h) (ton/yr)
N2 92.24 2584.56 4.61 129.17 4.61 129.17
H2 276.72 558.97 13.83 27.94 13.83 27.94
NH3 - - 175.26 2984.68 - -
Total 368.96 3143.53 193.7 3141.79 18.44 157.11
Table 2. 30: Summary of Separator material Balance
Feed Inlet Flow Rate Desired Product Recycle Unreacted Raw

Material
Molar Flow Mass Molar Mass Flow Molar Flow Mass Flow
Species
Rate Flow Rate Flowrate Rate Rate Rate
(kmol/h) (ton/yr) (kmol/hr) (ton/yr) (kmol/h) (ton/yr)
102
N2 4.61 129.17 - - 4.61 129.17
H2 13.83 27.94 - - 13.83 27.94
NH3 175.26 2984.68 175.26 2984.68 - -
Total 193.7 3141.79 175.26 2984.68 18.44 157.11
2.3.4.3 Reactor Design
Figure 2.14 below shows the Levenspiel plot diagram.
4500
4000
3500
3000
(FA0/-rA)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, X
Figure 2.14: Levenspiel plot for ammonia plant
2.3.4.3.1 Reaction Kinetics
The stoichiometric equation for production of ammonia is shown as below:
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
A + 3B → 2C
103
For a fundamental approach, most of the published work on ammonia synthesis revolves
around kinetic aspects of the reaction. Referring to a journal from the Department of
Inorganic Chemistry, the development of the analytical rate equations was accompanied by a
series of developments of analytical rate equations. The prototype equation is given as
follow.
The rate law used for this reaction is as below:
𝑷𝑯𝟐𝟑 𝟎.𝟓 𝑷 𝟐
−𝒓𝑵𝑯𝟑 = 𝟐[𝑲𝟏𝟐 𝑷𝑵𝟐 ( ) − 𝑲𝟐 ( 𝑵𝑯𝟑 )𝟏−𝟎.𝟓 ]
𝑷𝑵𝑯𝟑𝟐 𝑷𝑯𝟐𝟑
α = 0.5 to 0.75 (Kobayashi, 2016)
Where K1 and K2 calculate using Arrhenius equation. Formula for K1 and K2 represented as
below :
𝐸
𝐾1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇
𝐸
𝐾2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇
A1= Arrhenius coefficient = 2.5 × 108 𝑠 −1
A2 = 2.457 × 1011 𝑠 −1
E1 = 28122 kcal/mol
E2 = Activation Energy = 40765 kcal/kmol
R = Universal Gas Constant = 1.987 kcal/kmol.K
T = Temperature (K)
2.3.4.3.2 Heat Effects
In this subtopic, heat effect in reactor is calculated to determine the suitable type of
reactor for this process.
The study of reactor heat effect involves the following assumptions:
1. System not accelerating, ΔĖk=0
2. System not moving vertically, ΔĖp=0
3. No shaft work, Ẇs=0
104
4. Pressure change is neglected.
Table 2.31 below shows the heat capacities of the involved components taken from
Elementary Principles of chemical processes 4th edition, (Richard et al, 2016) and calculated
using equation below.
𝐶𝑃 𝐽
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1: ( . 𝐾) = 𝑎 + 𝑏[𝑇] + 𝑐[𝑇 2 ] + 𝑑[𝑇 3 ]
𝑅 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇2
𝐶𝑃
̂=∫
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2: 𝐻 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1 𝑅
Table 2. 31: Coefficient values for heat capacity equation
Component a (10-3) b (10-5) c (10-8) d (10-12) ΔHf

(kJ/kmol)
Hydrogen 28.84 0.00765 0.3288 -0.8698 0
Nitrogen 29.00 0.2199 0.5723 -2.871 0
Ammonia 35.15 2.954 0.4421 -6.686 -67.20
Ammonia Reactor
Table 2. 32: References of NH3, H2, N2 (v, 25°C)
Component In (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol) Out (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol)

NH3 - - 175.26 Ĥ3
H2 276.72 Ĥ1 13.83 Ĥ4
N2 92.24 Ĥ2 4.61 Ĥ5
Q = ΔH = ∑ṅi Ĥi (out) - ∑ṅi Ĥi (in)

Ĥ1 = H2 (g,25°C) → H2 (g,480°C)
̂1 = ∫480(28.84 × 10−3 ) + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
𝐻 25
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ1 = 13.24 kJ/mol
Ĥ2 = N2 (g,25°C) → N2 (g,480°C)
̂2 = ∫480(29.00 × 10−3 ) + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 ×
𝐻 25
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
105
Ĥ2 = 13.62 kJ/mol
Ĥ3 = NH3 (g,25°C) → NH3 (g,480°C)

̂3 = ∫480(35.15 × 10−3 ) + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
𝐻 25
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ3 = 19.46 kJ/mol
Ĥ4 = H2 (g,25°C) → H2 (g,480°C)
̂4 = ∫480(28.84 × 10−3 ) + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×

𝐻 25
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ4 = 13.24 kJ/mol
Ĥ5 = N2 (g,25°C) → N2 (g,480°C)
̂5 = ∫480(29.00 × 10−3 ) + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 ×
𝐻 25
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ5 = 13.62 kJ/mol
Separator
Table 2. 33: References of NH3, H2, N2 (v, 35°C)
Component In (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol) Out (kmol/h) Ĥ (kJ/kmol)

NH3 175.26 Ĥ1 175.26 -
H2 13.83 Ĥ2 13.83 -
N2 4.61 Ĥ3 4.61 -
Ĥ1 = NH3 (g,35°C) → NH3 (g,480°C)

̂1 = ∫480(35.15 × 10−3 ) + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
𝐻 35
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ1 = -19.1 kJ/mol
Ĥ2 = H2 (g,35°C) → H2 (g,480°C)
106
̂2 = ∫480(28.84 × 10−3 ) + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
𝐻 35
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ2 = -12.95kJ/mol
Ĥ3 = N2 (g,35°C) → N2 (g,480°C)
̂3 = ∫480(29.00 × 10−3 ) + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 ×
𝐻 35
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
Ĥ3 = -13.33 kJ/mol
2.3.5 Economic Potential level 3
2.3.5.1 Reactor cost
2.3.5.1.1 Decomposition of methane reactor
The type of reactor used for pyrolysis process reactor is jacketed agitated type for PFR
reactor.
By using the formula and source of K values from Table A.1 in Project management &
economic Student handbook (Turton & Whiting, 1998).
:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴 + 𝐾3 [log10 (𝐴)]2
CPo = Purchased cost for base condition
A = Reactor volume
and formula:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
CBM = Bare module equipment cost
FBM = Bare module equipment factor
and:
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
107
C = Bare module equipment cost
I = Cost Index
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 4.1052 + (−0.4680)(log10 (30)) + (−0.0005)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 30)2

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.4128
𝐶𝑃0 = $2587.12
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $2587.12 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
As for bare module factor, FBM of jacketed agitated reactor estimated to be 4.0.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $2587.12 × 4.0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $10348.48
The formula below is used to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2024. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2022 and 2023 are 708 and 824.5
respectively. Thus, the estimated CEPCI is extrapolated for year 2024 is 941. The CEPCI for
base year of 2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of pyrolysis reactor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $10348.47 × = $24696.70
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $24696.70 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 110,641.23
2.3.5.1.2 Ammonia reactor
This section discusses the cost of each step in the ammonia synthesis reaction. The
calculations shown below can be used to determine the purchase cost. (Turton et.al, 2009)
By using the formula:

A = Reactor volume
and formula:
108
and:
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
I = Cost Index
Table 2. 34: Specification of the Ammonia Plant
Parameters R-101
Type of reactor Autoclave
K1 4.5587
K2 -0.7014
K3 0.0020
Min: 1
Volume, m3
Max: 30
FBM (Turton et.al, 2009) 4.0
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 4.5587 + (−0.7014)(log10 (15)) + (0.0020)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 15)2

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.5270
𝐶𝑃0 = 3365.20
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $3365.20 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $3365.20 × 4.0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $13460.80
respectively. Thus, the estimated CEPCI for year 2024 is 941. The CEPCI for base year of
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of PFR reactor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $13460.80 × = $32124.61
394.3
109
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 32124.61 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 143,916.89
Figure 2.15 below shows cost of ammonia reactor at different conversion and the calculation
results is attached in Appendix.
600000.00
500000.00
Cost of Reactor (RM)
400000.00
300000.00
200000.00
100000.00
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, X
Figure 2. 14: Cost of ammonia reactor at different conversion
2.3.5.1.3 Urea reactor
This section discusses the cost of each step in the urea synthesis reaction. Using the
project management & economic Student handbook (Turton & Whiting, 1998) refer Table A.1
for equipment cost data to be used with equation below. The calculations shown below can be
used to determine the purchase cost (Turton et.al, 2009).

110
A = Reactor volume
and formula:
and:
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
I = Cost Index
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 4.1052 + (−0.4680)(log10 (33)) + (−0.0005)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 33)2

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.3934
𝐶𝑃0 = $2473.90
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $2473.90 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
As for bare module factor, FBM of jacketed agitated reactor estimated to be 4.0.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $2473.90 × 4.0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $9895.61
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of PFR reactor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $9895.61 × = $23615.95
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $23615.95 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 105799.44
Total Reactor Cost = RM 143916.89 + RM 110641.27 + RM105799.44
= RM 360357.60
111
2.3.5.2 Compressor Cost
a) Compressor for inlet feed of ammonia reactor

The density of the inlet stream, ρ which are for hydrogen is 0.08375 kg/m3 and for
nitrogen is 1.2501 kg/m3. The inlet flow for hydrogen and nitrogen, Qin are 558.97
kg/h and 2584.56 kg/h.
The volumetric flow rate is calculated below:
𝑚 558.97 𝑘𝑔/ℎ 𝑚3
QH2in = = = 6674.27
𝜌 0.08375 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ℎ
𝑚 2584.56 𝑘𝑔/ℎ 𝑚3
QN2in = = = 2067.48
𝜌 1.2501 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ℎ
Total volumetric flow rate is

QH2in + QN2in = 6674.27 + 2067.48
= 8741.75 m3/h = 145695.83 l/min
Pressure different, ΔP = (200 – 1) atm = 199 atm = 201.637 bar
Therefore, the power of compressor is calculated as:
𝛥𝑃 × 𝑄𝑖𝑛 201.637 × 145695.83
= = 48962.78 𝑘𝑊
600 600
Assume the efficiency of the compressor is 0.85%, the actual power is
48962.78
= 57603.27 𝑘𝑊
0.85
From Table A.1 (Turton et.al, 2009)
By using the formula, the cost of compressor is calculated:

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (57603.27) + (−0.1027)[log10 (57603.27)]2
𝐶𝑃0 = $ 2744350.50
From Table A.5 Equations for Bare Module Cost for Equipment (Turton, 2009) in appendix,
the bare module cost for compressor can be calculated by using the equation below:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 𝐹𝐵𝑀
112
Figure 2. 15: Bare Module Factors for Equipment
(Source of Figure A.19 for Bare Module Factors for Equipment in Table A.6 from
Turton,2009)
From Figure 2.16 (Turton, 2009) in appendix, the FBM for the compressor with carbon steel is
2.7.
CBM = $ 2744350.50 x 2.7
CBM = $ 7409746.35
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost compressor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 7409746.35 × = $ 17683416.98
394.3
113
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $ 17683416.98 ×
$1
= RM 79,221,708.07
Figure 2.17 below shows cost of catalyst at different conversion and the calculation results in
Excel spreadsheet is attached in Appendix.
18000000.00
16000000.00
14000000.00
Cost of compressor (RM)
12000000.00
10000000.00
8000000.00
6000000.00
4000000.00
2000000.00
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, X
Figure 2. 16: Cost of compressor at different conversion
b) Compressor for inlet carbon dioxide
The density of the inlet stream, ρ for carbon dioxide 1.87 kg/m3. The inlet flow for
carbon dioxide, Qin are 3856.60 kg/h
The volumetric flow rate is calculated below

𝑚 3856.60 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
QCO2in = = = 2062.35 ℎ𝑟 = 34372.5 l/min
𝜌 1.87 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Pressure different, ΔP = (160 – 1) bar = 159 bar
Therefore, the power of compressor is calculated as:
114
𝛥𝑃 × 𝑄𝑖𝑛 159 × 34372.5
= = 9108.71 𝑘𝑊
600 600
Assume the efficiency of the compressor is 0.85%, the actual power is

9108.71
= 10716.13 𝑘𝑊
0.85
From Table A.1 (Turton et.al, 2009)

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10716.13) + (−0.1027)[log10 (10716.13)]2
𝐶𝑃0 = $ 1271135.35
Figure 2.17 below shows the Equations for Bare Module Cost for Equipment from Table A.5
in (Turton, 2009), the bare module cost for compressor can be calculated by using the
equation below:
115
Figure 2. 17: Equations for Bare Module Cost for Equipment
Figure 2. 18: Bare Module Factors for Equipment
(Source of Figure A.19 for Bare Module Factors for Equipment in Table A.6 from
Turton,2009)
From Figure 2.18 (Turton, 2009) in appendix, the FBM for the compressor with carbon steel is
2.7.
CBM = $ 1271135.35 x 2.7
CBM = $ 3432065.46
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost compressor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $3432065.46 × = $ 8190650.77
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $ 8190650.77 ×
$1
= RM 36,694,115.44
116
2.3.5.3 Catalyst cost
Assume packed bed of spherical iron – oxide catalysts are used. Assume the porosity
of catalyst is 0.5. Bulk density can be calculated based on the porosity and catalyst density.
According to (Don W. Green et al., 2008), the price of catalyst is approximately RM837.30/kg
(usd 500/1-4kg, usd 300/5-9kg, usd 200/>=10kg) and an estimation total of 10 kg is needed.
Moreover, industry standard that 3 years is acceptable period for the return of investment
(ROI).
The cost of catalyst per year is:
𝑅𝑀 837.30 10𝑘𝑔
Cost of catalyst = × 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑅𝑀 8373.00/𝑦𝑟
𝑘𝑔
Table 2. 35: Properties of Catalyst used in Ammonia Synthesis Reactor.
Properties Values References

Density of bulk, b 2450 kg/m3 (Rase, 1997)
Particle diameter, dp 5.8 mm (Rase, 1997)
BET Surface area 7.5 m2/g (Rase, 1997)
Tortuosity, τ 2 (Hoyt C. Hottel et al., 2008)
Density of catalyst, c 4900 kg/m3 (Rase, 1997)
Figure 2.19 below shows cost of catalyst at different conversion and the calculation results in
Excel spreadsheet is attached in Appendix.
117
30000000.00
25000000.00
Cost of catalyst (RM)
20000000.00
15000000.00
10000000.00
5000000.00
0.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Figure 2. 19: Cost of catalyst at different conversion
Recycle stream:
18.44 kmol 17.03 kg RM 2.51 8000 h
h kmol kg 1 year
Ammonia Cost = RM 6,305,786.66 /year
4.61 kmol 28.02 kg RM 0.72 8000 h

Nitrogen Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Nitrogen Cost = RM 744,031.87/year
13.83 kmol 2.02 kg RM 1.90 8000 h

Hydrogen Cost = × × ×
h kmol kg 1 year
Hydrogen Cost = RM 424,636.32 /year
Total recycle stream = RM 7,474,454.85 /year

The equation used to calculate EP3 is shown below:
EP3 = EP2 + recycle stream – reactor cost – catalyst cost – compressor cost
EP3 = RM 110,963,516.00 + RM 7,474,454.85 /year – RM 143,916.89 – RM 105,799.44 –

RM 110,641.27 – RM 8373.00 – RM 36,694,115.44
EP3 = RM 90,040,862.71/year
118
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
3.1 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
3.1.1 Process Description
Figure 3.1 below shows the Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of the production of urea
from methane via decomposition of methane by Microsoft Visio. Methane gas from pipeline is
heated to 1200℃ by heater (E-101) before channelled into the pyrolysis reactor (R-101) for
decomposition into hydrogen gas and carbon. At R-101, 80% of methane will be converted to
hydrogen and carbon. R-101 is operated at 1200℃ and 1 atm. In R-101, the liquid carbon is
collected at the bottom of R-101 while the hydrogen and unreacted methane gas flows from the
top of R-101 to a cooler to reduce the temperature to 250℃ before channel into a separator (V-
101) to separate hydrogen and methane gas. All the methane gas is recycled back to R-101
through a mixer (M-101) whereas hydrogen gas is supplied to synthesis ammonia through a
mixer (M-102).
On the other side, nitrogen gas from nitrogen storage tank will supply to M-102. All the
compounds at M-102 will be compressed by compressor (C-101) and cool to 480℃ by a cooler
(E-103). A compressor is used to increase the pressure from 1atm to 203atm. Then, the
compounds will channel to ammonia reactor (R-102). In R-102, hydrogen gas will react with
nitrogen gas to synthesis ammonia at temperature 480℃ and pressure 203 atm. The ammonia
synthesized and unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gas are then cooled to 35℃ by cooler (E-
104) before it enters flash column (V-102) which operate at 35℃ and 202 atm. Since, the
temperature is less than critical temperature (Tc = 405.5℃) and pressure is more than the
critical pressure (Pc = 111.3atm), thus ammonia phase is in liquid. Next, flash column separates
nitrogen and hydrogen gas as the top product while ammonia in liquid state as the bottom
product. The gas products at top will split by a splitter (M-103). 10% of the stream will be
purged out while 90% of the stream will be recycle to M-102. The bottom products of V-101
are in liquid form will pass by a pump (P-101) with outlet pressure 116 atm to pump ammonia
towards urea plant. The separated ammonia will enter heater (E-105) to heat up the ammonia
to 185°C.
119
The carbon dioxide from pipeline at 25℃ is compressed from 65 atm to 118 atm using
a compressor (C-102) and cooled using a cooler (E106). Then, both heated ammonia and cooled
carbon dioxide will be mixed in a mixer (M-104) before entering the reactor (R-103). Next,
two reactions take place simultaneously in reactor (R-103) which is carbamate formation and
urea formation. The reactor operates at 185°C and 118 atm. Then a cooler (E-107) used to cool
down the components from 185°C to 130°C. A valve (VLV-101) is introduced to reduce the
pressure from 118 atm to 50 atm. Next, a flash column (V-103) that operates at 104°C and 50
atm was used to separate gas and liquid products. Ammonium carbamate, water vapor,
unreacted ammonia, and carbon dioxide are separated as top products while urea and water as
the bottom product. Finally, a distillation column (T-101) that operates at 97°C and 10 atm is
used to separate urea as the bottom product and water vapor as the top product.
120
3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram
Figure 3. 1: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Urea Production from Methane (Microsoft Visio)
121
3.1.3 Equipment Description
Table 3.1 shows the description of equipment involved in the production of urea from
methane.
Table 3. 1: Equipment description of Urea from methane
Equipment Name Description

C-101 Hydrogen gas mixture The mixture is compressed to 203 atm which is
compressor the operating pressure for the reaction occur.
C-102 Carbon dioxide gas Carbon dioxide is compressed to 118 bar which is
compressor the operating pressure for the reaction occur.
E-101 Heater Reactant is heated to 1200°C which is the
operating temperature for the reaction occur.
E-102 Cooler The products temperature decreases to 250°C
which is the optimum temperature for separation
of hydrogen and carbon.
E-103 Cooler The mixture temperature decreases to 480°C
which is the optimum temperature for the
reaction.
E-104 Ammonia cooler The products temperature decreases to 35°C
which is the optimum temperature for separation
of ammonia and recycle product.
E-105 Ammonia heater Ammonia is heated to 185°C which is the
optimum temperature for the reaction.
E-106 Carbon dioxide cooler Carbon dioxide is cooled to 185°C which is the
optimum temperature for the reaction.
E-107 Urea cooler Urea is cooled to 130°C which is the optimum
temperature for the separation of urea and water.
VLV-101 Valve Decrease pressure from 118 bar to 50 bar.
M-101 Feed stream mixer Methane feeds were mixed with methane
unreacted to prevent wastage.
122
M-102 Feed stream and Hydrogen and nitrogen mixed with unreacted
recycle stream mixer reactant to maximize the of the reactant and to
prevent wastage.
M-103 Splitter Ammonia and unreacted reactant were splitter to
get the ammonia.
M-104 Feed mixer Carbon dioxide and ammonia were mixed with
ratio 2:1.
P-101 Ammonia feed pump Pump with outlet pressure 203atm to pump
ammonia towards urea plant.
R-101 Pyrolysis reactor Decomposition of methane reaction at 1200°C
and 1 atm which is the operating condition for
hydrogen production.
R-102 Ammonia reactor Hydrogen and nitrogen were reacted at 480°C and
203 bar which is the operating condition for
ammonia production.
R-103 Urea reactor Ammonia and carbon dioxide were reacted at
185°C and 118 bar which is the operating
condition for urea production.
V-101 Membrane separator Hydrogen is recovered at top product at 250°C
and 1 atm.
V-102 Flash Column 1 Ammonia is recovered at liquid stream at 35°C
and 116 bar.
V-103 Flash Column 2 Urea is recovered at bottom product and
unreacted NH3 and CO2 out at top product at
97°C and 10 bar.
T-101 Distillation Column Urea is recovered at bottom product at 81.17°C
and 1bar meanwhile steam out as the top product
at 60.68°C and 1 bar.
123
3.2 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE MANUAL CALCULATION
Material balance for each equipment are done to determine minimum amount of raw
material required to produce 40,000 MTPA of urea. Manual material balance result is later
compared with Aspen Plus simulation result. Several assumptions are made to simplify the
calculation. For manual calculation, backward manual calculation is performed to obtain the
target of 40,000 MTPA of urea production. There are several assumptions made in order to
complete the calculation for all unit operations:
(b) The design is calculated on basis 40,000 MTPA of urea.

(c) The plant is operated 8000 hours per year.
(d) The system is in steady state.
(e) All components are operated in ideal condition.
(f) Catalyst presence in the reactor does not contribute in mass.
(g) The total input of any substances to a pump, heat exchanger and separator are assumed
equal to the output of the substance where there are no reaction occurs in the equipment.
For energy balance calculation in unit operations and equipment of the system, the following
assumptions are made:
(a) Potential and kinetic energy are negligible and only the enthalpy change is taken into
consideration.
(b) Temperature 298.15 K and 1 atm is taken as datum or reference state for enthalpy,
where ΔH=0.
(c) Heat capacities and heat of formation for different species from Elementary Principles
of Chemical Processes, 3rd Edition 2005 Edition (M. Felder & W. Rousseau, 2005).
124
3.2.1 Material Balance for Minor Equipment
3.2.1.1 Heater (E-101)
Figure 3. 2: Diagram of Heater (E-101)
Table 3. 2: Material Balance for E-101
Component Inlet Stream Outlet Stream

S2 S3
kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h
Methane, CH4 491.96 7871.411 491.96 7871.411
Total 491.96 7871.411 491.96 7871.411
3.2.1.2 Cooler (E-102)
Figure 3. 3: Diagram of Cooler (E-102)
Table 3. 3: Material Balance for Cooler (E-102)

S5 S6
Methane, CH4 329.01 5277.32 329.01 5277.32
Hydrogen, H2 276.720 553.440 276.720 553.440
Total 605.73 5830.76 605.73 5830.76
125
3.2.1.3 Cooler (E-103)

S11 S12
Nitrogen 94.164 2636.592 94.164 2636.592
Hydrogen 1073.628 2147.256 1073.628 2147.256
Ammonia 3.150 53.6445 3.150 53.6445
Total 1170.942 4837.4925 1170.942 4837.4925
3.2.1.4 Cooler (E-104)

S13 S14
126
Nitrogen 4.7082 131.83 4.7082 131.83
Hydrogen 683.974 1367.948 683.974 1367.948
Ammonia 180.668 3075.15 180.668 3075.15
Total 869.3502 4574.928 869.3502 4574.928
3.2.1.5 Heater (E-105)
Figure 3. 6: Diagram of Heater (E-105)
Table 3. 6: Material Balance for Heater (E-105)

S19 S20
Ammonia 177.004 3014.555 177.004 3014.555
Total 177.004 3014.555 177.004 3014.555
3.2.1.6 Cooler (E-106)
127

S22 S23
Carbon Dioxide 91.279 4017.205 91.279 4017.205
Total 91.279 4017.205 91.279 4017.205
3.2.1.7 Cooler (E-107)

S20 S21
Carbon Dioxide 3.651 160.68 3.651 160.68
Ammonia 1.307 22.252 1.307 22.252
Water 83.38 1502.508 83.38 1502.508
Ammonium Carbamate 4.336 338.52 4.336 338.52
Urea 83.38 5007.8 83.38 5007.8
Total 176.054 7031.76 176.054 7031.76
128
3.2.1.8 Mixer (M-101)
Figure 3. 9: Diagram of Mixer (M-101)
Table 3. 9: Material Balance for Mixer (M-101)

S1 S8 S2
kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h
Methane 162.95 2613.718 329.01 5277.32 491.96 7871.411
Total 162.95 2613.718 329.01 5277.32 491.96 7871.411
3.2.1.9 Mixer (M-102)
129

S9 S7 S17 S10
kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h kmol/h kg/h
Nitrogen 92.236 2582.608 0 0 1.9412 53.392 94.164 2636.592
Hydrogen 0 0 276.72 553.44 658.999 1317.998 1073.628 2147.256
Ammonia 0 0 0 0 3.150 53.6445 3.150 53.6445
Total 92.236 2582.608 276.72 553.44 664.09 1425.0345 1170.942 4837.4925
3.2.1.10 Splitter (M-103)
Figure 3. 11: Diagram of Splitter (M-103)
Table 3. 11: Material Balance for Splitter (M-103)

S15 S17 S16
Nitrogen 4.7082 131.83 1.9412 53.392 2.767 77.53
Hydrogen 683.974 1367.948 658.999 1317.998 24.975 49.95
Ammonia 3.664 62.398 3.150 53.6445 0.514 8.753
Total 692.346 1562.176 664.09 1425.0345 28.256 136.233
130
3.2.1.11 Mixer (M-104)

S20 S23 S24
Ammonia 177.004 3014.555 0 0 177.004 3014.555
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 91.279 4017.205 91.279 4017.205
Total 177.004 3014.555 91.279 4017.205 268.283 7031.76
3.2.1.12 Compressor (C-101)
Figure 3. 13: Diagram of Compressor (C-101)
131
Table 3. 13: Material Balance for Compressor (C-101)

S10 S11
Nitrogen 94.164 2636.592 94.164 2636.592
Hydrogen 1073.628 2147.256 1073.628 2147.256
Ammonia 3.150 53.6445 3.150 53.6445
Total 1170.942 4837.4925 1170.942 4837.4925
Figure 3. 14: Diagram of Compressor (C-102)
Table 3. 14: Material Balance for Compressor (C-102)

S21 S22
Carbon Dioxide 91.279 4017.205 91.279 4017.205
Total 91.279 4017.205 91.279 4017.205
132
3.2.1.14 Pump (P-101)
Figure 3. 15: Diagram of Pump (P-101)
Table 3. 15: Material Balance for Pump (P-101)

S18 S19
Ammonia 177.004 3014.555 177.004 3014.555
Total 177.004 3014.555 177.004 3014.555
3.2.2 Material Balance for Major Equipment
3.2.2.1 Reactor (R-101)
Figure 3. 16: Diagram of Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101)
133
Assumptions:
• The conversion of the reactant is 80% in pyrolysis reactor.
• Inlet = Outlet
• CH4 → 2H2 + C
Table 3. 16: Material Balance for Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101)

S3 S4 S5
Methane 491.96 7871.411 0 0 329.01 5277.32
Carbon 0 0 183.63 2205.58 0 0
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 276.720 553.440
Total 491.96 7871.411 183.63 2205.58 605.73 5830.76
3.2.2.2 Reactor (R-102)
Figure 3. 17: Diagram of Ammonia Reactor (R-102)
Assumptions:
• Inlet = Outlet
• N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
• Total conversion of N2 to NH3 is 95%
134
Table 3. 17: Material Balance for Ammonia Reactor (R-102)

S12 S13
Nitrogen 166.49 2636.592 4.7082 131.83
Hydrogen 1073.628 2147.256 683.974 1367.948
Ammonia 3.150 53.6445 180.668 3075.15
Total 1243.268 4847.4925 869.3502 4574.928
3.2.2.3 Reactor (R-103)
Figure 3. 18: Diagram of Urea Reactor (R-103)
Assumptions:
• The total conversion of carbon dioxide was assumed to be 95% according to (Bhaskar
& Chandra, 2007).
• The reactions that involved in this reactor are:

135
Table 3. 18: Material Balance for Urea Reactor (R-103)

S24 S25
Carbon dioxide 91.279 4017.205 3.651 160.68
Ammonia 177.004 3014.555 1.307 22.252
Water 0 0 83.38 1502.508
Ammonium Carbamate 0 0 4.336 338.52
Urea 0 0 83.38 5007.8
Total 268.283 7031.76 176.054 7031.76
3.2.2.4 Separator (V-101)
Figure 3. 19: Diagram of Separator (V-101)
Table 3. 19: Material Balance for Separator (V-101)

S6 S8 S7
Hydrogen 276.720 553.440 0 0 276.72 553.44
Methane 329.01 5277.32 329.01 5277.32 0 0
Total 605.73 5830.76 329.01 5277.32 276.72 553.44
136
3.2.2.5 Flash Column (V-102)
Figure 3. 20: Diagram of Flash Column (V-102)
Table 3. 20: Material Balance for Flash Column (V-102)

S14 S15 S18
Nitrogen 4.7082 131.83 4.7082 131.83 0 0
Hydrogen 683.974 1367.948 683.974 1367.948 0 0
Ammonia 180.668 3075.15 3.664 62.398 177.004 3014.555
Total 869.3502 4574.928 692.346 1562.176 177.004 3014.555
Figure 3. 21: Diagram of Separator (V-103)
137
Table 3. 21: Material Balance for Separator (V-103)

S27 S28 S29
Carbon dioxide 3.651 160.68 3.651 160.68 0 0
Ammonia 1.307 22.252 1.307 22.252 0 0
Water 83.38 1502.508 0 0 83.38 1502.508
Ammonium 4.336 338.52 4.336 338.52 0 0
Carbamate
Urea 83.38 5007.8 0 0 83.38 5007.8
Total 176.054 7031.76 9.294 521.452 166.76 6510.308
3.2.2.7 Distillation Column (T-101)
Assumption:
1. 99% mole recovery at distillate
2. 99% mole recovery at bottom
3. Mole flow in = Mole flow out
4. Stream 21 = Stream 22 (distillate) + Stream 23 (bottom)
Figure 3. 22: Diagram of Distillation Column (T-101)
138
Table 3. 22: Material Balance for Distillation Column (T-101)

S29 S30 S31
Urea 83.38 5007.8 0.2501 15.021 83.1299 4992.782
Water 83.38 1502.508 82.5462 1485.832 0.8338 15.008
Total 166.76 6510.308 82.80 1502.508 83.96 5007.8
3.2.3 Energy Balance for Minor Equipment
3.2.3.1 Heater (E-101)
Figure 3. 23: Flow diagram of Heater (E-101)
Table 3. 23: Energy Balance of Heater (E-101)
References: CH4 (g), C (Ɩ), H2 (g), (180°C, 1 atm)
Inlet Stream Outlet Stream

Component S2 S3
kmol/h Ĥin (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥout (kJ/kmol)
Methane 491.96 - 491.96 69889.13kJ/kmol
Σ (nin × Hin) = 0 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 34382656.39 kJ/h
Energy Balance = 34382656.39 kJ/h
139
3.2.3.2 Cooler (E-102)
Figure 3. 24: Flow diagram of Cooler (E-102)
Table 3. 24: Energy Balance of Cooler (E-102)

S5 S6
Methane 329.01 66660.25 329.01 -
Hydrogen 276.720 28877.40 276.720 -
Σ (nin × Hin) = 29922842.98 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 0 kJ/h

Energy Balance = -29922842.98 kJ/h
3.2.3.3 Cooler (E-103)
140
References: H2 (v), N2 (v), (480°C, 203 atm)

S11 S12
Nitrogen 94.164 44066.81 94.164 -
Hydrogen 1073.628 41251.62 1073.628 -
Ammonia 3.150 80097.68 3.150 -
Σ (nin × Hin) = 48690709.07 𝑘𝐽/ℎ Σ (nout × Hout) = 0

Energy Balance = - 48690709.07 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
3.2.3.4 Cooler (E-104)
References: N2 (g), H2 (g), NH3 (g), (35°C, 202 atm)

S13 S14
Nitrogen 4.7082 13329.77 4.7082 -
Hydrogen 683.974 12952.18 683.974 -
Ammonia 180.668 17625.77 180.668 5653
Σ (nin × Hin) = 12106126.2 𝑘𝐽/ℎ Σ (nout × Hout) =1021316.204 kJ/h
Energy Balance = -11084810 kJ/h
141
3.2.3.5 Heater (E-105)
Figure 3. 27: Flow diagram of Heater (E-105)
Table 3. 27: Energy Balance of Heater (E-105)
References:
S19 S20
Ammonia 177.004 1.7255 177.004 5790.57
Σ (nin × Hin) = 305.42 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 1024954.052 kJ/h

3.2.3.6 Cooler (E-106)
142
References:

S22 S23
Carbon Dioxide 91.279 29490.11 91.279 0
Σ (nin × Hin) = 2691828.00kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 0 kJ/h
Energy Balance = 2691828.00kJ/h
3.2.3.7 Cooler (E-107)
References:

S25 S26
Carbon Dioxide 3.651 231459 3.651 0
Ammonia 4.594 2193.75 4.594 0
Water 83.247 1907.84 83.247 0
Ammonium 4.381 142370.25 4.381 0
Carbamate
Urea 83.247 3326023.70 83.247 0
Σ (nin × Hin) = 278519175.90 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 0 kJ/h
Energy Balance = - 278519175.90 kJ/h
143
3.2.3.8 Mixer (M-101)
Figure 3. 30: Flow diagram of Mixer (M-101)
Table 3. 30: Energy Balance of Mixer (M-101)

S1 S8 S2
kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥout
(kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol)
Methane 162.95 - 329.01 9420.03 491.96 6191.15
Σ (nin × Hin) = 3099284.07 𝑘𝐽/ℎ Σ (nout × Hout) =
3045798.154 kJ/h
3.2.3.9 Mixer (M-102)
144
References: N2 (v), H2 (v), (35°C, 1 atm)

S9 S7 S17 S10
kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥout
(kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol)
Nitrogen 92.236 6262.40 0 - 1.9412 - 94.164 2482.60
Hydrogen 0 - 276.72 6219.17 658.999 - 1073.628 2453.71
Ammonia 0 - 0 - 3.150 - 3.150 3184.48
Σ (nin × Hin) = 1720968.722 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) =
2878174.418 kJ/h
3.2.3.10 Splitter (M-103)
Figure 3. 32: Flow diagram of Splitter (M-103)
Table 3. 32: Energy Balance of Splitter (M-103)
References: T in and P in = T out and P out

S15 S17 S16
kmol/h Ĥin (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥout (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥout (kJ/kmol)
Nitrogen 4.7082 - 1.9412 - 2.767 -
Hydrogen 683.974 - 658.999 - 24.975 -
145
Ammonia 3.664 - 3.150 - 0.514 -
Σ (nin × Hin) = 0 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 0 kJ/h
Energy Balance = 0 kJ/h
3.2.3.11 Mixer (M-104)

S20 S23 S24
kmol/h Ĥin (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥout (kJ/kmol)
(kJ/kmol)
Ammonia 177.004 - 0 - 177.004 -
Carbon 0 - 91.279 - 91.279 -
Dioxide
146
Figure 3. 34: Flow diagram of Compressor (C-101)
Table 3. 34: Energy Balance of Compressor (C-101)

S10 S11
Nitrogen 94.164 - 94.164 54914.02
Hydrogen 1073.628 - 1073.628 51750.10
Ammonia 3.150 - 3.150 96014.05
Σ (nin × Hin) =0 Σ (nout × Hout) = 61033724.4 kJ/h
Figure 3. 35: Flow diagram of Compressor (C-102)
147
Table 3. 35: Energy Balance of Compressor (C-102)
References:

S21 S22
Carbon Dioxide 91.279 - 91.279 33022.86
Σ (nin × Hin) = 0 Σ (nout × Hout) = 3014293.638 kJ/h
3.2.3.14 Pump (P-101)
Figure 3. 36: Flow diagram of Pump (P-101)
Table 3. 36: Energy Balance of Pump (P-101)
References: NH3 (Ɩ), (35°C, 202 atm)

S18 S19
Ammonia 177.004 - 177.004 1.7255
Σ (nin × Hin) =0 Σ (nout × Hout) = 305.42 kJ/h

148
3.2.4 Energy Balance for Major Equipment
3.2.4.1 Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101)
Figure 3. 37: Flow diagram of Pyrolysis Reactor (R-101)
Table 3. 37: Energy Balance of Pyrolysis Reactor(R-101)
References: C (Ɩ), H2 (g), (25°C, 1 atm)

S3 S4 S5
kmol/h Ĥin kmol/h Ĥout kmol/h Ĥout
Methane 491.96 76005.15 0 - 329.01 76005.15
Carbon 0 -- 183.63 21017.08 0 -
Hydrogen 0 - 0 - 276.72 35385.02
Σ (nin × Hin) =37391493.59 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) =38657563.54 kJ/h
149
3.2.4.2 Ammonia Reactor (R-102)
Figure 3. 38: Flow diagram of Ammonia Reactor (R-102)
Table 3. 38: Energy Balance of Ammonia Reactor (R-102)

S12 S13
Nitrogen 166.49 13620.48 4.7082 13620.48
Hydrogen 1073.628 13240.64 683.974 13240.64
Ammonia 3.150 -26728.75 180.668 -26728.75
Σ (nin × Hin) =16398999.99 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 4291351.642 kJ/h
150
3.2.4.3 Urea Reactor (R-103)
Figure 3. 39: Flow diagram of Urea Reactor (R-103)
Table 3. 39: Energy Balance of Urea Reactor (R-103)
References:
S24 S25
Carbon dioxide 91.279 6430.14 3.651 6430.14
Ammonia 177.004 6127.20 1.307 6127.20
Water 0 - 83.38 5484.14
Ammonium Carbamate 0 - 4.336 1104
Urea 0 - 83.38 8217445.94
Σ (nin × Hin) = 1671475.658 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 685683170.1 kJ/h
151
Figure 3. 40: Flow diagram Separator (V-101)
Table 3. 40: Energy Balance of Separator (V-101)

S6 S8 S7
kmol/h Ĥin (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥout (kJ/kmol) kmol/h Ĥout
(kJ/kmol)
Methane 329.01 - 329.01 - 0 -
Hydrogen 276.72 - 0 - 276.72 -
Σ (nin × Hin) =0 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) =0 kJ/h
152
3.2.4.5 Flash Column (V-102)
Figure 3. 41: Flow diagram of Flash Column (V-102)
Table 3. 41: Energy Balance of Flash Column (V-102)

S14 S15 S18
Nitrogen 4.7082 - 4.7082 - 0 -
Hydrogen 683.974 - 683.974 - 0 -
Ammonia 180.668 - 3.664 - 177.004 -
Σ (nin × Hin) =0 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) =0 kJ/h
153
Figure 3. 42: Flow diagram of Separator (V-103)
Table 3. 42: Energy Balance of Separator (V-103)

S27 S28 S29
Carbon dioxide 3.651 - 3.651 - 0 -
Ammonia 1.307 - 1.307 - 0 -
Water 83.38 - 0 - 83.38 -
Ammonium 4.336 - 4.336 - 0 -
Carbamate
Urea 83.38 - 0 - 83.38 -
154
3.2.4.7 Distillation Column (T-101)
Figure 3. 43: Flow diagram of Distillation Column (T-101)
Table 3. 43: Energy Balance of Distillation Column (T-101)
Component Condenser Reboiler

S30 S31
Water 82.5462 -1.237 0.8338 696.356
Urea 0.2501 -4820945.89 83.1299 16391435.64
Σ (nin × Hin) = - 4821048 kJ/h Σ (nout × Hout) = 16392132 kJ/h
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑏 = (𝑅 + 1)𝐷 ∑ 𝑥𝐵 ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝

𝑘
Where R = reflux ratio

𝑥𝐵= Molar fraction of component k at bottom stream
The value or R=1.4,

𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑏 = (1.4 + 1)(364.7584)(683116039)
= 455337.01 kW
155
3.3 PROCESS SIMULATION
3.3.1 Process Flow Diagram from Aspen Plus
Figure 3.44 shows the process flowsheet designed for simulation purposed. In this process
modelling, all equipment from process flow diagram is included except storage tanks for raw
materials and products.
156
Figure 3. 44: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of Urea Production from Methane (Aspen Plus V12)
157
3. 3.2 S u m m a r y of Si m ulatio n R es ults
T a bl e 3. 4 4 b el o w s h o w s the s u m m a r y f or m aterial bala n c e f or all stre a m t h at w a s si m ul ate usi n g A S P E N Pl u s V 1 2.
T a bl e 3. 4 4: Stre a m res ult for pr o d u cti o n of U r e a fro m A s p e n Pl u s.
Stream
Units CH4IN S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9
Name
Temperature ºC 25 180 1200 1200 1200 250 250 250 250 120
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor
Pressure Bar 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mass Flows kg/hr 2774.6 8014.56 8014.56 2073.37 5941.19 5941.19 701.226 5239.96 2583.85 5399.16
NH3 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 739.329
H20 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UREA kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 kg/hr 0 0.696679 0.696679 4.82E-15 696.679 696.679 695.982 0.696679 0 1933.18
CH4 kg/hr 2774.6 8013.86 8013.86 2.02E-21 5244.51 5244.51 5.24451 5239.27 0 26.7003
N2 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2583.85 2699.95
C kg/hr 0 3.83E-07 3.83467E-07 2073.37 3.83E-07 3.83E-07 0 3.83E-07 0 0
AR kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Flows kmol/hr 172.95 499.877 499.877 172.623 672.504 672.504 345.577 326.927 92.236 1100.43
NH3 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43.4119
158
H20 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UREA kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 kmol/hr 0 0.345595 0.345595 2.39E-15 345.595 345.595 345.25 0.345595 0 958.978
CH4 kmol/hr 172.95 499.53 499.53 1.26E-22 326.908 326.908 0.326908 326.58 0 1.664319
N2 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.236 96.3803
C kmol/hr 0 3.19E-08 3.19E-08 172.62 3.19E-08 3.19E-08 0 3.19E-08 0 0
AR kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole
Fraction
NH3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.03945
H20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UREA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 0 0.000691 0.000691 1.38E-17 0.513894 0.513894 0.999054 0.001057 0 0.871454
CH4 1 0.999309 0.999309 7.29E-25 0.486106 0.486106 0.000946 0.998943 0 0.001512
N2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.087584
C 0 6.39E-11 6.39E-11 1 4.75E-11 4.75E-11 0 9.77E-11 0 0
AR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
159
Stream Units S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 PURGE RECYCLE
Name
Temperature ºC 1773 480 480 35 35 35 35 35
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor - Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor

Pressure Bar 203 203 202 202 202 202 202 202
Mass Flows kg/hr 5399.16 5399.16 5399.16 5399.16 1349.05 3050.11 134.91 1214.14
NH3 kg/hr 739.329 739.329 3858.01 3858.01 231.494 3036.51 23.1494 209.3398
H20 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UREA kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 kg/hr 1933.18 1933.18 1379.45 1379.45 1074.72 4.73935 107.472 967.248
CH4 kg/hr 26.7003 26.7003 26.7003 26.7003 13.839 2.86123 2.383903 11.455
N2 kg/hr 2699.95 2699.95 134.997 134.997 28.997 6.00016 2.89972 26.0972
C kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Flows kmol/hr 1100.43 1100.43 917.312 917.312 552.851 181.041 55.347 497.562
NH3 kmol/hr 43.412 43.412 226.535 226.535 13.593 178.2977 1.3593 12.292
H20 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
160
UREA kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 kmol/hr 958.978 958.978 684.294 684.294 537.36 2.351006 53.736 483.624
CH4 kmol/hr 1.664319 1.664319 1.664319 1.664319 0.8628 0.178350 0.148622 0.7142
N2 kmol/hr 96.3803 96.3803 4.819016 4.819016 1.03488 0.214188 0.103488 0.9314
C kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Fraction
NH3 0.03945 0.03945 0.246955 0.246955 0.065515 0.984846 0.065515 0.065515325
H20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UREA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2 0.871454 0.871454 0.745978 0.745978 0.926212 0.012986 0.926212 0.926212
CH4 0.001512 0.001512 0.001814 0.001814 0.002018 0.000985 0.002018 0.002018
N2 0.087584 0.087584 0.005253 0.005253 0.006254 0.001183 0.006254 0.006254
C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
161
Stream Units NH3OUT S16 CO2IN S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22
Name
Temperature ºC 35 185 100 774 185 185 185 130 130
Phase Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor - - -

Pressure Bar 203 118 1 118 118 118 118 118 118
Mass Flows kg/hr 3050.11 3050.11 4019.42 4019.42 4019.42 7069.53 7069.53 7069.53 566.768
NH3 kg/hr 3036.51 3036.51 0 0 0 3036.51 50.1398 50.1398 50.1398

H20 kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 1500.55 1500.55 0
CO2 kg/hr 0 0 4019.42 4019.42 4019.42 4019.42 160.777 160.777 160.777
UREA kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 5002.21 5002.21 0

AC kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 342.25 342.25 342.25
H2 kg/hr 4.73935 4.73935 0 0 0 4.73935 4.73935 4.73935 4.73935
CH4 kg/hr 2.86123 2.86123 0 0 0 2.86123 2.86123 2.86123 2.86123

N2 kg/hr 6.00016 6.00016 0 0 0 6.00016 6.00016 6.00016 6.00016
C kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Flows kmol/hr 181.04 181.04 91.33 91.33 91.33 272.37 180.31 180.31 13.725
NH3 kmol/hr 178.298 178.298 0 0 0 178.298 2.94411 2.94411 2.94411
H20 kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 83.293 83.293 0
CO2 kmol/hr 0 0 91.33 91.33 91.33 91.33 3.6532 3.6532 3.6532
162
UREA kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 83.293 83.293 0
AC kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.38384 4.38384 4.38384
H2 kmol/hr 2.351006 2.351006 0 0 0 2.351006 2.351006 2.351006 2.351006
CH4 kmol/hr 0.178350 0.178350 0 0 0 0.178350 0.178350 0.178350 0.178350
N2 kmol/hr 0.214188 0.214188 0 0 0 0.214188 0.214188 0.214188 0.214188
C kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Fraction
NH3 0.984846 0.984846 0 0 0 0.654613 0.016328 0.016328 0.214512
H20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.461946 0.461942 0
CO2 0 0 1 1 1 0.335314 0.020261 0.020261 0.266177
UREA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.461941 0.461942 0
AC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.024313 0.024313 0.319413
H2 0.012986 0.012986 0 0 0 0.008632 0.013039 0.013039 0.171298
CH4 0.000985 0.000985 0 0 0 0.000655 0.000989 0.000989 0.012995
N2 0.001183 0.001183 0 0 0 0.000786 0.001188 0.001188 0.015606
C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
163
Stream Units S23 S24 UREAOUT
Name
Temperature ºC 130 130 130
Phase Liquid Liquid Liquid

Pressure Bar 118 118 118
Mass Flows kg/hr 6502.76 1504.05 4998.71
NH3 kg/hr 0 0 0
H20 kg/hr 1500.55 1499.05 1.50055
CO2 kg/hr 0 0 0
UREA kg/hr 5002.21 5.00221 4997.21

AC kg/hr 0 0 0
H2 kg/hr 0 0 0
CH4 kg/hr 0 0 0
N2 kg/hr 0 0 0
C kg/hr 0 0 0
AR kg/hr 0 0 0
Mole Flows kmol/hr 166.586 83.293 83.293
NH3 kmol/hr 0 0 0
H20 kmol/hr 83.293 83.2097 0.083293
CO2 kmol/hr 0 0 0
164
UREA kmol/hr 83.293 0.083293 83.2097
AC kmol/hr 0 0 0
H2 kmol/hr 0 0 0
CH4 kmol/hr 0 0 0
N2 kmol/hr 0 0 0
C kmol/hr 0 0 0
AR kmol/hr 0 0 0
Mole Fraction
NH3 0 0 0
H20 0.5 0.999 0.001
CO2 0 0 0
UREA 0.5 0.001 0.999
AC 0 0 0
H2 0 0 0
CH4 0 0 0
N2 0 0 0
C 0 0 0
AR 0 0 0
165
3.4 COMPARISON OF MANUAL CALCULATION AND ASPEN SIMULATION
3.4.1 Material Balance Manual and Simulation
There are slight differences between the manual calculation and simulation done in
Aspen Plus. The comparison of material balance between manual and simulation calculation
are shown in Table 3.45. The errors between both calculations are calculated to find the error
based on the formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Table 3. 45: Comparison of material balance between manual and simulation
Stream Simulation (kg/h) Manual (kg/h) Error (%)

1 2774.60 2613.72 5.80
2 8014.56 7871.41 1.79
3 8014.56 7871.41 1.79
4 2073.37 2205.58 6.38
5 5941.19 6101.68 2.70
6 5941.19 5830.76 1.86
7 701.226 653.44 6.81
8 5239.96 5277.32 0.71
9 2583.85 2582.61 0.05
10 5399.16 4837.49 10.40
11 5399.16 4837.49 10.40
12 5399.16 4837.49 10.40
13 4436.60 4574.93 3.12
14 4436.60 4574.93 3.12
15 1386.49 1469.37 5.98
18 3050.11 3014.56 1.16
17 1251.58 1325.03 5.87
16 134.91 136.23 0.98
19 3050.11 3014.56 1.16
20 3050.11 3014.56 1.16
21 4019.42 4017.21 0.05
166
22 4019.42 4017.21 0.05
23 4019.42 4017.21 0.05
24 7069.53 7031.76 0.53
25 7069.53 7031.76 0.53
26 7069.53 7031.76 0.53
27 7069.53 7031.76 0.53
28 566.77 521.45 8.00
29 6502.76 6510.31 0.12
30 1504.05 1502.51 0.10
31 4998.71 5007.80 0.18
Average Error 2.98
3.4.2 Energy Balance Manual and Simulation
In order to validate the manual calculation, the final answer of energy balance is
compared with simulation answer from Aspen. The comparison of energy balance between
manual and simulation calculation are shown in Table 3.46.
Table 3. 46: Comparison of Energy Balance Between Manual and Simulation
Equipment Manual (kW) Simulation (kW) Error (%)

M-101 11.597 12.11 4.24
M-102 78.33 59.187 32.34
M-103 0 -9.33002e-5 ≈ 0 0
M-104 0 0 0
E-101 9357.5902 9830.28 4.81
E-102 -8124.6966 -8908.57 8.80
E-103 -12135.41 -12984.85 6.54
E-104 -3703.27 -4654.85 20.04
E-105 1281.80 1234.59 3.82
E-106 -747.73 -746.682 0.14
E-107 -77366.44 -74982.51 3.18
R-101 138.24 148.524 6.92
R-102 -2630.47 -2704.6 2.74
167
R-103 -18683.38 -31158.711 40.04
C-101 15210.32 16473.6 7.67
C-102 837.30 837.592 0.03
P-101 0.084 0.07008 19.86
V-101 0 0 0.00
V-102 0 0 0.00
V-103 0 0 0.00
T-101 (Condenser) -1339.18 -1090.46 22.81
T-101 (Reboiler) 4553.37 4146.20 9.82
Average Error, % 10.58

3.4.3 Summary
From the comparison on material balance, the error for material balance 5.06%. On the
other hand, energy balance has high deviation at M-102, E-104 and R-103 with maximum 40
% error because ideal gas law was performed on manual calculation and only heat aspect was
considered while the simulation was calculated based on the criteria of compressibility factor
of real gas in different temperature and pressure conditions. Moreover, the heat capacity
constant for ammonium carbamate and urea used in manual calculation is from online source
and it is also one of the reasons for high deviation. Thus, the overall average error for energy
balance is 10.58%
3.5 UTILITIES USAGE AND COST
In this chapter, the estimated utility can be divided into three parts which are electricity, steam
for heating purpose and cooling water for cooling purpose in heat exchanger.
Table 3. 47: Cost estimation of utilities
Component Units Power (kW) Price Cost (RM/year)

Electricity C-101, P-101 16473.6 RM0.337/kWh RM 44412825.60/yr
Steam E-101 3730.28 RM 55.39/GJ RM 7920119.50/yr
(Source from
E-105 1234.59
Turton, 2008)
Cooling water E-102 8908.57 RM 1.487/GJ RM 1179612.91/yr
E-103 12986
168
E-104 4653.46 (Source from
E-106 746.682 Turton, 2008)
E-107 249.862
Total RM 46772051.41/year
The result in Table 3.47 shows only estimation value for utilities where process integration is
not considered.
169
CHAPTER 4
UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The utilities sector refers to a group of companies that offer fundamental services such
as water, sewerage, and power. Although utilities are also for businesses, they are part of the
public service landscape since they provide necessities for daily life and are thus severely
regulated. These services, for example, are typically provided by a central site facility and
include electricity for pumping, steam for process heating and cooling, water for general use
or cooling, compressed air, and inert gas for effluent facilities.
Energy conservation is crucial in process design as in industrial experience the

calculation of the minimum heating and cooling requirement can reveal huge significant energy
savings and cost. Specifically, energy integration design procedure is a very important tool to
optimize process units to estimate the targeted cost of the preliminary design. Heat integration
is a technique in designing a process to reduce the consumption of energy as well as
maximizing heat recovery within the plant. Heat integration uses energy available within the
process to heat or cool various process streams. One common analysis for heat integration is
known as pinch technology.
4.2 HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK
Heat exchanger network (HEN) are crucial for reducing energy consumption in
industries. To cut down on the amount of energy used for heating and cooling utilities in
industrial processes, HEN synthesis is the heat integration between hot and cold process
streams. To calculate energy costs and enhance energy recovery in chemical processes, HEN
is crucial. To minimise cooling effort and recover heat from the process, a heat exchanger
network combines streams that must be heated and cooled. Pinch analysis is a
thermodynamically based technique that is useful for enhancing energy systems. It is an
approach for reducing process energy consumption by maximising heat recovery while taking
thermodynamic constraints into account.
170
4.2.1 Pinch Technology
Pinch analysis is a methodology used to minimize energy consumption of chemical

processes by optimizing energy recovery methods. A pinch occurs at the closest point of
approach between hot and cold streams in the network. In heat exchangers, there are usually
no external heat and work interactions (KEVIN M. LUNSFORD, 1998).
4.2.2 Construction of Stream Table
The stream table and heat exchanger involved in the HEN integration are defined in
Table 4.1 below. Hot stream indicated that the process stream which carries heat energy that
temperature change from high temperature to low temperature. Cold streams indicate that the
process stream which required heat to increase temperature from lower temperature. Heat
capacity formula is calculated by using formula:
∆𝐻
𝐶𝑃 =
|𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒− 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 |
Table 4.1 : Summary of Hot and Cold Streams
Stream Supply Temperature Target Temperature Heat Duty [kW] Stream Type
[°∁] [°∁]
E-101 180 1200 9830.28 Cold
E-105 35 185 1234.49 Cold
E-102 1200 250 -8908.57 Hot
E-103 663 480 -1298 Hot
E-104 480 35 -4653.46 Hot
E-106 774 185 -746.68 Hot
E-107 185 130 -249.86 Hot
171
4.2.3 Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature
Temperature difference at pinch point (ΔT min) is set by identifying the stream phase
and maximizing hot and cold utility saving. The typical values for minimum temperature
difference are 10℃ to 20℃ for chemical industry. ΔT min is not calculated, this is since the
pinch analysis modelling and identification of the flows will not be affected by this in any way.
In most industries, the minimum temperature approach is 10°C. Hence, T min used for
this project is 10°C is assumed for this plant design. Therefore, based on minimum temperature
a new stream table of hot and cold stream will be constructed and the new temperature will be
calculated using the equation below.
1
𝑇𝑁𝑒𝑤 (𝐻𝑜𝑡) = 𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
1
𝑇𝑁𝑒𝑤 (𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑) = 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 + 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
4.2.4 Shifting of temperature stream table.
New stream table is constructed based on minimum approach temperature. This step is
essential as it is required to construct the temperature interval diagram. The shifted streams
data are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 : Shifted Source and Target Temperature for Hot and Cold Streams
Stream Heat Duty [kW] Stream Shifted Supply Shifted Target Cp (kW/℃)
Type Temperature (℃) Temperature (℃)
E-101 9830.28 Cold 185 1205 9.6375
E-105 1234.49 Cold 40 190 8.2299
E-102 -8908.57 Hot 1195 245 9.3774
E-103 -1298 Hot 658 475 10.0433
E-104 -4653.46 Hot 475 30 10.4572
E-106 -746.68 Hot 769 180 1.2677
E-107 -249.86 Hot 180 125 4.5429
172
4.2.5 Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram
The cold and hot streams duty for every temperature interval illustrated in Figure 4.1
below. ΔH values are used to construct a cascade diagram for pinch point determination is
determined using the formula below:
ΔH = (Cp hot – Cp cold) × ΔT
173
Stream COLD HOT
type ΔT CpHot - ΔH (kW)
Heat E-101 E-105 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-106 E-107 (℃) CpCold
Exchanger
1768
563 10.0433 5654.378 Surplus
1205
10.043
10 0.4058 4.058 Surplus
3
1195
426 9.7832 4167.643 Surplus
9.3774
769
9.637 294 11.0509 3248.965 Surplus
5
475
230 11.4648 2636.904 Surplus
245 1.267
7
55 2.0874 114.807 Surplus
190
5 -6.1425 -30.713 Deficit
10.457
185 2
5 0.9596 4.798 Surplus
180
8.229 4.5429 55 6.7702 372.361 Surplus
9
125
85 2.2273 189.321 Surplus
40
10 10.4572 104.572 Surplus
30
Figure 4.1 Temperature Interval Diagram
174
4.2.6 Cascade Diagram
The cascade diagram shows the heat duty of each shifted temperature interval. The
cascade diagram's purpose is to determine the pinch point and cumulative heat duties for
cooling and heating. Figure 4.2 below shows the cascade diagram. Pinch temperature is
determined by using this cascade diagram. The new amount of net heat flow in the figure above
must be positive value throughout the course. If a negative value is presented along the cascade
diagram, it is required to convert the negative to positive value by creating another new cascade
diagram.
In the new cascade diagram, the highest negative value must be added at maximum
heat utility so that there is no negative heat flow. But in this case, from the cascade diagram as
shown in Figure 4.2 below, all the amount of net heat flow is positive so there is no need to
build a new cascade diagram. From above figure, Q̇ H,min is at 0.0 kW while the while the Q̇
C,min is 16467.094 kW. Pinch point is achieved when there is no heat flow. Thus, the feasible
design has a pinch point at 1768 ℃. Hot and cold pinch temperatures are identified using the
formula as shown below.
1
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝑇𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ − ∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1763 ℃
2
1
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 𝑇𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ + ∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1773 ℃
2
175
Shift Temperature Cascade Final Pass
Hot Utility
1768 - Qh,min = 5654.378
5654.378
1205 5654.378 0 PINCH
4.058
1195 5658.436 4.058
4167.643
769 9826.079 4171.701
3248.965
475 13075.044 7240.666
2636.904
245 15711.948 10057.57
114.807
190 15826.755 10172.377
-30.713
185 15796.042 10141.664
4.798
180 15800.84 10146.462
372.361
125 16173.201 10518.823
189.321
40 16362.522 10708.144
104.572
30 16467.094 10812.716
Cold Utility Qc, min = 10812.716
Figure 4.2 : Cascade Diagram for Pinch Analysis
176
4. 2.7 H e at E x c h a n g er N et w o r k ( H E N ) D esig n B a se d o n Pin c h P oint
T h is h e at inte gratio n is d o n e b as e d o n t h e pi n c h te m p e r at ur e, 1 7 6 8 ℃ w hic h w a s d eter m i n e d fr o m t h e pre vi o u s ste p. H e at e x c h a n g e r
n e t w o r k i s d i v i d e d i n t o tw o s e c ti o n s w h i c h a r e b e l o w t h e p i n c h a n d a b o v e t h e p i n c h (Ir e g b u e t a l., 2 0 2 0 ) . T e m p e r a t u r e i n t e g r a ti o n d o e s n o t o c c u r
at the lo w er a n d u p p er p inc h es. T h e h ot strea m is c o n n e cte d to c ol d strea m t o ac hie v e m a xi m u m heat re c o v er y in ea c h se ctio n b as e d o n t h e
f oll o w i n g crit eria:
1) F o r b e l o w p i n c h , h e a t c a p a c i t y o f h o t s t r e a m ( C P, h o t ) ≥ h e a t c a p a c i t y o f c o l d s t r e a m ( C P, c o l d ) .
2) F o r a b o v e t h e p i n c h , h e a t c a p a c i t y o f h o t s t r e a m ( C P, h o t ) ≤ h e a t c a p a c i t y o f c o l d s t r e a m ( C P, c o l d ) .
3) Inte gr atio n b et w e e n a b o v e pi n c h a n d b el o w pi n c h te m p e r at ur e is n ot allo w e d.
Fi g u r e 4. 3 : H e at E x c h a n g er N et w o r k f or I nte gratio n of H e at D ut y
177
Figure 4.4 : Heat Exchanger Network for Integration of Temperature
Based on Figure 4.3, integration is performed below the pinch. Below the pinch, the
heat required by the cold streams is provided by the hot streams. The remaining heat from the
hot stream is removed by cold utility as shown in Figure 4.3. E-103 will release 9830.25 kW
of heat which can be integrated to E-101. However, there is balance of energy at 3155.74 kW
of extra heating duty need to be removed, hence, a cooler is required to remove the additional
energy as there is no extra cold stream can be integrated below the pinch temperature. Then,
E-104 will release 1234.49 kW of heat which can be integrated to E-105 but there is balance
of 3148.96 kW that need to add a cooler. There is 8908.57 kW of extra heating duty need to be
removed from stream E-102, hence, additional cooler is required to remove the additional
energy as there is no extra cold stream can be integrated below the pinch temperature. There
are extra heating duty of 746.68 kW and 249.86 kW on E-106 and E-107 need to be removed,
hence, additional cooler is required.
178
4.2.8 Maximum Energy Recovery
Maximum energy recovery (MER) for cold and hot utility are determined. The formula
below is to calculate the percentage of energy saving:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝐸𝑁−𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝐸𝑁

% Energy Saving = × 100
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝐸𝑁
The summary of heat duty for heat exchanger duty before and after Heat Exchanger
Network (HEN) and percentage of energy saving are shown in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4
respectively.
Table 4.3 : Summary of Heat Exchanger Duty Before and After Heat Exchanger Network
(HEN)
Before HEN After HEN

Heat Exchanger Cooling duty Heating duty Cooling duty Heating duty
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
E-101 - 9830.28 - 0
E-102 8908.57 - 8908.57 -
E-103 12986 - 3155.74 -
E-104 4653.46 - 3418.96 -
E-105 - 1234.49 - 0
E-106 746.68 - 746.68 -
E-107 249.86 - 249.86 -
TOTAL 27544.57 11064.77 16229.95 0
Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 show that after performing heat integration, the plant is able
to save energy and cost as the maximum energy recovery is achievable. Cold utility can save
up to 41.08 percent, and hot utility can save up to 100 percent. After conducting HEN, a total
of 57.96 percent of energy is saved. All sizing affected by the newly proposed HEN were
revised and re-updated for all equipment. The network shown in Figure 4.4 is designed to
provide maximum heat recovery.
179
Table 4.4 : Energy Saving with Heat Exchanger Network (HEN)
Energy Before HEN (kW) After HEN (kW) Savings (%)

Cold Utility 27544.57 16229.95 41.08
Hot Utility 11064.77 0 100
Total 38609.34 16229.95 57.96
4.3 PROCESS UTILITIES
Process industries are typically served by utility systems that provides the necessary
energy to carry out day-to-day operations. The most common utility systems include steam,
electricity, and water (Process Integration Limited, 2022). In this project, the utilities used are
steam, cooling water and electricity.
4.3.1 Steam
In chemical plant, steam is the most widely used for heat source. This is because
steam is non-toxic and inflammable. the heat of condensation of steam is high, giving a high
heat output per ringgit of utility at constant temperature. To calculate the required steam costs,
the type of steams was first identified where LP stands for low pressure steam, MP indicates
medium pressure steam and HP indicates as high-pressure steam.
Table 4.5: Type of Steam Used in Equipment
EQUIPMENT TARGET TEMPERATURE (°C) TYPE OF STEAM

E-101 1200 LPS
E-105 185 HPS
The cost of utility for steam is presented in Table 4.6 based on the Turton, 2009.
Table 4.6: The Cost of Utility for Steam
Type of steam Total power Price (RM/GJ) Cost (RM/yr)

LPS 3730.28 58.43 6,277,255.50
HPS 1234.49 77.88 2,156,308.37
180
According to Turton 2009,
𝑅𝑀 58.43 1𝐺𝐽
Low Pressure Steam = × 1000,000𝐾𝐽 = 𝑅𝑀 0.00005843/𝐾𝐽
𝐺𝐽
Operating Hours = 8000 h/yr
3730.28𝑘𝐽 3600𝑠 8000ℎ𝑟 𝑅𝑀 0.00005843

Cost of LPS = × × × = 𝑅𝑀 6,277,255.50/𝑦𝑟
𝑠 ℎ 𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝐽
𝑅𝑀 77.88 1𝐺𝐽
High Pressure Steam = × 1000,000𝐾𝐽 = 𝑅𝑀 0.00007788/𝐾𝐽
𝐺𝐽
Operating Hours = 8000 h/yr
1234.49𝑘𝐽 3600𝑠 8000ℎ𝑟 𝑅𝑀 0.00007788

Cost of HPS = × × × = 𝑅𝑀 2,768,891.94/𝑦𝑟
𝑠 ℎ 𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝐽
The cost utility for steam is RM 19,311,129.84/yr.
4.3.2 Cooling Water Consumption
Cold utility stream is needed to remove heat in the process streams. Cooling water is
the most common used cold utility to cool or condense streams and as a source of coolant for
heat removal from equipment. In this plant, cooling water is used in E-102, E-103, E-104, E-
106 and E-107. The cold utility required after heat exchange network is 16229.95 kW. Taking
the normal design of cooling tower as guideline, the temperature difference between inlet and
outlet of water, (ΔT) is assumed to be 10 °C. The circulation rate of water is calculated using
formula as below by taking the heat capacity of water as 4.18kJ/kg∙°C and the density as 997
kg/m3 at 25°C. The annual cost of cooling water is:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑐)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 1
= ×
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝛥𝑇
1
×
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
58427820 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚3
= × ×
4.18𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ °𝐶 10°𝐶 997𝑘𝑔
= 1402.00 m3/h
181
Beside the required amount of circulation of water, make up water (Wm) that consist of
evaporation loss for cooling duty (We), drift loss (Wd), and blowdown (Wb) also need to be
sum up. The cycle of concentration is taking as 4 in this project. (Perry’s Chemical Engineers
Handbook, 8th ed).
𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑊𝑒 = 0.00085 × 𝑊𝑐 × ∆𝑇

= 0.00085 × 1402.00 × 10
= 11.917 m3/h
Drift loss, Wd = 0.0002Wc
= 0.0002(1402.00)
= 0.2804 m3/h
𝑊𝑒 + (𝑐𝑦𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 1)𝑊𝑑
𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛, 𝑊𝑏 =
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 1
11.917 +(4−1)0.2804
= 4−1
= 4.25 m3/h
Make up water, Wm = We + Wd + Wb
= 11.917 + 0.2804 + 4.25
= 16.45 m3/hr × 8000 hr/yr
= 131600 m3/y
Total cost of cooling water = 131600 m3/yr × RM 0.84/m3
= RM 110,544/y
4.3.3 Electricity Consumption
Generally, electricity is used to power up equipment. Electricity is important in

production plant to provide work or energy that required for the process of compression,
pumping, air cooling, lights etc. The sources of electrical energy in Malaysia are provided by
Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) with cooperation by Malaysia government, which provide a
suitable power quality needed by the customer so that equipment can be operated and get some
production. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) is the monopoly generator and supplier of
electrical power in Peninsular Malaysia. In this project, the main electricity demand is for the
work of compressor of C-101 and C-102 and pump of P-101. According to Table 4.7 providing
by Tenaga National Berhad Malaysia, the price for medium voltage general industrial (Tariff
182
E1) is RM 0.337/kWh. Summary of the electricity required of each equipment is showed in
Table 4.8.
Table 4.7: Industries Tariff for Electrical Usage of Tenaga Nasional Berhad (Tenaga
Nasional, 2023)
TARIFF CATEGORY CURRENT RATE
TARIFF D - LOW VOLTAGE INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For the first 200 kWh (1 -200 kWh) per

38.00 sen/kWh
month
For the next kWh (201 kWh onwards) per

44.10 sen/kWh
month
The minimum monthly charge is RM7.20
TARIFF E1 - MEDIUM VOLTAGE GENERAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per

29.60 RM/kW
month
For all kWh 33.70 sen/kWh
TARIFF E2 - MEDIUM VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF-PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIFF

37.00 RM/kW
month during the peak period
For all kWh during the peak period 35.50 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period 21.90 sen/kWh
TARIFF E3 - HIGH VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF-PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
183
35.50 RM/kW
month during the peak period
For all kWh during the peak period 33.70 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period 20.20 sen/kWh
Table 4.8: Summary of Electrical Used
Equipment Electricity (kW)

C-101 3458.628
C-102 837.592
P-101 0.0700880791
Total 4296.29
The annual cost for the electricity is calculated as follow:

8000ℎ𝑟 𝑅𝑀0.337
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 4296.29𝑘𝑊 × ×
𝑦𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Cost of electricity = RM 11,582,797.84/yr
4.3.4 Economic Potential 4
The economic potential level 4 is performed to see whether this production plant is
feasible at the level 4 decision. From the level 3 calculation, the economic potential at level 3
is RM 89,946,752.65/yr. EP4 is calculated as shown:
EP4 = EP3 – Utilities cost

EP4 = RM 90,040,862.71 – (RM 110,544 + RM 11,582,797.84 + RM 8,433,563.87)
EP4 = RM 69,913,957.00/yr
184
4.4 INTEGRATED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Figure 4.5 : Integrated Process Flow Diagram
185
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING
This chapter covers the sizing of all major equipment, including the reactor, distillation
column, compressor, pump, and heat exchangers. All the dimensions for the equipment were
calculated after detailed sizing. All mechanical designs were thoroughly discussed, and extensive
calculations were performed. The design pressure, temperature, wall thickness, maximum
allowable working pressure, and other parameters were established. This chapter also included
cost estimates for all major equipment.
Table 5. 1: Quantity of Equipment
Equipment Quantity
Reactor 3
Separator 2
Flash Column 1
Mixer 4
Heat Exchanger 7
Pump 1
Compressor 2
Storage Tank 1
Distillation Column 1
Total 22
5.1 MAJOR EQUIPMENT
5.1.1 REACTOR
Reactor is one of the major equipment that being use in the process plant, it is a vessel
where the major reaction takes places. The sizing and design of the reactor is the important part in
this plant design. The summary of specification and cost for reactor (R-101,R-102 and R-103) is
tabulated in Table 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. Detailed calculations of sizing and costing of reactor (R-101)
are as attached in Appendix D.
186
Table 5. 2: Design Specification Sheet of Pyrolysis Reactor, R-101
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR REACTOR (R-101)

Item Reactor Date 30/3/2023
Code R-101 By Suveetha Sukumaran
General
Function Decomposition of methane into hydrogen gas and carbon
Type Pyrolysis Reactor
Material of Stainless steel 316
Construction
Utility Cooling water
Operating Data
Streams Inlet Outlet
S3 S4 S5
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor
Temperature (℃) 1200 1200 1200
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1
Total Mass Flowrate 8014.56 2073.37 5941.19
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
Methane 8013.86 0 5244.51
Hydrogen 0.6967 0 696.679
Carbon 0 2073.37 0
Design Specification
Type Jacketed Non-agitated
Vessel height (m) 7.01
Diameter (m) 2.34
Type of head Torispherical head
Estimated Cost
RM 21,129,290.46
187
Table 5. 3: Design Specification Sheet of Reactor, R-102

General
Function To produce Ammonia from methane, hydrogen and nitrogen
Type Packed bed reactor
Material of Carbon Steel
Construction
Orientation Vertical
Operating Data
S12 S13
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (℃) 480 480
Pressure (atm) 202 202
Total Mass Flowrate 5397.12 5397.12
(kg/h)
Catalyst
Name Iron-oxide catalyst
Shape Spherical
Cost of Catalyst RM 8373/yr
Composition (kg/h)
Ammonia 737.48 3856.14
Hydrogen 1933.05 1379.32
Methane 26.6595 26.6595
Nitrogen 2699.93 134.996
Jacket Type Jacketed Non-agitated
188
Diameter (m) 1.93
Type of head Ellipsoidal head
Estimated Cost
RM 14,026,765.94
Table 5. 4: Design Specification Sheet of Reactor, R-103

General
Function To produce Urea from ammonia and carbon dioxide
Type Plug Flow Reactor
Material of Carbon Steel
Construction
Operating Data
S24 S25
Phase Vapor Vapor
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
Ammonia 3014.55 22.252
Urea 0 5007.80
Carbon dioxide 4017.21 160.68
Ammonium carbamate 0 338.52
189
Water 0 1502.51
Type Jacketed Non-agitated
Diameter (m) 2.41
Type of head Ellipsoidal head
Estimated Cost
RM 11,197,619.06
5.1.2 DISTILLATION COLUMN (T-101)
Distillation is a method of separating homogeneous mixtures via the use of selective

boiling and condensation. Appendix D shows the detailed calculation of the distillation column,
including the column dimension, plate design, reboiler, and condenser.
Table 5. 5: Design Specification Sheet of Distillation Column, T-101
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR DISTILLATION COLUMN (T-101)

Item Distillation Column Date 5//4/2023
Code T-101 By Nurul Iffah binti Abdul
Hamid
General
Type Tray tower
Operation continuous Orientation Vertical
Material SA 2062 E250B Design code ASME SECT.VIII
Operating data
Stream Inlet Outlet
29 30 31
Temperature (ºC) 97 60.68 81.17
190
Total Flowrate 6510.308 1502.508 5007.8
(kg/h)
Composition
Water 1502.508 1485.832 15.008
Urea 5007.8 15.021 4992.782
Operation design
Operating pressure (atm) 1
Operating temperature (ºC) 81.17
Column diameter (m) 4.8764
Area Column (m2) 18.6785
Pressure drop 0.011
Mechanical Design
Column wall 12.2193 Empty vessel weight 0.678
thickness (mm) (kN)
Type of head Ellipsoidal Head thickness 12.2193
Head straight 0.0381 Head Dished Height, 1.2191
Flange height, SF DH (m)
(m)
Vessel support Skirt Skirt thickness 12.2193
Skirt Height (m) 7.3512 Corrosion allowance 8.9
Tray required 57 Feed tray from top 28
Tray spacing (m) 0.6
Provisional Plat Design Hole design
Type of tray Sieve tray Hole diameter, dh 5
(mm)
Tray material Carbon steel Single hole area, Ash 0.0000196
(m2)
Number of holes 66709
Plate Area Weir Design
191
Downcomer area 2.801774217 Weir length (m) 3.949870543
(m2)
Net area (m2) 15.87672056 Weir height (m) 0.05
Active area (m2) 13.07494635 Weir liquid crest
Hole area (m2) Maximum, how 1.5549
1.307494635
(mm liquid)
Plate Pressure Drop Minimum, how (mm 1.2259
liquid)
Total Plate pressure 12.3337 Weep point
Drop (mm liquid)
Downcomer design Minimum vapor 5.103852668
velocity (m/s)
Downcomer backup 0.0151 Actual vapor 1.866269998
(m) velocity (m/s)
Head loss (m) 5.30897×10-10 Perforate Area
Resistance time (s) 113.571 Perforate area (m2) 12.3867
Condenser Reboiler
Type Total Type Kettle
Utility Cooling water Utility Low pressure steam
Heat transfer area 29.0169 Heat transfer area 129.2988
(m2) (m2)
EQUIPMENT COST
RM 6,040,000
5.1.3 MEMBRANE SEPARATOR
Membrane separators can be used for hydrogen and methane separation. Membrane
separation is a process that utilizes selective permeation through a membrane to separate different
components in a gas mixture. The membrane acts as a selective barrier, allowing certain molecules
to pass through while blocking others based on their size, shape, or solubility characteristics.
192
In the case of hydrogen and methane separation, both gases can be separated using
membranes that are selectively permeable to hydrogen. Since hydrogen molecules are smaller and
have higher permeability compared to methane, the membrane allows hydrogen to pass through
while retaining methane.
Table 5. 6: Design Specification Sheet of Membrane Separator, V-101
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR MEMBRANE SEPARATOR (V-101)
Item Membrane separator Date 5/4/2023
Code V-101 By Nurul Iffah Binti Abdul
Hamid
General
Function To separate gas, methane and hydrogen as vapor stream
Type Process vessel
Housing Material Carbon steel
Type of membrane Hollow Fiber Membrane
Utility Electricity
Operating Data
S6 S8 S7
Temperature (℃) 250 250 250
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
CH4 5244.511 5239.27 5.241
H2 696.679 0.697 695.982
Diameter (m) 1.69
Height (m) 5.06
Volume (m3) 11.32
193
Number of tubes 120
Thickness (cm) 0.711
Estimated Cost
RM 657482.98
5.1.4 FLASH COLUMN

Flash column is the simplest equipment in separation process. A liquid stream that contains
several components is partially vaporized in flash column at specified temperature and pressure.
Hence, the more volatile components enriched at the top outlet stream in vapor phase while the
less volatile components enriched at the bottom outlet stream in liquid phase. The system is known
as ‘flash’ distillation because the vaporization process is extremely rapid once the feed enters the
column. The system in the flash chamber is very close to an equilibrium stage due to the intimate
contact between liquid and vapor. The general outlines of the design procedures for flash column
are as below (Sinnott, 2005):
1. Determine vapor and liquid mass flow rates in kg/h.
2. Calculate flow parameter and settling velocity.
3. Calculate cross-sectional area and diameter of the vessel.
4. Calculate height of vapor and liquid.
5. Calculate total height and volume of the column
Table 5. 7: Design Specification Sheet of Flash Column, V-102

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR FLASH COLUMN (V-102)
Item Flash column Date 5/4/2023
Code V-102 By Nurul Iffah Binti Abdul
Hamid
General
Function To separate gas and liquid mixture
Type Process Vessel
Material Carbon steel
Utility Electricity
194
Operating Data
S14 S15 S18
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
CH4 26.6595 23.7938 2.8657
H2 1379.32 1374.57 4.7582
N2 134.996 128.975 6.021
NH3 3856.14 819.446 3036.69
Diameter (m) 1.2
Height of vapor (m) 1.8
Height of liquid (m) 0.7904
Total height (m) 2.9904
Volume (m3) 3.3821
Thickness (inch) 0.0234
Estimated Cost
RM 519875.29
Table 5. 8: Design Specification Sheet of Flash Column, V-103

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR FLASH COLUMN (V-103)
Item Flash column Date 5/4/2023
Code V-103 By Nurul Iffah binti Abdul
Hamid
General
Function To separate gas and liquid mixture
195
Type Process Vessel
Material Carbon steel
Utility Electricity
Operating Data
27 28 29
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
NH3 50.1398 50.1398 0
H2O 1500.55 0 1500.55
CO2 160.777 160.777 0
UREA 5002.21 0 5002.21
AC 342.25 342.25 0
H2 4.73935 4.73935 0
CH4 2.86123 2.86123 0
N2 6.00016 6.00016 0
Diameter (m) 1.2
Height of vapor (m) 1.8
Height of liquid (m) 0.4131
Total height (m) 2.6131
Volume (m3) 2.9553
Thickness (inch) 0.021
Estimated Cost
RM 278930.1
196
5.2 MINOR EQUIPMENT
5.2.1 COMPRESSOR
A compressor is a device that compresses the vapor phase to a specified outlet pressure or
to a pressure that is limited by the amount of work available. Each compressor is primarily
determined by the gas capacity, action, and discharge heat. Axial flow compressors, centrifugal
compressors, and reciprocating compressors are the three types of compressors.
• Axial flow compressors are designed for high flow rates and moderate differential
pressures.
• Centrifugal compressor for high flow rates and differential pressure staging.
• When a wide range of pressures at a relatively low flow rate is required, a reciprocating
compressor is used.
Appendix D shows the detailed calculation steps for the compressor, C-101 and C-102.
Tables 5.9 and 5.10 provide a summary of compressor sizing.
Table 5. 9: Design Specification Sheet of Compressor, C-101

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR COMPRESSOR (C-101)
Item Compressor Date 30/3/2023
Code C-101 By Suveetha Sukumaran
General
Function To increase the pressure stream 10
Type Reciprocating
Material of Carbon steel
Construction
Utility Electricity
Operating Data
S10 S11
Phase Vapor Vapor
197
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
Methane 26.7003 26.7003
Hydrogen 1933.18 1933.18
Nitrogen 2699.95 2699.95
Ammonia 739.329 739.329
Efficiency (%) 75
Power (kW) 3458.62
Estimated Cost
RM 23,523,725.45
Table 5.10: Design Specification Sheet of Compressor, C-102

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR COMPRESSOR (C-102)
Item Compressor Date 30/3/2023
Code C-102 By: Suveetha Sukumaran
General
Function To increase the pressure of carbon dioxide before entering reactor, R-103.
Type Reciprocating
Material of Carbon steel
Construction
Utility Electricity
Operating Data
S21 S22
Phase Vapor Vapor
Quantity (kg/h) 4019.42 4019.42
198
Composition (kg/h)
Carbon Dioxide 4019.42 4019.42
Efficiency (%) 68
Power (kW) 1634.21
Estimated Cost
RM 14,494,078.68
5.2.2 MIXER
The size of the mixer is determined using the vessel sizing approach because the mixer will
function as a vessel. The Lorenz T. Biegler Systematic Techniques of Chemical Process Design is
where this scaling method was obtained from. The vessel's volume is determined using the
following equation:
𝐹𝐿 𝜏
𝑉 = 2[ ]
𝑃𝐿
Where;
FL = Liquid flowrate leaving the mixer

𝜏 = Assumption of residence time, 5 minutes
PL = Liquid density
Table 5. 11: Specification Data Sheet of Mixer, M-101
199
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR MIXER (M-101)
Equipment Mixer
Tag Code M-101
Designed by Jasmine Hacqueen Bt Mohd Farid
Design of Impeller
Diameter (m) 0.78
Impeller Width (m) 0.156

Length of impeller blade (m) 0.195
Width of baffle (m) 0.195
Operational design
Internal diameter(m) 2.34
Volume (𝒎𝟑) 703.84
Height(m) 3.51
Aspen simulation Available
Estimated Cost
RM 975, 698.48

Equipment Mixer
Tag Code M-102
Design of Impeller
Diameter (m) 0.6433
Impeller width (m) 0.1287

200
Operational design
Volume (𝒎𝟑) 616.36
Height(m) 3.51
Estimated Cost
RM 2, 173, 634.05
Table 5. 13: Specification Data Sheet of Splitter, M-103

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR SPLITTER (M-103)
Equipment Mixer
Tag Code M-103
Operational design
Volume (𝒎𝟑) 7.7709
Height(m) 2.5963
Estimated Cost
RM 7009.81

Equipment Mixer
Tag Code M-104
Design of Impeller
201
Diameter (m) 0.8033
Impeller width (m) 0.1607
Operational design
Volume (𝒎𝟑) 226.59
Height(m) 3.615
Equipment estimated cost
RM 214, 989.98
5.2.3 PUMP
A pump creates the flow of a liquid which is generating the flow needed to produce the
release of pressure that is dependent on the system's fluid flow resistance. Pumps are using a
mechanism to move the fluid (usually a reciprocating or rotational one) and use energy to do so.
Pumps exist in a variety of sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to massive
industrial pumps, and are powered by a variety of energy sources, including human labour,
electricity, engines, or wind power. There are two major types of pumps which are dynamic pumps
and positive displacement pumps. Positive displacement pumps hold specific portions of fluid that
are enclosed before they are carried along, whereas dynamic pumps maintain a steady flow of the
fluid. The following equation is used to calculate the required shaft power for each identical pump:
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑃
𝑊=
𝜌
Where;
Qin = mass flow rate (kg/h)
P = pressure difference (barg)
𝜌 = density of liquid (kg/m3)
Then, the following equation has been used to determine the actual shaft power needed by each
pump while considering the pump's efficiency into consideration.
202
𝑊
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 =
η
Where;
𝜂 = efficiency of the pump
Table 5. 15: Specification Data Sheet of Pump, P-101

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR PUMP (P-101)
Item: Pump Date: 2/4/2023
Code: P-101 By: Jasmine Hacqueen Bt Mohd Farid
General Specification
To transfer energy to the incoming fluid,
which is ammonia, NH3 before entering cooler
Function (E-105) which helps the fluid to overcome
physical barriers such as pipe friction and
height changes.
Material Carbon-steel
Type Centrifugal
Operation Continuous
Operating Condition
Pressure Inlet (bar) 202.25
Pressure Outlet (bar) 202.65
Pressure Difference ∆P (bar) 0.40
Temperature (°C) 35
Design Sizing
Mass flow rate, Qin (kg/h) 3050.11
Efficiency (%) 85
Power consumption (kW) 0.5462
Equipment Estimated Cost
RM 124, 547.48
Equipment Utility Cost
203
RM 1739.10/yr
5.2.4 STORAGE TANK

Storage tanks are used to hold liquids, compressed gases or medium used for short- and
long-term heat or cold storage. Many environmental regulations are usually applied to the design
and operation of storage tanks, depending on the nature of the fluid contained within. Storage tanks
come in a variety of shapes, including vertical and horizontal cylindrical, open and closed tops,
flat bottoms, cone bottoms, slope bottoms, and dish bottoms. Large tanks are typically vertical
cylindrical or have rounded corners transitioning from vertical side wall to bottom profile to better
withstand hydraulic hydrostatically induced pressure of contained fluid.
The general outlines of the design procedures are:

• Determine storage time and tank volume.
• Calculate wall thickness.
• Calculate outer diameter of the tank.
The storage tank was summarised in table 5.16, and detailed calculation is shown in Appendix D.
Table 5. 16: Specification Data Sheet of Storage Tank, TK-101

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR STORAGE TANK (TK-101)
Item Storage tank Date 4/4/2023
Nurul Iffah binti
Code TK-101 By
Abdul Hamid
General
Function To store carbon gas (by-product)
Type Vessel
Material Stainless Steel 304
Utility Electricity
Operating Data
Streams Inlet
204
S3
Phase Vapor
Temperature (℃) 1200
Pressure (atm) 1
Total Mass Flowrate (kg/h) 2205.58
Composition (kg/h)
Carbon 2205.58
Type Vessel
Vessel Volume (m3) 205.8
Vessel diameter (m) 8.06
Vessel length (m) 6.448
Column wall thickness (mm) 17.34
Corrosion allowance (mm) 3.0
Type of roof Fixed cone roof
Estimated Cost
RM 4,279,217.56
5.2.5 HEAT EXCHANGER

Most chemical processes require the transfer of heat to and from process fluid. Heaters and
coolers are exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream. In
our plant we use the type of split-ring floating head for heat exchanger. Split-ring floating head
allows the tubes to expand with increased temperatures, without needing to bend the pipes. The
tube arrangement for is triangle because it provides a more compact arrangement, usually resulting
in smaller shell, and the strongest header sheet for a specified shell-side flow area.
Summary of specification and cost for heat exchanger E-101, E-102, E-103, E-104, E-105,
E-106, and E-107 are tabulated in Table 5.17, Table 5.18, Table 5.19, Table 5.20, Table 5.21,
Table 5.22, and Table 5.23 respectively. Detailed calculation of sizing and costing of heat
exchanger are as attached in Appendix D.
Table 5. 17: Specification Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger, E-101
205
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR HEAT EXCHANGER (E-101)
Item: Heat exchanger Date: 10/4/2023
Code: E-101 By: Raja Anas Nazrin Bin Raja Shuhaimi
GENERAL
Function: To heat up the process fluid before entering reactor R-101
Type: Split-Ring Floating Head
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel
GEOMETRY
Tube to shell side flow: Counter current Shell pass per shell: 2
Heat exchanger orientation: Horizontal Tube pass per shell: 4
Tube side inlet direction: Horizontal Number of parallel shells: 2
Tube side phase: fluid Shell side phase: Gas
PROCESS SPECIFICATION
Heat duty, kW: 3357.59 Tube fluid flow, kg/s: 2.2263
Shell fluid flow, kg/s: 48.86 Heat transfer area (m2): 83.74
EQUIPMENT SIZING
TUBE SIDE SHELL SIDE
Temperature, °C: 180 Temperature, °C: 420
Tube fluid: Methane Shell fluid: Steam
Tube material: Carbon steels Shell material: 304 stainless steels
Tube length (m): 1.83 Shell diameter (mm): 559.76
Outside diameter (mm): 50.8 Bundle diameter (mm): 509.76
Tube inside diameter (mm): 43.99 Baffle spacing (mm): 167.93
Number of tubes: 72 Tube pitch (mm): 63.5
Tube arrangement: Triangle Cross flow area (m2): 0.02
Baffle cut height: 25% Shell bundle clearance (mm): 50
EQUIPMENT ESTIMATED COST (RM)
RM830599.10
206
GENERAL
Function: To cool down the process fluid before go to separator V-101
GEOMETRY
Tube side phase: Fluid Shell side phase: Fluid
Heat duty, kW: -8124.70 Tube fluid flow, kg/s: 1.65033
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Methane Shell fluid: Cooling water
RM639614.14
207
GENERAL
Function: To cool down the process fluid before go to reactor R-102
GEOMETRY
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Ammonia Shell fluid: Cooling water
RM645,093.72
208
Table 5. 20: Specification Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger. E-104
GENERAL
Function: To cool down the process fluid before entering flash column V-102
GEOMETRY
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Ammonia Shell fluid: Cooling water
Tube inside diameter (mm): 43.99 Baffle spacing (mm): 349.85.
RM741081.74
209
GENERAL
Function: To heat up the process fluid before enter mixer M-104
GEOMETRY
Tube side phase: Fluid Shell side phase: Gas
Heat duty, kW: 1281.80 Tube fluid flow, kg/s: 0.8473
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Ammonia Shell fluid: Steam
RM672564.23
210
GENERAL
Function: To cool down the process fluid before entering mixer M-104
GEOMETRY
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Carbon dioxide Shell fluid: Cooling water
RM855153.00
211
GENERAL
Function: To cool down the process fluid before go to flash column V-103
GEOMETRY
EQUIPMENT SIZING
Tube fluid: Water Shell fluid: Cooling water
Baffle cut height: 25% Shell bundle clearance (mm):20
RM908470.89
212
5.2.6 VALVE
The optimum sizing of pressure relief devices is essential to safely protect a piping system
from over pressurization. An undersized system would not be able to relieve the system effectively
and an oversized system will result in unnecessary material and labor costs. Table 5.24 introduces
the types of pressure reducing valves used in industry (Direct Industries, 2010).
Table 5. 24: Type of Pressure Reducing Valves used in Industry

No. Type of industrial valves Specification
Valve for Hygiene Applications | Ultrapure
Media (DM 462) • Double seat angled valve for large flow
rate
• Usable for liquids, gases, steam
• Tmax = 180 C, P1 up to 8 bar, P2 = 0.3
to 5 bars
Weight Loaded Pressure Reducing Valve
(DM 3,4) • Balanced straight-way valve for medium
and very high flow rates
• Usable for liquids, gases and steam
• Tmax = 280 C, P1 up to 40 bar, P2 = 0.5
to 10 bars
High Pressure Valve, Medium and High
Flow Rates (DM 620 – 628) • Single-seat straight-way valve for medium
and high flow rates with balanced cone
• Usable for liquids and gases
• Hard-faced valve cone and seat available
for high pressure drops
• Tmax = 200 C, P1 up to 315 bar, P2 = 2
to 160 bars
213
Table 5. 25: Design Specification Sheet of Valve, VLV-101
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR VALVE (VLV-101)
Item Valve Date 5/4/2023
Code VLV-101 By Nurul Iffah binti Abdul
Hamid
General
Function To reduce pressure before entering flash column (V-103)
Type of valve High Pressure Valve, Medium and High Flowrates (DM 620 – 628)
Operating Data
S26 S27
(kg/h)
Composition (kg/h)
Carbon Dioxide 160.68 160.68
Ammonia 22.252 22.252
Water 1502.508 1502.508
Ammonium 338.52 338.52
Carbamate
Urea 5007.8 5007.8
Estimated Cost
RM 580 to RM 21,000
214
CHAPTER 6
PROCESS CONTROL AND SAFETY STUDIES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
All the safety analysis was done in this chapter. Information such as Material Safety Data,
DOW Fire and Explosion Index, and toxicity of materials were summarized and discussed in
detail. Besides, major equipment controls were outlined and determined. Lastly, a Process &
Instrumentation Diagram was done for the whole production plant. In addition, Hazard and
Operability Studies (HAZOP) was done for all major equipment in the designed plant.
Availability of advanced technology enables the chemical industries to embark into more
complex processes which involve higher pressure, more reactive chemicals and exotic chemistry.
As chemical process technology become more complex, chemical engineers need a better
fundamental understanding of safety in designing an industrial plant to minimize the likelihood of
accidents to happen and to assure the safety of the plant.
Safety is an important aspect in industry especially to the employees in the plant that always
exposed to life-threatening situations. Moreover, a safe and comfortable working environment
plays a very important part to assume the efficient production of the plant. Furthermore, a safe and
comfortable working environment plays a very important part to assume the efficient production
of the plant. Therefore, a process safety should always be considered during the early stage of
design of the plant with fully co-operation with the management, contractors, employees and
specialist in environment and industrial health.
6.1.1 General Safety Procedure
There are three major hazards in a process plant such as hazardous and corrosive chemicals,
fire and explosion and mechanical accidents which are common to all industrial activities.
Unfortunately, hazards are not always identified until an accident occurs. Hence, safety training.
Regarding to general safety procedures for the plant should be practiced by the workers before the
plant start its operation. This is one of the steps to ensure the process and operation in safe
condition throughout the life of a plant.
215
6.1.2 Chemical Storage
Chemical storage plays a vital role in a plant where various hazardous chemicals are stored.
The location of the storage tank should be at a suitable placing that avoid any form of unnecessary
risk. Some important aspects of storage layout are (Wiley,2012):
• Proper embankment of storage tank should be done to control spillage. Piping, valves, and
flanges should be kept to a minimum when located within the embankment and most likely
to be installed outside the dikes area.
• The storage tank should be kept away from process areas. This is because fire and explosion
in a process unit maybe endanger the tank.
• Secondary containment systems such drain valve and emergency exit door are considered
passive protective systems to the storage tank can be considered.
The design of the storage should be considered properly to eliminate the possibilities of fireball,
vapor cloud explosion (VCE), and toxic cloud.
6.1.3 Transportation
Transportation of chemicals inside the plant is a part of the daily routine. Many accidentals
released of hazardous liquid in process plant occurred at road and rail tanker of loading and
unloading stations. Thus, a safe handling program must be practiced by every personnel. This is
because they will be one closely associated with these materials and indirectly the safety of the
other workers is depending on them. Besides that, sites for loading and unloading stations should
be carefully selected with proper roof covering and good ventilation to protect the transfer of
chemicals to the storage (Daniel & Joseph, 1990).
Besides that, handling of hazardous material depends on:

• State of material: Liquid, solid or gas.
• Method of transport: Piping, ducts, conveyors, and tanks.
• Method of storage: Tanks, hoppers and pallets.
In our plant, the workers are mainly involved in gas handling of raw materials and liquid chemical
handling. On the site, the hazardous liquid handling must be transported and stored according to
the appropriate codes and standards.
216
6.1.4 Permit Procedures
Permit and licenses are required by law before a plant is permitted to operate. It is very
important every employee in the plant to acquire a permit before any operation such as hot work,
electric work to begin and confined space entry. In a plant, hot-work permit involving welding,
cutting and open flame is usually requires for operation because the operation involves flame and
produces sparks. The permit intended to prevent fire or injury to person doing the work. A plant
may choose to have specialized permits to regulate certain types of work such as after-hours work
and vehicle operation. All of this permit introduced in the plant is to ensure that certain work is
informed and is performed safely in the plant. Here are some guidelines needs for documentation
(Daniel & Joseph, 1990):
• Define the work to be done: Locations and area affected.
• Set duration for working period.
• Remove, or clearly mark all hazardous materials and conditions.
• Prepare the working sites.
• Notify all personnel in and around the area of the work.
• Restrict access to the work area.
• Provide all necessary safety, emergency and personal equipment.
6.1.5 General Worker Safety
The safety of personnel is very important when working in the industrial plant. Every
worker should be familiar with the safety instructions and danger signs around the plant. Besides
that, employees in the plant should have undergo safety training for emergency response to ensure
they are aware of every emergency escape plan in the plant. In additional, the employers are also
required to prove effective information and train employees on the hazards of the hazardous
chemicals in the work area. At least, employee training must include methods and observations
that may be used to detect the present or release of a hazardous chemical in the work area such as
monitoring on any visual appearance or odour of hazardous chemicals when being released. Some
of the safety rules should be informed to the workers is:
• No smoking except in specific areas designated for smoking.

• No eating, drinking of alcoholic liquor.
217
• Report all accidents to the supervisor.
• No flammable chemical substances and drugs allowed into the plant, except in need.
• Get immediate medical attention for serious injuries.
• Do not enter processing areas other than the place of work.
• Know the location of first aid, escape exits, fire alarms and fire extinguishers.
Besides that, personal protective equipment (PPE) is useful to protect the respiratory system,
skin, eyes, face, hands, feet, head, or hearing from chemical, physical, and biological hazards. To
be effective, the selection and use of PPE must be appropriate and accompanied by adequate
training, so they know at least the following: when PPE is necessary, what PPE is necessary, how
to properly to take off or put on, adjust and wear PPE and the proper care of PPE. Every employee
is provided with their own protective equipment and the employer is responsible for assuring its
adequacy, proper maintenance and sanitation. The type of personal protective equipment is listed
in Table 6.1
Table 6. 1: Type of Personal Protective Equipment
Type of clothing or Codes and

Body part Type of protection
accessory Standards
ANSI Z89.1-2009
Protects the head from “American National
Head Safety helmet hard substances falling, Standard for
electric shock and burns. industrial Head
Protection”
Protects against
Face shield ANSI Z87.1-2003
chemical splashes.
“American National
Protects against
Standard for
Eyes and face Goggles vaporized chemicals and
Occupational and
splashes.
Educational Eye and
Eyewash / Drench Provides immediate
Face Protection”
shower emergency use if
218
exposed to any corrosive
materials.
ASTM F-2412-2005
Protect feet from contact
“Standard
with chemicals or
Safety boots (Waterproof Specification for
Foot injured by falling,
and slip resistant type) Performance
moving, and sharp
Requirements for
objects.
Protective Footwear”
National Fire
Protect against splashes, Protection
Body Fully encapsulating suit
dust, gases, and vapor. Association Standard
1991-EPA level A&B
Protect against high
frequency of noise. No ANSI standard
Ears Ear plugs
(Average noise level of available
8.5 dB)
Insulating rubber gloves Protect hands and arms
Hands and arm
and sleeves from chemical contact.
6.1.6 Emergency Response Plan
Working in processing plant is very dangerous because all the workers are exposed
themselves to life-threating situations every day. With planning for potential emergencies will help
to avoid personal injury or any damage to property. A comprehensive emergency management
plan will allow quick and effective response and so reduce the consequences of any incident. Key
actions for practicing response are:
• Identify potential emergencies.
• Assess possible damage.
• Estimate available response time.
• Prepare plan such as emergency communications and response approach needed.
• Publish and disseminate plan.
219
• Practice the plan through training.
Safe areas should be set aside for emergency assembly points for employees. The workers will
be evacuated and directed to the assembly point while the plant is running shutting down process.
At least one pre-arranged emergency control centre should be established with proper
communication with area around the works, as well as maps, site plans and relevant data and
equipment to assist in any emergencies. Besides that, outside authorities must be prepared to deal
with the effects of major accidents. They include police, ambulance, hospital and other authority
services.
Meanwhile, sounding alarm such as fire alarm should be installed in every corner in the plant
so that if any emergencies happen, it would alert the people in the plant. The alarm should be
actuated by an electrical signalling system with enough call points spread over the work for the
alert to be raised by anyone. For instances, automatic detection equipment such as thermal sensor
to detect the temperature rise around the work area to alert any present of fire going on in the plant.
The fire alarm should be well maintained to prevent any failure of detection and to alert the
workers.
6.1.7 Waste Disposal Operation
There is a waste treatment to treat all the waste from the process before it is getting exposed
to the environment. All information concerning the chemical, physical and toxicological properties
of each substance should be present on the site. This is to make sure the employees performing
their duties on the site alert the substance present in the waste. Besides that, training is required
for all employees who work at the waste clean-up sites of treatment storage and disposal sites. The
training must cover the necessary information to perform these jobs including information on the
proper personal protective equipment and procedure to safeguard employees against hazards and
effect of exposure to any toxic substances. Furthermore, necessary decontamination procedure
must be used to safeguard employees against hazards and effect of exposure to any toxic
substances are removed from workers before they leave the worksite as well as from equipment
that is to be taken off site (Daniel & Joseph, 1990). The employer should shower, including change
rooms, for all employees exposed to hazardous substance and health hazard involved in hazardous
waste clean-up operation. Shower should be located in areas where exposure is below the
220
permissible exposure limits and published exposure levels. It is better if the shower areas are
having a good ventilation system that supplies sufficient air to the employees. Finally, emergency
response plan it is very important. The plan must be developed and implemented to handle any
emergency happens during waste clean-up operation (Daniel & Joseph, 1990).
6.2 EQUIPMENT CONTROL
Control strategies in the production plant are very important to maximize the production
of urea. This chapter will focus on the equipment control in production design of urea.
6.2.1 Introduction
Process control is a set of procedures designed to ensure that processes within a

manufacturing plant are carried out correctly and that desired output will be achieved. Process
control to control the level, temperature, pressure, and flow that are important for process
applications. Small changes in a process can have an impact on the result of the process. Variation
in temperature, pressure, and flow must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the
desired product. The objectives of a plant control are:
• To control the production rate which is 40,000 metric tons per year of urea.
• To avoid unnecessary losses in the usage of heating and cooling utilities.
• To achieve and maintain the product purity of 99%.
• To make sure the safety of this production plant.
In our plant, the systems we need to control are reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers,
compressors, pumps, mixers, flash columns and storage tanks. There are five types of control
variables involved in the control system of the entire plant. For instance, flow control, pressure
control, temperature control, level control and composition control are required to produce a
desired 40,000 MTPA of Urea.
221
6.2.2 Standard Symbols of Control Elements
Standard symbols of P&ID used, and the arrangement of the process equipment, piping
and others are identified by ISA standard ISA-S5-1 and shown in Table 6.2 to Table 6.4.
Table 6. 2: Instrument Identification System
Letter First Letter Succeeding Letter

Measured or Modifier Readout of Output Modifier
Initiating Passive Function
Variable Function
A Composition - - Alarm -
C - - - Control -
F Flow rate - - - -
I Current - Indicator Light low -
(Electrical)
L Level - - - -
P Pressure - - - -
S - Safety - Switch -
T Temperature - - Transmit -
V - - Valve - -
R - - Record - -
Y - - Compute - -
(Source: Adapted from ISA standard ISAS5-1)
222
Table 6. 3: Symbol Used in P&ID to show the valve, instrument & control loops
Symbol Description
TT Temperature Transmitter
TC Temperature Controller
TI Temperature Indicator
TY Temperature Computer
PT Pressure Transmitter
PC Pressure Controller
PI Pressure Indicator
PY Pressure Computer
FT Flow Transmitter
FC Flow Controller
FI Flow Indicator
FY Flow Computer
LT Level Transmitter
LC Level Controller
LI Level Indicator
LY Level Computer
TAH/TAL Temperature Alarm High/Low
PAH/PAL Pressure Alarm High/Low
FAH/FAL Flow Alarm High/Low
LAH/LAL Level Alarm High/Low
CV Control Valve
Pneumatic Transmission Line
Electric Transmission Line
223
Table 6. 4: General Function of Control Element
Control Element Function

TT Detects temperature change in the equipment.
TC Control the temperature change in the equipment.
TY Convert the temperature signal to pneumatic signal.
TI Measure and record the temperature changes.
TAH Detects high temperature in the equipment. When temperature
exceeds temperature limit, it sends a signal to the TC
TAL Detects low temperature in the equipment. When temperature is
lower than temperature limit, it sends a signal to the TC.
PT Detects pressure change in the equipment.
PAH Detects high pressure in the equipment. When pressure exceeds
pressure limit, it sends a signal to PC.
PAL Detects low pressure in the equipment. When pressure is lower than
pressure limit, it sends a signal to PC
FT Detects flow change in the equipment.
FAH Detects high flow in the equipment. When flow exceeds flow limit,
it sends a signal to FC.
FAL Detects low flow in the equipment. When flow is lower than flow
limit, it sends a signal to FC.
LT Detects level change in the equipment.
LAH Detects high level in the equipment. When level exceeds level limit,
it sends a signal to LC.
LAL Detects low level in the equipment. When level is lower than level
limit, it sends a signal to LC.
224
6.2.3 CONTROL SYSTEM OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT
6.2.3.1 Control System of Reactor, R-101
The reactor is the most important part of the industrial plant and can be considered as the heart of
the plant. The production of the desired product depends on the reaction in the reactor. In this
plant, there are three reactors employed in the whole process to produce 40,000 MTPA of Urea.
Therefore, it is important to maintain the reactor at desired condition to obtain the result that we
desired. The objective of the reactor control system has the followings:
• To maintain the operating condition of the reactor.
• To ensure flow at the inlet of reactor.
• To optimize the process for maximum production at proper process conditions.
Figure 6. 1: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-101)
225
Table 6. 5: Control and Feedback System of R-101
Control Objective Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
Temperature To maintain the Adjust inlet Fluctuating Feedback R-101, T = 1200 ℃
temperature in flow rate of the inlet controller. (If the temperature
the reactor hot utility temperature of exists ±10% of set
required for the feed. point, temperature
jacketed alarm high/low will
reactor. be activated)
Pressure To maintain the Adjust outlet Fluctuating of Feedback R-101, P = 1 atm
pressure level in flowrate of the the pressure in controller. (If the pressure
the reactor. reactor. the reactor. exists ±10% of set
point, pressure
alarm high/low will
be activated)
Level To control the Adjust the flow Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
level in reactor. rate of feed into outlet flowrate controller. rate (If the flow
the reactor from the rate exists ±10% of
reactor. set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
226
Figure 6. 2: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-102)
Table 6. 6: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-102)

Temperature To maintain the Adjust inlet Fluctuating Feedback R-102, T = 480 ℃
temperature in flow rate of inlet controller. (If the temperature
the reactor the cold water. temperature of exists ±10% of set
feed. point, temperature
alarm high/low will
be activated)
227
point, pressure
alarm high/low will
be activated)
Level To control the Adjust the Inconsistent of Feedback Minimum required
level in reactor. flow rate of outlet flowrate controller. and maximum
the reactor from the allowable level for
reactor. material in reactor
(If the level exists
±10% of set point,
level alarm
high/low will be
activated).
228
Figure 6. 3: Control and Feedback System of R-103
Table 6. 7: Control and Feedback System of Reactor (R-103)

Temperature To maintain the Adjust inlet Fluctuating Feedback R-103, T = 185℃
temperature in flow rate of the inlet controller. (If the temperature
the reactor hot utility temperature of exists ±10% of set
required for the feed. point, temperature
jacketed alarm high/low will
reactor. be activated)
point, pressure
229
alarm high/low will
be activated)
Level To control the Adjust the flow Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
level in reactor. rate of feed into outlet flowrate controller. rate (If the flow
the reactor from the rate exists ±10% of
reactor. set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
6.2.3.4 Control System for Separator

The control system for flash column, V-101-V-103 is designed as:
• To control and maintain the pressure, temperature, and level in the flash column.
Figure 6. 4: Control and Feedback System of V-101
230
Table 6. 8: Control and Feedback System of Separator, V-101
Temperature To maintain the Adjust inlet Fluctuating Feedback Desired
temperature in flow rate inlet controller. Temperature (If the
the flash through the hot temperature of temperature exists
column. utility stream of feed. ±10% of set point,
the heat temperature alarm
exchanger, E- high/low will be
102. activated)
Pressure To maintain the Adjust outlet Fluctuating Feedback Desired Pressure
pressure level in flowrate. inlet flow rate controller. (If the pressure
the flash of feed. exists ±10% of set
column. point, pressure
alarm high/low will
be activated)
Flow To maintain the Adjust the Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
outlet flow rate. outlet flow rate. inlet flow rate controller. rate (If the flow
of feed. rate exists ±10% of
set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
231
Figure 6. 5 : Control and Feedback System of V-102
Table 6. 9: Control and Feedback System of Flash Column, V-102

104. activated)
232
alarm high/low will
be activated)
set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
Figure 6. 6: Control and Feedback System of V-103
233
Table 6. 10: Control and Feedback System of Flash Column, V-103
107. activated)
alarm high/low will
be activated)
set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
6.2.3.7 Control System of Distillation Column, T-101

In this plant, the production of urea will use 1 distillation column. By doing this process, the
target purity can be met but with suitable control strategy for distillation column. The objectives
of these distillation column are:
• To maintain the flowrate of feed stream.
• To indicate pressure, level, temperature of the column and composition of streams.
234
• To maintain the temperature of distillate and bottom streams for desired separation
efficiency and composition.
Figure 6. 7: Control and Feedback System of T-101
Table 6. 11: Control and Feedback System of Distillation Column, T-101

Temperature Temperature of Adjust inlet Fluctuating Feedback Ttop = 60.68
distillate stream flow rate of inlet controller. Tbottom = 81.17
cooling water temperature of (If the temperature
of condenser feed. exists ±10% of set
Temperature of Adjust inlet point, temperature
bottom stream flow rate of alarm high/low will
be activated)
235
steam of
reboiler
Pressure To maintain the Control the Fluctuating of Feedback Pressure targeted in
pressure in the flowrate of pressure in the controller. each distillation
distillation water in the distillation column.
column. condenser of column (If the pressure
distillation exists ±10% of set
column point, pressure
alarm high/low will
be activated)
Level in the To maintain the Adjust the Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
distillation level in the outlet flow rate. inlet flow rate controller. rate (If the flow
column distillation of feed. rate exists ±10% of
column set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
236
6.2.4 CONTROL SYSTEM OF MINOR EQUIPMENT
6.2.4.1 Control system of mixer

The mixers are used to stir and mix the materials. Thus, it is very important to have a
suitable control system so that these mixers can work effectively. The function of mixer (M-101)
is to mix the feed methane and recycled methane and hydrogen gas while (M-102) is used to mix
the raw materials before being transported to reactor. Mixer (M-104) is used to mix the raw
materials from the feed stream and recycle stream before entering the reactor, R-103.
Figure 6. 8: Control and Feedback System of Mixer
Table 6. 12: Control and Feedback System of Mixer (M-101, M-102 and M-104)
237
Flow To maintain the Adjust the flow Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
inlet flow rate of rate of inlet outlet flow rate controller. rate (If the flow
stream stream of stream rate exists ±10% of
(mainstream) (mainstream) set point, flow
To maintain the Adjust the flow alarm high/low will
inlet flow rate of rate of inlet be activated).
stream (branch stream (branch
stream) stream)
6.2.4.2 Control system of splitter, M-103
The splitter is used to split the recycled and purge stream. Thus, it is very important to have
a suitable control system so that the splitter can work effectively.
Figure 6. 9: Control and Feedback System of M-103
Table 6. 13: Control and Feedback System of Splitter (M-103)
238
Flow To maintain the Adjust the flow Inconsistent of Feedback Desired mass flow
inlet flow rate of rate of inlet outlet flow rate controller. rate (If the flow
stream stream of stream rate exists ±10% of
set point, flow
alarm high/low will
be activated).
6.2.4.3 Control system of compressor, C-101 and C-102
A compressor is a mechanical device that reduces the volume of a gas in order to increase
its pressure. If the outlet stream pressure is not up to the set point, the pressure is manipulated by
adjusting the centrifugal force of the compressor until it reaches the set point.
The control objective of the compressor is as follow:
• To control pressure at motor and maintain the outlet pressure of the compressor.
Figure 6. 10: Control and Feedback System of C-101
239
Figure 6. 11: Control and Feedback System of C-102
Table 6. 14: Control and Feedback System of Compressor, C-101 and C-102
Outlet pressure To maintain the Adjust the Change in inlet Feedback Desired pressure
of compressor outlet pressure rotational speed flow rate controller. (At ±10% of set
of compressor of compressor point pressure
motor PAH/PAL will be
activated).
6.2.4.4 Control system of pump, P-101
The pump is used to pump the ammonia from V-102 to desired pressure. The purpose of
having the pump control system is to maintain the outlet pressure of liquid products. Thus, it is
very important to have a suitable control system so that this pump can work effectively.
The control objective of the pump is as follow:
To control flowrate and maintain the outlet flowrate of the liquid.
240
Figure 6. 12: Control and Feedback System of P-101
Table 6. 15: Control and Feedback System of pump, P-101

Outlet flow To maintain the Adjust the Change in inlet Feedback Desired flow rate
rate outlet flow rate rotational speed flow rate controller. (If the flow rate
of pump motor exists ±10% of set
point, flow alarm
high/low will be
activated).
6.2.4.5 Control system of storage tank, TK-101
Storage tank, TK-101 is to store by product that is carbon from this production design. The
control system of the storage tank is designed to control and maintain the level in the storage tank.
If the level of the storage tank is not up to the set point, the level is manipulated by adjusting the
inlet flowrate until it reaches the set point.
The control objective of the storage tank is as follow:
To control and maintain the level in the storage tank.
TK-101 Objective: To store by-product carbon.
241
Figure 6. 13: Control and Feedback System of TK-101
Table 6. 16: Control and Feedback System of storage tank, TK-101

Maintain tank Level in storage Inlet flowrate Changes in Feedback Height of storage
level tank liquid level in controller. tank (If level exists
the tanks of set point, level
alarm high/low will
be activated)
6.2.4.6 Control system of heat exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat from one fluid to another. In both cooling
and heating operations, heat exchangers are employed. A specific temperature is set to ensure that
it reaches the appropriate temperature for the process, or the temperature required for a reaction to
take place. The temperature of the output stream will be monitored and the heating or cooling
element in the heat exchanger will be controlled to reach the set point.
242
Figure 6. 14: Control and Feedback System of Heater
Figure 6. 15: Control and Feedback System of Cooler
Table 6. 17: Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-107)
Operating Outlet The temperature Feedback E-101: (At ±10%
temperature temperature is control by the controller. 1200℃ of set
243
of heat of heat flowrate of the Changes in E-102: point
exchanger exchanger cooling water inlet 250℃ temperature.
(for E-101 & E- flowrate E-103: TAH/PAL
105 and hot 480℃ will be
utilities (for E- activated).
E-104:
102, E-103, E-
35℃
104, E-106 & E-
107) E-105:
185℃
E-106:
185℃
E-107:
130℃
244
6.2.5 P&ID
Figure 6.16: Process Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
245
6.3 IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS
In chemical plants, the main hazards are toxic and corrosive chemicals, explosions,
chemical handling, processing, and storing that consist of many safety issues. A hazard is a
situation that has the potential to harm a person, environment, or damage property. To minimize
the potential hazards that cause loss, manage workplace health and safety, and help prevent
accidents and sickness absence, it is very vital to identify, monitor and reduce the risk associated
with plant hazards. The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 from Laws of Malaysia provided
a new legal administrative framework to promote, simulate and encourage even higher standards
of health and safety at work.
The process of safety assessment is an important element in the design of a chemical plant because
it prevents major incidents at the plant and ensures the safety of personnel and the general public.
Traditionally, the chemical industry has placed a strong emphasis on safety, beginning with plant
architectural research and development and the creation of new procedures. A safety analysis can
be performed at any stage during the process life cycle. However, research is more successful early
in a project when the risk characteristics of a proposed procedure are more clearly minimized.
6.3.1 FLAMMABILITY
A substance's flammability is determined by how easily it ignites, how quickly it burns and
releases heat once it does, how likely it is to spread a fire, and how quickly it produces smoke and
harmful combustion by-products when vaporizing and burning (C. Lautenberger, 2006). Fire, or
burning, is the rapid exothermic oxidation of an ignited fuel. The fuel can be in solid, liquid, or
vapor form, but vapor and liquid fuels are generally easier to ignite. Combustion always occurs in
the vapor phase; liquids are volatized, and solids are decomposed into vapor before combustion
(Crowl and Louvar, 2011).
6.3.2 FLAMMABLE PREVENTION
A single fire spark could spread to an explosion, creating a serious risk for the plant. The
biggest threat to the entire factory may come from a process that uses flammable liquids and gases,
but this cannot be avoided. As a result, it is necessary to rely on any fire extinguisher medium,
including water supply, firefighters, hydrants, and foam. The fixed extinguishing system
246
components and agents should be designed and approved by the local authority. It is used on
specific fire hazards either for extinguishment or control they are expected. To safeguard workers
and property, workers should be instructed on how to use portable fire extinguishers and
evacuation routes.
6.3.3 FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Fire extinguishers apply an agent that will cool burning heat, smother fuel, or remove
oxygen so the fire cannot continue to burn. A portable fire extinguisher can quickly control a small
fire if applied by an individual properly trained. Fire extinguishers can be a small but important
part of the home fire safety plan. They can save lives and property by putting out a small fire or
suppressing it until the fire department arrives. To properly use an extinguisher, we must first be
familiar with the type of fire each extinguisher is rated for and how it operates.
Fire extinguishers are divided into six categories of classes, each of which extinguishes a
particular category of fire:
• Class A - Fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper,
plastics etc.
• Class B - Fires involving combustible or flammable liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, and
oils.
• Class C - Fires involving energized electrical equipment such as appliances of all kinds,
motors, computers etc.
• Class D - Fires involving combustible metals such as sodium, lithium, titanium,
magnesium.
6.3.4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that contains information on the
potential hazards (health, fire, reactivity and environmental) and how to work safely with the
chemical product. It is an essential starting point for the development of a complete health and
safety program. It also contains information on the use, storage, handling, and emergency
procedures all related to the hazards of the material. The MSDS contains much more information
about the material than the label. MSDSs are prepared by the supplier or manufacturer of the
247
material. It is intended to tell what the hazards of the product are, how to use the product safely,
what to expect if the recommendations are not followed, what to do if accidents occur, how to
recognize symptoms of overexposure, and what to do if such incidents occur.
There are nine (9) categories of information that must be present on an MSDS in Canada.
These categories are specified in the Controlled Products Regulations and include:
1. Product Information: product identifier (name), manufacturer and supplier’s names,
addresses, and emergency phone numbers
2. Hazardous Ingredients
3. Physical Data
4. Fire or Explosion Hazard Data
5. Reactivity Data: information on the chemical instability of a product and the substances it
may react with
6. Toxicological Properties: health effects
7. Preventive Measures
8. First Aid Measures
9. Preparation Information: who is responsible for preparation and date of preparation of

MSDS
248
T h e s u m m a r y of m a te rials s afet y d ata s h e et s of c o m p o n e n t is s h o w n i n T a b le 6. 1 7
T a ble 6.1 7 : S u m m a r y of m a terials saf ety d ata s h e ets of c o m p o n e nts
C o m p o nent M ethane N itrogen Carbon H ydrogen Carbon Urea W ater A m m o nia
dioxide
A p p e ar a nce/ G a s/ G a s/ G a s/ G a s/ B l a c k s oli d S oli d C l e a r li q ui d G a s/
C olour C olo urless C olo urless C olo urless C olo urless C olo urless
Odour O d o urless O d o urless O dour O d o urless O d o urless O d o urless O d o urless O dour
M olecular weight 1 6.04 2 8.01 4 4.01 2 12 6 0.06 1 8.02 1 7.03
(g/ m ol)
M e ltin g p oint (° C) -182 -210.01 -5 5. 6 -259.2 3550 133 0 -7 7. 7 3
B o ili n g p oi nt (° C ) -161.6 -195.8 -7 8. 4 6 -252.9 4827 135 100 -3 3. 3 4
D e n sity (k g/ m 3 ) 0.657 - 1.87 0.083 7 5 2250 1117 1 0.73
V a p or pressure 6 2.12 - 5 6.48 0.213 - 0.03 2338 -
(at m)
S ol u bility i n w a t e r Insoluble S oluble S oluble S oluble Insoluble S oluble - S oluble
249
6.4 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDIES (HAZOP)
6.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) are a structured and systematic examination of a complex
planned or existing process or operation to identify and evaluate problems that may represent risks
to personnel or equipment. The intention of performing a HAZOP is to review the design to pick
up design and engineering issues that may otherwise not have been found. It is important to identify
the hazards to reduce the risk of accident in chemical plant. Table 6.18 below shows the types of
commonly known hazards.
Table 6. 18: Types of Hazards
Types of
Description Examples
Hazards
• High exposure to sunlight or extreme
Within the environment without
Physical temperature.
necessarily touching it.
• Loud noise (steam explosion).
When exposed to any chemical • Solid chemical: Monochloroacetic acid
(in any form of solid, liquid, and • Liquid chemical: Aqueous Sodium
Chemical
gas) preparation in the hydroxide
workplace. • Volatile gases
Associated with sick animals
• Bacteria and viruses.
Biological and people or infectious plant
• Blood and other body fluids.
materials.
Body positions and working • Improper sitting positions
Ergonomic conditions that put strain on the • Repeating the same movement over and
body. over.
• Spills on the floors or tripping hazards.
• Moving machinery parts.
Safety Unsafe act in workplace.
• Machinery-related hazards (boiler
safety, forklift and etc)
250
Hazard identification followed by the risk assessment is commonly called as hazard evaluation of
the process plant. The evaluation is usually performed at the initial design stage. It enables
modifications to be easily incorporated into the final design for the process plant. There are a few
hazards identification methods described as follows:
• Process hazard checklists: This is a list of items and possible problems in the process that
must be checked.
• Hazards surveys: Surveys on the inventory of hazardous materials and Dow indexes. Dow
indexes are a formal rating system such as income tax form that provides penalties for
hazards and credits for safety equipment and procedures.
• Hazards and operability (HAZOP) studies: This approach allows imaginations to go free
and think of all possible ways in which hazards or operating problems might arise.
• Safety review: An effective study depends on the experience and synergism of the group
reviewing the process.
HAZOP study is a formal and systematic procedure reviewing the design and operation of a system
to identify potential hazards in a chemical process to people, property, environment, and efficiency
of production. HAZOP may be performed by brainstorming involving a whole HAZOP team to
study all the possible ways that process, and operational failures can occur. HAZOP is a qualitative
risk assessment tool to predict deviations by a team of process experts. The objective of carrying
out the HAZOP study are:
1. To identify causes and consequences of perceived mal operations of equipment and
associated operators’ interfaces and context of the complete system.
2. To identify hazards or deficiency and potential operability problems which may lead to
hazards such as fire, explosion, toxic release or reduce productivity.
3. To identify and prevent hazards in process plants that are growing in complexity with
standards are no longer adequate.
4. To meet the legislative requirements for example, DOSH.
5. To identify the need for emergency procedure to mitigate or prevent the event from
happening.
HAZOP has been used and developed to identify potential hazards and operability problems
caused by deviations from the design intent of the process plants. The study is discussed with the
combination of a “Property Words” and “Guide Words” to apply on various part of the process
251
design equipment. These guide words are applied to flow rate, liquid level, temperature, pressure
pH and other variables that may affect the process and trigger incidents. The “guide words” are
shown in Table 6.19 and are applied to all the unit operations to be considered (Daniel & Joseph,
1990).
Table 6. 19: HAZOP Guide Word
Guide Words Meaning

NO or NOT The complete negation of these intentions
MORE or GREATER Quantitative increases
LESS or LOWER Quantitative increases
AS WELL AS Quantitative increases
PART OF Quantitative increases
REVERSE The logical opposite of the intention
OTHER THAN Complete substitution
SOONER THAN Too early or in the wrong order
LATER THAN Too late or in the wrong order
WHERE ELSE In additional location
The identified “Causes” and “Consequences” will be dependent on the type of system under study.
Table 6.20 shows the deviation and some typical causes from the process parameter that have been
studied.
Table 6. 20: Deviation and typical causes
Deviations Common causes

No flow Isolation in error wrong routing, blockage, equipment failure
(control valve, isolation valve, pump, vessel).
Reverse flow Incorrect differential pressure causes two-way flow, incorrect operation,
pump reversed.
Less flow Line restriction, partial blockage, defective pumps, cavitation, fouling
of vessels, valves restrictor or orifice plates, density or viscosity
problems, incorrect specification of process fluid, process turndown.
252
More flow Increase pumping capacity, increased suction pressure, reduced delivery
head, greater fluid density, exchanger tube leaks, restriction orifice
plates deleted, cross connection of system, control faults, 409 control set
wrong.
More pressure Gas breakthrough, inadequate venting, failed open control valves,
heating of blocked-in system explosion, fire imbalance of input and
output, external pressure.
Less Pressure Vacuum condition, condensation, gas dissolving in liquid, restricted
pump/compressor suction line, leakage, vessel drainage imbalance of
input and output.
More Temperature Failed exchanger tubes, cooling water failure, failure connected to
source, energy from machines.
Less Temperature Failed exchanger tubes, loss of heating, weather, failure connected to
source.
Density viscosity Incorrect material, incorrect temperature, extra phase.
Composition Phase change, incorrect feed, incorrect or reversed ratio, separation
failures, change in reaction, emergency discharge.
Contamination Incorrect routing, interconnected systems, effect of corrosion, wrong
additives, ingress of air, water, lube oils, shutdown and start up
conditions, accumulation of solid.
6.4.2 HAZOP for Major Equipment
The HAZOP analysis are performed on the major equipment in this urea plant and the guide
words are applied to the study node of the unit with the designated operating parameter to improve
the safety process. The major equipment’s for the study is:
• Reactor
• Separator
• Distillation column
253
6. 4.2.1 H A Z O P fo r R e a ct o r
T h e h a z o p stu d y f or re a ctor, R - 1 0 1 - R - 1 0 3 is s h o w n in b elo w.
T a ble 6. 2 1: H A Z O P a n a lysis for p yroly sis re a ctor ( R - 1 0 1 )
D e vi atio n
Study Process
(guide P o ssible C a uses C onsequences A ctio n A ssigned to
node para m eter
w ord)
R-101 - R u n a w a y re a ctio n - M o nit or rea ct or te m p e r at ur e
- Inco min g reactant
- R e actor co uld o v erh eat. o n D C S syste m.
High te m p erature too
- Hig h te m p erature m a y - Ins p e ct an d rep air hig h a n d
high.
T e m p erature lea d to ex plosio n. lo w te m p e rature alar m E n gineer
- R eactant might not - P erio dic m aintenance for
- Inco min g reactant
Low fully c o n v ert d u e to te m p erature c o ntr oller and
te m p e r at ur e is lo w .
ins ufficie nt of e n er g y. d et e ct or.
- T e m p erature
- R u n a w a y re a ctio n
increase
- R e a ctor m aterial c o uld
High dr a m a tic ally. - M o nit or rea ct or pr ess u re o n
w e a k e n a n d ca usin g lea k
- M eth a n e flo w rate D C S syste m.
or ex plo sio n.
to o hig h. - Ins p ect an d rep air hig h - a n d
Pressure E n gineer
- Pressure lo w - p ress ure alar m.
c o ntr oller is n ot -L oss of prod uct due to - Perfor m i ns p e ctio n and
Low w or king. lea ka g e a n d ca use m a i nte n a n c e p eri o dic ally
- R e a cti o n is less pr o d u cti o n loss.
tha n a nticip ate d.
- O v e r fill of r e a ct o r
-Flo w rate valve - R o uti n el y check me thane
Level High a ff e cti n g p r o c e s s fl ui d T e c h nician
m a lf u n cti o n. li n e s f or b uil d u p o r c o rr o si o n.
te m p e rature.
254
- Pr o d u cti o n loss or d aily - Cle ar bl o c k a g e in fe e dli n e
targ et ca n n ot b e re g ularly.
-Blockage in achieved.
N o/Lo w fee di n g or v al v e is - N o re a ctio n o c c urs
n ot fully o p e n. -I ns ufficie nt a m o u nt of
c h e mical in reactor
u n a b l e t o r e a ct.
T a ble 6. 2 2: H A Z O P a n a lysis for A m m o n ia S y nth esis R e a ctor ( R - 1 0 2 )

D e vi atio n
Study Process
node para m eter
w ord)
R-102 - N ot en o u g h co olin g
w ater for previo us - R eactor could overheat - M o nitor reactor te m p eratur e
High h e at e x c h a n g e r. - High te m p erature m a y o n D C S syste m.
-I n c o m i n g reactant lea d to ex plosio n. -I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h a n d
T e m p erature te m p erature to o hig h. lo w te m p e rature alar m. E n gineer
-An excess of -P erio dic m aintenance for
- R eactant might not
c o oli n g w ater s u p pl y. te m p erature c o ntr oller and
Low fully c o n v ert due to
-I n c o m i n g reactant d et e ct or.
ins ufficie nt of e n er g y.
te m p e r at ur e is lo w
-T e m p erature
- M o nitor reactor press ure o n
increase - R e a ctor m ate rial c o ul d
D C S syste m.
Pressure High dr a m a tic ally. weaken and causing E n gineer
-I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h - a n d
- R eactant fl o w r a t e lea k or ex plo sio n.
lo w - p ress ure alar m.
to o hig h.
255
-Pressure c o ntr oller -Perfor m i ns p e ctio n and
-L oss of prod uct due to
is n ot w o r ki n g. m a i nte n a n c e p eri o dic ally
Low lea ka g e and cause
- R e a cti o n is less t h a n
pr o d u cti o n loss.
a ntici p ate d.
O v e rfill of r e a ct or
-Flo w rate V alve
High a ff e cti n g p r o c e s s fl ui d
m a lf u n cti o n. - R o u ti n e c h e c k f e e d li n e f o r
te m p e rature.
b uil d u p or c orr o si o n.
Level -n o rea ctio n o c c urs T e c h nician
- Bloc k a g e in fee din g - Cle ar bl o c k a g e in fe e d lin e
- Pr o d u cti o n loss or
N o/Lo w or v al v e is n ot fully re g ularly.
d ail y tar g et ca n n ot b e
o pen.
achieved.
T a ble 6. 2 3: H A Z O P a n a lysis for rea ctor ( R - 1 0 3)

D e vi atio n
Study Process
node para m eter
w ord)
R-103 - N ot en o u g h co olin g
- R u n a w a y re a ctio n
w ater for previo us - M o nitor reactor te m p eratur e
- R eactor could overheat
High h e at e x c h a n g e r. o n D C S syste m.
- High te m p erature m a y
-I n c o m i n g reactant -I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h a n d
lea d to ex plosio n.
T e m p erature te m p erature to o hig h. lo w te m p e rature alar m. E n gineer
-An excess of - P erio dic m ai nte n a n c e f o r
- R eactant might not
c o oli n g w ater s u p pl y. te m p e r at ur e c o ntr oller a n d
Low fully c o n v ert due to
-I n c o m i n g reactant d et e ct or.
ins ufficie nt of e n er g y.
te m p e r at ur e is lo w
-T e m p erature
- M o nitor reactor press ure o n
Pressure High increase - R u n a w a y re a ctio n E n gineer
D C S syste m.
dr a m a tic ally.
256
- R eactant fl o w r a t e - R e a ctor m a terial c o ul d -I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h - a n d
to o hig h. weaken and causing lo w - p ress ure alar m.
lea k or ex plo sio n. -Perfor m i ns p e ctio n and
-Pressure c o ntr oller m a i nte n a n c e p eri o dic ally
-L oss of prod uct due to
is n ot w o r ki n g.
Low lea ka g e and cause
- R e a cti o n is less t h a n
pr o d u cti o n loss.
a ntici p ate d.
O v e rfill of r e a ct or
-Flo w rate V alve
High a ff e cti n g p r o c e s s fl ui d
m a lf u n cti o n.
te m p e rature.
- Pr o d u cti o n loss or - R o u ti n e c h e c k f e e d li n e f o r
d ail y tar g et ca n n ot b e b uil d u p or c orr o si o n.
Level T e c h nician
- Bloc k a g e in fee din g achieved. - Cle ar bl o c k a g e in fe e dlin e
N o/Lo w or v al v e is n ot fully - N o re a ctio n re g ularly.
o pen. -I ns ufficie nt a m o u nt of
c h e mical in reactor
u n a b l e t o r e a ct.
6.4.2.2 HAZOP for Separator

T a b l e 6. 2 4 s h o w s t h e H A Z O P st u d y f or s e p a r at o r, V - 1 0 1.
T a ble 6. 2 4: H A Z O P a n a lysis for S e p arator ( V - 1 0 1)
Study node P ara m eters D e vi atio n P o ssible causes C onsequences A ctio ns A ssigned to
( Guide w ord)
V- 1 0 2 Te m p e r at ur e Low - L o w fe e d te m p erature. - D e sire d s e p ar atio n n ot -I ns p e ct a n d re p air - Te c h n i c i a n

- F ail ur e of h e at e x c h a n g e r achieved. high and lo w
( E- 1 0 2). - F ail ur e in o p eratio n. te m p e rature alar m.
257
High - F ail ur e of h e at e x c h a n g e r -I n effe ctiv e se p ar atio n. - M o nitor the - Te c h n i c i a n
( E- 1 0 2). ( L o w liq ui d in u nit) te m p e r at ur e o utlet
fl o w r at e fr o m E - 1 0 2.
Pressure Low -I n c o n siste nt inlet and -Lo w er hydrogen, - R eg ular - Te c h n i c i a n

o u tl et fl o w o f u nit. m e t h a n e, a n d nitro g e n m a i nte n a n c e.
( M alf u n cti o n press ure recovered in vapor -I ns p e ct a n d re p air
c o ntr oller) stre a m . pr e ss ure v a c u u m r elief
v alv e to co ntrol the
High -Blockage in vapor - L e a d to o v er press ure. - Te c h n i c i a n
v a p o r fl o w r at e t o
stre a m . (P o ssible ru n a w a y a n d
m a i ntain pressure.
ex plosio n)
Flo w Low -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e of - S e p a r ati o n effici e n c y -I ns p e ct and repair - Te c h n i c i a n

inlet a n d o utlet of the w ill de cre as e. high- and lo w -lev el
s e p a r a t o r. alar m.
- P erf or m i ns p e ctio n
High -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e of - Pr o d u ct w ill o v erfl o w - Te c h n i c i a n
and m aintenance
o u t l e t o f t h e s e p a r a t o r. a n d s pill o ut.
p e r i o d i c a l l y.
- Pi p eli n e bl o c k a g e (Floo ding)
T a b l e 6. 2 5 s h o w s t h e H A Z O P st u d y f or fl a s h c ol u m n , V - 1 0 2.
T a ble 6. 2 5: H A Z O P a n a lysis for Flas h C olu m n (V - 1 0 2 )

( Guide w ord)
258
V- 1 0 2 Te m p e r at ur e Low - L o w fe e d te m p erature. - D e sire d s e p ar atio n n ot -I ns p e ct a n d re p air - Te c h n i c i a n
- F ail ur e of h e at e x c h a n g e r achieved. high and lo w
( E- 1 0 4). - F ail ur e in o p eratio n. te m p e rature alar m.
- M o nitor the
te m p e r at ur e o utlet
High - F ail ur e of h e at e x c h a n g e r -I n effe ctiv e se p ar atio n. - Te c h n i c i a n
fl o w r at e fr o m E - 1 0 4.
( E- 1 0 4). ( L o w liq ui d in u nit)
Pressure Low -I n c o n siste nt inlet and -Lo w er hydr ogen, - R eg ular - Te c h n i c i a n

o u tl et fl o w o f u nit. m e t h a n e, a n d nitro g e n m a i nte n a n c e.
( M alf u n cti o n press ure recovered in vapor -I ns p e ct a n d re p air
c o ntr oller) stre a m . pr e ss ure v a c u u m r elief
v alv e to co ntrol the
stre a m . (P ossible ru na w a y a n d
ex plosio n)
Flo w Low -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e of - S e p a r ati o n effici e n c y -I ns p e ct and repair - Te c h n i c i a n

inlet a n d o utlet of the w ill de cre as e. high- and lo w -lev el
s e p a r a t o r. alar m.
- P erf or m i ns p e ctio n
High -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e of - Pr o d u ct w ill o v erfl o w - Te c h n i c i a n
and m aintenance
o u t l e t o f t h e s e p a r a t o r. a n d s pill o ut.
- Pi p eli n e bl o c k a g e (Floo ding)
259
T a ble 6. 2 6: H A Z O P a n a lysis for Flas h C olu m n (V - 1 0 3 )
( Guide w ord)
V- 1 0 2 Te m p e r at ur e Low - L o w fe e d te m p erature. - D e sire d s e p ar atio n -I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h - Te c h n i c i a n

- F ail ur e of h e at n ot achieved. and lo w te m p erature
e x c h a n g er ( E - 1 0 7). - F ail ur e in o p eratio n. alar m.
- M o nitor the te m p erature
o u tl et fl o w r at e fr o m E -
High - F ail ur e of h e at -I n effe ctiv e - Te c h n i c i a n
1 0 7.
e x c h a n g er ( E - 1 0 7). se p aratio n.
( L o w liq ui d in u nit)
Pressure Low -I n c o n siste nt inlet a n d -Lo w er hydrogen, - R e g ular m ainte n a n c e. - Te c h n i c i a n

o u tl et fl o w o f u nit. m e t h a n e, a n d nitro g e n -I ns p e ct a n d re p air
( M alf u n cti o n press ur e recovered in vapor pr e ss ure v a c u u m r elief
c o ntr oller) stre a m . v alv e to co ntrol the
stre a m . (P o ssible ru n a w a y a n d
ex plosio n)
Flo w Low -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e - S e p a r ati o n effici e n c y -I ns p e ct a n d re p air hig h- - Te c h n i c i a n

of inlet a n d o utlet of t h e w ill de cre as e. a n d lo w -le v el alar m.
s e p a r a t o r. - P erf or m i ns p e ctio n a n d
m aintenance
High -I n c o n si st e nt fl o w r at e - Pr o d u ct w ill o v erfl o w - Te c h n i c i a n
of o utlet of th e a n d s pill o ut.
s e p a r a t o r. (Floo ding)
- Pi p eli n e bl o c k a g e
260
6.4.2.3 HAZOP for Distillation Column
T a b l e 6 . 2 7 b e l o w s h o w s t h e H A Z O P st u d y o f d i st ill a ti o n c o l u m n s ( T - 1 0 1 ) .
T a b l e 6. 2 7: H A Z O P a n a l y sis f or D i stillati o n C o l u m n ( T - 1 0 1 )
Study Deviation
Parameters Possible causes Consequences Actions Assigned to
node (Guideword)
Condenser failure. (Low -Temperature high and low

High
cooling water) alarm to detect temperature
changes in unit.
- Ineffective separation
Temperature -Check valve for cooling water Technician
(Purity of product is affected)
and steam
Reboiler failure. (Low -Cleat blockage in utilities
Low
steam) pipelines.
T-101 Pressure controller

High -Column may ruptured.
failure.
-Inspect and repair high flow
Pressure -Overfill reactor Technician
Flowrate valve cut – off system.
Low (Affect quality of process
malfunction
fluid)
-Inspect and repair high and
Air – to – open control
High -Ineffective separation low flow alarm.
valve malfunction.
-Inspect and repair relief valve
Flow Technician
-Column dries out. at pipeline
Clogging at feed -Implement emergency
No/Low -Build up pressure damaging
pipeline. shutdown system.
condenser and reboiler.
261
6.4.3 HAZOP for minor equipment
The HAZOP study on the minor equipment is performed in the HAZOP analysis and the
guide words are applied to the study of the unit with the designated operating parameter to
improve the safety process. The minor equipment for the study is:
• Mixer
• Splitter
• Compressor
• Pump
• Tank
• Heat exchanger
262
6.4.3.1 HAZOP for Mixer
T a ble 6. 2 8 s h o w s th e H A Z O P stu d y f or mi x er ( M - 1 0 1, M - 1 0 2, a n d M - 1 0 4).
T a ble 6. 2 8: H A Z O P a n a lysis for mi x er ( M - 1 0 1, M - 1 0 2, a n d M - 1 0 4)
D e vi atio n
Study Process
node para m eter
w ord)
- Mix er ex p erienc e
Inlet c o ntrol v alv e o v erflo w . -I ns p e cti o n or

High
M-101 m a lf u n cti o n. - R e a cta nt b uil d u p a n d m a i nte n a n c e of inlet or
M-102 Flo w c a u s e r u pt ur e at pi p elin e. e xit pi p elin e a n d f or T e c h nician
M-104 - P a rti al bl o c k a g e at -T argeted prod uct not m i x er blo c k a g e.
N o/Lo w the inlet of mi x er. achieved. -I n st all ati o n o f b y p a s s.
- S c alin g pi p elin e. -p ote ntial pi p e failure.
263
6.4.3.2 HAZOP for Splitter
T h e H a z o p st u d y f or s plitter, M - 1 0 3 is s h o w n i n b el o w .
T a b l e 6. 2 9: H A Z O P a n a l y sis f or S plitter ( M - 1 0 3 )
D e vi atio n
Study Process
node para m eter
w ord)
- S p litter e x p e ri e n c e
o v erflo w .
Inlet c o ntrol v alv e -I n efficie nt se p a r atio n of

High -I ns p e cti o n or
m a lf u n cti o n. t h e o utl et s plitter.
m a i nte n a n c e of inlet or
- R e a cta nt b uil d u p a n d
M-103 Flo w e xit pi p elin e a n d f or T e c h nician
c a u s e r u pt ur e at pi p elin e.
s plitter bl o c k a g e.
-T argeted prod uct not
-I n st all ati o n o f b y p a s s .
P artial bl o c k a g e at achieved.
N o/Lo w
t h e i nl et of s plitter. - In efficie nt se p ar atio n of
t h e o utl et s plitter.
264
6.4.3.3 HAZOP for Compressor
T h e H a z o p st u d y f or c o m p r e s s o r, C - 1 0 1 a n d C - 1 0 2 is s h o w n i n b el o w .
T a ble 6. 3 0: H A Z O P a n a lysis for C o m p re ss or ( C - 1 0 1 a n d C - 1 0 2 )
Study Process D e vi atio n P o ssible C a u ses C o nsequences A c tio n A ssigned
node para m eter (guide to
w ord)
C-101 Flo w High -Flo w rate valve - L e a d to ru n a w a y re a ctio n - Clear blockage in Te c h nicia n
C-102 m a lf u n cti o n the fee d pi p elin e
- R eg ular
m aintenance and
N o/Lo w - Blo c k a g e in th e inlet -I nt err u pt e d t h e o p e r ati o n
pr o p er ins p e cti o n
pi p eli n e process
Te m p e r at ur e High - Te m p e r a t u r e c o n tr o ll e r - m otor o v erhe ats - Clear blockage in Te c h nicia n
m a lf u n cti o n -I nt err u pt e d t h e o p e r ati o n the fee d pi p elin e
process - R eg ular
- C o m p r e ss or a n d o p er atin g m aintenance and
c o n d iti o n w ill b e aff e ct e d pr o p er i ns p e cti o n
r e s ulti n g i n n o n - d e sir a bl e
o u t c o m e i n pr o d u c ti o n lin e.
265
Low - F ail ur e of h e at e x c h a n g e r - C o m p r e ss or a n d o p er atin g
c o n d iti o n w ill b e aff e ct e d
r e s ulti n g i n n o n - d e sir a bl e
o u t c o m e i n pr o d u c ti o n lin e.
Pressure High - F a ult y pr ess ur e - O utlet press ur e o btai n e d is - R e g ul ar ins p e cti o n Te c h nicia n
c o n t r o l l e r. hig h er th a n re q uire d. - Ins pect an d rep air
-P o ssible d a m a g e to hig h- an d lo w -level
co m pressor alar m.
N o/Lo w - Bloc k a g e or lea ka g e in - O utlet press ur e o btai n e d is - C arry o ut
the inlet stre a m . lo w er th a n re q uire d. m aintenance
- T h e s h aft m a y b e r otatin g - A d e q u at e fl ui d w ill n ot fill procedure on
in th e w r o n g directio n. the s u ctio n p art d u e to th e c o m p r e s s o r.
c o m p r e s s o r ’s i n t e r n a l
d esig n.
266
6.4.3.4 HAZOP for Pump
T h e H a z o p stu d y for p u m p ( P- 1 0 1) is s h o w n in b elo w .
T a ble 6. 3 1: H A Z O P a n a lysis for P u m p ( P - 1 0 1)
D e vi atio n
Study Process A ssigned
(guide P o ssible C a uses C onsequences A ctio n
node para m eter to
w ord)
- Flo w rate v alv e - Can lead to runa w ay - R e g ul ar ins p e cti o n

High
m a lf u n cti o n. rea ctio n. and m aintenance of the
- I nt err u pt e d t h e o p e r ati o n alar m an d p u m p s.
pr o c e ss. - Pr o vid e interlo c k to

- I nl et li n e p u m p
P-101 Flo w - A c c u m u l atio n of m at erials sh ut d o w n the syste m E n gineer
blo c k a g e.
N o/Lo w in th e p u m p fe e d stre a m, to prevent back w ard
- The feed pressure of
b uil ds u p press ur e w hi c h fl o w i nt o t h e v e s s e l
p u m p i s t o o l o w.
m i ght end up in runa w ay - Clear blockage in the
rea ctio n. f e e d l i n e r e g u l a r l y.
267
6.4.3.5 HAZOP for Storage Tank
T h e H a z o p stu d y for stora g e ta n k ( T K - 1 0 1) is s h o w n in b elo w .
T a ble 6. 3 2: H A Z O P a n a lysis for Stora g e ta n k ( T K - 1 0 1 )
D e vi atio n
Process
Study node (guide P o ssible C a uses C onsequences A ctio n A ssigned to
para m eter
w ord)
- O v erflo w of c ar b o n into
- Prolo n g e d stora g e the stora g e ta n k.

High
ti m e . - S y ste m br e a k d o w n d u e to
- R e g ul ar ins p e cti o n
T K-101 Level blo c k a g e. T e c h nician
-I nlet valv e blo c k a g e
Low or lea ka g e. -Stora g e rate d o n ot m e et.
-Stora g e tan k lea ka g e
268
6.4.3.6 HAZOP for Heat Exchanger
T h e H a z o p stu d y for H e a t E x c h a n g er is s h o w n in b elo w .
T a bl e 6. 3 3: H A Z O P a n a lysis for H e at E x c h a n g er ( E - 1 0 1 to E - 1 0 7)
Study Process D e vi ati o n P o ssible C a uses C onsequences A ctio n A ssigned to
node para m eter (guide w ord)
Flo w High -i nl et co ntrol valve -i n c r e a s e the effect of - R e g ular ins p ectio n Te c h nicia n
m a lf u n cti o n ero sio n in h e at e x c h a n g e r of m aintenance
-le a d s to fr e q u e nt le a k a g e - Clear bloc kage at
N o/Lo w -I nl et li n e h e at e x c h a n g e r - pr o d u ctivity of heat fee d pi p elin e
blockage exchanger lo w
-le s s fl o w i n i nl et str e a m
E-101 to Pressure High - F ail ur e of pr ess ur e -o utlet press ure is hi g h er - R e g ul ar in s p e cti o n Te c h nicia n
E-107 c o ntr oller tha n re q uired -Proper m aintenance
-p ossible da m a g e to heat - R e p air the press ure
exchanger alar m
Low -blockage in feed -o utlet press ure is lo w e r
pi p eli n e tha n re q uired
269
- H eat exchan ger and
o p e r ati n g c o n d iti o n w ill

- Te m p e r a t u r e c o n tr o ll e r
High b e affecte d res ultin g in Te c h nicia n
m a lf u n cti o n s.
n o n - d e sira ble o utc o m e
-Proper m aintenance
i n pr o d u cti o n li n e.
Te m p e r at ur e a n d o p e r a t o r a l e rt.
- H eat exchan ger and - Clear blockage in

- F ail ur e of c o oli n g w at er f e e d l i n e r e g u l a r l y.
o p e r ati n g c o n d iti o n w ill
valve and cause
Low b e affecte d res ultin g in Te c h nicia n
u n d e sire d a m o u nt of
n o n - d e sira ble o utc o m e
c o o l i n g w a t e r.
i n pr o d u cti o n li n e.
270
CHAPTER 7
WASTE MANAGEMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Waste management is a critical aspect of ensuring a sustainable and healthy environment

for present and future generations. Pollution control refers to the set of practices, measures and
regulations implemented to prevent, reduce, or mitigate the release of pollutants into the
environment. Waste management and pollution control are closely interconnected as they share
the common objective of minimizing environmental contamination and promoting sustainable
practices. In a world grappling with escalating population growth, urbanization and
industrialization, the effective management of waste has become an imperative. Waste poses
serious threats to ecosystems, public health, and natural resources, whether it is produced by
families, businesses, or other sources. Societies can reduce resource consumption, foster a circular
economy, and reduce environmental degradation by putting comprehensive waste management
policies into practice.
The objective of waste management is to handle waste effectively and responsibly to
minimize its negative impacts on the environment, human health, and natural resources. One of
the main goals of waste management is to reduce the amount of waste generated at its source. This
involves promoting waste reduction practices such as recycling, reuse, and the adoption of
sustainable consumption patterns. Other than that, waste management aims to ensure that waste is
disposed of safely and appropriately to control the pollution. This involves putting up trash
collection, transportation, and treatment infrastructure. By using proper disposal techniques,
hazards to the environment and public health are reduced and contamination of the land, water,
and air is avoided. Another important objective of waste management is to handle hazardous waste
such as chemicals, toxins and medical waste in a way that minimizes risks to human health and
the environment. As an instance, specialized treatment and disposal methods are employed to
ensure the safe management of hazardous waste streams.
There are several other important aspects and benefits of waste management, one of them
is energy generation. Waste management systems often incorporate technologies such as waste-
271
to-energy plants or anaerobic digestion, which convert organic waste into renewable energy
sources like electricity, heat, or biogas. It will not only help in reducing reliance on fossil fuels but
also contribute to the generation of clean and sustainable energy. Next, waste management can
create economic opportunities through the establishment of recycling industries, waste collection
services, and the development of innovative waste treatment technologies. These industries
generate employment, stimulate local economies, and contribute to a circular economy by
extracting value from waste materials. Besides that, waste management promotes the efficient use
of resources by emphasizing waste reduction, recycling, and reuse. By diverting materials from
landfills and incinerators, valuable resources like metals, plastics, and paper can be recovered and
saving energy also water resources associated with their production.
Effective waste management practices in chemical plants involve a combination of
prevention, reduction, and proper handling also disposal methods. One way to minimize waste is
through process optimization and modification to reduce the generation of waste at source. This
can be achieved by implementing cleaner production techniques, such as process redesign,
material substitution, and the use of more efficient technologies. Additionally, the adoption of
good manufacturing practices, including proper inventory management, storage and handling
procedures which can help minimize waste generation. Waste segregation and recycling programs
should be implemented to separate and recover valuable materials for reuse or recycling. Next,
hazardous waste should be properly labeled, stored, and disposed of in compliance with regulatory
requirements.
Finally, continuous monitoring, tracking, and reporting of waste generation and disposal
data allow for identification of opportunities for further waste reduction and improvement in waste
management practices. By implementing these measures, chemical plants can minimize the
environmental impact, enhance safety, and promote sustainability in waste management. It is
crucial for chemical plants to prioritize continuous improvement, invest in research and
development of cleaner technologies, and promote a culture of responsible waste management and
pollution prevention. By embracing these principles, chemical plants can contribute to a cleaner,
healthier and more sustainable future while also fulfilling their responsibilities as responsible
stewards of the environment.
272
7.2 SOURCES OF WASTE
I n t h e pr o d u c ti o n of u r e a fr o m m e t h a n e, t h er e ar e 5 str e a m s t h at pr o d u c e w a s tes a s s h o w n i n T a b l e 7. 1. T h e str e a m s a r e i n li q ui d ,
g a s e o u s a n d s oli d f o r m a n d c o nt ai n a v a ri et y of c h e m i c al c o m p o n e n t s. T h e t a bl e b el o w is t a b ul at e d i n d et ail t o s h o w t h e c o m p o n e n t
fl o w r at e a n d a cti o n.
T a ble 7. 1: S u m m a r y of W a ste in M ai n stre a m
Strea m T otal C o m ponent C h e mical C o m p o nent A c tio n
fl o w r a t e fl o w r a t e
(k m ol/h) (k m ol/h)
U n c o n v erted C H4 3 2 6.581 • R e c y cle to M - 1 0 1 to b e m i x e d with fr e s h
U n c o n v erted fed of N2 for the d e c o m p o siti o n of
8 3 2 6.927 gas U n c o n v erte d H2 0.346 m e t h a n e pro c e ss.
U n c o n v erte d H2 6 8.186 9 • U n c o n v e rt e d H2 m a y b e v e n t e d o r flar e d.
• U n c o n v e rt e d N2 v e nt e d d ir e ctl y i nt o t h e
16 7 3.607 3 U n c o n v erted U n c o n v erted N H3 4.811 6 at m o s p h ere as w a ste.
gas • U n c o n v erted C H4 may be flar e d or
U n c o n v erte d N2 0.460 4 b ur n e d in a c o ntr olle d m a n n er to re d u c e
the release of m eth a n e w hic h is a p ote nt
U n c o n v erted C H4 0.148 3 gre e n h o u se g a s into th e at m o s p h ere.
273
A m m o nia • R ecycle to M-102 as raw m a terial f or
17 6 6 2.444 F uel Gas ( U n c o n v erte d 4 3.303 4 u r e a s y nt h e sis s o it c a n sa v e t h e c o st o n
a m m o nia in gas b u yin g a m m o n ia.
phase)
U n c o n v erte d H2 6 1 3.662
U n c o n v erted C H4 1.334 9
U n c o n v erte d N2 4.143 6
274
• U n c o n v erted C O2 as a waste pro d u ct
undergoes s p e cific treat m e nt and
directed to w ards carbo n capture and
U n c o n v erted C O2 3.653 2 stora g e (CCS) or utiliz e d for oth er
28 8.037 0 4 W a ste v ario u s in d u strial pr o c e ss es.
A m m o niu m 4.383 8 4 • A m m o niu m car ba m ate w a ste is de e m e d
C arba mate h a z a r d o u s or t o xi c s o it w i ll b e tr e at e d a s
p er th e g ui d elin e s a n d reg ulatio n set b y
the D e p art m e nt of E n viro n m e nt ( D O E )
w hich o p er ates u n d er th e M i nistr y of
E n viro n m e nt an d W ater ( K e m e nteria n
A l a m S e k it ar D a n A ir).
30 8 3.293 W a ste w ater W a t e r, H2 O 8 3.209 7 • G o i n g thr o u g h a w a st e w a t er tre at m e n t
a n d r el e a s e i nt o a ri v e r.
Urea 0.083 2 9 3
275
7.3 RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL ACT
In the chemical industry, environmental concerns are particularly important. When creating
chemicals, all environmental acts, laws, and regulations must be complied. Current environmental
issues in Malaysia include concerns about pollution from conventional businesses, water pollution,
air pollution, waste management issues, and other environmental difficulties such as soil erosion,
deforestation, and a variety of other ecosystem and natural environment issues.
7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) of 1974 is a law relating to pollution prevention,
abatement, control, and enhancement, as well as other related Malaysia's rapid development
efforts, particularly since the early 1980s, have revealed new dimensions to environmental
problems as a developing country pursuing economic progress. The scope and tactics of this Act
have been constantly changed, altered, or enhanced in the pursuit of environmental policy
objectives since its inception more than 30 years ago.
In the EQA of 1974, pollution is defined as any direct or indirect change in the physical,
thermal, chemical, or biological properties of any part of the environment caused by discharging,
emitting, or depositing environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants, or wastes in such a way
as to adversely affect any beneficial use, to cause a condition that is hazardous or potentially
hazardous to public health, safety, or welfare, or to animals, birds, wildlife, fish, or aquatic life, or
to plants or to caustic substances.
The Minister has designated the Director General of Environmental Quality to manage this
Act and any regulations and directives issued under it. Industrial activities must get the following
permissions from the Director General of Environmental Quality prior to project implementation
under the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) of 1974 and its Regulations:
Environmental Impact Assessment reports - under Section 34A of the EQA, 1974 (for prescribed
activities).
• Site suitability evaluation (for non-prescribed activities).
• Written permission to construct - under Section 19 of the EQA, 1974 (for prescribed
premises-scheduled wastes treatment and disposal facilities, crude palm oil mills and raw
natural rubber processing mills).
276
• Written approval for installation of incinerator, fuel burning equipment and chimney –
under Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation, 1978, EQA, 1974.
• License to use and occupy prescribed premises and prescribed conveyances - under Section
18 of the EQA, 1974.
The legislation that is related to the prevention, abatement, control of pollution and
enhancement of the environment in Malaysia is the Environmental Quality Act, 1974. The Act
restricts the discharge of wastes into the environment in contravention of the acceptable conditions.
To date 38 sets of Regulations and Orders as per Table 7.2 have been introduced and enforced.
Table 7. 2: List of Regulations and Orders Enforced Under the Environmental Quality Act, 1974
by the Department of Environmental (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
EFFECTIVE
NO. REGULATIONS/ORDER P.U.(A) DATE OF
ENFORCEMENT
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude
1 342 1st July, 1977
Palm Oil) Regulations 1977
2 Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations 1977 198 1st October, 1977
3 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978 280 1st October, 1978
Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences)
4 281 1st October, 1978
Rules 1978
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw
5 338 1st December 1978
Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial
6 Effluents) Regulations 1979 (Revoked by PU(A) 12 1st January, 1981
432/2009)
Environmental Quality (Control of Lead
7 296 1stAugust, 1986
Concentration in Motor Gasoline) Regulations 1985
Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicles Noise)
8 244 1st July, 1987
Regulations 1987
277
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)
9 362 1st April, 1988
(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
10 139 1st May, 1989
Regulations 1989 (Revoked by PU(A) 294/2005)
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)
11 (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal 140 1st May, 1989
Facilities) Order 1989
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)
12 (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal 141 1st May, 1989
Facilities) Regulations 1989
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude
13 199 1st July, 1978
Palm Oil) Order 1977
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw
14 250 1st April, 1979
Natural Rubber) Order 1978
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers on
15 276 24th September, 1993
Marine Pollution Control) Order 1993
Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the use of
16 Chlorofluoro-carbons and other Gases as Propellants 434 25th October, 1993
and Blowing Agents) Order 1993
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers on
17 537 18th December, 1994
Marine Pollution Control) Order 1994
Environmental Quality (Prohibition of the use of
18 Controlled Substance in Soap, Synthetic Detergent 115 15th April, 1995
and other Cleaning Agents) Order 1995
Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from
19 429 1st September, 1996
Diesel Engines) Regulations 1996
Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from
20 543 1st November, 1996
Petrol Engines) Regulations 1996
Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management)
21 451 1st January, 2000
Regulations 1999
278
Environmental Quality (Halon Management)
22 452 1st January, 2000
Regulations 1999
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers) Order
23 501 15th November, 1999
1999 (Revoked by PU(A) 365/2005)
Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences)
24 310 21st August, 2000
(Open Burning) Rules 2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers)
25 311 21st August, 2000
(Investigation of Open Burning) Order 2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Power) (Halon
26 490 29th December, 2000
Management) Order 2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers)
27 233 2nd June, 2002
(Perbadanan Putrajaya) Order 2002
Environmental Quality (Appeal Board) Regulations
28 115 21st April, 2003
2003
Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (Open
29 460 1st January, 2004
Burning) Order 2003
Environmental Quality (Control of Emissions from
30 464 1st January, 2004
Motorcycles) Regulations 2003
Environmental Quality (Dioxin and Furan)
31 104 1st May, 2004
Regulations 2004
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Conveyance)
32 293 15th August, 2005
(Scheduled Wastes) Order 2005
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
33 294 15th August, 2005
Regulations 2005
Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers) Order
34 365 2nd September, 2005
2005
Environmental Quality (Control of Petrol and Diesel
35 145 1st April 2007
Properties) Regulations 2007
36 Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009 432 10th December, 2009
279
Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution from
37 Solid Waste Transfer Station and Landfill) 433 10th December, 2009
Regulations 2009
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
38 434 10th December, 2009
Regulations 2009
7.3.2 Sewage Service Act 1993 (Act 508)
Industrial effluent or noxious matter not to communicate with public sewer and others the plant is:
• Prohibition from discharging any industrial effluent or allow communicating with any
public sewer or public treatment works.
• Prohibition from discharging any noxious, volatile or inflammable substance or any other
matter likely to damage or impair the functioning of any public sewer or public treatment
works or to interfere with the free flow of it
• Contents or to affect prejudicially the treatment or disposal of its contents.
7.3.3 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards
Industries are required to comply with both air emission and effluent discharge standards which
are regarded as acceptable conditions allowed in Malaysia, as mentioned in the Environmental

Quality Regulation (Clean Air) 1978 and the Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial
Effluents) Regulations, 1979. Therefore, air emissions and effluent discharge standards must fulfil
the quality standard before it is release to the environment or before it is sent to the landfill. All
type of pollution shown in Table 7.3 is allowable to exceed standard not longer than 5 minutes in
period of one hour and 15 minutes in any period of 24 hours.
Table 7. 3: Stack Gas Emission Standard in Malaysia (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
Pollution Emission Sources Standards

Dark Smoke Solid Fuel Equipment to facilities Ringlemann Chart No. 2
Equipment using other types of fuel Ringlemann Chart No. 1
280
Dust Facilities used for the heating of metal 0.2 gm/Nm3
other than Cold Blast Foundry Cupola
Facilities discharging dust containing 0.12 gm/Nm3
asbestos and free silica
Portland Cement Manufacturing
- Kiln 0.2 gm/Nm3
- Clinker, cooler, grinder, others 0.1 gm/Nm3
Asphalt concrete/bituminous mixing
plant
- Stationary Plant 0.3 gm/Nm3
- Mobile Plant 0.4 gm/Nm3
Other Source 0.4 gm/Nm3
Metal and Metallic Mercury Industry 0.01 gm/Nm3
Compound Cadmium Industry 0.015 gm/Nm3
Lead Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Antimony Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Arsenic Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Zinc Industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Copper Industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Gases Acid Gases from Sulfuric Acid 3.5 gm of SO3/Nm3 and no
Manufacturing persistent mist
Sulfuric Acid Mist or SO3 from other 0.2 gm of SO3/Nm3 and no
sources persistent mist
Chlorine gas from any source 0.2 gm of HCl/Nm3
HCl from any sources 0.2 gm of HCl/Nm3
Fluorine, Hydrofluoric acid and 0.2 gm of Hydrofluoric
inorganic compound from aluminium acid/Nm3
manufacturing
Hydrogen Sulphide from any sources 5 ppm (Vol%)
281
SOx from Acid Nitric Manufacturing 1.7 gm of SO3/Nm3 and
Substantially Colourless
NOx from any sources 2.0 gm of SO3/Nm3
7.3.4 Standard Quality of Discharged Air and Water
For industries emitting gaseous and air emission, they are required to comply with the following
air emission standards for the control of air pollution and gaseous emissions as shown in Table 7.4
and Table 7.5
Table 7. 4: Recommended Malaysia Air Quality Guideline (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
Pollutant and Method Average Time Malaysia Guideline

(ppm) (ug/m3)
Ozone 1 Hour 0.10 200
AS 2524 8 Hour 0.06 120
Carbon # Monoxide 1 Hour 30 35
AS2695 8 Hour 9 10
Nitrogen Dioxide 1 Hour 0.17 320
AS 2447
Sulphur Dioxide 10 Minute 0.19 500
AS 2523 1 Hour 0.13 350
24 Hour 0.04 105
Particles TSP 24 Hour - 260
AS 2724.3 1 Year 90
PM10 24 Hour - 150
AS 2724.6 1 Year 50
Lead 3 Month - 1.5
AS 2800
282
Table 7. 5: Recommended Malaysia Secondary Guidelines (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
Malaysia Guidelines
Pollutant and Method Average Time
(mg/m2/day)
Dustfall
1 Year 133
AS 2724.1
7.3.5 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B
As stated in the Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulation, 2009 it specifies two
standards for effluent discharge. Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water intake and
Standard B is for discharge downstream of any raw water intake. Table 7.6 shows Parameter Limits
of Effluent of Standard A and B Environmental Quality (Sewage and industrial Effluents)
Regulations, 2009.
Table 7. 6: Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B Environmental Quality (Sewage

and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 2009 (Environmental Requirements, 2010)
Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B

Temperature °C 40 40
pH value - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5 AT 20°C mg/L 20 40
COD mg/L 50 100
Suspended Solid mg/L 50 100
Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05
Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.02
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/L 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.10
Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.10
Lead mg/L 0.10 0.50
Chromium, Trivalent mg/L 0.20 1.0
283
Copper mg/L 0.20 1.0
Manganese mg/L 0.20 1.0
Nickel mg/L 0.20 1.0
Tin mg/L 0.20 1.0
Zinc mg/L 1.0 1.0
Boron mg/L 1.0 4.0
Iron (Fe) mg/L 1.0 5.0
Phenol mg/L 0.001 1.0
Free Chlorine mg/L 1.0 2.0
Sulphide mg/L 0.5 0.50
Oil Grease mg/L 1.0 1.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/L 10 20
Colour ADMI* 100 200
*ADMI – American Dye Manufactures Institute
7.4 WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM
7.4.1 Waste treatment (gas)
Waste gas which consists of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, h2o, and ammonia will
be captured and sent to the flaring system. Moreover, this will comply with Department of Safety
and Health and Department of Environmental rules and regulations. Figure 7.1 shows the flare
system of waste gas disposal. Moreover, the discharge from pressure relief system will also be fed
to the same stack by combustion and release to the atmosphere, since the pressure relief valve is a
last line of defence for pressure control, we assume the amount of the discharge is small and
negligible in the following stack design. Within industry, elevated flares and ground flares are the
most common flare systems. Selection of the flare type is influenced by several factors; such as
space availability, flare gas characteristics (composition, quantity, and pressure), investment and
operating costs, public relations and regulations.
284
Elevated Flare
The most widely used form of elevated flare is in refineries and chemical plants. The waste gas
stream is fed from 32 ft to over 320 ft in height through a stack and is combusted at the stack's tip.
Elevated can use steam injection or air injection to achieve smokeless burning and up to 20 percent
of the full flaring load with low luminosity.
Ground Flare
A ground flare is at ground level where the combustion takes place. It varies in complexity and
can consist of either conventional flare burner that discharge horizontally without an enclosure or
multiple burners in refractory-lined steel enclosures. The most commonly used styles are the multi-
jet flare (included type).
Figure 7. 1: Flare system of waste gas disposal
The characteristics of gaseous waste of this plant can be estimated by studying stream 9 and stream
21. The information of stream 16 and 28, which is the gaseous phase wastewater entering
wastewater treatment plant are as tabulated as in Table 7.7.
285
Table 7. 7: Waste streams S9 and S21
Stream Temperature Component Density Liq Mass Flowrate

(℃) (kg/m2) (kg/h)
vap
Nitrogen 1.19 807 12.90
16 35 Hydrogen 0.08375 71 137.46
Methane 0.657 422.36 2.38
Ammonia 0.684 682.6 81.94
Nitrogen 0.40 807 6.02
Carbon dioxide 1.87 1101 160.78
28 97 Hydrogen 0.08375 71 4.76
Methane 0.657 422.36 2.87
Ammonia 1.19 682.6 50.32
For components tabulated above, which can be known as flue gas, is decided to be released to the
environment through flue gas stack. The amount of the flue gas produced per operating year is
calculated as shown below:
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎r
12.90 + 137.46 + 2.38 + 81.94 + 6.02 + 160.78 + 4.76 + 2.87 + 50.32𝑘𝑔 8000ℎ
= ×
ℎ 𝑦𝑟
= 3,675,440 𝑘𝑔/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Design of effective stack height
The minimum elevated stack height normally used is 30 ft to 100 ft (Peavy et al., 1985). The
effective height, H of the stack is calculated with the assumptions as shown below.
- Stack height, h = 65 ft = 19.81 m
- Liquid density, pl = (807 + 71 + 422.36 + 682.6 + 1101) = 3083.96 kg/m3
- Gas density, pv = (1.19 + 0.08375 + 0.657 + 0.684 + 1.87) = 4.48 kg/m3
- Stack gas velocity, = 9.14 m/s
- Wind velocity = 4 m/s
- Air temperature = 25 °C
286
- Barometric pressure = 1013.25 mm bar
- Stack gas temperature = 150 °C
- Gas density assume as air
𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝐿 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑈( ) = 𝐺 √
𝑠 𝑝𝑣
𝑓𝑡 192.53 − 0.28
𝑈 ( ) = 0.25 √ = 6.55 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑠 0.28
Minimum vessel cross-sectional area,

𝑄𝑎
𝐴 (𝑓𝑡 2 ) =
𝑈
Where 𝑄𝑎 is stream flow in ft3 /s,
459.43 𝑘𝑔 1ℎ 0.45 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑄𝑎 = × × × = 0.75 𝑓𝑡 3 /s
ℎ 3600𝑠 𝑘𝑔 0.0765 𝑙𝑏
𝐴 = 0.11 𝑓𝑡 2
Vessel diameter, 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,
1
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑛) = 13.5(0.75)2
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 11.69 𝑖𝑛 = 0.296 𝑚
According to Holland’s equation from (Peavy et al., 1985),
𝑣𝑠 𝑑 ∆𝑇𝑑
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 𝑝 )]
𝑢 𝑇𝑠
9.14(0.296) 125
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 (1000) )] = 1.74 𝑚
3.56 423
Effective stack height, H = h + 1.74 = 21.55 m
To calculate cost of the stack:
𝑑2
Volume of stack = 𝜋 ( 4 ) ℎ = 1.36 𝑚3
Costing for Flare (Stone et al.1992)
287
Cost for flare, CF represented below is calculated as a function of stack height, L (ft), and tip
diameter, D (inch):
𝐶𝐹, $ = 78 + 9.14𝐷 + 0.749𝐿2
= 78 + 9.14(11.69) + 0.749(70.70)2 = $3928.72
𝑅𝑀 4.48
= $3928.72 × = 𝑅𝑀 17,600.65
$1
Cost for vent stream piping, Cp:
𝐶𝑝, $ = 139𝐷1.07
= 139(11.69)1.07 = $1930.08
𝑅𝑀 4.48
= $1930.08 × = 𝑅𝑀 8646.78
$1
Cost for knock-out drum, CK:
𝐶𝐾, $ = 14.2[𝑑𝑡(ℎ + 0.812𝑑)]0.737
= 14.2[(11.69 × 0.25) × (70.70 + (0.812 × 11.69)]0.737 = $1050.48
𝑅𝑀 4.48
= $1050.48 × = 𝑅𝑀 4706.15
$1
Flare equipment cost, EC:
EC = CF + Cp + CK
= RM 17600.65 + RM 8646.78 + RM 4706.15
= RM 30,953.58
288
7.4.2 Wastewater treatment system
7.4.2.1 Wastewater Effluent Characteristics
The characteristics of effluent of this plant can be estimated by studying stream 30. Table
7.2 shows the information of stream 30 which is the effluent of wastewater before entering
wastewater treatment plant.
Table 7. 8: Effluent information of stream 30
Component Density (kg/m3) Molecular Weight Mass flowrate (kg/h) Volume (L/h)
Water 997 18.02 1499.05 1503.56
In order to treat the effluent, parameters of effluent must be compared with standard B from
Environmental Quality Act, 1974. Table 7.3 below shows the summary of the wastewater
characteristics from the plant and its comparison with standard B. BOD must be obtained from
experimental work. However, the mixture of the stream 30 might not have literature regarding to
the component. The BOD value of the stream 30 can be estimated using the typical COD to BOD
ratio of 2.0 to 3.0. Assuming ratio of 2, the BOD value is estimated to be 973 mg BOD/L.
Table 7. 9: Characteristics of wastewater based on Standard B
Parameter Effluent Standard B Source

Temperature (℃) 35 40 (Bhandari,
pH 7 5.5 – 9.0 2016)
BOD (mg/L) 973 50
COD (mg/L) 1946 200
Total Suspended Solid (mg/L) 300 100
289
7.4.2.2 Process Flow of Wastewater Treatment
Discharge
Fi g ure 7. 2: Proc ess Flo w D i a gra m for W a ste w ater Treat m e nt Plant
290
7.4.2.3 Process Description for Wastewater Treatment
Liquid waste from production consists of Methane, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Ammonia, and
Carbon. Water becomes acidic when a certain amount of acid gases, such as CO2, are dissolved in
it and forms carbonic acid. Acid water can produce major acid attack on the plant's metal surfaces.
As a result, a wastewater treatment plant is necessary to treat the plant's acidic effluent (Matijašević
et al., 2010).
Primary Treatment
Wastewater Primary Treatment is the first step in the water treatment process.
Primary Clarifier
Sedimentation, also known as clarification, is the process of gravity settling. In most cases,
the process is carried out in a clarifier. Primary clarifiers are typically circular in shape, but
they can also be rectangular. However, when there is a high oil and grease concentration in
the wastewater, they must be used with caution. During primary treatment, the sewage is
temporarily held in a still tank where heavy solids settle to the bottom while oil, grease,
and lighter solids float to the surface. The settling and floating materials are removed, and
the leftover liquid is treated further in secondary treatment (Satyendra, 2015). Primary
sedimentation is the key processes for TSS and BOD removal. Performance design goals
for primary clarifiers are typically quantified based on TSS removal efficiency, which
normally ranges between 50 and 75 percent, and BOD removal efficiency, which normally
ranges between 25 and 40 percent (Tchobanoglous, 2003). Table 7.4 shows the properties
of influent and effluent from primary clarifier.
Table 7. 10: The properties of influent and effluent from primary clarifier
Parameter Percent removed (%) Influent Effluent

COD (mg/L) 40 1946 1167.6
BOD (mg/L) 40 973 583.8
TSS (mg/L) 70 300 90
291
After primary treatment that removes solid particle that consist in the production effluent, BOD
and COD should be decreased by implementing secondary treatment.
Secondary Treatment
The secondary treatment will be used to remove dissolved and suspended biological matter and it
needs a separation process to remove the microorganisms from the treated water prior to tertiary
treatment or any discharges.
a. Aeration Tank
The aeration process is to promote microbial growth in the wastewater. The wastewater
will be permitted to undergo biological treatment in the aeration tank to decompose sewage
to increase dissolved oxygen in the water and decrease BOD levels. The treatment process
primarily involves the technology that uses bacteria to clean water. When these microbes
break down organic pollutants for food, they form a flocculation effect, which allows the
organic matter to settle out of the solution. This results in sludge, which is then dewatered
and discarded as solid waste. Processes like nanofiltration in the biological treatment
process were used to treat effluents having a separation efficiency of 97% and removal of
heavy metal ions, total solids, BOD, and COD as well as oil and grease, whilst being
environmentally friendly at the same time (Laghari et al., 2018).
Table 7. 11: The property of influent and effluent from aeration tank

COD (mg/L) 97 1167.60 35.03
BOD (mg/L) 97 583.80 17.51
TSS (mg/L) - 90 90
b. Secondary Clarifier
Secondary clarifiers for activated sludge must achieve two goals. They must first produce
an effluent that is sufficiently clarified to meet discharge standards. Second, they must
concentrate on the biological solids in order to reduce the amount of sludge that must be
handled. Hence, the biomass from the microorganisms settled to the bottom in the form of
292
activated sludge will be sent to a secondary clarifier. After settling over some time, the
biomass of microorganisms is returned to the aeration tank, and the cycle is repeated until
the effluent is clean, at which point it is sent for filtration or disinfection. Prior to the tertiary
process, waste sludge is removed and thickened.
Table 7. 12: The property of influent and effluent from secondary clarifier

COD (mg/L) 67.67 35.03 11.33
BOD (mg/L) 67.67 17.51 5.66
TSS (mg/L) 97.79 90 1.99
Neutralization tanks are used to alter the pH level of corrosive waste drainage by dilution or
chemical neutralization so the treated effluent can be safely discharged into sanitary sewer systems
in compliance with local regulations. The pH of the wastewater is adjusted in the neutralization
tank until it is discharged into receiving water bodies. For the sludge treatment, primary sludge
and secondary sludge are proceeded to sludge thickener.
In conclusion, the final value of COD and BOD of discharged stream after treatment is listed in
Table 7.7. The table shows the comparison between treated effluent with the acceptable limit based
on Environmental Quality Act, 2009.
Table 7. 13 : Comparison on Treated Effluent and Standard B
Parameter Discharge Point Standard B

Temperature, ℃ 25 40
COD (mg/L) 11.33 200
BOD (mg/L) 5.66 50
TSS (mg/L) 1.99 100
293
7.4.3 Sizing and Costing of Equipment
The summary of costing and sizing is listed below, where the detailed calculations are attached in
Appendix F.
Primary Clarifier
Table 7. 14: Specification of Primary Clarifier
Primary Clarifier
Function To remove suspended solid as primary sludge
Shape Circular
Material of construction Concrete
Volumetric flow rate 36.05 m3/day
Overflow rate 35 m/day
Detention time, t 2.06 h
Diameter, d 1.15
Volume, V 3.59
Area, A 1.03
Depth, h 3
Cost
RM 552,529.64
Aeration Tank
Table 7. 15: Specification of Aeration Tank
Aeration Tank
Function To consume organic material by oxidizing it with
the presence of sufficient aeration.
Shape Circular
Volumetric flow rate 36.05m3/day
Mixed liquor suspended solid 3000mg/L
294
Food to mass ratio 0.8
Volume, V 28.34m3
Width 3m
Length 5m
Depth, h 2m
Cost
RM 481,066.87
Secondary Clarifier
Table 7. 16: Specification of Secondary Clarifier
Secondary Clarifier
Function To separate the activated sludge from the treated
wastewater, allowing the clarified water for further
processing, while the sludge is recycled back to the
biological treatment process.
Shape Circular
Overflow rate 24 m3/m2.day
Detention time, t 3h
Diameter, d 1.38𝑚
Volume, V 4.51𝑚3
Area, A 1.50𝑚2
Depth, h 3m
Cost
RM 525,174.76
295
Neutralization Tank
Table 7. 17: Specification of Neutralization Tank
Neutralization Tank
Function To neutralize the pH of the
wastewater
Shape Circular
Settling time 24h
Diameter, d 2.84m
Volume, V 36.05m3
Diameter of impeller 0.994m
Width of impeller 0.124m
Baffle width 1.42m
Distance between upper axial impeller and impeller 2.84m
Distance between upper axial impeller and water level 1.89m
Cost
RM 446,758.38
Sizing of Sludge Thickener

Table 7. 18: Specification of Sludge Thickener
Sludge Thickener
Function Reduce the volume of sludge from primary and
secondary clarifier.
Orientation Horizontal
Desired Flow to Thickener 13.1 m3/d
Diameter, d 2𝑚
Volume, V 2.22𝑚3
Area, A 1.11𝑚2
Depth, h 2𝑚
296
Cost
RM 200,121.96
Sizing of Press Filter Sizing

Table 7. 19: Specification of Press Filter
Press Filter
Function To separate liquid from thickened sludge before
disposal.
Press Volume 0.57
Plate Size 800mm
Number of Chambers 40
Cost
RM 16,352.00
7.5 SUMMARY OF COSTING
Total cost estimation for wastewater treatment plant is summarized as in Table 7.20.
Table 7. 20: Equipment and Cost Estimation
Equipment Estimated Cost (RM)

Primary clarifier 552,529.64
Aeration tank 481,066.87
Secondary clarifier 525,174.76
Neutralization tank 446,758.38
Sludge thickener 200,121.96
Filter press 16,352.00
Flare system 30,953.58
Total 2,252,957.19
297
CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic analysis plays a crucial role in decision-making process for chemical plants,
providing valuable insights into the financial viability, profitability, and long-term sustainability
of operations. As chemical plants involve significant investments, complex processes, and a
multitude of factors affecting performance, conducting a comprehensive economic analysis
becomes essential. By evaluating costs, benefits, risks and potential returns, economic analysis
helps assess the feasibility of projects, optimize resource allocation, and make informed strategic
decisions. Moreover, it enables the identification of areas for cost reduction, efficiency
improvement, and revenue generation, ensuring the economic viability and competitiveness of
chemical plants in a dynamic market environment.
The process's fundamental expenses for manufacturing include fixed capital expenditures,
running labor costs, raw material costs, utility prices, and waste treatment costs. The characteristics
that will be considered in engineering economic analysis include interest, annuities, and discount
rates. Finally, the profitability analysis component is expanded to assess the profitability of
chemical processes.
298
8.2 COSTING
8.2.1 Equipment Cost and Bare Module Cost
CBM is the bare module cost at base condition in which the equipment is made of common material,
usually carbon steel and operates at near ambient pressure, FP = 1.0 FM = 1.0. The bare module
cost is calculated based on the equipment size which is also the sum of direct and indirect cost for
each equipment. Table 8.1 shows the bare module cost of all equipment used in the production of
urea from methane. Table 8.2 shows the total bare module, base bare module, and grass root capital
costs.
Table 8. 1: Bare Module Cost for All Equipment

Type Equipment Tag No CBM ($) CoBM ($)
R-101 475288.05 199156.30
Reactor R-102 3130974.54 1311948.20
R-103 3599507.49 1508273.97
Distillation Column T-101 1348214.29 564931.88
V-101 146759.59 61459.55
Flash Column V-102 102951.27 43138.88
V-103 49188.33 20611.00
E-101 185401.59 77628.29
Major E-102 142771.01 60233.89
E-103 153554.74 64783.00
Heat Exchanger E-104 165420.03 69789.32
E-105 150125.94 63336.88
E-106 190882.37 80531.67
E-107 202783.68 85552.73
Compressor C-101 5334178.11 2235139.69
C-102 3235285.42 1355656.79
Minor Storage Tank TK-101 955182.49 400242.78
M-101 221447.68 92791.52
Mixer M-102 493335.01 206718.38
299
M-103 1590.97 666.65
M-104 48794.82 20446.12
Pump P-101 28159.05 11799.27
Primary Clarifier - 123332.50 52032.95
Aeration Tank - 89840.61 37903.00
Wastewater Secondary Clarifier - 117226.51 49456.88
Treatment Neutralization tank - 99722.84 42072.23
Plant Sludge thickener - 44670.08 18845.93
Filter press - 3650.00 3650.00
Flare System - 6906.28 6906.28
Total 20,847,145.29 8,745,704.03
Total (RM) 93,395,210.90 39,180,754.05
Since the total cost of equipment is based on US Dollars, the conversion is done as below.
RM 4.48
Total Bare Module Cost = 8,745,704.03 × = RM39,180,754.05
$
The total module cost (CTM ) is the cost of making small to moderate expansions or alterations to
an existing facility.
𝐶𝑇𝑀 = 1.18 × ∑ CBM
𝐶𝑇𝑀 = 1.18 × 93,395,210.90 = RM 110,206,348.90
8.2.2 Grass Root Capital Cost
Grass root is when a construction of a completely new facility is started on essentially

undeveloped land which is a grass field. We can calculate the grass root capital (CGR) by using
module cost technique with the equation below.
𝐶𝐺𝑅 = 𝐶𝑇𝑀 + 0.5 ∑ 𝐶 𝑜 𝐵𝑀
300
Table 8. 2: Summary of Grass root capital cost 𝐶𝐺𝑅
Item Cost (RM)

Total base bare module cost Co BM RM 39,180,754.05
Total bare module cost CBM RM 93,395,210.90
Total module cost CTM RM 110,206,348.90
Grass root capital cost CGR RM 129,796,725.90
8.2.3 Fixed Capital Investment
The capital invested in manufacturing and plant facilities for a start-up plant is referred to as fixed
capital investment (FCI). It can be classified into two categories: direct and indirect cost. The direct
cost is the cost of purchasing and installing equipment, including all piping and control systems,
as well as land and service facility expenses, whereas the indirect cost is the cost paid to contractors
and others. Other than that, the capital used for operation of the plant is known as the working
capital (WC). Working capital is tied up is tied up in maintaining inventories of feedstocks,
products and spare parts, together with cash on hand and the difference between money owed by
customers and money owed to suppliers. This is required if the plant is in operation and will
recover when the plant is shut down.
Table 8. 3: Estimation of Total Capital Investment (TCI)

Item Multiplication Factor Cost (RM)
Grass root capital cost CGR 129,796,725.90
Direct Costs
Onsite
Installation 47% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 6,100,4461.17
Instrumentation 18% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 23,363,410.66
Piping 31% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 40,236,985.03
Electrical 11% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 14,277,639.85
Offsite
Buildings 15% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 19,469,508.89
Yard Improvement 10% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 12,979,672.59
301
Service Facilities 32% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 41,534,952.29
Land 6% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 7,787,803.55
Total Direct Costs 220,654,434.00
Indirect Costs
Engineering (ENG) 10% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 12,979,672.59
Construction (CONST) 15% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 19,469,508.89
Contractor’s Fee 5% ((Total Direct Costs + 12,655,180.78
ENG + CONST)
Contingency 10% ((Total Direct Costs + 25,310,361.55
ENG + CONST)
Total Indirect Costs 70,414,723.80
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) 291,069,157.80

= Total direct cost + total indirect costs
Start-up 8% FCI 23,285,532.62
Working Capital 15% 𝐶𝐺𝑅 19,469,508.89
Total Capital Investment (TCI) 333,824,199.31
8.2.4 Manufacturing and Operational Expenses
Cost of manufacturing is the total cost of all the resources used to make a product which is
methyl ester. In this chapter, we will be estimating labour cost, raw material cost, utility cost,
manufacturing cost, fixed manufacturing cost and general manufacturing expenses. Before the
economic feasibility of a proposed process can be assessed, the costs associated with the day-to-
day operation of a chemical plant must be estimated. Direct manufacturing cost, fixed
manufacturing cost, general manufacturing cost and revenue from 299 sales are all factors that
influence the cost of producing chemicals. The equation to calculate the cost of manufacture
(COM) is shown below (Turton, 2018).
Cost of Manufacture (COM) = Direct Manufacturing Costs (DMC) + Fixed Manufacturing Costs
(FMC) + General Expenses (GE)
302
8.2.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC)
Raw material cost is the cost to buy the material to produce urea.
Raw Material Cost (𝐶𝑅𝑀 ):
Table 8. 4: Summary of Raw Material Cost
Raw Material Cost per unit (RM/tonne) Cost per annum (RM/yr)
Methane gas 510 5,448,151.85
Nitrogen gas 720 13,436,163.84
Carbon dioxide 800 23,448,551.45
Total, (𝐂𝑹𝑴 ) 42,332,867.14
Utility cost is the cost to pay when a utility is used for a time period. In this case, steam and cooling
water in a year are calculated.
Utilities Cost (CUT ):
Table 8. 5: Summary of Utilities Cost
Utilities Cost per annum (RM/yr)
Steam 19,311,129.84
Cooling Water 110,544.00
Electricity 11,582,797.84
Total, (𝐂𝐔𝐓 ) 31,004,471.68
Waste Treatment Cost (CWT )

Table 8.6 shows the calculated waste treatment cost of urea production plant.
Table 8. 6: Summary of Waste Treatment Cost
Waste treatment Cost per annum (RM/yr)
Wastewater treatment 2,222,003.61
Waste gas treatment 30,953.58
Total, (𝐂𝐖𝐓 ) 2,252,957.19
303
Operating Labour Cost (COL )
Labour cost is the cost that is being paid to the employees, as well as the salary, benefits and the
taxes. Table 8.7 shows the calculated cost of operating labour estimated based on equipment and
auxiliary facilities of urea production plant.
Table 8. 7: Estimation of Operating Labour Cost (COL)
Equipment Number of Operators per Number of
equipment equipment per shift operators
Reactor 3 0.5 1.5
Distillation Column 1 0.35 0.35
Flash Column 3 0 -
Heat Exchanger 7 0.1 0.7
Compressor 2 0.15 0.3
Storage Tank 1 0 -
Mixer 4 0 -
Pump 1 0 -
Wastewater Treatment Plant 1 2.0 2
Total Operating Labour Cost (COL) 4.85
4.85 operators are hired for each operator needed in the plant at any time based on an average of
48 weeks a year and five 8-hour shifts a week for a single operator. To ensure there is no shortage
of manpower to operate the plant, 4.5 operators are hired for each operator needed in the plant at
any time. The average salary for each operator is assumed to be RM1700/month.
Operating Labour = 4.5 × 4.5 = 20.25 ≈ 21 operators
𝑅𝑀1700 12𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠
(COL ) = 21 × × = 𝑅𝑀 428,400/𝑦𝑟
𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑟
The total manufacturing cost without depreciation (COMd) is estimated by using the equation
below.
𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 0.304𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 2.73COL + 1.23(𝐶𝑈𝑇 + CWT + 𝐶𝑅𝑀 )
𝐶𝑂𝑀𝑑 = 0.180𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 2.73COL + 1.23(𝐶𝑈𝑇 + CWT + 𝐶𝑅𝑀 )(𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
304
Table 8. 8: Cost of Manufacturing (depreciation and without depreciation)
Cost (RM/year)
0.304𝐹𝐶𝐼 88485023.97
2.73COL 1169532
1.23(𝐶𝑈𝑇 + CWT + 𝐶𝑅𝑀 ) 92976064.09
Cost of Manufacturing (COM) 182630620.1
0.180𝐹𝐶𝐼 52392448.4
2.73COL 1169532
1.23(𝐶𝑈𝑇 + CWT + 𝐶𝑅𝑀 ) 92976064.09
Cost of Manufacturing (COMd) 146538044.5
Direct manufacturing cost is the cost directly attributed to manufacture urea.

Table 8. 9: Direct Manufacturing Cost
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC)
Component Multiplying Factor Cost (RM/yr)
Raw material 𝐶𝑅𝑀 42,332,867.14
Waste treatment CWT 2,252,957.19
Utilities 𝐶𝑈𝑇 31,004,471.68
Labour COL 428,400
Direct supervision & clerical 0.18COL
labour 77112
Maintenance and repairs 0.06FCI 174,641,49.47
Operating supplies 0.009FCI 2,619,622.42
Laboratory charges 0.15COL 64260
Patents and loyalties 0.03COM 4,396,141.335
Total Direct Manufacturing cost (DMC) 100,639,981.23
8.2.4.2 Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)

Fixed manufacturing costs are required in order to provide production capacity for the period.
Fixed manufacturing costs of the production plant cannot be easily scaled down when the business
305
is in place for the year. The business cannot run away from these costs in the short run. It has to
make the best use of its production capacity.
Table 8. 10: Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)
Depreciation 0.1FCI 29,106,915.78
Local taxes & insurances 0.032FCI 9,314,213.05
Plant Overhead costs 0.708(COL )+ 0.036FCI 10,781,796.88
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 49,202,925.71
8.2.4.3 General Expenses

The general manufacturing expenses are shown in Table 8.11 below.
Table 8. 11: General Manufacturing Cost
General Manufacturing Expenses (GE)
Administration Costs 0.177(COL )+ 0.003FCI 949,034.27
Distribution and selling costs 0.11COM 20,089,368.21
Research and development 0.05COM 9,131,531.00
Total General Manufacturing Expenses (GE) 30,169,933.48
Table 8.12 below shows the summary of manufacturing costs.

Table 8. 12: Total Manufacturing Cost (TMC)
Component Cost (RM/yr)
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) 100,639,981.23
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 49,202,925.71
General Expenses (GE) 30,169,933.48
Total Manufacturing Costs (TMC) 180,012,840.43
8.2.4.4 Revenue from Sales

The prices of the products are justified in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2. The sale revenues from the
production of urea are shown in Table 8.13. Revenue comes from the sales of the products
306
produced by the plant. The total annual revenue from product sales is the sum of multiplication of
unit price of each product and its rate of sales.
Table 8. 13: Total Revenue Calculated Per Annum
Product Amount (MT/year) Unit Price Total Revenue
(RM/tonne) (RM/year)
Urea 40,000 12900 515,999,995.40
Carbon 7998.67 2510 20,059,940.06
Ammonium Carbamate 63,996.00 2670 190,068.13
Total Revenue 536,250,003.50
8.3 PROFORMA FINANCIAL STATEMENT
Cash flow analysis is an economic analysis that determines whether a process can create income
and is preferable to other processes. Cash flow analysis is a useful tool for tracking transactions
involving several investments and payments across time. It keeps a clear, indisputable record of
the value, kind, and time of each transaction at the factory. Payback period is defined as the time
required to recover the fixed capital investment for that project after start-up. The shorter the
payback period, the more profitable the project.
Some assumptions are made in economic analysis:
1. The useful life of the plant is 20 years with 2 years of start-up time.
2. The federal income tax is 30%.
3. 8% interest rate per annum from bank loans.
Table 8. 14: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profit

Item Description Formula
Expenses Manufacturing Costs + COMd + d
Depreciation
Income Tax (Revenue – Expenses) * (Tax Rate) (R-COMd-d) (t)
After-Tax Net Profit Revenue – Expenses – Income Tax (R-COMd-d) (1-t)
After-Tax Cash Flow Net Profit + Depreciation (R-(COMd-d) (1-t) + d
where t = tax rate; R = revenue from sales; d = depreciation
307
8.3.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Cash flow analysis alludes to the assessment or investigation of the various inflows of the
money to the organization and the surge of the money from the organization during the period
viable from the various exercises which incorporate working exercises, contributing exercises and
financing exercises. In this chapter, cash flow analysis will be carried out. The cumulative non-
discounted cash flow for 20 years of project life is shown in Table 8.15 and Figure 8.1.
Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow

5000
Cumulative Cash Flow (RM million)
4000
3000
2000
Payback Period = 4 years
1000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-1000
Years
Figure 8. 1:Graph of Cumulative Non-discounted Cash Flow Analysis
The cumulative non-discounted cash flow for 20 years of project life is shown in Table 8.15 and
Figure 8.1. The start-up year of the plant is estimated to be 2 years. Therefore, the plant experience
negative net income at the first 2 years. At the third year, the plant starts to operate. It has a a
RM536250003.60 annual revenue. The investment and expenses are slowly payback.
308
Table 8. 15: Non-discounted Cash Flow Analysis
YEAR Capital Invest Depreciation FCI Revenue COMd (RM) Expenses Income Tax Net Prof After tax CF Cumulative
(RM) (RM) Cash Flow
(RM)
0 -7787803.55 0 291069157.80 0 0 0 0 0 -7787803.55 0
1 -291069157.80 0 291069157.80 0 0 0 0 0 -291069157.8 -291069158
2 -19469508.89 0 291069157.80 0 0 0 0 0 -19469508.89 -310538667
3 0 29106915.78 261962242.00 268125001.80 73269022.25 102375938 33149812.75 132599251 161706166.8 -148832500
4 0 29106915.78 232855326.20 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 72121008.66 288484034.6 317590950.4 168758451
5 0 29106915.78 203748410.50 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 72121008.66 288484034.6 317590950.4 486349401
6 0 29106915.78 174641494.70 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 72121008.66 288484034.6 317590950.4 803940351
7 0 29106915.78 145534578.90 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 72121008.66 288484034.6 317590950.4 1121531302
8 0 29106915.78 116427663.10 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 108181513 252423530.3 281530446.1 1403061748
9 0 29106915.78 87320747.34 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 108181513 252423530.3 281530446.1 1684592194
10 0 29106915.78 58213831.56 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 108181513 252423530.3 281530446.1 1966122640
11 0 29106915.78 29106915.78 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 108181513 252423530.3 281530446.1 2247653086
12 0 29106915.78 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 175644960.30 108181513 252423530.3 281530446.1 2529183532
13 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 2801981904
14 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 3074780275
15 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 3347578646
16 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 3620377018
17 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 3893175389
18 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 4165973760
19 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 4438772132
20 0 0 0 536250003.60 146538044.50 146538044.50 116913587.70 272798371.4 272798371.4 4711570503
309
8.3.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Figure 8.2 shows the cumulative discounted cash flow of Urea production plant at discount
rate of 0%. 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The discounted cash flow analysis is one in which the annual
cash flow is discounted back to time zero. This is accomplished by multiplying each cash flow by
the discount factor (P/F, i, n), where n denotes the number of years since the project began and i
denotes the discount rate (Turton, 2003).
Cumulative Discounted cash flow

5.E+10
4.E+10
4.E+10
3.E+10
Amount (RM)
3.E+10
2.E+10
2.E+10
1.E+10
5.E+09
0.E+00
0 5 10 15 20 25
-5.E+09 Years
Interest (0%) Interest (10%) Interest (20%) Interest (30%) Interest (40%)
Figure 8. 2: Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Discounted cash flow is the cash flow analysis which the yearly cash flow is discounted back to
cover the investment. The discounted cash flow is calculated by multiplying each cash flow by the
discount factor (P/F, i, n) where n is the number of years after the start of the project and i is the
discount rate. The discount rate is set at 30%, 40% and 150%. The analysis is shown in Table 15
and Figure 8. The cumulative discounted cash flow value at 20 years represents the net present
worth (NPV) for each interest rate.
310
Table 8. 16: Cumulative discounted cash flow
Interest (0%) Interest (10%)
YEAR Non-Discounted Discount Discounted CF Cumulative CF Discount Discounted CF Cumulative CF
CF Fctr Fctr
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 -291069157.8 1 -291069157.8 -291069157.8 0.91 -264872933.6 -264872933.6
2 -310538666.7 1 -310538666.7 -601607824.5 0.83 -257747093.4 -522620027
3 -148832499.9 1 -148832499.9 -750440324.4 0.75 -111624374.9 -634244401.9
4 168758450.5 1 168758450.5 -581681873.9 0.68 114755746.4 -519488655.5
5 486349401 1 486349401 -95332472.9 0.62 301536628.6 -217952026.9
6 803940351.4 1 803940351.4 708607878.5 0.56 450206596.8 232254569.9
7 1121531302 1 1121531302 1830139180 0.51 571980963.9 804235533.8
8 1403061748 1 1403061748 3233200928 0.47 659439021.5 1463674555
9 1684592194 1 1684592194 4917793122 0.42 707528721.5 2171203277
10 1966122640 1 1966122640 6883915762 0.39 766787829.6 2937991106
11 2247653086 1 2247653086 9131568849 0.35 786678580.2 3724669687
12 2529183532 1 2529183532 11660752381 0.32 809338730.3 4534008417
13 2801981904 1 2801981904 14462734284 0.29 812574752.1 5346583169
14 3074780275 1 3074780275 17537514560 0.26 799442871.5 6146026040
15 3347578646 1 3347578646 20885093206 0.24 803418875.1 6949444916
16 3620377018 1 3620377018 24505470224 0.22 796482943.9 7745927860
17 3893175389 1 3893175389 28398645613 0.2 778635077.8 8524562937
18 4165973760 1 4165973760 32564619373 0.18 749875276.9 9274438214
19 4438772132 1 4438772132 37003391505 0.16 710203541.1 9984641755
20 4711570503 1 4711570503 41714962008 0.15 706735575.5 10691377331
311
Interest (20%) Interest (30%) Interest (40%)
Discount Discounted Cumulative Discount Discounted Cumulative Discount Discounted CF Cumulative
Fctr CF CF Fctr CF CF Fctr CF
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0.83 -241587401 -241587401 0.77 -224123251.5 -224123251.5 0.71 -206659102 -206659102
0.69 -214271680 -455859081 0.59 -183217813.3 -407341064.9 0.51 -158374720 -365033822
0.58 -86322849.94 -542181930.9 0.46 -68462949.95 -475804014.8 0.36 -53579699.96 -418613522
0.48 81004056.25 -461177874.7 0.35 59065457.69 -416738557.1 0.26 43877197.14 -374736324.9
0.4 194539760.4 -266638114.3 0.27 131314338.3 -285424218.9 0.19 92406386.18 -282329938.7
0.33 265300316 -1337798.336 0.21 168827473.8 -116596745.1 0.13 104512245.7 -177817693
0.28 314028764.5 312690966.2 0.16 179445008.3 62848263.22 0.09 100937817.2 -76879875.85
0.23 322704202 635395168.2 0.12 168367409.7 231215673 0.07 98214322.35 21334446.5
0.19 320072516.9 955467685.1 0.09 151613297.5 382828970.4 0.05 84229609.7 105564056.2
0.16 314579622.4 1270047307 0.07 137628584.8 520457555.2 0.03 58983679.2 164547735.4
0.13 292194901.2 1562242209 0.06 134859185.2 655316740.4 0.02 44953061.72 209500797.1
0.11 278210188.6 1840452397 0.04 101167341.3 756484081.7 0.02 50583670.65 260084467.8
0.09 252178371.3 2092630769 0.03 84059457.11 840543538.8 0.01 28019819.04 288104286.8
0.08 245982422 2338613191 0.03 92243408.25 932786947.1 0.01 30747802.75 318852089.6
0.06 200854718.8 2539467909 0.02 66951572.93 999738520 0.01 33475786.46 352327876
0.05 181018850.9 2720486760 0.02 72407540.36 1072146060 0 0 352327876
0.05 194658769.5 2915145530 0.01 38931753.89 1111077814 0 0 352327876
0.04 166638950.4 3081784480 0.01 41659737.6 1152737552 0 0 352327876
0.03 133163164 3214947644 0.01 44387721.32 1197125273 0 0 352327876
0.03 141347115.1 3356294759 0.01 47115705.03 1244240978 0 0 352327876
312
8.3.3 Net Present Value (NPV)
The Net Present Value (NPV) at various discount rates is shown in Table 8.17.
Table 8. 17: Net Present Value at Different Interest Rate
Interest (%) NPV (RM)

0 41714962008
10 10691377331
20 3356294759
30 1244240978
40 352327876
The value tabulated in Table 8.17 was then used to plot the graph of NPV (RM million) versus
interest or discount rate as shown in Figure 8.3 below.
NPV vs Interest Rate

4.50E+10
4.00E+10
3.50E+10
3.00E+10
NPV (RM)
2.50E+10
2.00E+10
1.50E+10
1.00E+10
5.00E+09
0.00E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50
Interest RATE (%)
Figure 8. 3: Graph of NPV vs Interest Rate
Figure 8.3 above shows the graph of NPV vs interest rate. The rate of return (ROR) is determined
when the NPV is equal to zero. From Figure 9, the ROR is 40%.
313
8.4 FINANCIAL RATIOS
A sustainable business requires effective planning and financial management. Engineers

are able to know the strengths and weaknesses from which strategies and initiatives can be formed.
The profitability ratio includes gross profit margin, operating profit margin and net profit margin.
8.4.1 Activity Ratios
Activity ratios, which are also known as efficiency ratios where the financial metrics that
measure a company’s ability to efficiently utilize its assets to generate sales or revenue. These
ratios provide insights into how effectively a company is managing and utilizing its resources to
generate income. Activity ratios are crucial for analyzing a company’s operational efficiency,
identifying areas for improvement, and comparing performance against industry benchmarks. By
monitoring and improving these ratios, companies can enhance their overall financial performance
and optimize resource utilization.
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑀536 250 003.60
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 12.67
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑅𝑀42 332 867.14
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑀536 250 003.60
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 4.13
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑅𝑀129 796 725.90
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑀536250003.60
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 3.12
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 + 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑅𝑀172129593.04
8.4.2 Profitability Ratio
Profitability ratios are a type of financial indicator that is used to evaluate a company's
capacity to create earnings compared to its sales, operational costs, balance sheet assets, or
shareholders' equity over time, utilising data from a single point in time. a measure of a company's
overall operating performance to assess plant profitability, the operating margin ratio, gross profit
margin, and net profit margin are employed.
I. Operating profit margin
Operating margin is the proportion of revenue remaining after paying the operating cost
for the business.
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 − 𝐷𝑀𝐶
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒
314
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60 − 𝑅𝑀100,639,981.23
= × 100%
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60
= 81.23%
II. Gross Profit Margin
The gross profit margin is a measure of the gross profit earned from sales. The gross profit
margin depends on the company’s cost of goods sold but does not include other costs.
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 − 𝐷𝑀𝐶 − 𝐹𝑀𝐶
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60 − 𝑅𝑀100,639,981.23 − 𝑅𝑀49,202,925.71
= × 100%
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60
= 72.06%
III. Net Profit Margin
Net profit margin measures how much of each dollar earned by the company can be
converted into profits. Low profit margin indicates that a low margin safety while a higher
margin indicates that the more effective the company converting the revenue into the actual
profit.
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 − 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑥
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60 − 𝑅𝑀252,423,558.30
= × 100%
𝑅𝑀536,250,003.60
= 52.93%
8.4.3 Rate of Investment (ROI)
The minimum acceptable rate of return (also known as the minimum appealing rate of
return or MARR) is a regularly used profitability guideline. The minimum acceptable rate of return
is the rate of earning that an investment must accomplish for it to be acceptable to the investor.
There are several techniques for estimating the rate of return. Return on investment is the most
popular way (ROI). Profitability is defined as the profit-to-investment-cost ratio. This may be
stated as follows:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑅𝑂𝐼) = × 100%
𝑇𝐶𝐼 + 𝑇𝑀𝐶 + 𝐶𝐺𝑅
𝑅𝑀252,423,558.30
= × 100%
𝑅𝑀333,824,199.31 + 𝑅𝑀180,012,840.43 + 𝑅𝑀129,796,725.90
= 39.22%
315
8.5 SUMMARY
Table 8.18 shows the summary of economic analysis of urea production plant. The payback
period, or the time it takes to recover the project's fixed capital investment, has been determined
to be 4 years. The rate of return, when the Net Present Value is equal to zero is 40%. It is the
highest rate of after-tax interest at which the project can just break even. After accounting for
approximately 3% bank interest rate and 3% annual inflation in the future, it is expected that this
project will have a relatively short payback period with a high rate of return.
Table 8. 18: Summary of Economic Analysis
Economic Parameter Value

Grass Root Capital Cost (CGR) RM129,796,725.90
Plant Lifetime 20 years
Start-up Operations 2 years
Total Capital Investment (TCI) RM333,824,199.31
Total Manufacturing Cost (TMC) RM180,012,840.43
Annual sales Income after tax RM252,423,558.30
Payback Period 4 years
Rate of Return (ROR) 40%
316
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
9.1 CONCLUSION
The plant design to produce 40,000 MTPA of urea from methane has been discussed
thoroughly in this report and it has a very good potential to be developed. In this production
process, the usage of methane in this industry and its conversion into product of better monetary
value is a viable and feasible plan. The proposed plant design is supported by several sections such
as market survey, site study, screening of synthesis route, material and energy balance, process
synthesis and equipment sizing. This report also includes process control, HAZOP studies,
proposed waste treatment, and economic analysis. From the market survey, urea has a good
potential with market demand especially in Asia pacific. The current market demand and
competitors have also been surveyed to confirm the appropriate place for the urea production plant.
The site selection and process synthesis screening had been chosen by applying the scoring
method.
9.1.1 Process screening and synthesis
There are several types of synthesis routes for production of urea from methane such as
partial oxidation of methane, steam methane reformer and decomposition of methane. All these
synthesis routes are for the first step in production of urea which is to produce hydrogen from raw
material, methane. After careful consideration and using the scoring method, decomposition of
methane routes was chosen for this plant. The advantage of this routes, it does not produce carbon
monoxide or carbon dioxide as by-product so that the need for water-gas shift and carbon
monoxide removal stages, as required in the others two synthesis route. The detail economic
potential (EP) for level 1, level 2, and level 3 has been calculated. The EP1 is RM
137,115,684.20/year, EP2 is RM 110,963,516/year and EP3 is RM 90,040,862.71/year.
317
9.1.2 Heat Integration
Heat integration was done based on the pinch temperature, 1768°C which was determined
from the cascade diagram of pinch analysis. After conducting HEN, a total of 57.96% of energy
was saved. The cost utility for steam is determined to be RM 19,311,129.84 per year. Then, the
total cost of cooling water calculated was RM 110 544 per year. The annual cost for the electricity
in this project is calculated to be RM 11,582,797.84 per year.
9.1.3 Process Equipment & Sizing
For all the major and minor equipment used in the design project, precise equipment sizing
was performed. The mechanical sizing and rough dimensions of the equipment were produced
after thorough discussion of the assumptions and theoretical work. This chapter thoroughly
outlines the specifications and designs of the equipment needed to carry out the functions of these
process units, along with the precise computation that was included in the appendix. The major
equipment used in this plant are reactors and separators, meanwhile the minor equipment used in
this plant are heaters, coolers, mixer, compressor, pump, and storage tank. The costing was done
on each of the equipment. The Economic Potential 4 that only considered the cost of utilities is
RM 59,036,391.03 per year.
9.1.4 Process Control and Safety
Identification of hazard, process control system, P&ID drawing and HAZOP analysis was
performed. The process control system for the whole plant equipment was designed to make sure
the process always complies with the procedure and avoid the process run away. Next, to study
the possible risk and actions required to avoid the risks, the HAZOP analysis will be analysis.
Lastly, the PFD diagram will be updated to P&ID based on the additional control system and
requirements from HAZOP analysis.
9.1.5 Waste Management and Pollution Control
In this chapter, it includes the waste produced from our production plant, which is
unconverted gas, fuel, wastewater. The treatment was designed to treat the waste to comply with
the standard that is set by Environmental Quality Act (EQA). Liquid and gas will be separated into
two categories. The waste gas will be discharged by the flare produced from stack gas. In a
318
wastewater treatment system, the treatment tank such as primary clarifier, aeration tank, secondary
clarifier, neutralization tank, sludge thickener, and filter process have been employed. The detail
calculation for the sizing and costing equipment are included in the appendix F, and the report
includes a summary of waste treatment costs. The cost for the treatment system is RM
2,252,957.19 per year.
9.1.6 Economic analysis
The economic analysis is carried out to assess the profitability of the proposed plant. The
total capital investment (TCI) for this plant is calculated and determined of RM333,824,199.31.
The operating profit margin and net profit margin percentages are 81.23 % and 52.93 %
respectively. All the important elements such as safety and economic consideration have been
taken extensively to ensure that the plant is safe while economically feasible and viable. In
conclusion, the plant can reach the target of 40,000 MTPA of Urea from methane gas and it is
technically feasible and economically attractive.
319
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APPENDIX A: POLYMATH CODING
#Decomposition of Methane
#CH4 = Methane
#n = Nitrogen
#H2 = hydrogen
#C = Carbon
#Mole Balance
d(FCH4)/d(W) = rCH4
FCH4(0) = 141.8950
d(FH2)/d(W) = rH2
FH2(0) = 0
d(FC)/d(W) = rC
FC(0) = 0
#rate law
r1 = k1*(PCH4)^(-1)
k=6.6*10^13 #s^-1
k1=k*exp(370/(1.9872*T))
R=1.9872
T=T0
T0 = 1200+273.15 #K
327
V=1
rCH4=-r1
rH2=2*r1
rC=r1
P=P0 #isobaric
P0=1 #atm
#Selectivity, Yield and Conversion
YCH4=(rH2)/(-rCH4+1e-10)
YbarCH4=(FH2)/(FCH40-FCH4+1e-10)
XCH4=(FCH40-FCH4)/FCH40+1e-10
FCH40=345.90
#Weight of catalyst
W(0)=0
W(f)=10000
PCH4=(R*T)/V
#Ammonia Reactor
#H2=Hydrogen
#N2=Nitrogen
#NH3=Ammonia
328
#Mole Balance
d(FH2)/d(W)=rH2 #kmol/hr
FH2(0)=276.72
d(FN2)/d(W)=rN2
FN2(0)=92.24
d(FNH3)/d(W)=rNH3
FNH3(0)=1e-11
W(0)=0 #initial weight
W(f)=500 #final weight
#Rate Law
rprime=f*((k1prime*(PN2*(PH2^3)/PNH3))-(k2prime*(PNH3/(PH2^3))))
#kmol/(m^3.h)
k1prime=A1*exp(-Ea1/(R*T)) #kmol/(m^3.h.atm^1.5)
k2prime=A2*exp(-Ea2/(R*T)) #kmol/(m^3.h.atm^0.5)
f=1
A1=2.5*10^8
A2=2.457*10^11
Ea1=28122 #kcal/kmol
Ea2=40765
329
R=1.9872 #kcal/kmol.K
rH2=-3*rprime
rN2=-rprime
rNH3=2*rprime
P=P0 #isobaric
P0=330 #atm
T=T0 #isothermal
T0=400+273.15 #K
Ft=FH2+FN2+FNH3
PH2=P0*(FH2/Ft)
PN2=P0*(FN2/Ft)
PNH3=P0*(FNH3/Ft)
#Selectivity, Yield, Conversion
YN2=(rNH3)/(-rN2+1e-10)
YH2=(rNH3)/(-rH2+1e-10)
YbarN2=(FNH3)/(FN20-FN2+1e-10)
YbarH2=(FNH3)/(FH20-FH2+1e-10)
XN2=(FN20-FN2)/FN20
XH2=(FH20-FH2)/FH20
330
FN20=92.24
FH20=276.72
Urea synthesis rate law
#Mole balance
d(FCO2)/d(W) = rCO2 #Carbon Dioxide
FCO2(0) = 10
d(FNH3)/d(W) = rNH3 #Ammonia
FNH3(0) = 20
d(FNH2CONHCONH2)/d(W) = rNH2CONHCONH2 #Biuret
FNH2CONHCONH2 (0) = 5
d(FNH2CONH2)/d(W) = rNH2CONH2 #Urea
FNH2CONH2(0) = 10
d(FH2O)/d(W) = rH2O #Water
FH2O (0) = 10
#Rate law
rCO2 = -r1
rNH3 = -2*r1
rNH2CONH2 = r1
331
rH2O =r1
r1 = 1.71e11*exp(248/R/T) *(PCO2*PNH3^2)
rNH2CONH2 = -r2
rNH2CONHCONH2 = 0.5*r2
rNH3 = 0.5*r2
r2 = 2.35e8*exp(110/R/T) *(PNH2CONH2^2)
T = 273 #K
R = 1.987 #kcal/kmol. K
#Stoichiometry
PCO2 = (FCO2/Ft) *P
PNH3 = (FNH3/Ft) *P
PNH2CONH2 =(FNH2CONH2/Ft) *P
P0=20
P = P0
y=P/P0
Ft0 = FCO20+FNH30+FNH2CONH20
332
Ft = FCO2+FNH3+FNH2CONH2+FH2O+FNH2CONHCONH2
#Analysis
FCO20=0
FNH30=0
FNH2CONH20=0
#Yield and conversion
XCO2 = (FCO20-FCO2)/FCO20
XNH3 = (FNH30-FNH3)/FNH30
XNH2CONH2 = (FNH2CONH20-FNH2CONH2)/FNH2CONH20
Y=(FNH2CONH2+0.00001)/(FNH3+FCO2+0.00001)
Cost of reactor for each conversion from excel spreadsheet.
333
Total Catalyst Cost = Catalyst Cost per kilogram x Weight of catalyst
Catalyst Cost per kilogram = RM837.30/kg
Cost of compressor for each conversion from Excel spreadsheet.
RECYCLE N2 RECYCLE
X RECYCLE N2 QN2in QH2IN Q
(kg/h) H2
0.1 83.016 2326.11 1860.74 249.048 6006.89 7867.63
0.2 73.792 2067.65 1653.99 221.376 5339.46 6993.45
0.3 64.568 1809.20 1447.24 193.704 4672.02 6119.27
0.4 55.344 1550.74 1240.49 166.032 4004.59 5245.08
0.5 46.12 1292.28 1033.74 138.36 3337.16 4370.90
0.6 36.896 1033.83 826.99 110.688 2669.73 3496.72
0.7 27.672 775.37 620.25 83.016 2002.30 2622.54
0.8 18.448 516.91 413.50 55.344 1334.86 1748.36
0.9 9.224 258.46 206.75 27.672 667.43 874.18
0.95 4.612 129.23 103.37 13.836 333.72 437.09
334
Actual Power
Power LogCp Cp CBM CBM(2024)($) Cost (RM)
(kW)
2644.01 3110.60 5.73 538380.40 1453627.08 3445498.94 15435835.27
2350.23 2764.98 5.70 500723.72 1351954.04 3204505.68 14356185.46
2056.45 2419.35 5.66 460486.33 1243313.09 2946996.51 13202544.36
1762.67 2073.73 5.62 417175.84 1126374.77 2669820.29 11960794.89
1468.89 1728.11 5.57 370117.30 999316.70 2368657.48 10611585.49
1175.11 1382.49 5.50 318338.02 859512.65 2037283.13 9127028.44
881.34 1036.87 5.42 260333.94 702901.65 1666071.67 7464001.06
587.56 691.24 5.29 193514.66 522489.59 1238445.10 5548234.06
293.78 345.62 5.05 112479.73 303695.28 719841.96 3224891.96
146.89 172.81 4.80 62512.91 168784.85 400066.86 1792299.54
335
APPENDIX B: MASS BALANCE LEVEL 2 MANUAL CALCULATION
Decomposition of Methane Reactor
From reverse calculation from ammonia plant, H2 required:
No of flow H2 is 276.72 kmol/h
Since the total conversion of CH4 to H2 IS 80%, FH2,0 = 0.8FCH4,0.
Thus FCH4,0 = 345.9kmol/h
FH2,0 = 2𝜉1
𝜉1 = 138.36 kmol/h
FCH4 = FCH4,0 – 𝜉1
FCH4 =207.54 kmol/h
FC = 𝜉1
FC = 138.36 kmol/h
Urea Synthesis Reactor
Mole balance will calculated begin with the fresh feed of reactant based on desired Urea capacity
of 40,000 MTPA (metric tons per annum).
Assumptions:
1. The total conversion of carbon dioxide was assumed to be 95% according to

(Bhaskar & Chandra, 2007).
40,000𝑀𝑇 1000𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

FNH2CONH2 = × × × = 83.25
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 1𝑀𝑇 60.06 𝑘𝑔 8000ℎ ℎ
Since total conversion of CO2 to NH2 CONH2 is 95%,
336
FNH2CONH2 = 0.95FCO2
1 23.1250 𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH2 CONH2 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 CO2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 CO2

FCO2 = × × = 24.3421
0.95 𝑠 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH2 CONH2 𝑠
Unreacted:
FNH2 CONH2
FCO2 = (1 − XCO2 )
Y
The feed of the raw materials of NH3 to CO2 is 2:1
FNH3 2
=
FCO2 1
FNH3 = 2 × 24.3421
𝑚𝑜𝑙 FNH3
FNH3 = 48.68 𝑠
Unreacted Ammonia
FNH3 = FNH3 (1 − XNH3 )
Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
Assumptions:
1. As according to Patuakhali and Richardson (2016), for 3:1 hydrogen to nitrogen ratio, ammonia
plants with high efficiency can achieve a 20 – 21% single pass conversion. Moreover, the ratio of
hydrogen to nitrogen is 3:1 as a stoichiometric ratio and maintained throughout the ammonia
synthesis loop.
2. The total conversion of nitrogen was assumed to be 95% according to (Bhaskar & Chandra,
2007)
Since total conversion of N2 to NH3 3 is 95%
FNH3 = 0.95FN2
337
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
FNH3 = 175.26
ℎ
FNH3 = 2𝜉1
175.26 = 2𝜉1
𝜉1 = 87.63
FN2 = FN2, o – 𝜉1
= 92.24 – 87.63
= 4.61
Since ratio of H2 to N2 is 3:1

F H2 3
=
FN 2 1
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
FH2 = 3 × 4.61 = 13.83 ℎ𝑟
FH2 = FH2, o – 3𝜉1

13.83 = FH2, o − 3(87.63)
FH2, o = 276.72
Ammonia Reactor-R-102
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
n14̇ NH3 = 175.248 ℎ
Since total conversion of N2 to NH3 is 95%

1 175.248 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
n1̇ N2 = 0.95 × = 166.49
ℎ ℎ
Unreacted n1̇ N2 = n6̇ N2 = (1 − 0.97) n1̇ N2

166.49 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
npurge
̇ N2 = 0.03 × = 8.325
ℎ ℎ
338
Since ratio of H2 to N2 is 3:1,
n1̇ H2 = 3n1̇ N2
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
n1̇ H2 = 3 × 166.49 = 499.44
ℎ ℎ
npurge
̇ H2 = 3npurge
̇ N2
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
npurge
̇ H2 = 3 × 8.325 = 24.975
ℎ ℎ
Flash Column – V-102
Since absorber will condense 97% of NH3 fed to it,

n14̇ NH3 = 0.97n11̇ NH3
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH3
n11̇ NH3 = × 175.248 = 180.668
0.97 ℎ ℎ
Total N2 – Unreacted N2 = N2 reacted

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
N2 reacted = 92.236 − 2.767 = 89.469 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH3

89.469 consumed to produce 175.248
ℎ𝑟 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
𝜉 = 89.469 ℎ
n11̇ N2 = n10̇ N2 − ξ ----- eqn 1
n11̇ N2 = (1 − 0.2)n10̇ N2 ----- eqn 2
n10̇ N2 = n11̇ N2 + ξ ----- eqn 3
Eqn 3 into Eqn 2

n11̇ N2 = (1 − 0.2)(n11̇ N2 + ξ)
0.2n11̇ N2 = 0.8 ξ
339
0.8 × 89.469 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 N2
n11̇ N2 = = 357.876
0.2 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 H2
̇ N2 = 3 × 357.876 = 1073.628
n11̇ H2 = 3n11
ℎ
Since absorber only condense NH3
n13̇ NH3 = n11̇ NH3 − n14̇ NH3
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH3
n13̇ NH3 = 180.668 − 175.248 = 5.42 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 N2
n13̇ N2 = n11̇ N2 = 357.876
ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 H2
n13̇ H2 = n11̇ H2 = 1073.628
ℎ
̇
nPurge N2 2.767
Purge ratio = ̇ N2
= 357.876 = 0.0077
n13
nPurge
̇ NH3 = 0.0077n13̇ NH3
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 NH3
nPurge
̇ NH3 = 0.0077 × 5.42 = 0.0419
ℎ ℎ
nRecycle
̇ = n13̇ − nPurge
̇
nRecycle
̇ NH3 = 5.42 − 0.0419 = 5.3781 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 N2
nRecycle
̇ N2 = 357.876 − 2.767 = 355.109
ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 H2
nRecycle
̇ H2 = 1073.628 − 8.301 = 1065.327
ℎ
n10̇ = n1̇ + nRecycle

̇
n10̇ NH3 = 0 + 5.3781 = 5.3781 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 N2
n10̇ N2 = 92.236 + 355.109 = 447.345
ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 H2
n10 H2 = 276.708 + 1065.327 = 1342.035
ℎ
340
Urea reactor – R-103
kmol
ṅ NH3 , in = 175.248
h
kmol CO2
ṅ CO2 , in = 91.279
h
ṅ CO2 , out = ṅ CO2 , in × 0.95

kmol
ṅ CO2 , out = 91.279 × 0.95
h
kmol kmol CO2
ṅ CO2 , out = 91.279 − 86.715 = 4.564
h h
kmol CO2 kmol CO2
ṅ Urea, out = (91.279 − 4.564 ) × 0.95
h h
kmol
ṅ Urea, out = 82.38
h
kmol CO2 kmol CO2
ṅ AC 23 = (91.279 − 4.564 ) × 0.05
h h
kmol
ṅ AC 23 = 4.336
h
Distillation Column (T-101)

The separation efficiency is set for light key and heavy key components, and they are assumed
fully recovery in respectively distillation column.
For S24
Recovery of H2 O = 0.99
FH2O,24 = 83.38 × 0.99
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐅𝐇𝟐 𝐎,𝟐𝟒 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟔𝟐
𝐡
341
FNH2CONH2 = 83.38 × (1 − 0.997)
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
FNH2CONH2 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟏
𝐡
For S25
Recovery of NH2 CONH2 = 0.997
F𝐻2 𝑂,25 = 83.38 × (1 − 0.99)
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐅𝑯𝟐 𝑶,𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟖
𝐡
FNH2CONH2 = 83.38 × 0.997

𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
FNH2CONH2 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟗
𝐡
342
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION OF ENERGY BALANCE
MIXER (M-101)
STREAM 7
ΔH = Href (v, 25°C, 1 atm) H (v, 250°C, 1 atm)
CH4
250
Ĥ1=∫25 (34.31 × 10−3 ) + (5.469 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3661 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−11.00 ×
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 9.420 kJ/mol = 9420.03 kJ/kmol
STREAM 1
180
Ĥ2=∫25 (34.31 × 10−3 ) + (5.469 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3661 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−11.00 ×
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 6.191 kJ/mol = 6191.15 kJ/kmol
Q = Ʃnout Hout – Ʃnin Hin
= (Ĥ2× nout) – (Ĥ1× nin)
= [(6191.15×491.96)] – [(9420.03×318.9)]
= 3045798.154 – 3004047.567
= 41750.587 kJ/h = 11.597 kW
REACTOR (R-101)
STREAM 2
ΔHf from Table B.1 = -74.85 kJ/mol
(v, 25°C, 1 atm) (v, 1200°C, 1 atm)
CH4
1200
Ĥ1 = ΔHf + ∫25 34.31 × 10−3 + (5.469 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3661 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−11.00 ×
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= -74.85 + (76.080 × 1000) = 76005.15 kJ/kmol
343
STREAM 3
(Ɩ, 25°C, 1 atm) (Ɩ, 1200°C, 1 atm)
C
1200 1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ĥ2 = 0 + ∫25 11.18 × 10−3 + (1.095 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (−4.891 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 21017.08 kJ/kmol
STREAM 4
(v, 25°C, 1 atm) (v, 1200°C, 1 atm)
H2
1200
Ĥ4 = 0 + ∫25 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 35385.02 kJ/kmol
CH4
Ĥ3 = Ĥ1 = 76005.15 kJ/kmol
= [(183.63×21017.08) + (318.9×76005.15) + (276.72×35385.02)] – [491.96×76005.15]
= 37889151.47 – 37391493.59
= 497657.88 kJ/h = 138.2383 kW
HEATER (E-101)
STREAM 2
(v, 180°C, 1 atm) (v, 1200°C, 1 atm)
CH4
1200
Ĥ1=∫180 34.31 × 10−3 + (5.469 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3661 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−11.00 × 10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 69.889 kJ/mol = 69889.13 kJ/kmol
Q = Ĥ1× nout
= 69889.13 × 172.950
= 12087325.03 kJ/h = 3357.59 kW
344
COOLER (E-102)
STREAM 4
(v, 250°C, 1 atm) (v, 1200°C, 1 atm)
CH4
1200
Ĥ1=∫250 34.31 × 10−3 + (5.469 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3661 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−11.00 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 66.66 kJ/mol = 66660.25 kJ/kmol
H2
1200
Ĥ2 = ∫250 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
10−12 )𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 28.877kJ/mol = 28877.40 kJ/kmol
= 0 – [(318.90×66660.25) + (276.720×28877.40)]
= - 29248907.85 kJ/h = -8124.70 kW
MIXER (M-102)
STREAM 8
(35°C, 1 atm) (250°C, 1 atm)
N2
250
Ĥ1=∫35 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 6262.40 kJ/kmol
STREAM 7
H2
(35°C, 1 atm) (250°C, 1 atm)
250
Ĥ2=∫35 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
345
= 6219.17 kJ/kmol
RECYCLE STREAM: (35°C, 1 atm) (35°C, 202 atm)

Gas pressure change = 0, thus ΔH = VΔP
STREAM 9
(35°C, 1 atm) (120°C, 1 atm)
N2
120
Ĥ3=∫35 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 2482.60 kJ/kmol
H2
120
Ĥ4=∫35 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 2453.71 kJ/kmol
NH3
120
Ĥ5=∫35 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 3184.48 kJ/kmol
= [(3184.48×3.150) + (2453.71×952.342) + (2482.60×94.164)] – [(6219.17×276.72) +
(6262.40×92.236)]
= 281986.298 kJ/h = 78.33 kW
COMPRESSOR (C-101)
STREAM 10
(v, 120°C, 1 atm) (v, 663°C, 203 atm)
346
The outlet temperature of compressor is calculated using the formula below:
Ʃ𝑦𝑖𝐶𝑝𝑖
K = Ʃ𝑦𝑖𝐶𝑝𝑖−𝑅 , where R = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K , yi = mole fraction
𝐾−1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ( )
1+( ) 𝐾 −1
Tout = Tin ( 𝑃𝑖𝑛
), where ƞ is compressor efficiency
ƞ
Heat capacity at 120°C = 393 K

N2: 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.5723 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−2.871 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12)(120)3 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 29.34 kJ/kmol.K
H2: 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.3288 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) (120)3 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 28.90 kJ/kmol.K
NH3: 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.4421 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) (120)3 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 38.75 kJ/kmol.K
0.0897(29.34)+0.9073(28.90)+ 0.003(38.75)
K = 0.0897(29.34)+0.9073(28.90)+ 0.003(38.75)−8.314 = 1.4025
When ƞ = 0.85
1.4025−1
203 ( )
1+( ) 1.4025 −1
1
Tout = 393 ( ) = 2054.85 K = 1781.7°C
0.85
1781.7−1773
Temperature, % error = = 0.5%
1781.7
N2
1773
Ĥ1=∫120 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 54914.02 kJ/kmol
H2
1773
Ĥ2=∫120 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 51750.10 kJ/kmol
NH3
347
1773
Ĥ3=∫120 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 96014.05 kJ/kmol
Q = Ʃnout Hout – 0
= [(94.164×54914.02) + (952.342×51750.10) + (3.150×96014.05) – 0]
= 54757163.25 kJ/h = 15210.32 kW
COOLER (E-103)
STREAM 10
(v, 1773°C, 203 atm) (v, 480°C, 203 atm)
N2
1773
Ĥ1=∫480 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 44066.81 kJ/kmol
H2
1773
Ĥ2=∫480 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 41251.62 kJ/kmol
NH3
1773
Ĥ3=∫480 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 80097.68 kJ/kmol
= 0 – [(94.164×44066.81) + (952.342×41251.62) + (3.150×80097.68)]
= - 43687465.08 kJ/h = -12135.41 kW
REACTOR (R-102)
ΔH: (v, 25°C, 1 atm) Ha (v, 480°C, 1 atm) Hb (v, 480°C, 203 atm)
348
STREAM 11
H2:
(v, 25°C, 1 atm) Ha (v, 480°C, 1 atm)
480
Ha = ∫25 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 13240.64 kJ/kmol
(v, 480°C, 1 atm) Hb (v, 480°C, 203 atm)
Hb = VΔP = 0, as gas pressure change = 0
Ĥ1 = Ha + Hb = 13240.64 + 0 = 13240.64 kJ/kmol = Ĥ4
N2
480
Ha=∫25 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 13620.48 kJ/kmol
Hb = 0
Ĥ2 = 13620.48 kJ/kmol = Ĥ5
NH3
480
Ha=∫25 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= -26728.75 kJ/kmol
Hb = 0
Ĥ3 = -26728.75 kJ/kmol = Ĥ6
=[(13240.64×683.97)+ (13620.48×4.7082) + (-26728.75×178.912)] – [(13240.64×952.342) +
(13620.48×94.164) + (-26728.75×3.150)]
= 4338287.33 – 13807980.90
= - 9469693.57 kJ/h = -2630.47
349
COOLER (E-104)
STREAM 12
(g, 35°C, 202 atm) (g, 480°C, 203 atm)
N2
480
Ĥ1=∫35 29 × 10−3 + (0.2199 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.5723 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−2.871 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 13329.77 kJ/kmol
H2
480
Ĥ2=∫35 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 12952.18 kJ/kmol
NH3
480
Ĥ3=∫35 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 × 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 17625.77 kJ/kmol
STREAM 13
(g, 35°C, 202 atm) Ĥ4 (Ɩ, 35°C, 202 atm)
Ha Hc
(g, -77.8°C, 202 atm) Hb (Ɩ, -77.8°C, 202 atm)

NH3
−77.8
Ha=∫35 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−0.8698 ×
480
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇 + Hc=∫35 28.84 × 10−3 + (0.00765 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.3288 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 +
(−0.8698 × 10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
=0
Hb = 5.653 kJ/mol, (from Elementary Principles of Chemical Process, Appendix Table B.1)
350
Ĥ4 = 5643 kJ/kmol
= [(178.912×5653)] – [(4.7082×13329.77) + (683.974×12952.18) + (178.912×17625.77)]
= 1011389.536 – 12075175.35
= -11063785.81 kJ/h = -3073.274 kW
PUMP (P-101)
STREAM NH3OUT
(35°C, 202 atm) (480°C, 203 atm)
NH3
8.314𝐽
1𝑚3 17.031𝑔 1𝑘𝑔 1000𝑙
Ĥ1 = VΔP = 1000𝑘𝑔 × × 1000𝑔 × × (1𝑎𝑡𝑚) × 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
𝑙.𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑚𝑜𝑙 1𝑚3 0.08206
𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
= 1.7255 kJ/kmol
= [(175.248×1.7255)]-0
= 302.39 kJ/h = 0.083997 kW
COOLER (E-106).
STREAM 17
774
Ĥ1 = ∫185 36.11 × 10−3 + (4.233 × 10−5 )T + (−2.887 × 10−8 ) T 2 + (7.464 ×
10−12 )T 3 dT
= 29490.1 kJ/kmol
Q = 0 – 91.279(29490.1)
= -2691826.84 kJ/h
= -747.73 kW
351
HEATER (E-105).
NH3 OUT
(l, 350C, 203 atm) → (l, -33.340C,203 atm)
−33.34
Ĥ1 = ∫35 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= -2403.94 kJ/kmol
Phase change @ -33.340C, NH3 (l) → NH3 (v)
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻𝑣 = 23.351
𝑚𝑜𝑙
(v, -33.340C, 203 atm) → (v, 1850C, 203 atm)

185
Ĥ2 = ∫−33.34 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 8171.16 kJ/kmol
ĤT = -2403.94 + 23.351 + 8171.16

= 5790.57 kJ/kmol
Q = 175.248(5790.57) – 175.248(1.7255)
= 1014483.42 kJ/h
= 281.801 kW
COMPRESSOR (C-102).
STREAM 17
774
Ĥ1 = ∫100 36.11 × 10−3 + (4.233 × 10−5 )T + (−2.887 × 10−8 ) T 2 + (7.464 ×
10−12 )T 3 dT
= 33022.86 kJ/kmol
Q = 91.279(33022.86) – 0
=3014293.638 kJ/h
352
=837.30 kW
COOLER (E-107).
STREAM 20
185
CO2: Ĥ1 = ∫130 36.11 × 10−3 + (4.233 × 10−5 )T + (−2.887 × 10−8 ) T 2 +
(7.464 × 10−12 )T 3 dT
= 231459 kJ/kmol
185
NH3: Ĥ2 = ∫130 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 2193.75 kJ/kmol
185
H2O: Ĥ3 = ∫130 33.46 × 10−3 + (0.6880 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.7604 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−3.593 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 1907.84 kJ/kmol
185
Ammonium Carbamate: Ĥ4 = ∫130 0.0069𝑇 + 1.5018 𝑑𝑇
= 142370.25 kJ/kmol
185
UREA: Ĥ5 = ∫130 38.43 + (4.98 × 10−2 )𝑇 + (7.05 × 10−4 )𝑇 2 + (−8.61 × 10−7 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 3326023.70
Q = 0 – [ 3.651(231459) + 4.594(2193.75) + 83.247(1907.84) + 4.381(142370.25) +

83.247(3326023.70)]
= -278519175.90 kJ/h
= -77366.44 kW
REACTOR (R-103).
STREAM 19
353
185
CO2: Ĥ1 = ∫25 36.11 × 10−3 + (4.233 × 10−5 )T + (−2.887 × 10−8 ) T 2 +
(7.464 × 10−12 )T 3 dT
= 6430.14 kJ/kmol
185
NH3: Ĥ2 = ∫25 35.15 × 10−3 + (2.954 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.4421 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−6.686 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 6127.20 kJ/kmol
STREAM 20
CO2: Ĥ3 = Ĥ1
NH3: Ĥ4 = Ĥ2
185
H2O: Ĥ5 = ∫25 33.46 × 10−3 + (0.6880 × 10−5 )𝑇 + (0.7604 × 10−8 )𝑇 2 + (−3.593 ×
10−12 ) 𝑇 3 𝑑𝑇
= 5484.14 kJ/kmol
185
Ammonium carbamate: Ĥ6 = ∫25 0.0069T + 1.5018 dT
= 1104 kJ/kmol
185
UREA: Ĥ7 = -235500 +∫25 38.43 + 4.98e − 2T + 7.05e − 4T2 + (−8.61e − 7T3) dT
= 7981945.94 kJ/kmol
Q = [3.651(6430.14) + 4.594(6127.20) + 83.247(5484.14) + 4.381(1104) + 83.247(7981945.94)]

– [ 91.279(6430.14) + 175.248(6127.20)]
= 663325337 kJ/h
= 184257.04 kW
354
APPENDIX D: SIZING AND COSTING OF EQUIPMENT
Reactor (R-101), (R-102) & (R-103)

R-101, Pyrolysis reactor
Table D. 1: Specification of Reactor, R-101

Type of reactor Pyrolysis reactor
Operating temperature, T 1200 ℃
Operating pressure, P 1 bar
Phase Mixed Vapor-Liquid
Mass flow rate 8014.56 kg/h
Volume of reactor is determined in Chapter 2 which will produce highest yield, selectivity and
conversion of the products.
According to the rule of thumb, a reactor's length to diameter ratio, L/D, should be between 2.5
and 5. Assume that the L/D is 3 and that the reactor is cylindrical. Hence, the reactor's length and
diameter can be determined.
Since, L = 3D
πD2 πD2 3πD3
V = AL = L= (3D) =
4 4 4
𝐷 = 2.34 m
𝐿 = 7.01 m
Fabrication
The design temperature can be obtained as follows:
𝑇𝑖 = 1200℃
The design pressure can be obtained as follows:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃 + 10% × 𝑃 = 1.1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1.1 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2
The tensile strength and design stress is obtained from Chemical Engineering Design volume 6
book (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
355
Figure D. 1: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plates Under ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1
(The Appropriate Material Standards Should be Consulted for Particular Grades and Plate Thicknesses)
(Source: Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design, GENERAL DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS), Retrieved March 2023)
Stainless steel 304 has good heat resistance however, continuous use at 425-860 °C (797-1580
°F) might lead to corrosion. But, Stainless steel 316 has good heat resistance at a temperature
above 843 ℃ (1550 ℉) (kloecker metals, 2021).
𝑇𝑖 = 1200℃ and stainless steel (316)
Tensile strength 5.1 × 108 𝑁/𝑚2
Design stress, f 7.3 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2
The double-welded butt or equivalent join factor is obtained from Table 13.3 (Sinnott & Towler,
2005).
356
Figure D. 2: Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiency
J = 1.0
To ensure that the vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads,
the minimum practical wall thickness is required. Hence, the minimum thickness required can be
obtained as follows:
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 1.1 × 105 (2.34)
𝑡= = = 0.0178 𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 2(1.0)(7.3 × 106 ) − (1.1 × 105 )
After determining a wall thickness that meets mechanical requirements, an extra thickness called
"corrosion allowance" is added to the wall thickness to compensate for the metal expected to be
lost over the life of the equipment. The design life is normally 20 years, but in reality, a tank is
expected to last indefinitely with normal maintenance (Bahadori, 2017).
(Source: Corrosion in Pipelines and Piping Systems (Bahadori, 2014))
357
Corrosion allowance = Life × Corrosion rate
Since, stainless steel 316 has good heat resistance and highly corrosion resistant, considering class
A as mild corrosion with average corrosion rate 0.1mm/year
Corrosion allowance = 20yr × 0.1mm/yr = 2mm/yr
For fabrication, the minimum thickness of wall = 0.0178 m + 0.002 m (corrosion allowance) =
0.0198 m or 19.8 mm. The thickness of reactor in comply with the general guide where 1 to 2 m
vessel diameter, minimum thickness of 7 mm is required (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
Hence, the outer diameter of reactor is calculated as follows:
𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑖 + 0.0198 = 2.34 + 0.0198 = 2.36 𝑚
Reactor head, R-101
There are three types of reactor heads, ellipsoidal head, torispherical head and hemispherical head.
Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used end closure for vessels up
to operating pressures of 15 bar. Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150psi and for
less than that pressure we use Torispherical head (Sinnott & Towler, 2005). Thus, for R-101 the
Torispherical head is chosen.
The design equation for minimum head thickness is as follows:
[𝑅𝐶 = crown radius] and assume 𝑅𝐶 = 0.7𝑚
0.885𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 (0.885)(1.1 × 105 )(0.7)
𝑡= = = 0.00935 𝑚 = 9.35 𝑚𝑚
𝐽𝑓 − 0.1𝑃𝑖 (1.0)(7.3 × 106 ) − 0.1(1.1 × 105 )
Jacket of R-101
Heat transfer in reactor
Heating or cooling jacketed are used to remove heat from exothermic reactions or provide the
needed heat required to produce the desired endothermic reactions. Since our reactor is in
endothermic reaction (decision in previous chapter 2), heating jacketed reactor is assumed as in
our process to control the temperature of reactor.
𝜋𝐷𝑖 2 𝜋(2.34)2
Jacketed area, A = π𝐷𝑖 𝐿 + = 𝜋(2.34)(7.01) + = 60.13 𝑚2
2 2
Heat duty required of R-101 is 12248.5kW.

Tube Shell
Tin (K) 1473.15 705.15
358
Tout (K) 1473.15 708.15
Logarithmic mean temperature can be obtained from
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2 (1473.15 − 705.15) − (1473.15 − 708.15)

LMTD = = = 766.50 𝐾
∆𝑇1 (1473.15 − 705.15)
ln ∆𝑇 ln
2 (1473.15 − 708.15)
The overall heat-transfer coefficient is assumed from the Table 12.1 (Sinnott & Towler, 2005)
𝑈 = 20 − 300 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝑄 = 𝑈 × 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 300 × 60.13 × 766.50 = 13826.88 kW
Cooling water
The amount of cooling water required in the reactor
𝑄 4.98 × 107 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
= = 3970342.02 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐶𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1) 4.181 𝑘𝐽 × (708.15 − 705.15𝐾)
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
Costing
Table D. 2: Specification of Reactor Column, R-101
Material of construction Stainless steel 316
Volume 30 m3
Operating pressure 1 bar
The purchased cost of the reactor column, R-101 was calculated by using the following equation
(Turton et.al, 2009).
A = Reactor volume
and formula
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
359
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
I = Cost Index
Using the project management & economic Student handbook (Turton et al., 2009), the cost of
reactor is calculated using information as below:
Table D. 3: Equipment data cost for reactor column (Turton et al., 2009)
K1 K2 K3
3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.4974 + (0.4485)(log10 (30)) + (0.1074)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 30)2

𝐶𝑃0 = $ 24786.98
The pressure factor, 𝐹𝑃 , for the column calculated by using the following equation
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6)𝑃 + 1)]
𝐹𝑝,𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 =
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 0.94 = 1
Table D. 4: Constants for Bare Module Factor of Reactor Column, R-101
FM 3.1
B1 2.25
B2 1.82
The bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 for column is calculated by using the following equation.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 24786.98 (2.25 + 1.82(3.1)(1)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 195618.85
The formula below is used to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2024. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2022 and 2023 are 708 and 824.5 respectively. Thus,
360
the estimated CEPCI for year 2024 is 941. The CEPCI for base year of 2001 is 394.3 (Turton,
2009). Hence, the cost of reactor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 195618.85 × = $ 466845.89
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 466845.89 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀2,091,469.59
Jacket
Table D. 5: Specification of Reactor Jacket, R-101
Design type Jacketed Non agitated
Material of construction Carbon steel
Volume 30 m3
The purchased cost of the reactor, R-101 was calculated by using the following equation
where A is the volume of the jacket in the reactor. The data for 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , 𝐾3 , along with the maximum
and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
Table D. 6: Cost Data of Reactor Jacket, R-101
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
3.3496 -0.2765 0.0025
𝐶𝑝0 =$ 884.36
Where; 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 4.0
CBM = $ 884.36 x 4.0
CBM = $ 3537.45
2009). Hence, the cost is,
361
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 3537.45 × = $ 8442.16
394.3
The current currency rate of 1 USD: 𝑅𝑀4.48
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 8442.16 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 37820.87
Total cost of Reactor, R-101,
= RM 37820.87 + RM2,091,469.59 = RM 2,129,290.46
R-102, Ammonia Synthesis Reactor
Type of reactor Packed bed reactor

Phase Vapor
Column Design
The regression of catalyst weight based on conversion is expressed by using polymath solver at
Appendix A to estimate the weight used according to conversion.
Table D. 8: Properties of Catalyst in Reactor, R-102
Properties Values References
Weight of Catalyst 20607.93 kg Polymath solver
Density of bulk, b 2450 kg/m3 (Rase, 1997)
Particle diameter, dp 5.8 mm (Rase, 1997)
BET Surface area 7.5 m2/g (Rase, 1997)
Density of catalyst 4900 kg/m3 (Rase, 1997)
Tortuosity, τ 2 (Hoyt C. Hottel et al., 2008)
362
The volume of the reactor is required is:
𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑡 1 20607.93 1
𝑉𝑅 = × = × = 16.8 𝑚2
𝜌 (1 − 𝜀) 2450 (1 − 0.5)
Since, L = 3D
πD2 πD2 3πD3
V = AL = L= (3D) =
4 4 4
𝐷 = 1.93 m
𝐿 = 5.78 m
For a packed bed reactor, 3 ft (0.9144 m) of quench zone and 1 ft (0.3048 m) of support grid must
be included:
Hence, the height of the reactor is calculated as follows:
𝐻 = 5.78 𝑚 + 0.9144 𝑚 + 0.3048 𝑚 = 7.00 𝑚
Fabrication
Carbon steel and stainless steels are some of the most common metals used in construction. Carbon
steel is an alloy between carbon and iron. Also known as mild steel, carbon steel is one of the most
commonly used engineering materials. It is favoured because it is relatively cheap and widely
available. It also has good tensile strength and ductility. However, carbon steel is not generally
resistant to corrosion which can be an issue in many environments. When corrosion is expected,
stainless steel is often favoured. Stainless steel, especially with higher levels of chromium, is more
resistant to corrosion. Carbon steels are usually limited to a maximum operating temperature of
500℃ and stainless steels can withstand high temperature.
𝑇𝑖 = 480℃
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃 + 10% × 𝑃 = 222.2 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 2.22 × 107 𝑁/𝑚2
363
𝑇𝑖 = 480℃ and carbon steel

The double-welded butt or equivalent join factor is obtained from Table 13.3 (Sinnott & Towler,
2005).
364
J = 1.0
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2.22 × 107 (1.93)
𝑡= = = 0.7165 𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 2(1.0)(4.1 × 107 ) − (2.22 × 107 )
(Source: Corrosion in Pipelines and Piping Systems (Bahadori, 2014))

Corrosion allowance = Life × Corrosion rate
Since, carbon steel is not generally resistant to corrosion considering class B as medium with
average corrosion rate 0.15mm/year
Corrosion allowance = 20yr × 0.15mm/yr = 3mm/yr
0.7195 m.
365
𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑖 + 0.7195 = 1.93 + 0.7195 = 2.65𝑚
Reactor head, R-102

Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150psi and for less than that pressure we use
Torispherical head. Thus, the ellipsoidal head is chosen.
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 2.22 × 107 (1.93)
𝑒ℎ = = = 0.5524 𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 0.2𝑃𝑖 2(1.0)(4.1 × 107 ) − 0.2(2.22 × 107 )
Jacket of R-102
exothermic reaction (decision in previous chapter 2), cooling jacketed reactor is assumed as in our
process to control the temperature of reactor.
𝜋𝐷𝑖 2 𝜋(1.93)2
A = π𝐷𝑖 𝐿 + = 𝜋(1.93)(5.78) + = 40.90 𝑚2
2 2
Tube Shell
Tin (K) 753.15 500.15
Tout (K) 753.15 508.15
Logarithmic mean temperature can be obtained from
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2 (753.15 − 500.15) − (753.15 − 508.15)

LMTD = = = 248.98 𝐾
∆𝑇 (753.15 − 500.15)
ln 1 ln
∆𝑇2 (753.15 − 508.15)
The overall heat-transfer coefficient is assumed from the Table 12.1 (Sinnott & Towler, 2005)
𝑈 = 20 − 300 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Heat removable by cooling jacket, 𝑄 = 𝑈 × 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 300 × 40.90 × 248.98 =3054.98 kW
366
The heat that can be removed by this cooling jacket is greater than the heat that must be removed
from the reactor, which is 2891.01 kW. Thus, there is enough heat to be removed to allow us to
use this cooling jacket.
Cooling water
The amount of cooling water required in the reactor
𝑄 10.41 × 106 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
= = 311229.37 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐶𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1) 4.181 𝑘𝐽 × (508.15 − 500.15𝐾)
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
Costing
Material of construction Carbon Steel
Volume 16.8 m3
A = Reactor volume
and formula
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
I = Cost Index
367
K1 K2 K3
3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.4974 + (0.4485)(log10 (16.8)) + (0.1074)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 16.8)2

𝐶𝑃0 = $ 16151.01
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6)𝑃 + 1)]
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 43.2
FM 1
B1 2.25
B2 1.82
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 16151.01(2.25 + 1.82(1)(43.2)

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $1307811.88
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $1307811.88 × = $ 3121103.18
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 3121103.18 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 13,982,542.25
368
Cooling Jacket
Table D. 12: Specification of Reactor Cooling Jacket, R-102
Reactor type Packed Bed Reactor
Volume 16.8 m3
where A is the volume of the cooling jacket in the reactor. The data for 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , 𝐾3 , along with the
maximum and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et
al., 2009).
Table D. 13: Cost Data of Reactor Cooling Jacket, R-102
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
3.3496 -0.2765 0.0025
𝐶𝑝0 =$ 1034.08
Where, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 4.0
CBM = $ 1034.08 x 4.0
CBM = $ 4136.32
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 4136.32 × = $ 9871.36
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 9871.36 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 44223.69
369
= 𝑅𝑀 44223.69 + 𝑅𝑀 13,982,542.25 = 𝑅𝑀 14,026,765.94
Utility Cost
Cooling water
According to chapter 2, the price of water is RM0.84/m3 .
311229.37 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
Volume of cooling water required = = 312.17
997 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ℎ𝑟
312.17 𝑚3 𝑅𝑀 0.84 8000 ℎ𝑟

Cost of cooling water required = × ×
ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚3 1 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 2097782.40/𝑦𝑟
R-103, Urea Synthesis Reactor
Type of reactor Plug flow reactor

Phase Vapor
Volume of reactor is determined in Chapter 2 which will produce highest yield, selectivity and
conversion of the products.
Since, L = 3D
πD2 πD2 3πD3
V = AL = L= (3D) =
4 4 4
𝐷 = 2.41 m
𝐿 = 7.23 m
370
Fabrication
𝑇𝑖 = 185℃
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃 + 10% × 𝑃 = 129.8 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1.30 × 107 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑇𝑖 = 185℃ and carbon steel

The double-welded butt or equivalent join factor is obtained from Table 13.3 Maximum Allowable
Joint Efficiency (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
J = 1.0
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 1.30 × 107 (2.41)
𝑡= = = 0.2356𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 2(1.0)(7.3 × 107 ) − (1.30 × 107 )
0.2376 m. The thickness of reactor in comply with the general guide where 1 to 2 m vessel
diameter, minimum thickness of 7 mm is required (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑖 + 0.0198 = 2.41 + 0.2376 = 2.65 𝑚
Reactor head, R-103
Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used end closure for vessels up
to operating pressures of 15 bar. Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150psi and for
371
less than that pressure we use Torispherical head (Sinnott & Towler, 2005). Thus, for R-103 the
Ellipsoidal head is chosen.
The design equation for minimum head thickness is as follows:
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 1.30 × 107 (2.41)
𝑒ℎ = = = 0.2185𝑚
2𝐽𝑓 − 0.2𝑃𝑖 2(1.0)(7.3 × 107 ) − 0.2(1.30 × 107 )
Jacket of R-103
endothermic reaction (decision in previous chapter 2), heating jacketed reactor is assumed as in
our process to control the temperature of reactor.
𝜋𝐷𝑖 2 𝜋(2.41)2
Jacketed area, A = π𝐷𝑖 𝐿 + = 𝜋(2.41)(7.23) + = 63.86 𝑚2
2 2
Costing
Material of construction Carbon Steel
Volume 33m3
and formula
𝐼2024
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = 𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2001) ×
𝐼2001
372
K1 K2 K3
3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.4974 + (0.4485)(log10 (33)) + (0.1074)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 33)2

𝐶𝑃0 = $ 26675.07
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6)𝑃 + 1)]
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 29.76
FM 1
B1 2.25
B2 1.82
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 26675.07 (2.25 + 1.82(1)(29.76)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 1504826.06
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 1504826.06 × = $ 3591279.03
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 3591279.03 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀11,160,755.57
373
Jacket
Table D. 18: Specification of Reactor Jacket, R-103
Volume 33 m3
where A is the volume of the jacket in the reactor. The data for 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , 𝐾3 , along with the maximum
and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
Table D. 19: Cost Data of Reactor Jacket, R-103
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
3.3496 -0.2765 0.0025
𝐶𝑝0 =$ 861.98
Where; 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 4.0
CBM = $ 861.98 x 4.0
CBM = $ 3447.91
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 3447.91 × = $ 8228.46
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= 8228.46 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 36863.49
374
= 𝑅𝑀 36863.49 + 𝑅𝑀11,160,755.57 = 𝑅𝑀 11,197,619.06
Compressor (C-101) & (C-102)

Compressor (C-101)
Volumetric flowrate into the compressor:
𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.08206 𝐿.
𝑚𝑜𝑙
.𝐾 1𝑚3 393.15𝐾 1ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
Qin = 1170.942 × × × 1000 𝐿 × × 3600𝑠 = 10.494
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐾 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑠
Figure D. 5: Efficiency of compressor at various volumetric flow rates

𝑚3
From Figure B. 1, the efficiency of compressor, C-101 is 75 % with 10.494 of volumetric flow
𝑠
rate.
Table D. 20: Specification of Compressor, C-101
Initial Pressure, p1 1 atm 101325 pa

Final Pressure, p2 203 atm 2.06E+07 pa
R, Gas Constant 0.08206 L.atm/mol.K - -
Outlet Temp, T2 1773 ℃ 2046.15 K
Inlet Temp, T1 120 ℃ 393.15 K
375
Compression ratio ( R) is the ratio of discharge pressure (Р2) to suction pressure (Р1) in compressor,
Р2
. The choice of proper number of compression stages is largely based on the compression ratio. The
𝑃1
number of gas compression stages can be calculated as follows:

𝑃2 203
= = 203 > 15
𝑃1 1
Figure D. 6: Number of Gas Compression Stages
Assume 3 stages required, the interstage pressure:

3 3
𝑃𝑋 = √(𝑃2 )(𝑃1 )2 = √(2.06 × 107 )(101325)2 = 595799.52 Pa
𝑃𝑋 595799.52
Compression ratio = = = 5.88
𝑃1 101325
Heat Capacity at 120 ℃

Hydrogen:
(28.84 × 10−3 ) + (0.00765 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.3288 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−0.8698 ×
1000 mol
10−12 )(120)3 × kmol
= 28.90 kJ/mol.K
Nitrogen:
(29.00 × 10−3 ) + (0.2199 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.5723 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−2.871 ×
1000 mol
10−12 )(120)3 × kmol
= 29.34 kJ/mol.K
376
Ammonia:
(35.15 × 10−3 ) + (2.954 × 10−5 )(120) + (0.4421 × 10−8 )(120)2 + (−6.686 ×
1000 mol
10−12 )(120)3 × kmol
= 38.75 kJ/mol.K
Design of C-101
Single stage compressors can only be used for low pressure ratios. At high pressure ratios, the
temperate rise will be too high for efficient operation. To cope with the need for high pressure
generation, the compression is split into a number of separate stages, with intercoolers between
each stage. The interstage pressures are normally selected to give equal work in each stage.
γ can be defined as followed:
𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑝 − 𝑅
𝑘𝐽
Where R = 8.314 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
(28.90) + (29.34) + (38.75)
𝛾= = 1.09
(28.90) + (29.34) + (38.75) − 8.314
Hence, the energy required to compress a gas, or the energy obtained from expansion, can be
estimated by calculating the ideal work and applying a suitable efficiency value. For reciprocating
compressors, the isentropic work is normally used is (’Towler & ’Sinnott, 2013):
𝑛 = 𝛾 = 1.09
To calculate work done (Sinnott & Towler, 2005):
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 3𝑛
−𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛−1 [(𝑃 ) − 1]
1
Where
W = work done, J/kg
P1 = inlet pressure, Pa
P2 = outlet pressure, Pa
v1 = volumetric flowrate
n = isentropic exponent
377
1.09−1
𝑚3 1.09
= (101325)(10.494 ) 1.09−1 [(5.88)3(1.09) − 1]
𝑠
W = 643466.38 J/kg = 643.47 kJ/kg

Since there are 3 stages, 3 × 643.47 = 1930.40 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔.
Compressor efficiency is 0.75, the actual work done is calculated:
1 𝑘𝐽
The actual work done considering efficiency = 1930.40 × 0.75 = 2573.87 𝑘𝑔
To calculate power required:

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 1ℎ𝑟
𝑃 = 2573.87 × 4837.49 × = 3458.62 𝑘𝑊
𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠
Costing of C-101
compressor is calculated using the formula and information as below:
Table D. 11: Equipment data cost for compressor (Turton et al., 2009)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Compressor Reciprocating 2.2897 1.3604 -0.1027

where A is the power of the compressor. The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the maximum and
minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3458.62) + (−0.1027)[log10 (3458.62)]2
0
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $ 657,394.02
378
Figure D. 7: Bare Module Factors for Equipment
(Source of Figure A.19 for Bare Module Factors for Equipment in Table A.6 from Turton,2009)
The bare module cost for compressor can be calculated by using the equation below:
Where; 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is the bare module cost factor for reciprocating compressor with carbon steel as
material, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 3.4
CBM = $ 657,394.02 x 3.4
CBM = $ 2235139.69
the estimated CEPCI for the year 2024 by extrapolation is 941. The CEPCI for base year of 2001
is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost compressor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 2235139.69 × = $ 5334178.11
394.3
The current currency rate of 1 USD: RM4.48
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $ 5334178.11 ×
$1
= RM 23,523,725.45
379
Utility Cost
Based on TnB tariff, average cost of electricity = RM0.337/kWh (Tenaga Nasional Berhad, 2021)
𝑅𝑀0.337 8000ℎ𝑟
Electricity Cost = × × 3458.62 𝑘𝑊 = RM 11012246.08/yr
𝑘𝑤ℎ 𝑦𝑟
Compressor (C-102)
Volumetric flowrate into the compressor:
𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.08206 𝐿.
𝑚𝑜𝑙
.𝐾 1𝑚3 373.15𝐾 1ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
Qin = 91.279 × × × 1000 𝐿 × × 3600𝑠 = 0.776
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐾 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑠
Figure D. 8: Efficiency of compressor at various volumetric flow rates

𝑚3
From Figure B. 4, the efficiency of compressor, C-102 is 68 % with 0.776 of volumetric flow
𝑠
rate.
Table D. 22: Specification of Compressor, C-102
Initial Pressure, p1 65 atm 6.586E+06 pa

Final Pressure, p2 118 atm 1.196E+07 pa
R, Gas Constant 0.08206 L.atm/mol.K - -
Outlet Temp, T2 774 ℃ 1047.15 K
Inlet Temp, T1 25 ℃ 298.15 K
380
Compression ratio ( R) is the ratio of discharge pressure (Р2) to suction pressure (Р1) in compressor,
Р2
. The choice of proper number of compression stages is largely based on the compression ratio. The
𝑃1
number of gas compression stages can be calculated as follows:

𝑃2 118
= = 1.82 < 4
𝑃1 65
Figure D. 9: Number of Gas Compression Stages
Thus 1 stage required,
3 3
𝑃𝑋 = √(𝑃2 )(𝑃1 )2 = √(1.196 × 107 )(6.586 × 106 )2 = 8035104.77 Pa
𝑃𝑋 8035104.77
Compression ratio = = = 1.22
𝑃1 6.586×106
Heat Capacity at 25 ℃
Carbon Dioxide:
1000 mol
(3.61 × 10−2 ) + (4.23 × 10−5 )(25) + (2.89 × 10−8 )(25)2 + (7.46 × 10−12 )(25)3 × kmol
= 37.18 kJ/mol.K
γ can be defined as followed:

𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑝 − 𝑅
381
𝑘𝐽
Where R = 8.314 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
(37.18)
𝛾= = 0.83
(37.18) − 8.314
Hence, the energy required to compress a gas, or the energy obtained from expansion, can be
estimated by calculating the ideal work and applying a suitable efficiency value. For reciprocating
compressors, the isentropic work is normally used is (’Towler & ’Sinnott, 2013):
𝑛 = 𝛾 = 0.83
To calculate work done (Sinnott & Towler, 2005):
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
−𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛−1 [(𝑃 ) − 1]
1
Where
W = work done, J/kg
P1 = inlet pressure, Pa
P2 = outlet pressure, Pa
v1 = volumetric flowrate
n = isentropic exponent
0.83−1
𝑚3 0.83
= (6.586 × 106 )(0.776 ) 0.83−1 [(1.22) (0.83) − 1]
𝑠
W = 995856.72 J/kg = 995.86 kJ/kg

Compressor efficiency is 0.68, the actual work done is calculated:
1 𝑘𝐽
The actual work done considering efficiency = 995.86 × 0.68 = 1464.50 𝑘𝑔
To calculate power required:

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 1ℎ𝑟
𝑃 = 1464.50 × 4017.21 × = 1634.21 𝑘𝑊
𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠
Costing of C-102
compressor is calculated using the formula and information as below:
382
Table D. 23: Equipment data cost for compressor (Turton et al., 2009)
Compressor Reciprocating 2.2897 1.3604 -0.1027

where A is the power of the compressor. The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the maximum and
minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1634.21) + (−0.1027)[log10 (1634.21)]2
0
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $ 398722.59
Figure B. 1: Bare Module Factors for Equipment
(Source of Figure A.19 for Bare Module Factors for Equipment in Table A.6 from Turton,2009)
The bare module cost for compressor can be calculated by using the equation below:
Where; 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is the bare module cost factor for reciprocating compressor with carbon steel as
material, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 3.4
CBM = $ 398722.59 x 3.4
383
CBM = $ 1355656.79
is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost compressor is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 1355656.79 × = $ 3235285.42
394.3
The current currency rate of 1 USD: RM4.48
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $ 3235285.42 ×
$1
= RM 14,494,078.68
Utility Cost
𝑅𝑀0.337 8000ℎ𝑟
Pump (P-101)
Sizing of Pump (P-101)
𝐹
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝜌
𝑘𝑔
3050.11 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ℎ𝑟 = 4178.23𝑚
𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟
0.73 3
𝑚
Assume efficiency of the pump = 85%
Pin = 202.25 bar
Pout = 202.65 bar
∆P = 202.65-202.25 = 0.40 bar = 40kPa
4178.23 × 40
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = 46.424𝑘𝑊
3600
46.42
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 0.5462 𝑘𝑊
85
384
Costing of Pump (P-101)
As according to Turton., 2009, the purchased cost, Cp for a centrifugal pump can be calculated by
using following equations as shown:
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 log10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [log10 (𝐴)]2
Where K1, K2 and K3 can be obtained from the book and A is the shaft power (kW) of the
equipment. From table A1 (Turton, 2009), below value can be obtained for centrifugal pump.
Equipment type K1 K2 K3
Pumps (centrifugal) 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 3.3892 + 0.0536(0.5462) + 0.1538[(0.5462)]2
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 3.4644
𝐶𝑝0 = $2913.40
Using the following equation, the bare module cost for a process vessel, CBM is calculated:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
Where;
B1 = 1.89 (constant value obtained from Table 1.4 (Turton, 2009))
B2 = 1.35 (constant value obtained from Table 1.4 (Turton, 2009))
FM = material factor = 1.6 (obtained from graph identification number vs material factor)
FP = pressure factor
Pressure factor, Fp can be calculated using below equation:
log10 𝐹𝑝 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 log10 𝑃 + 𝐶3 (log10 𝑃)2
385
Where;
P = pressure (barg)
C1, C2 and C3 = constant value obtained from Table A.2 (Turton, 2009)
Since the pressure is less than 10 barg, then we can conclude that the value of C1, C2 and C3
equal to zero. Then,
log10 𝐹𝑝 = 0
𝐹𝑝 = 1
Therefore,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 2913.40[1.89 + 1.35(1.6)(1)]
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $11, 799.27
By converting the currency, CBM = RM 52, 188.17
is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of pump can be calculated as below:
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 11799.27 × = $ 28159.05
394.3
Then, converting the currency, CBM (2024) = RM 124,547.48
Utility cost
𝑅𝑀0.337 8000ℎ𝑟
386
Mixer (M-101, M-102, M-103 and M-104)
Sizing of M-101
The value of liquid flowrate and liquid density can be calculated by following equation:
𝐹𝐿 𝑟
𝑉 = 2[ ]
𝑃𝐿
0.7707𝑘𝑔
( ) (300𝑠)
𝑠
𝑉 = 2[ ]
0.657𝑘𝑔
𝑚3
𝑉 = 703.84𝑚3
In determining the mixer dimension, the rule of thumb with the assumption that the length, L of a
tubular reactor is 4 times the diameter, D of the reactor had been used. Meanwhile the height of
mixer is 1.5D.
• Diameter of R-101 = 2.34m
Therefore,
𝐿 = 4𝐷 = 4(2.34) = 9.36𝑚
𝐻 = 1.5𝐷 = 1.5(2.34) = 3.51𝑚
Design of the Propeller
Propellers with a square pitch and three blades are the type of mixer that is used. The following
calculations must be done to construct a propeller based on McCabe & Smith's Unit Operation of
Chemical Engineering:
• Da = Diameter of impeller
• Dt = Diameter of reactor
• J = Width of baffles
• W = Impeller width
• E = Height of impeller above vessel floor
• L = Length of impeller blade
Diameter of impeller:
1 1
𝐸 = 𝐷𝑎 = 3 × 𝐷𝑡 = 3 × 2.34 = 0.78𝑚
Width of baffles:
387
1 1
𝐽= × 𝐷𝑡 = × 2.34 = 0.195𝑚
12 12
Impeller width:
1 1
𝑊= × 𝐷𝑎 = × 0.78 = 0.156𝑚
5 5
Length of propeller blade:
1
𝐿= × 0.78 = 0.195𝑚
4
Propellers with a square pitch and three blades is the type of mixer used. Therefore, the agitator
speed for this mixer is within the range from 400 to 1800 rpm.
Assume:
N = 500rpm = 8.33 rps
Figure D.1 Methane Viscosity Graph at 25°C
From figure D.1,
Dynamic viscosity of CH4 = 11.5
Kinematic viscosity of CH4 = 19.5
𝜌𝑄𝐷𝐻 0.657 × 1.1727 × 0.78

𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑅𝐸 = = = 0.1094 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇𝐴 𝜋0.782
11.5 × ( 4 )
388
Power number for 3 to 6 blades can be calculated by using below equation:
𝑛 3 0.8
𝑁𝑝 = ( )0.8 = ( ) = 2.9378
𝐷 0.78
Hence, power consumption, P can be calculated by using following equation:
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝 𝑝𝑁 3 𝐷𝑖 5
Where;
N = agitator speed
Np = power number
D = diameter of impeller
𝑝 = density of liquid mixture
𝑃 = 2.9378 × 0.657 × 8.333 × 0.785 = 322.10𝑊 = 0.3221𝑘𝑊
Costing of M-101
M-101 Propeller 4.3207 -0.9641 0.1346
Based on Turton (2013), the cost of M-101 can be determined by using calculation below:
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 log10 𝐴 + 𝐾3(log10 𝐴)2
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.3207 + (−0.9641) log10 0.3221 + 0.1346(log10 03221)2
𝐶𝑝0 = 67240.23
For mixer carbon steel, FBM = 1.38. Hence;
CBM = Cp0 FBM
CBM = 67240.23(1.38) = $92791.52
is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of M-101 can be calculated as below:
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 92791.52 × = $ 221, 447.68
394.3
Then, converting the currency, CBM (2024) = RM 975, 698.48.
389
Sizing of M-102
𝐹𝐿 𝑟
𝑉 = 2[ ]
𝑃𝐿
1.4998𝑘𝑔
( ) (300𝑠)
𝑠
𝑉 = 2[ ]
0.73𝑘𝑔
𝑚3
𝑉 = 616.36𝑚3
mixer is 1.5D.
𝐿 = 4𝐷 = 4(1.93) = 7.72𝑚
𝐻 = 1.5𝐷 = 1.5(1.93) = 2.895𝑚
1 1
𝐸 = 𝐷𝑎 = × 𝐷𝑡 = × 1.93 = 0.6433𝑚
3 3
Width of baffles:
390
1 1
𝐽= × 𝐷𝑡 = × 1.93 = 0.1608𝑚
12 12
Impeller width:
1 1
𝑊= × 𝐷𝑎 = × 0.6433 = 0.1287𝑚
5 5
1
𝐿= × 0.6433 = 0.1608𝑚
4
Assume:
N = 500rpm = 8.33 rps
Figure D.2 Ammonia Gas Viscosity

From figure D.2, we obtained the value of dynamic viscosity for ammonia gas at 120°C and 1
bar = 14.0 Pa.s.
𝜌𝑄𝐷𝐻 0.73 × 9.8632 × 0.6433
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑅𝐸 = = = 1.0179 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇𝐴 𝜋 × 0.64332
14.0 × ( )
4
𝑛 3
𝑁𝑝 = ( )0.8 = ( )0.8 = 3.4274
𝐷 0.6433
391
Where;
N = agitator speed
Np = power number
𝑃 = 3.4274 × 0.73 × 8.333 × 0.64335 = 159.33𝑊 = 0.1593𝑘𝑊
Costing of M-102
M-102 Propeller 4.3207 -0.9641 0.1346
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.3207 + (−0.9641) log10 0.1593 + 0.1346(log10 0.1593)2
𝐶𝑝0 = 149795.93
CBM = Cp0 FBM
CBM = 149795.93(1.38) = $206,718.38
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 206718.38 × = $ 493, 335.01
394.3
Then, converting the currency, CBM (2024) = RM 2, 173, 634.05
Sizing of M-103
𝐹𝐿 𝑟
𝑉 = 2[ ]
𝑃𝐿
392
0.6525𝑘𝑔
( ) (300𝑠)
𝑠
𝑉 = 2[ ]
25.19𝑘𝑔
𝑚3
𝑉 = 7.7709𝑚3
The form of mixer is vertical cylindrical tank. Hence,
𝜋𝐷𝑡 𝐻
𝑉=
4
3 4𝑉 3 4(7.7709)
𝐷𝑡 = √ =√ = 1.9521𝑚
1.33𝜋 1.33𝜋
𝐻 = 1.33𝐷𝑡 = 1.33(1.9521) = 2.5963𝑚

Assume:
N = 500rpm = 8.33 rps
𝜌𝑄𝐷𝐻 25.19×0.0259×1.9521
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑅𝐸 = = 𝜋×1.95212
= 0.0358 (Laminar flow)
𝜇𝐴 11.87×( )
4

𝑛 3
𝑁𝑝 = ( )0.8 = ( )0.8 = 1.4102
𝐷 1.9521
Where;
N = agitator speed
Np = power number
𝑃 = 1.4102 × 25.19 × 8.333 × 1.95215 = 582041.82𝑊 = 582.04𝑘𝑊
Costing of M-103
M-102 Propeller 4.3207 -0.9641 0.1346
393
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.3207 + (−0.9641) log10 582.04 + 0.1346(log10 582.04)2
𝐶𝑝0 = 483.08
CBM = Cp0 FBM
CBM = 483.08(1.38) = $666.65
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 666.65 × = $ 1590.97
394.3
Then, converting the currency, CBM (2024) = RM 7009.81
Sizing of M-104
𝐹𝐿 𝑟
𝑉 = 2[ ]
𝑃𝐿
1.9638𝑘𝑔
( ) (300𝑠)
𝑠
𝑉 = 2[ ]
2.60𝑘𝑔
𝑚3
𝑉 = 226.59𝑚3
mixer is 1.5D.
𝐿 = 4𝐷 = 4(2.41) = 9.64𝑚
𝐻 = 1.5𝐷 = 1.5(2.41) = 3.615𝑚
394
1 1
𝐸 = 𝐷𝑎 = × 𝐷𝑡 = × 2.41 = 0.8033𝑚
3 3
Width of baffles:
1 1
𝐽= × 𝐷𝑡 = × 2.41 = 0.2008𝑚
12 12
Impeller width:
1 1
𝑊= × 𝐷𝑎 = × 0.8033 = 0.1607𝑚
5 5
1
𝐿= × 0.8033 = 0.2008𝑚
4
Assume:
N = 500rpm = 8.33 rps
395
Figure D.3 Carbon Dioxide Gas Viscosity
From figure D.3, we obtained the value of dynamic viscosity for CO2 gas = 18.5 Pa.s.
𝜌𝑄𝐷𝐻 2.60 × 0.0244 × 0.8033
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑅𝐸 = =
𝜇𝐴 𝜋 × 0.80332
(14.0 + 18.5) × ( )
4
= 0.0031 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

𝑛 3
𝑁𝑝 = ( )0.8 = ( )0.8 = 2.8694
𝐷 0.8033
Where;
N = agitator speed
Np = power number
𝑃 = 2.8694 × 2.60 × 8.333 × 0.80335 = 1442.41𝑊 = 1.4424𝑘𝑊
396
Costing of M-104
M-102 Propeller 4.3207 -0.9641 0.1346
log10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.3207 + (−0.9641) log10 1.4424 + 0.1346(log10 1.4424)2
𝐶𝑝0 = 14816.03
CBM = Cp0 FBM
CBM = 14816.03(1.38) = $20446.12
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 20446.12 × = $ 48794.82
394.3
Then, converting the currency, CBM (2024) = RM 214, 989.98
Separator
i. Sizing and costing of V-101

Column Design
397
Table D. 24: Specification of V-101
Stream Mass flow rate (kg/h)

Components S6 S8 S7
CH4 5244.511 5239.27 5.241
H2 696.679 0.697 695.982
Total 5941.19 5239.967 701.223
Assumption:
1. H2/CH4 (High selectivity)
2. L/D to 3
3. Shape of separator is cylindrical shape
V = 11.32 m3
D = 1.69m
L = 5.06 m
Height of reactor vessel = 5.06m
Area of column = 31.35 m2
Sizing of Hollow Fibre Tube

The thermoplastic polysulfone is the substance used to make hollow fibre tubes.
Table D. 14: Dimensions of Hollow Fibre Membrane
Material Polysulfone
Tube Outer Diameter. Dto 0.1683 m
Tube inlet Diameter, Dti 0.1541 m
Thickness 0.00711 m
Tube Cross-Sectional area, At 0.01865 m2
The tube cross sectional area;
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.01865
4
Volume of single tube;
398
𝑉𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 𝐿 = 0.0944 𝑚3
Number of tubes;
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑉
𝑁𝑡 = = 120 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒, 𝑉𝑡
Costing
According to Turton (2009), the purchased cost (Cp°) of separator can be calculated using
equation,
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃° = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2
Where the coefficients of K1, K2, and K3 are obtained from the handbook and A is the
capacity or size parameter of the equipment.
Equipment Type Description K1 K2 K3
Process vessel Vertical 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃° = 3.4974 + 0.4485𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (31.35) + 0.1074[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (31.35)]2

𝐶𝑃° = $25639.04
The pressure factor, 𝐹𝑃 , for the column calculated by using the following equation. In this
plant, the operating pressure and temperature of V-101 is 1 bar and 250ºC respectively.
Hence,
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − (0.6)(𝑃 + 1)]
0.0063
(1 + 1)1.69
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6(1 + 1)]
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 0.816
The bare module equipment cost (CBM) is calculated by using equation,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝° (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
Table D. 25: Constants for Bare Module Factor of Membrane separator
FM 1 (carbon steel)
B1 2.25
399
B2 1.82
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $25639.04(2.25 + 1.82(1)(0.816)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 61495.55
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of column is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 61495.55 × = $146759.59
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $146759.59 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 657482.98
ii. Sizing of Flash Column (V-102)

Components 13 14 15
CH4 26.6595 23.7938 2.8657
H2 1379.32 1374.57 4.7582
N2 134.996 128.975 6.021
NH3 3856.14 819.446 3036.69
5397.12 2346.78 3050.34
The sizing of flash column is calculated based on (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
From table above,
Vapor mass flow rate, Vw =2346.78 kg/h
Liquid mass flow rate, Lw = 3050.34 kg/h
Vapor density, 𝜌𝑉 = 25.258 kg/m3
Liquid density, 𝜌𝐿 =568.712 kg/m3
400
Since vapor mass flow rate and liquid vapor mass flow rate is relatively small, vertical flash
distillation column is selected.
Flow parameter (FLV) is calculated by using equation as shown below;
𝐿 𝜌𝑉
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
𝑉 𝜌𝐿
3050.34 25.258
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
2346.78 568.712
= 0.2739
Vapor volumetric flow rate, 𝑉𝑣 is calculated by using equation as shown below:
𝑉𝑤
𝑉𝑣 =
3600 × 𝜌𝑣
𝑘𝑔
2346.78
= ℎ𝑟
𝑠 𝑘𝑔
3600 × 25.258 3
ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑚3
= 0.0258
𝑠
Terminal velocity, 𝑢𝑡 is calculated by using equation as shown below:
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉
𝑢𝑡 = 0.07√
𝜌𝑉
568.712 − 25.258
= 0.07√
25.258
𝑚
= 0.3247
𝑠
Demister pad is used to increase efficiency. Thus, Settling velocity, 𝑢𝑠 = Terminal velocity, 𝑢𝑡
The minimum diameter of flash column, 𝐷𝑣 is calculated by using equation as shown below:
4𝑉𝑣
𝐷𝑣 = √
𝜋𝑢𝑠
401
0.0258𝑚3
4( )
𝑠
=√
0.3247𝑚
𝜋( )
𝑠
= 0.3181 𝑚
To slow the gas down to below the velocity at which the particles will settle out, the minimum
value of 𝐷𝑣 is 1.0 m, therefore the 𝐷𝑣 is assumed as 1.2 m
Vessel cross-sectional area, 𝐴𝑐 is calculated by using equation as shown below:
𝜋(𝐷𝑣 )2
𝐴𝑐 =
4
𝜋(1.2)2
=
4
= 1.1310 𝑚2
Assume that a minimum of 10 minutes hold-up for the liquid is allowable (Sinnott & Towler,
2005), and volume hold in vessel is calculated by using equation as shown below:
𝑤 𝐿
Volume held in vessel = 3600×𝜌 × ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐿
𝑘𝑔
3050.34 60 𝑠
= ℎ𝑟 × 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × = 0.8939𝑚3
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3600 × 568.712 3
ℎ𝑟 𝑚
Liquid depth required (𝐻𝐿 ) is calculated by using the equation as shown below,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝐻𝐿 =
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
0.8939
= = 0.7904𝑚
1.1310
Height of vapor, (𝐻𝑣 ) is calculated by using the equation as shown below,
𝐷𝑣
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐷𝑣 +
2
1.2
= 1.2 +
2
= 1.8𝑚
Assume the typical height of a demister pad is 0.4m,
Total height of the column, HT is calculated as shown below;
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝐿 + 𝐻𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻𝑇 = 1.8 + 0.7904 + 0.4 = 2.9904𝑚
402
Volume of the flash column is calculated as below:
𝜋𝐷2 𝐿
𝑉=
4
𝜋(1.2)2 (2.9904)
= = 3.3821𝑚3
4
The L/D ratio of flash column is as follow.
𝐿 2.9904
= = 2.492
𝐷 1.200
The typical range of L/D ratio is in 2.0 to 5.0 for vertical vessel.
Costing of Flash Column, V-102
flash column is calculated using the formula and information as below:
By using the formula, the cost is calculated:

where A is the capacity or size perimeter of the equipment. The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with
the maximum and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton
et al., 2009).
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.4974 + (0.4485)(log10 (3.3821)) + (0.1074)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.3821))2
𝐶𝑃0 = $ 5818.57
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6)𝑃 + 1)]
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 2.70
Table D. 27: Constants for Bare Module Factor of V-102
FM 1
403
B1 2.25
B2 1.82
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 5818.57(2.25 + 1.82(1)(2.70)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 43138.88
2009). Hence, the cost of column is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 43138.88 × = $102951.27
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $102951.27 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 461221.67
Demister Pad
According to (Turton et al., 2009), the cost of flash column is calculated using the formula and
information as below:
where A is the tray area The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the maximum and minimum values
used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
Trays Demisters 3.2353 0.4838 0.3434
404
πD2
Tray area, 𝐴 = 4
π(1.2)2
= = 1.1310𝑚2
4
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.2353 + (0.4838)(log10 (1.1310)) + (0.3434)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1.1310))2
𝐶𝑃0 = $ 1828.72
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 𝑁𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐹𝑞
In where, N is the number of trays and 𝐹𝑞 is the quantity factor for trays.
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑞 = 0.4771 + (0.08516)(log10 (𝑁)) + (0.3473)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑁))2
𝐹𝑞 = 2.9999
𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1 ()
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 1828.72(1)(1)(2.9999)
= $ 5485.98
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 5485.98 × = $ 13092.33
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $13092.33 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 58653.62
Total cost of flash column = 𝑅𝑀 58653.62 + 𝑅𝑀 461221.67
= 𝑅𝑀 519875.29
iii. Sizing and costing of V-103

Sizing

Components S21 S22 S23
NH3 50.1398 50.1398 0
405
H2O 1500.55 0 1500.55
CO2 160.777 160.777 0
UREA 5002.21 0 5002.21
AC 342.25 342.25 0
H2 4.73935 4.73935 0
CH4 2.86123 2.86123 0
N2 6.00016 6.00016 0
TOTAL 7069.53 566.768 6502.76
The sizing of flash column is calculated based on Sinnott (2005).

Mass flow rate of vapor, VW = 566.768 kg/h
Vapor density, ρV = 754.591kg/m3
Mass flow rate of liquid, Lw = 6502.76 kg/h
Liquid density, ρL = 2320 kg/m3
Flow parameter (FLV) is calculated by using equation from Sinnott (2005):
𝐿 𝜌𝑉
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
𝑉 𝜌𝐿
6502.76 754.591
= √
566.768 2320
= 6.5434
Settling velocity, Ut is calculated by using equation:
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉
𝑈𝑡 = 0.07√
𝜌𝑉
2320 − 754.591
= 0.07√
754.591
𝑚
= 0.1008
𝑠
406
Vapor volumetric flowrate, VV is calculated using equation:
𝑉𝑊
𝑉𝑣 =
3600 × 𝜌𝑉
566.768
=
3600 × 754.591
𝑚3
= 0.0002 𝑠
Demister pad is used to increase the efficiency. Hence Us = Ut

The minimum diameter of flash column, Dv is calculated by using equation:
4𝑉𝑣
𝐷𝑣 = √
𝜋𝑈𝑠
0.0002𝑚3
4( )
𝑠
=√
0.1008𝑚
𝜋( )
𝑠
= 0.0503𝑚
To slow the gas down to below the velocity at which the particles will settle out, the
minimum value of Dv is 1.0m and Dv/2 is 0.6m, therefore the value Dv is assumed as 1.2m
(Sinnott, 2005).
Vessel cross-sectional area, Ac is calculated by using equation :

𝜋𝐷𝑣2
𝐴𝑐 =
4
𝜋(1.2)2
=
4
= 1.1310 𝑚2
Assume that a minimum of 10 minutes hold-up for the liquid is allowable. Volume hold in
vessel is calculated by using equation :
𝐿𝑤
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 = × ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
3600 × 𝜌𝐿
kg
6502.76 60 𝑠
= h × 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ×
3600𝑠 2320𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
×
ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
= 0.4672𝑚3
407
Liquid depth required (HL) is calculated using equation :
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝐻𝐿 =
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
0.4672𝑚3
=
1.1310 𝑚2
= 0.4131 𝑚
Height of vapor, Hv is calculated by using equation :
𝐷𝑣
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐷𝑣 +
2
1.2
= 1.2 +
2
= 1.8 𝑚
Assume that typical height of demister pad is 0.4m (Sinnott, 2005).
Total height of the column, HT is calculated,
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝐿 + 𝐻𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 1.8 + 0.4131 + 0.4
= 2.6131𝑚
There, the volume of the flash column is calculated,
𝜋𝐷2 𝐿
𝑉=
4
𝜋(1.2)2 2.6131
=
4
= 2.9553𝑚3
The L/D ratio of the flash column is

𝐿 2.6131
= = 2.1226 ≈ 2
𝐷 1.2
Where the L/D ratio is in the typical range of 2.0 to 5.0 for vertical vessel.
Costing
According to Turton (2009), the purchased cost (Cp°) of separator can be calculated using
equation,
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃° = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2
408
Where the coefficients of K1, K2, and K3 are obtained from the handbook and A is the
capacity or size parameter of the equipment.
Equipment Type Description K1 K2 K3
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃° = 3.4974 + 0.4485𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.9553) + 0.1074[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.9553)]2
𝐶𝑃° = $5398.22
The pressure factor, 𝐹𝑃 , for the column calculated by using the following equation. In this
plant, the operating pressure and temperature of V-103 is 68.9 bar and 130ºC respectively.
Hence,
(𝑃 + 1)𝐷
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6(𝑃 + 1)]
0.0063
(68.9 + 1)1.2
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6(68.9 + 1)]
0.0063
𝐹𝑝 = 8.7384
The bare module equipment cost (CBM) is calculated by using equation,
Table D.29: Constants for Bare Module Factor of V-103
FM 1
B1 2.25
B2 1.82
409
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 5398.22(2.25 + 1.82(1)(0.8616)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 20611
2001 is 394.3 (Turton, 2009). Hence, the cost of column is,
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 20611 × = $49188.33
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $49188.33 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 220363.72
Demister Pad
According to (Turton et al., 2009), the cost of flash column is calculated using the
formula and information as below:
where A is the tray area The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the maximum and minimum
values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1 (Turton et al., 2009).
Trays Demisters 3.2353 0.4838 0.3434
410
πD2
Tray area, 𝐴 = 4
π(1.2)2
= = 1.1310𝑚2
4
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 3.2353 + 0.4838(log10 (1.1310)) + 0.3434[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1.1310)]2
𝐶𝑃0 = $ 1826
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 𝑁𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐹𝑞
where, N is the number of trays equal to 1 and 𝐹𝑞 is the quantity factor for trays.
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑞 = 0.4771 + (0.08516)(log10 (𝑁)) + (0.3473)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑁))2
𝐹𝑞 = 2.9999
𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1 (𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 1826(1)(1)(2.9999)
= $ 5477.82
941
𝐶𝐵𝑀 (2024) = $ 5477.82 × = $ 13072.85
394.3
𝑅𝑀4.48
= $13072.85 ×
$1
= 𝑅𝑀 58566.38
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅𝑀 220363.72 + 𝑅𝑀 58566.38

= 𝑅𝑀 278930.1
Storage Tank (TK-101)

Table D. 30: Specification of TK-101
Carbon
Molar flow rate, kmol/h 183.63
Density, kg/m3 2250
Molecular weight, kg/kmol 12.011
411
Volumetric flow rate,
𝑚 × 𝑀𝑊
𝑉=
𝜌
183.63 × 12.011 0.98𝑚3
𝑉= =
2250 ℎ𝑟
The amount to be stored is on 7 days basis which is equal to 168 hour.
Volume of product = volumetric flowrate × storage time = 164.64m3
Consider 25% for safety factor, 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 125% × 164.64𝑚3 = 205.8𝑚3
Let L/D = 0.8
3 4𝑉 3 4(205.8)
Diameter, 𝐷 = √0.5𝜋 = √ = 8.06𝑚
0.5𝜋
Height, 𝐻 = 8.06 × 0.8 = 6.448𝑚

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s2
Design stress for tank material, f = 40N/mm2
Corrosion allowance of stainless steel for maximum 30 years = 3mm
(9.81)(2250)(8.06)(6.448)
Total thickness = + 3 = 17.34𝑚𝑚
2(40)(1000)
Costing
The general equation used to calculate the costing for equipment as followed:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑝° = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 + 𝐾3 [log(𝐴)]2
For storage tank , the A is represented as volume of storage tank (m3). Value of K1, K2 and K3 can
be referred to Table A.1 (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006)
Storage tank Fixed roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑝° = 4.8509 − 0.3973 log 205.8 + 0.1445[log (205.8)]2

𝐶𝑝° = $50715
For vertical process vessel by using stainless steel as material, FM = 3.1 and FP = 1.00 for
storage tank.
B1 = 2.25, B2 = 1.82
412
CBM = $400242.78
941
𝐶2024 = $400242.78 × = $955182.49
394.3
𝑅𝑀 4.48
= $955182.49 ×
$1
=RM 4,279,217.56
Distillation Column, T-101

Following are the calculations related to T-101 sizing which including the number of trays, feed
stage and height of column. Besides, the required data are listed which summarized from previous
energy balance report. Following equations are refer from (Geankoplis, 2014).
Figure G. 1: Stream Information for T-101
Fugure G. 2: Pressure with Vary Temperature Calculated by Using Antoine Coefficient
413
Figure G. 3: Distribution Coefficient and Volatility at Different Temperature
Number of Tray
Minimum stages for total reflux:
Assume total reboiler and total condenser are used.
Nm = 19 theoretical stages/trays
Figure G. 1: Erbar-Maddox Correlation between Reflux Ratio and Number of Stages

(Source: From Figure H.67, Transport Processes & Separation Process Principles book
(Includes Unit Operations), (Geankoplis, 2014) )
414
From Figure G. 1, Erbar-Maddox correlation used to determine the number of stages at operating
reflux ratio, N. Therefore, the ideal stages (Nideal), number of theoretical stages above feed plate
(Ne) and number of theoretical stages below feed plate (Ns) can be calculated.
Actual Tray
To calculate the actual tray, tray efficiency (E0) is needed. However, due to some of the distillation
feed is in vapor state, the equation of E0 = 0.492 (𝜇L𝛼) −0.456 are not applicable. Therefore, the
typical tray efficiency (E0) in range of 40% to 80% from (Geankoplis, 2014)is referred and 80%
efficiency is assumed for every distillation column.
Feed Stage
415
T-101 diameter calculation
Figure G. 2: Estimation of Kv Value for Allowable Vapor Velocity
416
Multiply the maximum allowable vapor velocity by 0.95 for foaming, 0.8 for 80% flooding and
0.85 to account for downspout area (Geankoplis, 2014).
Since the hoop stress is bigger than longitudinal stress. Hence, thickness of 0.0122 m is chosen.
417
Figure G. 3: Relation between Downcomer Area and Weir Length.
418
Figure G. 4: Weep Point Correlation
(Source: Figure 11.32 in Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design,
SEPARATION COLUMNS (DISTILLATION, ABSORPTION, AND EXTRACTION),
Retrieved April 2023)
419
Figure G. 5: Relation between Hole Area and Pitch.
Cv is 1.15 for distillation columns or vessels with several manways, plate support rings, or
equivalent fittings.
420
Reboiler T-101
Common overall heat transfer coefficient, U for reboiler using low pressure steam as heating
medium is 1000 W/m2K (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991).
Condenser T-101
Common overall heat transfer coefficient, U for condenser using cooling water as cooling
medium is 750 W/m2K (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991).
Costing of T-101
421
422
H. Heat Exchanger
Heater (E-101)
Table D.31: Specification of Heater, E-101
Heat exchanger type 2 Shells-4 Tubes pass
Design type Split-Ring Floating Head
Heat exchanger orientation Vertical
Tube inlet direction Horizontal
Tube side fluid Methane
Shell side fluid Steam
Heat duty (J/s) 9830280
Sizing
Table D.32: Tube-Side and Shell-Side Temperature of Heat Exchanger, E-101
Feed Tube (Thot)) Shell (Tcold)
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 180 𝑇1 = 453.15 420 𝑡1 = 593.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 1200 𝑇2 = 1473.15 409.13 𝑡2 = 582.28
Logarithmic mean temperature can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2005):
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 391.28 𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures and the number of
tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of two dimensionless temperature
ratios. The temperature ratios for the temperature correction factor:
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 93.84
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝑆= = = 0.074
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
423
𝐹𝑡 = 1
Therefore, the true temperature difference is
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 391.28 𝐾
From Table 12.1 in (Sinnott & Towler, 2005) the overall heat-transfer coefficient is assumed.
U = 300 W/m2.K
The area of heat exchanger can be obtained from:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚
= 83.74 𝑚2
Tube Rating
The dimensions of heat exchanger tubes is obtained from Appendix A.5-2, Transport Processes
and Unit Operation by Geankoplis. The largest diameter tube available is chosen for gas mixture
material flow.
Material = Carbon steel
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
Thickness, tt= 3.4 mm
Outer diameter, Dto = 50.8 mm
Inner diameter, Dti = 43.99 mm
The heat transfer area of the tube can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2005)
424
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
The number of tubes can be calculated as below
𝐴 83.74
𝑁𝑡 = = = 286.70
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 0.2921
The tubes in an exchanger are arranged in an equilateral triangular as shown in figure below since
the triangular gives higher heat-transfer rates (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
The tube pitch (distance between tube centers) can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2005).
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
From Table 12.4 in (Chemical Engineering Design) book, (Sinnott & Towler, 2005), the Constants
for Bundle Diameter of Heat Exchanger, E-101.
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
The bundle diameter can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2005);
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) 1 = 1295.98 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
Tube-Side Coefficient
The mean temperature of tube fluid is calculated as follows:
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 963.15℃
2
Table D.33: The physical properties of the tube-side fluid results.
Stream 1
Fluid density 0.4318 kg/m3
425
Mass flow rate, m 8014.56 kg/h = 2.2263 kg/s
Viscosity, 𝜇 0.018 × 10-3 kg/m.s
Heat capacity, Cp 2.93 kJ/kg.K
Thermal conductivity, ktf 0.0344 W/m.K
The tube cross sectional area:

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.00152 𝑚2
4
The number of tubes per pass can be determined as follows:
𝑁𝑡
𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = 72
𝑁𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Total flow area can be obtained as follows:
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.10944𝑚2
The tube fluid velocity can be obtained as follows:
𝑚 2.2263
𝑣𝑓 = = = 20.34 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.10944
The linear velocity can be obtained as follows:
𝑣𝑓 20.34
𝑢𝑡 = = = 47.11 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡 0.4318
Tube-side Reynold number:
𝑝𝑡 𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑡𝑖
𝑅𝑒 = = 4.97 × 107
𝜇
The tube-side Prandtl number can be obtained as follows:
𝐶𝑝 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.002
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
The ratio of length to the internal diameter of tube can be obtained as follows:
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
The heat transfer factor can be obtained from Figure 19.23 (Sinnott & Towler, 2005)
426
𝑗𝑛 = 0.003
The mean temperature at the wall is calculated as follows:
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 ) 593.15 + 582.28
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 587.72 ℃
2 2
The fluid viscosity at the wall is obtained from Appendix A.2-4 from
𝜇𝑤 = 2.8 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
Inside fluid film coefficient can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2005)
1
𝑘𝑠𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 3 𝜇𝑆𝐿 0.14
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 770.481𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖 𝜇𝑤
Tube Side Pressure Drop
The friction factor can be obtained from Figure 12.24 (Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝑗𝑓 = 0.0003
The tube side pressure drop can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐿𝑡 𝜇𝑡 −𝑚 𝜌𝑡 𝑢𝑡2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
𝐷𝑡𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
Where m = 0.25 for laminar flow, Re˂2100
m = 0.14 for turbulent flow, Re˃2100

Np = number of tube side passes
427
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 4995.15𝑃𝑎 = 0.05 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Shell bundle clearance for split-ring floating head is obtained from figure 12.10 (Chem Eng Vol
6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 50 mm
Therefore, the shell inside diameter can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 559.76 𝑚𝑚
The baffle spacing can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 167.93 𝑚𝑚
The baffle diameter can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐵𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 − 1.6 = 558.16 𝑚𝑚
Hence, the number of baffles can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = − 1 = 10
𝑙𝑏
428
Smaller corrosion allowance is use for heat transfer equipment, where the wall thickness can
affect the heat transfer.
Corrosion allowance = 1.5 mm
Therefore, the shell diameter is obtained as follow:
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 561.26 𝑚𝑚
Shell side coefficient

The mean temperature of shell fluid is calculated as follows:
𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 587.72 𝐾
2
The physical properties of the shell side fluid are obtained from Transport Processes and Unit
Operations (4th Edition) (C. J. Geankoplis, 2003):
Fluid density, ⍴s (Appendix A.2-3) = 700 kg/m3
Viscosity, µsL (Appendix A.2-4) = 0.0862×10-3 kg/m.s
Heat capacity, Csp (Appendix A.2-5) = 6.322 kJ/kg.K
Thermal conductivity, ksf (Appendix A.2-6) = 0.5071 W/m.K
Heat duty, Q = 12087324.72 kJ/h
The shell cross flow area can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
(𝑃𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.02 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
The shell side mass flow can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 175892.03 = 48.86 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐶𝑠𝑝 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) ℎ𝑟
Hence, the shell-side mass velocity can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 2443
𝐴𝑠 𝑠. 𝑚2
The shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter) for an equilateral triangular pitch
arrangement can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
The shell-side Reynolds number can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
429
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 1.02 × 106
𝜇𝑠𝐿
The shell-side Prandtl number can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐶𝑠𝑝 𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 1.07 × 10−3
𝑘𝑠𝑓
The heat transfer factor for a 25% baffle cut can be obtained from Figure 12.29 (Chem Eng Vol
𝑗𝑛 = 0.072
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 963.15 𝐾
2
The fluid viscosity at the wall is obtained from Appendix A.2-12 (C. J. Geankoplis, 1983):
𝜇𝑤 = 2.529 × 10−5
Therefore, outside fluid film coefficient can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
1
𝑘𝑠𝑓 𝑗𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟3 𝜇𝑠𝐿 0.14 𝑊
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 1311.66 2
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑤 𝑚 .𝐾
430
Shell Side Pressure Drop
The shell side linear velocity can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 3.49𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
The friction factor for a 25% baffle cut can be obtained from Figure 12.30 (Chem Eng Vol 6)
(Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝑗𝑓 = 0.25
The shell side pressure drop can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):
𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝑡 𝜌𝑠 𝜇𝑠2 𝜇𝑠𝐿 −0.14
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝐷𝑒 𝑙𝐵 2 𝜇𝑤
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 4927740 𝑃𝑎 = 486.33 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
Outside fluid film coefficient, ho 𝑊
1311.66
𝑚2 . 𝐾
Inside fluid film coefficient, hi 770.481𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
Outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), hod 5000𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾

(From Table 12.2 (Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013))
Inside dirt coefficient, hid (from Table 12.2 (Chem Eng Vol 6) 5000𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
(Sinnott & Towler, 2013))
Thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, kw (from 16𝑊/𝑚. 𝐾
Appendix A.5-2 (C. J. Geankoplis, 1983))
Tube inside diameter, Dti (from Appendix A.5-2 (C. J. 0.04399 mm
Geankoplis, 1983))
Tube outside diameter, Dto (from Appendix A.5-2 (C. J. 0.0508 mm
Geankoplis, 1983))
The overall coefficient based on on the inside area of the tube can be obtained as follows (Sinnott
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑫𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒏( 𝑫𝒕𝒐 ) 𝑫 𝟏 𝑫𝒕𝒐 𝟏
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑼𝒊 𝒉𝒐 𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝒘 𝑫𝒕𝒊 𝒉𝒊𝒅 𝑫𝒕𝒊 𝒉𝒊
431
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟑𝟒𝟐. 𝟑𝟗
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
The error between the calculated and estimated value can be obtained as follows:
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 2.25%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Heat exchanger type Shell and tube
Design type Split-ring floating head
Area 83.74 m2
Feed pressure 1 bar
The purchased cost of the heat exchanger, E-101 was calculated by using the following equation.
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2
Where A is the area of the heat exchanger. The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the maximum
and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from Table A.1 (Turton, 2003).
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $23595.23

According to the reference (Turton, 2003), the CEPCI in 2001 and 2024 are 397 and 941
respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
From (Turton, 2003), heat exchanger, FM = 1.0, B1 = 1.63, B2 = 1.66. The pressure factor, FP, for
the heat exchangers was calculated by using the following equation:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃) + 𝐶3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃)]2
C1 C2 C3 P
0.03881 -0.11272 0.08183 bar
432
Since P=1 bar Thus,
FP = 1
CBM = $77628.29
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $77628.29 × = $ 185401.59
397
By taking currency rate where USD 1 = RM4.48. Cost for column of E-101 is estimated to be
RM830599.10
Heater (E-102)
Tube side fluid Methane
Heat duty (J/s) 8124696.6
Sizing
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 1200 𝑇1 = 1473.15 240 𝑡1 = 513.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 250 𝑇2 = 523.15 500 𝑡2 = 773.15
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 162.41 𝐾
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
433
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures and the number of tube
and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios.
The temperature ratios for the temperature correction factor:
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 3.65
𝑆= = = 0.27
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹𝑡 = 0.93
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 151.04 𝐾
U = 2500 W/m2.K
= 21.52 𝑚2
Tube Rating
434
The dimensions of heat exchanger tubes are obtained from Appendix A.5-2, Transport Processes
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 21.52
𝑁𝑡 = = = 74
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
435
𝑁𝑡 1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( )𝑛1 = 716.44 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 475℃
2
Stream 4
Therma conductivity, ktf 0.0344 W/m.K

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.002 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.148 𝑚2
𝑚 1.65033
𝑣𝑓 = = = 11.15 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.148
𝑣𝑓 11.15
𝑢𝑡 = = = 175.60 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡 0.0635
𝑅𝑒 = = 9.14 × 107
𝜇
436
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.002
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
𝑗𝑛 = 0.003
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 370 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.8 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
1
𝑘𝑠𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 3 𝜇𝑡 0.14
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 25926𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
𝑗𝑓 = 0.0001
437
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 67516.30 𝑃𝑎 = 0.67 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 756.44 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 226.93 𝑚𝑚
438
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = −1=8
𝑙𝑏
Smaller corrosion allowance is use for heat transfer equipment, where the wall thickness can affect
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 757.94 𝑚𝑚
𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 370 𝐾
2
Fluid density, ⍴s (Appendix A.2-3) = 960.50 kg/m3
Heat duty, Q = 29922842.98 kJ/h
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.03 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 28430.25 = 7.90 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 242.95
439
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 3 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 1.80 × 10−3
𝑘𝑠𝑓
The heat transfer factor for a 25% baffle cut can be obtained from Figure 12.29 (Chem Eng Vol 6)
𝑗𝑛 = 0.034
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 475 𝐾
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.529 × 10−5
440
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 35374.58 2
𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 0.25 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.41
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 192621 𝑃𝑎 = 1.90 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
35374.58
𝑚2 . 𝐾
Inside fluid film coefficient, hi 25926𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾

(From Table 12.2 (Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott
& Towler, 2013))
Inside dirt coefficient, hid (from Table 12.2 5000𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
(Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013))
Thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, 16𝑊/𝑚. 𝐾
kw (from Appendix A.5-2 (C. J. Geankoplis,
1983))
441
Tube inside diameter, Dti (from Appendix A.5- 0.04399 mm
2 (C. J. Geankoplis, 1983))
Tube outside diameter, Dto (from Appendix 0.0508 mm
A.5-2 (C. J. Geankoplis, 1983))
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟓. 𝟔𝟐
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 83.07%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Area 21.52 m2
Feed pressure 1 bar
The purchased cost of the heat exchanger, E-102 was calculated by using the following equation.
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
442
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $ 18308.17
respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
From (Turton, 2003), heat exchanger, FM = 1, B1 = 1.63, B2 = 1.66, FP = 1.
CBM = $ 60233.89
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $60233.89 × = $ 142771.01
397
RM639614.14
Heater (E-103)
Tube side fluid Ammonia
Sizing
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 663 𝑇1 = 936.15 250 𝑡1 = 523.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 480 𝑇2 = 753.15 500 𝑡2 = 773.15
443
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 194.58 𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 0.732
𝑆= = = 1.36
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹𝑡 = 0.9
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 175.12 𝐾
U = 2500 W/m2.K
= 27.72 𝑚2
444
Tube Rating
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 27.72
𝑁𝑡 = = = 95
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
445
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) 1 = 522.68 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 1126.71 ℃
2
Stream 4

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.002 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 = =9
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.072𝑚2
𝑚 1.49977
𝑣𝑓 = = = 20.83𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.072
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 28.53 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡
𝑅𝑒 = = 5.73 × 104
𝜇
446
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0002
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
𝑗𝑛 = 0.0035
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 525 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.8 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
1
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 30353.40 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
𝑗𝑓 = 0.003
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
447
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 4254.14 𝑃𝑎 = 0.04 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 587.68 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 176.30 𝑚𝑚
448
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = − 1 = 10
𝑙𝑏
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 589.18 𝑚𝑚

𝑡1 + 𝑡2
2
Heat duty, Q = 48690709.07 kJ/h
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.02 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 19938.87 = 5.54 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 277
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜
449
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 3 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 3.43 × 10−3
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗𝑛 = 0.0035
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 1399.86 𝐾
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.529 × 10−5
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 42875.87 2
450
𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 0.28𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.6
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 410643 𝑃𝑎 = 4.05 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
42875.87
𝑚2 . 𝐾
Inside fluid film coefficient, hi 30353.40 𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾

& Towler, 2013))
1983))
451
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟎
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 80.21%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Material of construction SS-tube & SS-shell
Area 27.72 m2
Feed pressure 1 bar
The purchase cost of the heat exchanger, E-103 was calculated by using the following equation.
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $18465.02
452
respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
CBM = $ 60749.92
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $60749.92 × = $ 143994.13
397
RM645,093.72
Heater (E-104)
Heat duty (kW) 3703270
Sizing
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 480 𝑇1 = 753.15 30 𝑡1 = 303.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 35 𝑇2 = 308.15 300 𝑡2 = 573.15
453
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 48.83 𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 1.65
𝑆= = = 0.6
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹𝑡 = 0.5
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 24.42 𝐾
U = 2500 W/m2.K
= 60.66 𝑚2
454
Tube Rating
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 60.66
𝑁𝑡 = = = 208
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
455
𝑁𝑡 1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( )𝑛1 = 1126.18 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 257.5 ℃
2

Stream 4

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.002 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.416𝑚2
𝑚 1.49977
𝑣𝑓 = = = 3.61𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.416
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 4.95 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡
456
𝑅𝑒 = = 9.93 × 103
𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0002
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
𝑗𝑛 = 0.004
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 165 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.8 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
1
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 41766.53 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
𝑗𝑓 = 0.0075
457
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 186.00 𝑃𝑎 = 0.002 𝑎𝑡𝑚
458
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 1166.18 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 349.85 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = −1=5
𝑙𝑏
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 1167.68 𝑚𝑚

𝑡1 + 𝑡2
2
Heat duty, Q = 11084810 kJ/h
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.08 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
459
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 9459.64 = 2.63 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 32.89
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 4.94 × 103
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 1.58 × 10−3
𝑘𝑠𝑓
460
𝑗𝑛 = 0.008
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 257.5 𝐾
2
𝜇𝑤 = 1.120 × 10−5
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 51323.60 2
𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 0.04
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.85
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 18364.90 𝑃𝑎 = 0.18 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
51323.60
𝑚2 . 𝐾
461
& Towler, 2013))
1983))
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟓
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 76.65%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Material of construction SS-tube & SS-shell
Area 60.66 m2
Feed pressure 202 bar
462
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $21212.56

respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )

CBM = $ 69789.32
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $69789.32 × = $ 165420.03
397
RM741081.74
Heater (E-105)
463
Sizing
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 35 𝑇1 = 308.15 150 𝑡1 = 423.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 185 𝑇2 = 458.15 20 𝑡2 = 293.15
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ) − (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 23.60 𝐾
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 1.15
𝑆= = = 0.8
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹𝑡 = 0.55
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 12.98 𝐾
464
U = 2500 W/m2.K
= 39.50 𝑚2
Tube Rating
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 39.50
𝑁𝑡 = = = 136
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
465
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) 1 = 935.09 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 110 ℃
2
Stream 4

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.02 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 2.72𝑚2
466
𝑚 0.8473
𝑣𝑓 = = = 0.31 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 2.72
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.42 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡
𝑅𝑒 = = 0.84 × 103
𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0003
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
𝑗𝑛 = 0.0065
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 85 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.8 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
467
1
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 22761.44 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
𝑗𝑓 = 0.08
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 8.06 𝑃𝑎 = 7.95 × 10−5 𝑎𝑡𝑚
468
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 965.09 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 289.53 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = −1=6
𝑙𝑏
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 966.59 𝑚𝑚

𝑡1 + 𝑡2
2
Heat duty, Q = 1024648.632 kJ/h
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.056 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
469
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 1874.86 = 0.52 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 9.29
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 0.99 × 103
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 2.09 × 10−3
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗𝑛 = 0.014
470
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 110 𝐾
2
𝜇𝑤 = 1.320 × 10−5
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 53425.21 2

𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 0.009𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.76
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 1026.76 𝑃𝑎 = 0.01 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
53425.21
𝑚2 . 𝐾

& Towler, 2013))
471
1983))
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟏. 𝟗𝟏
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 82.23%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Area 39.50 m2
472
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $19251.33

respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )

CBM = $ 63336.88
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $63336.88 × = $ 150125.94
397
RM672564.23.
Heater (E-106)
Tube side fluid Carbon Dioxide
473
Sizing
Feed Tube (Thot) Shell (Tcold)
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 774 𝑇1 = 1047.15 150 𝑡1 = 423.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 185 𝑇2 = 458.15 600 𝑡2 = 873.15
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 86.67 𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 1.31
𝑆= = = 0.72
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
𝐹𝑡 = 0.68
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 58.93 𝐾
474
U = 250 W/m2.K
= 5.08 𝑚2
Tube Rating
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 5.08
𝑁𝑡 = = = 18
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
475
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) 1 = 385.91 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 479.5 ℃
2
Stream 4
Viscosity, 𝜇 0.004× 10-3 kg/m.s

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.002 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.036𝑚2
𝑚 0.8473
𝑣𝑓 = = = 23.54 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.036
476
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 12.59 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡
𝑅𝑒 = = 2.59 × 105
𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.00005
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
𝑗𝑛 = 0.0025
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 375 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 0.2540 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
477
1
𝑘𝑠𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 3 𝜇𝑡 0.14 𝑊
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 580.01 .𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖 𝜇𝑤 𝑚2
𝑗𝑓 = 0.022
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑡 = 9243.11 𝑃𝑎 = 0.09 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 405.91 𝑚𝑚
478
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 121.77 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = − 1 = 15
𝑙𝑏
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 407.41 𝑚𝑚
𝑡1 + 𝑡2
2
Heat duty, Q = 2691826.84 kJ/h
479
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.009 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 1317.59 = 0.37 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 41.11
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 5.84 × 103
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0026
𝑘𝑠𝑓
480
𝑗𝑛 = 0.008
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 479.5 𝐾
2
𝜇𝑤 = 2.73 × 10−5
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 111.72 2
𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 0.04𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.57
481
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 5349.39 𝑃𝑎 = 0.05 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
1121.72
𝑚2 . 𝐾

& Towler, 2013))
1983))
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟐𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟑
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
482
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 11.45%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Area 5.08 m2
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $24477.71

respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )

CBM = $ 80531.67
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $60233.89 × = $ 190882.37
397
483
RM855153.00
Heater (E-107)
Tube side fluid Water
Sizing
𝑇𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 185 𝑇1 = 458.15 100 𝑡1 = 373.15
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐾) 130 𝑇2 = 403.15 150 𝑡2 = 423.15
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 32.44 𝐾
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )
𝑅= = = 1.1
𝑆= = = 0.56
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
484
𝐹𝑡 = 0.7
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 22.71 𝐾
U = 2500 W/m2.K
= 4.4 𝑚2
Tube Rating
material flow.
Length, Lt = 1.83 m
485
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 0.2921 𝑚2
𝐴 4.4
𝑁𝑡 = = = 16
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.0635 m
No passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) 1 = 366.53 𝑚𝑚
𝐾1
𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 157.5 ℃
2
486
Stream 4
Fluid density 940 kg/m3
Viscosity, 𝜇 0.2680× 10-3 kg/m.s

𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖 2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.002 𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.032𝑚2
𝑚 1.96376
𝑣𝑓 = = = 61.37 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴𝑇 0.032
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.07 𝑚/𝑠
𝑝𝑡
𝑅𝑒 = = 1.08 × 104
𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0018
𝑘𝑡 𝑓
𝐿 1.83
= = 41.6004
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.04399
487
𝑗𝑛 = 0.004
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 125 ℃
2
𝜇𝑤 = 0.2818 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
1
ℎ𝑖 = ( ) = 37996.90 𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾

𝑗𝑓 = 0.049
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
Therefore,
488
∆𝑃𝑡 = 174.31 𝑃𝑎 = 0.002 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐷𝑠𝑏 = 386.53 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝐵 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 115.96 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝐵 = − 1 = 15
𝑙𝑏
489
the heat transfer.
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 387.85 𝑚𝑚

𝑡1 + 𝑡2
2
Heat duty, Q = 278519175.90 kJ/h
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.009 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠 = = 1310678.48 = 364.08 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 40453.33
490
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 36.07 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 5.31 × 106
𝜇𝑠𝐿
𝑃𝑟 = = 0.0017
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗𝑛 = 0.0005
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 157.5 𝐾
2
491
𝜇𝑤 = 1.53 × 10−5
1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 49278.24 2

𝐺𝑠
𝜇𝑠 = = 42.55𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝑗𝑓 = 0.0008
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore,
∆𝑃𝑠 = 16801200 𝑃𝑎 = 165.81 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Overall Coefficient
49278.24
𝑚2 . 𝐾

& Towler, 2013))
492
1983))
& Towler, 2013):
𝑫
𝒕𝒊 𝒕𝒐
= + + + × + ×
𝑾
𝑼𝒊 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖. 𝟏𝟕
𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
𝑈 − 𝑈𝑖
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 77.54%
𝑈𝑖
Costing
Area 4.4 m2
493
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝐶𝑝0 (2001) = $26003.87

respectively.
Then,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )

CBM = $ 85552.73
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
941
𝐶2 = $85552.73 × = $ 202783.68
397
RM908470.89
494
APPENDIX E: ASPEN SIMULATION REPORT
1.1 Introduction
Aspen Plus process simulator is used for the purpose of modelling the process. Process
simulators are used to show the actual processes of the designed processes, although it is far from
reality. Advanced computing technologies, extensive thermodynamic packages and large
component libraries offer process simulators accurate information on process design and activity.
The fundamental steps in the modelling and simulation process using Aspen Plus are as
defining chemical components, choosing the appropriate thermodynamics model and method,
designing process flow diagram sheets by selecting proper operating units, evaluating plant
capacity and setting input parameters (Dimian, 2003).
1.1.2 Background of Urea

Urea is the main product in this plant design. Urea, commonly known as carbamide which
is the carbonic acid’s diamide. The chemical formula for urea is CH4N2O. Urea is a clear,
crystalline material that melts around 132.7 ℃ and decomposes before boiling. The density
of urea is 1.335 g/cc, and it is a non-combustible material. Urea is very soluble in water,
and it is less soluble in methanol and ethanol. At room temperature urea is white,
odourless, and tasteless. When it is dissolved in water it hydrolyses very slow to
ammonium carbamate and eventually decomposes to ammonia and carbon dioxide. This is
the basis for the use of urea as a fertilizer. Urea has a formula weight of 60.06 and a nitrogen
content of 46.7% by weight. Nowadays, synthetic urea is created from synthetic ammonia
and carbon dioxide.
Two chemical reactions are primarily involved in the process:

1. Reaction of Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide to form Ammonium Carbamate.
2NH3 + CO2 → NH2COONH4
1. Decomposition of Ammonium Carbonate to form Urea and Water.

NH2COONH4 → H2O + NH2CONH2 (urea)
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The conversion of the reactants to urea can be increased by increasing the amount of carbon
dioxide, if carbon dioxide is present in excess, then the conversion can be as high as 85% per pass
but optimizing for the proper temperature, pressure and design is a challenge hence usually per
pass conversion are kept around 50%. The unreacted materials are recycled resulting in overall
conversion of over 99%. This minimises the effects on environment (Chemical Engineering
World, 2020).
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Summarized below are the physical and chemical properties of raw materials involved and product.
Table 6.1 Physical and chemical properties of chemical compound in Ammonia Plant
Component
Properties Hydrogen Nitrogen Methane Carbon Water Argon
Molecular Formula H2 N2 CH4 C H2O Ar
Molecular mass 1.00 g/mol 14.00 g/mol 16.04 g/mol 12.01 g/mol 18.02 g/mol 39.95 g/mol
Colour colourless colourless colourless black colourless colourless
Physical state gas gas gas solid liquid gas
Odour odourless odourless odourless odourless odourless odourless
Density 0.089 kg/m3 1.165 kg/m3 0.554 kg/m3 2267 kg/m3 997 kg/m3 1.78 kg/m3
Flash point 500 °C - -188 °C 3642 °C - -
Melting point -259.16 °C -210 °C -182.57 °C 3550 °C 0 °C -189°C
Boiling point -252.88 °C -196 °C -161.50 4827 °C 100 °C -186°C
Heat of vaporization 0.904 kJ/mol 5.58 kJ/mol 8.19 kJ/mol 355.8 kJ/mol 40.8 kJ/mol 6.447 kJ/mol
Heat of combustion -286 kJ/mol - -890.8 kJ/mol -393.5 kJ/mol - -
Heat of formation -218 kJ/mol -472.7 kJ/mol -74.6 kJ/mol - -285.82 kJ/mol -
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Table 1.7: Physical and chemical properties of chemical compound in urea plant
Properties Ammonia Carbon dioxide Urea Ammonium Carbamate

Molecular Formula NH3 CO2 NH2CONH2 NH2CO2.NH4
Molecular mass 17.03 g/mol 44.01 g/mol 60.06 g/mol 78.07 g/mol
Colour Colourless colourless Colourless to white colourless
Physical state Gas (at room temperature) liquid Liquid / solid solid
Odour Sharp, irritating odourless Almost odourless strong
Density 0.7710 kg/m3 (gas) 1.87 kg/m3 1.34 kg/m3 1.38 kg/m3
0.6818 kg/m3 (liquid)
Flash point 11 °C Non-flammable Non-flammable 105.6°C
Melting point -77.7 °C -56.5 °C 132.7 °C 60 °C (decomposition)
Boiling point -33.35 °C -78.5 °C 135 °C (decomposition) 140 °C
Heat of vaporization 23.3 kJ/mol 15.55 kJ/mol (triple point) 14.6 kJ/mol -
Heat of combustion -316 kJ/mol 0 kJ/mol -635 kJ/mol -
Heat of formation -46.0 kJ/mol -393.5 kJ/mol -333.39 kJ/mol -642.5 kJ/mol
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1.11.2 Application of Urea
1.11.2.3 Chemical industry

Urea is a raw material used in the manufacture of many important chemicals, plastics,
adhesives, potassium cyanate and urea nitrate. Urea can trap many organic compounds in the form
of clathrates. It is held in channels formed by interpenetrating helices comprising of hydrogen-
bonded urea molecules. This behaviour can be used to separate mixtures and has been used in the
production of aviation fuel and lubricating oils, and in the separation of paraffin. As the helices
are interconnected, all helices in a crystal must have the same molecular handedness. This is
determined when the crystal is nucleated and can thus be forced by seeding. The resulting crystals
have been used to separate racemic mixtures (The Chemical Company, n.d).
1.11.2.3 De-icer
De-icing using urea is a safe, non-corrosive fertilizer solution. The chemical is simple to
apply to runways and walkways, as well as landing gear and other critical sections of an aircraft’s
undercarriage that must be always corrosion-free. In many regions where extremely corrosive
chloride salts cannot be used for de-icing operations, urea is the favoured choice (Vedantu, n.d).
1.11.2.3 Agriculture
More than 90% of world industrial production of urea is destined for use as a
nitrogen-release fertilizer. The agricultural industry widely uses urea, a white crystalline solid
containing 46 percent nitrogen as an animal feed additive and fertilizer. Urea has the highest
nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use. Therefore, it has a low
transportation cost per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is
biuret, which impairs plant growth. Urea breaks down in the soil to give ammonium. The
ammonium is taken up by the plant. In some soils, the ammonium is oxidized by bacteria to give
nitrate, which is also a plant nutrient. The loss of nitrogenous compounds to the atmosphere and
runoff is both wasteful and environmentally damaging. For this reason, urea is sometimes pre-
treated or modified to enhance the efficiency of its agricultural use.
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1.11 Literature Review
Urea is commercially produced by the direct dehydration of ammonium carbamate

NH2COONH4 at elevated temperature and pressure. Ammonium carbamate is obtained by direct
reaction of ammonia, NH3, and carbon dioxide, CO2. The two reactions are usually carried out
simultaneously in a high-pressure reactor. The direct reaction between ammonia and carbon
dioxide is an exothermic reaction and happens at fast rate. Meanwhile, the direct dehydration of
ammonium carbamate is an endothermic reaction and happens at slow rate. The direct dehydration
process usually does not reach thermodynamic equilibrium under processing conditions, and it
only reported the conversion of CO2 basis. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the conversion
will increase when there is also an increase in NH3/CO2 ratio and temperature. The conversion will
decrease when there is increased in H2O/CO2 ratio (Satyro et al., 2000).
Commonly, the operating processes of the synthesis reaction is carried out in the liquid
phase with the range of pressure from 13 to 25 MPa and with the range of temperature from 170℃
to 200℃. The synthesis reaction will proceed via formation of ammonium carbamate as the
intermediate products. Then, the ammonium carbamate will dehydrate and produce urea. When
the pressure is above of its dissociation pressure, the formation of ammonium carbamate will be
fast and 100% complete (Isla et al., 1993). The reaction of carbamate dehydration reaction is
slower and usually does not proceed to 100% complete. In this reaction, the equilibrium conversion
usually reaches value greater than 80% of carbon dioxide.
The ratio of various reactants, the operating pressure, the operating temperature, and the
residence time of the reactor will determine the fraction of ammonium carbamate that will
dehydrate to produce urea. The rate of formation of ammonium carbamate is also highly dependent
on the pressure. If all the other factors of the reaction are constant, the rate of formation increases
proportionally to the square root of the pressure. When the maximum point is reached where the
point of rate decreases sharply to zero, the rate of formation of ammonium carbamate will increase
with temperature.
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Based on this information, it is advisable to operate the reaction on the highest possible
pressure and at the highest temperature that compatible with the pressure. The conversion of
ammonia to urea will be dependent on the dehydration reaction which decomposes ammonium
carbamate into water and urea. The reaction will occur when the carbamate is heated in a closed
vessel which dissociates to vapour. When the degree of filling is sufficient the pressure, it will
prevent other carbamate from dissociating and the part will spontaneously decomposes into urea
and release water vapour.
1.11 List of Chemical Components

Figure 1.1 below illustrates the list of components involved in the process of production of
urea from decomposition of methane.
Figure 6.1 : List of chemical components involved in the process

Figure 1.1: List of chemical components involved in the process
The design of a plant to produce 40,000 Metric Ton Per Annum (MTPA) of Urea using
Aspen was carried out in this report. Ammonia is produced through the Haber-Bosch process,
where hydrogen from decomposition of methane and nitrogen from air react in the presence of a
catalyst producing mixture containing ammonia while urea is produced by the reaction between
ammonia and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a light reactant and light feed impurity present,
and its boiling point is lower than propylene (-48 °C), a gas recycles, and purge stream was
considered. Figure 1.2 below shows the error that was shown during the initial stage of simulation.
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The error describes that the component of ammonium carbamate is not defined in Aspen Plus.
Thus, the parameters were added manually as shown in Figure 1.3 and 1.4 respectively.
Figure 1.7: Error on missing property parameter for component ammonium

Figure 1.2: Error on missing propertycarbamate
parameter for component ammonium carbamate
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Figure 1.8: Adding all databanks
Figure 1.9: Standard enthalpy formation of ammonium carbamate
Figure 1.4: Standard enthalpy formation of ammonium carbamate
1.11 Selection of Thermodynamics Models
Thermodynamic models are used to represent the phase equilibrium behaviour and energy
level of pure compound and mixture systems. The model selection depends on parameters such as
process species and compositions, pressure and temperature ranges, availability of data and other
aspects (David et al., 2012). These thermodynamic models can help to understand system
behaviour. Based on Bob Seader’s recommendation NRTL are suitable, since binary interactions
are available and phase splitting is possible too as shown in figure 1.7 and 1.8 which is Txy diagram
for ammonia vs nitrogen and water. According to Bob Seader’s Recommendation, NRTL Model
package is more suitable to be used. For the mixtures, the model that fits better the experimental
data of binary mixtures was chosen. For this case, the NRTL is the most accurate model. Figure
1.5 below shows polarity of components based on ASPEN PLUS.
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Figure
Figure1.10: Polarity of
1.5: Polarity of component
component
Figure 1.4: Property method chosen

Figure 1.11: Overall property method chosen in Aspen Plus
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Figure 1.7: Binary interaction between ammonia and nitrogen
Figure 1.8: Binary interaction between ammonia and water
Based on the generated T-xy diagram as shown in Figure 1.7 and 1.8, it is proven that it’s easy to
separate through distillation using NRTL model.
There are changes in property method for Hydrogen plant. Since raw material used in this
plant is methane which is non-polar component, hydrocarbon and light gas component. For
mixture, there are hydrogen and nitrogen which are also non-polar component. Based on Bob
Seader’s recommendation, Peng-Robinson is the most suitable method in hydrogen plant. Figure
1.9 shows all component in hydrogen plant and Figure 1.10 shows property method in each
component in hydrogen plant.
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Figure 1.9: Component in Hydrogen Plant
Figure 1.10: Property method in each component in Hydrogen Plant
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Figure 1.11: Declaring components as Henry
components
Figure 1.11 above shows declaring light gases components as Henry components. NRTL is
because of some polar compounds and water. Thus, declaration of HENRY components for light
gases is a common approach recommended by aspen itself. This will take care that the light gases
do not stay dissolved in liquid phase.
Figure 1.11 above shows declaring light gases components as Henry components. NRTL is
because of some polar compounds and water. Thus, declaration of HENRY components for light
gases is a common approach recommended by aspen itself. This will take care that the light gases
do not stay dissolved in liquid phase.
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2.1 Process Flowsheet Design
The production of urea to produce 40 000 metric tonnes per annum (MTPA) by using
methane as raw materials were demonstrated in a simulation by using Aspen Plus. Figure 2.1 below
shows the synthesis route flowsheet of urea production. In this production of urea, there are three
reactors with a series of reactions of the urea synthesis which are pyrolysis reactor, ammonia
reactor and urea reactor.
Firstly, methane gas from pipeline is heated by heater (E-101) with operating condition of
1000°C temperature and 1 bar pressure. E-101 will heated up the gas from temperature 25°C to
1000°C and the temperature will stay maintain at 1 bar. Then, the heated methane gas will be
channel into the pyrolysis reactor (R-101) for decomposition into hydrogen gas and carbon. Argon
gas is feed into R-101 as an inert gas. This is due to avoid the welded metal from oxidise during
the decomposition process. The operating condition of R-101 are 800°C and 2 atm pressure.
During this reaction, the pressure of the component will increase from 1 bar to 2.02 bar while the
temperature decreases from 1000°C to 800°C. This reaction will produce hydrogen, H2 which is
the intermediate product, carbon as the side product and finally, unreacted methane in a small
quantity. The value of conversion of methane is 0.95 which is obtained from the manual material
balance.
Then, the effluent from the reactor will go through a cooler (E-102) to cool the component.
The temperature will be reduced from 800°C to 250°C before going into splitter (V-101) to
separate vapour and liquid component. At the bottom of the splitter, carbon which exist in liquid
phase will exit as the bottom product. Meanwhile, at the top of the splitter, the unconverted
methane in a small quantity and hydrogen will be discharge as the top product and will be mixed
with fresh fed of nitrogen by mixer (M-101). After that, the mixture will be flow into compressor
C-101). The type of compressor used is isentropic compressor due to no change in entropy of the
reaction. At C-101, nitrogen and hydrogen will undergo isentropic compression and change from
vapour into liquid phase under pressurization which the pressure will increase from 1.01 bar to
202.65 bar along with the increase of temperature from 85.48°C to 1525.77°C. The increase of
pressure causes nitrogen and hydrogen to heat up and change into liquid phase but still at high
pressure.
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After that, nitrogen and hydrogen will be channel into cooler (E-103) which the operating
condition of the heater are 500°C temperature and at -0.1 bar pressure. The uses of E-103 is to
reduce the temperature of nitrogen and hydrogen from 1525.77°C to 500°C to adjust these
components to the ammonia reactor (R-102) temperature before entering it. The operating
condition for R-102 are at temperature 480 °C with pressure of -0.1 bar. At each pass of the gases
through the reactor, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen converts to ammonia. Due to
that, by continual recycling of the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen, the overall conversion is about
95% at ammonia synthesis reactor. Ammonia along with the unconverted hydrogen, nitrogen and
methane will be channel into cooler (E-104) with operating condition of 35°C temperature and -
0.1 bar pressure. In this heater, the temperature of ammonia will be reduced from 480°C to 35°C.
At this temperature, the ammonia will be cooled and turns into liquid phase.
At flash drum (V-102), the vapor is taken off overhead, while the liquid drains to the bottom
of the drum, where it is withdrawn. Therefore, some of the ammonia which is not fully converted
to liquid phase will be channel into mixer (M-102) along with the large quantity of unconverted
components (H2, N2 and CH4). After went into M-102, the large quantity of unconverted
components will be purged through the purge stream meanwhile the ammonia will be channel into
recycle stream to be recycle back to the process. The cost of purchasing ammonia is high so, by
recycling ammonia, it can help in saving the expenses. The ammonia in liquid phase which exits
as the bottom products of V-102 will enter the stream (S14). Then, the component is flowed into
pump (P-101) with the efficiency of 0.85. At P-101, the pressure and temperature of ammonia is
remained same which is 35°C and 202 bar pressure. The pumps are used to transfer energy to the
incoming fluid which is ammonia before entering cooler (E-105) which helps the fluid to overcome
physical barriers such as pipe friction and height changes.
Ammonia will go through E-105 with operating condition of 185°C and 118 bars where
the temperature of ammonia will be reduced from 35°C to 25°C while the pressure decreases from
202 bars to 118 bars which suits with the operating condition of the heater. After the temperature
and pressure of ammonia are reduced, it will mix with fresh fed of carbon dioxide by mixer (M-
103). In M-103, the temperature of ammonia and carbon dioxide will increase from 25°C to 185°C
before being fed to urea reactor (R-103) with operating condition of 185°C and 118 bars in order
to produce urea. After urea is produced, urea along with the ammonium carbamate, unconverted
carbon dioxide and water which is the side product of the reaction will be channel into cooler (E-
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107) to reduce the temperature of the components. Then, the mixture will flow into the separator
(V-103) to separate urea and water with the ammonium carbamate and unconverted carbon
dioxide. The biuret will exit as the top product meanwhile urea and water will exit as the bottom
product of the separator. After that, urea and water will flow into separator (T-101) to separate the
main product and side product. Water will exit as the top product while urea will exit as the bottom
product. Urea which is the main product will be stored for sale. The production capacity of
43810.16 MTPA is achieved through the simulation.
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The production of Urea has been run into Aspen Plus simulation demonstration.
Figure 2.1: Process Flowsheet Design
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Table 2.1: Summary of equipment used for production of 40,000 MTPA of Urea
Type of equipment Quantity

Heater 2
Cooler 5
Compressor 2
Mixer/Splitter 3
Pump 1
Flash column 1
Separator 3
Reactor 3
Total 20
Based on Table 2.1, unit operations are used in this process which includes heater (E-101 and E-
105), cooler (E-102, E-103, E-104, E-106 and E-107), compressor (C-101 and C-102), mixer (M-
101 and M-103), splitter (M-102), pump (P-101), flash column (V-102), separator (V-101, V-103
and distillation column (T-101) and reactor (R-101, R-102, R-103).
Table 2.2: Streams and process descriptions
Unit Operation Streams Process Description

Inlet Outlet
Heater (E-101) CH4IN S1 CH4IN is feed to E-101 to increase
temperature from 25°C to 800°C.
Reactor (R-101) S1 S3 S1 is feed into R-101 at T = 1200°C
and P = 1 bar
Cooler (E-102) S3 S4 S3 is feed to E-102 to decrease
Separator (V-101) S4 S5 and S6 S4 is feed to V-101 to separate the
hydrogen gas from carbon at T =
250°C and P = 1 bar
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Mixer (M-101) S6, S7 and S8 S6, S7 and RECYCLE are combined
RECYCLE and feed into M-101 at P = 0 bar
Compressor (C- S8 S9 S8 is feed into C-101 to increase the
101) pressure to 200 atm.
and P = -0.1bar
Flash Column S12 S13 and S14 S12 is feed to V-102 to separate the
(V-102) ammonia from unreacted component
at T = 35°C and P = 202 bar.
Splitter (M-102) S13 PURGE and S13 is feed to M-102 to splitter the
RECYCLE purge Nitrogen and unreacted
Hydrogen to be recycled to M-101
Pump (P-101) S14 NH3OUT S14 is feed into P-101 to ensure liquid
movement.
Heater (E-105) NH3OUT S15 NH3OUT is feed to E-105 to increase
Compressor (C- CO2IN S16 S8 is feed into C-102 to increase the
102) pressure to 118 bar.
Mixer (M-103) S15 and S17 S18 S15 and S17 are combined and feed
into M-103 at P = 0 bar
and P = 118 bar
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Separator (V-103) S20 S21 and S22 Urea is recovered at bottom product
and unreacted NH3 and CO2 out at
top product at 130°C and 118 bar.
Distillation Column S22 S23 and Urea is recovered at bottom product
(T-101) UREAOUT and steam out at top product at 130°C
and 118 bar.
2.2 Plant Capacity Determination
Figure 2.2 shows the result summary obtained for the simulation of the production of urea
by using Aspen Plus.
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Figure 2.2 : Result summary for feed and product streams
The units used for mass flow rate is kilogram per hour (kg/h). The value of mass flow rate
for the feed of methane on stream CH4IN is 4504.33 kg/h. Meanwhile, the mass flow rate for the
feed carbon dioxide on stream CO2IN is 4019.42 kg/h. The mass flow for feed nitrogen gas on
stream 7 is 2710.58 kg/h. Also, the value of nitrogen and hydrogen that is recycled on recycle
stream is 125.778 kg/h and 3891.35 kg/h respectively. The amount of these feed mass flow rate
has produced 5000.71 kg/h of urea or 40005.7 MT/yr on stream UREAOUT.
2.3 Summary of Major Unit Operations Model – Reactors

2.3.1 Pyrolysis reactor (R-101)
The stoichiometric equation for decomposition of methane is as shown as below:
CH4 → 2H2 + C (reaction 1)
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The reaction rate law based on (Hadian e.t, 2022) is -rH2 = k(PCH4)-1, where
𝐸𝑎
𝑘 = 𝐴𝑒 (−𝑅𝑇)
A = 59400 s-1
Ea = 88 kJ/mol
R = 8.3114 kJ/mol
In this reaction, plug reactor has been chosen as the raw materials are feed into the reactor in gas
phase. The product of the reactor in gas phase. The operating condition of the reactor are constant
at 1200°C. Figure 2.3 shows the flowsheet of R-Plug in Aspen and figure 2.4 shows specification
details for reactor (R-101).
Figure 2.3: Flowsheet of R-plug (R-101) in Aspen
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Figure 2.4: Specification details for reactor (R-101)
Figure 2.5 shows the configuration of R-101 where length and diameter of reactor are 10meter and
0.8meter respectively.
Figure 2.5: Configuration of reactor (R-101)
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Figure 2.6: Configuration of reaction 1
Figure 2.7: Kinetic reaction details of reaction 1
Figure 2.8 shows the stream result of R-101. The mass flow rate of hydrogen and carbon produce
from R-101 are 1132.02kg/h and 3372.4kg/h respectively.
Figure 2.8: The stream result of R-101
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Figure 2.9: The summary result for heat duty of R-101
2.3.2 Ammonia reactor (R-102)

In this reaction, Stoichiometric reactor (R-Stoic) has been chosen. Reaction occur in this
reactor is as below:
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
The operating conditions of the reactors are at 400 °C and -0.1bar.
Figure 2.10: Flowsheet of R-stoic (R-102) in Aspen
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Figure 2.11: The specification of R-102 in Aspen
Figure 2.12: The reaction of R-102 in Aspen
Figure 2.13 shows the stoichiometry edit to create reaction in figure 2.12. The coefficient
is from the chemical equation that involve in the reactor (R-102). For product generation, fractional
conversion was chosen, and the value is 0.95 of nitrogen, N2 to produce ammonia, NH3.
520
Figure 2.13: The stoichiometry edits of R-102 in Aspen
Figure 2.14 shows the stream result of R-102. The mass flow rate of NH3 produce from R-102
with 0.95 conversion of N2 is 5590.75 kg/h. There is also ammonia feed to the reactor R-101
because of recycle stream in ammonia plant. The mass flow rate of ammonia feed to the reactor is
2314.5 kg/h.
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2.3.3 Urea Reactor (R-103)
In this reaction, Stoichiometric reactor (R-Stoic) has been chosen. There are two reactions
occur in this reactor as shown below:
2NH3 + CO2 → NH2COONH4

NH2COONH4 → CH4N2O + H20
The operating conditions of the reactors are at 185 °C and 118 bar.
Figure 2.15: Flowsheet of R-stoic(R-103) in Aspen
Figure 2.16: The specification of R-101 in Aspen
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Figure 2.17: The reaction of R-103 in Aspen
Figure 2.18 and figure 2.19 shows the stoichiometry edit to create reaction 1 and 2 respectively.
The coefficient is from the chemical equation that involve in the reactor (R-103). For product
generation, fractional conversion was chosen, and the value is 0.96 conversion of carbon
dioxide,CO2 to produce ammonium carbamate for reaction 1 and 0.95 conversion of ammonium
carbamate to produce urea and water.
Figure 2.18: The stoichiometry edits in Aspen for reaction 1
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Figure 2.19: The stoichiometry edits in Aspen for reaction 2
Figure 2.20 shows the stream result of R-103. The mass flow rate of ammonium carbamate
produces from reaction 1 of R-102 with 0.96 conversion of CO2 is 342.25 kg/h. The total value of
ammonium carbamate produce is reused for second reaction that involve in R-103. Therefore, the
mass flowrate display in Aspen become small value. 0.95 conversion of ammonium carbamate
produce 5002.21kg/h of Urea and 1500.55 kg/h of water.
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2.4 Summary of Major Unit Operations Model Specification– Separation
2.4.1 Separator (V-101)
Separator, V-101 is used to separate the hydrogen gas from the carbon and methane. The
specification for the split fraction of V-101 are 0.9 for hydrogen gas, 0.8 for methane and 0 for
carbon. The specification for V-101 is shown in figure 2.21.
Figure 2.21: The specification details for separator (V-101)
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Figure 2.22: Mole flows of separator (V-101)
Figure 2.23: Summary result of V-101
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2.4.2 Flash Column (V-102)
Flash column, V-102 is used to condense the ammonia gas to separate the unreacted gas.
The pressure is set at -0.1 bar. The gas stream will be recycled into the mixer (M-101) after entering
to splitter (M-102). The specification of V-102 is shown in figure 2.24.
Figure 2.24: The specification details of V-102
Figure 2.25: Mole flows of V-102
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Separator, V-103 is used to separate the urea from the water. The specification for the split fraction
of V-103 are 1 for urea and 1 for water. The specification for V-103 is shown in figure 2.27.
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Figure 2.28: Mole flow of V-103
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Separator, V-104 is used to separate the urea from the water. The specification for the split fraction
of V-104 are 0.999 for urea and 0.001 for water. The specification for V-104 is shown in figure
2.30.
530
Figure 2.31: Mole flows of V-104
531
Figure 2.33: Convergence of Simulation

simulation
532
Figure 2.33 above shows the convergence of simulation. The convergence method is by using Tear
Stream where Wolstein Method is used. All the variables are converged completely without errors
and the error of convergence is below 1%.
533
2.5 Simulation Results
Figure below shows the overall simulation results for production of urea from methane by using Aspen Plus. The amount of urea
produced from this process is 5001.16 kg/h or 43 810.16 MT/yr as shown in stream UREAOUT.
Figure 2.34: Simulation results from stream CH4in to Stream 3
534
Figure 2.35: Simulation result from Stream 4 to Stream 10
535
Figure 2.36: Simulation result from Stream 11 to Stream 17
536
Figure 2.37: Simulation result from Stream 18 to Stream Ureaout
537
APPENDIX F: MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)
Ammonia
Identification
Product name Ammonia
CAS-No 7664-41-7
Hazard Identifications 1. Hazard Statements: Flammable gas. May form explosive
mixtures with air. Contains gas under pressure; may explode if
heated. May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.
Harmful if inhaled. Causes severe skin burns and eye damage.
Very toxic to aquatic life.
2. Prevention: Wear protective gloves. Wear eye or face
protection. Wear protective clothing. Keep away from heat, hot
surfaces, sparks, open flames and other ignition sources. No
smoking. Use only outdoors or in a well-ventilated area. Avoid
release to the environment. Avoid breathing gas. Wash hands
thoroughly after handling.
3. Response:
IF INHAILED: Remove person to fresh air and keep
comfortable for breathing. Immediately call a POISON
CENTER or physician.
IF SWALLOWED: Immediately call a POISON CENTER or

physician. Rinse mouth. Do NOT induce vomiting.
IF ON SKIN (or hair): Take off immediately all contaminated

clothing. Rinse skin with water or shower. Wash contaminated
clothing before reuse. Immediately call a POISON CENTER
or physician.
IF IN EYES: Rinse cautiously with water for several minutes.

Remove contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue
538
rinsing. Immediately call a POISON CENTER or physician.
Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish unless leak can be stopped
safely. Eliminate all ignition sources if safe to do so.
Fire and Explosion 1. Suitable extinguishing media: Use an extinguishing agent
suitable for the surrounding fire.
2. Specific hazards arising from the chemical: Contains gas
under pressure. Flammable gas. In a fire or if heated, a pressure
increase will occur and the container may burst, with the risk
of a subsequent explosion. This material is very toxic to
aquatic life. Fire water contaminated with this material must
be contained and prevented from being discharged to any
waterway, sewer or drain.
3. Hazardous thermal decomposition products: Decomposition
products may include the following materials: nitrogen oxides.
4. Special protective actions for fire-fighters: Promptly isolate
the scene by removing all persons from the vicinity of the
incident if there is a fire. No action shall be taken involving
any personal risk or without suitable training. Contact supplier
immediately for specialist advice. Move containers from fire
area if this can be done without risk. Use water spray to keep
fire-exposed containers cool. If involved in fire, shut off flow
immediately if it can be done without risk. If this is impossible,
withdraw from area and allow fire to burn. Fight fire from 383
protected location or maximum possible distance. Eliminate all
ignition sources if safe to do so.
Accidental Release 1. For non-emergency personnel: Accidental releases pose a
Measures serious fire or explosion hazard. No action shall be taken
involving any personal risk or without suitable training.
Evacuate surrounding areas. Keep unnecessary and
unprotected personnel from entering. Shut off all ignition
sources. No flares, smoking or flames in hazard area. Do not
breathe gas. Provide adequate ventilation. Wear appropriate
539
respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Put on appropriate
personal protective equipment.
2. For emergency responders: If specialized clothing is
required to deal with the spillage, take note of any information
in Section 8 on suitable and unsuitable materials. See also the
information in "For nonemergency personnel".
3. Environmental precautions: Ensure emergency procedures
to deal with accidental gas releases are in place to avoid
contamination of the environment. Inform the relevant
authorities if the product has caused environmental pollution
(sewers, waterways, soil or air). Water polluting material. May
be harmful to the environment if released in large quantities.
Collect spillage.
4. Small spill: Immediately contact emergency personnel. Stop
leak if without risk. Use spark-proof tools and explosion-proof
equipment.
5. Large spill: Immediately contact emergency personnel. Stop
leak if without risk. Use spark-proof tools and explosion-proof
equipment. Note: see Section 1 for emergency contact
information and Section 13 for waste disposal.
Stability and Reactivity 1. Reactivity: No specific test data related to reactivity
Data available for this product or its ingredients.
2. Chemical stability: The product is stable.
3. Incompatible materials: Oxidizers and Yellow Metals (brass
& copper)
4. Hazardous decomposition products: Under normal
conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition
products should not be produced.
5. Hazardous polymerization: Under normal conditions of
storage and use, hazardous polymerization will not occur.
Toxicological Information 1. Likely routes of exposure: Not available.
540
2. Eye contact: Causes serious eye damage. Adverse symptoms
may include the following: pain, watering, redness. 3.
Inhalation: Harmful if inhaled.
4. Skin contact: Causes severe burns. Adverse symptoms may
include the following: pain or irritation, redness, blistering may
occur.
5. Ingestion: As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation
section. Adverse symptoms may include the following:
stomach pains.
Ecological Information 1. Acute EC50 29.2 mg/l Marine water = Algae - Ulva fasciata
- Zoea 96 hours
2. Acute LC50 2080 μg/l Fresh water = Crustaceans -
Gammarus pulex 48 hours
3. Acute LC50 0.53 ppm Fresh water = Daphnia - Daphnia
magna 48 hours
4. Acute LC50 300 μg/l Fresh water = Fish -
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis 96 hours
5. Chronic NOEC 0.204 mg/l Marine water = Fish -
Dicentrarchus labrax 62 days
Disposal Considerations 1. Disposal methods: The generation of waste should be
avoided or minimized wherever possible. Disposal of this
product, solutions and any by-products should at all times
comply with the requirements of environmental protection and
waste disposal legislation and any regional local authority
requirements. Dispose of surplus and nonrecyclable products
via a licensed waste disposal contractor. Waste should not be
disposed of untreated to the sewer unless fully compliant with
the requirements of all authorities with jurisdiction. Empty
Airgas-owned pressure vessels should be returned to Airgas.
Waste packaging should be recycled. Incineration or landfill
should only be considered when recycling is not feasible. This
material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way.
541
Empty containers or liners may retain some product residues.
Do not puncture or incinerate container
Nitrogen
Identification
Product name Nitrogen
CAS-No 7727-37-9
Hazard Identifications 1. Hazard Statements: H280 - Contains gas under pressure;
may explode if heated.
2. Prevention: P410+P403 - Protect from sunlight. Store in a
well-ventilated place
Fire and Explosion 1. Suitable extinguishing media: Water spray or fog.
2. Unsuitable extinguishing media: Do not use water jet to
extinguish. 408
3. Firefighting instructions: Use fire control measures
appropriate for the surrounding fire. Exposure to fire and heat
radiation may cause gas receptacles to rupture. Cool
endangered receptacles with water spray jet from a protected
position. Prevent water used in emergency cases from entering
sewers and drainage systems. If possible, stop flow of product.
Use water spray or fog to knock down fire fumes if possible.
Move containers away from the fire area if this can be done
without risk.
4. Protection during firefighting: In confined space use self-
contained breathing apparatus. Standard protective clothing
and equipment (Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus) for fire
fighters. Standard EN 137 - Self-contained open-circuit
compressed air breathing apparatus with full face mask.
Standard EN 469 - Protective clothing for firefighters.
Standard - EN 659: Protective gloves for firefighters.
Accidental Release 1. For emergency personnel: Try to stop release. Evacuate area.
Measures Wear self-contained breathing apparatus when entering area
542
unless atmosphere is proved to be safe. Ensure adequate air
ventilation. Act in accordance with local emergency plan. Stay
upwind. Oxygen detectors should be used when asphyxiating
gases may be released.
Stability and Reactivity 1. Reactivity: No reactivity hazard other than the effects
Data described in sub-sections below.
2. Chemical stability: Stable under normal conditions.
3. Possibility of hazardous reactions: None known.
4. Conditions to avoid: Avoid moisture in installation systems.
5. Incompatible materials: None. For additional information on
compatibility refer to ISO 11114.
6. Hazardous decomposition products: None
Toxicological Information 1. Acute toxicity (oral): Not classified

2. Acute toxicity (dermal): Not classified
3. Acute toxicity (inhalation): Inhalation gas: Not classified.
4. Skin corrosion/irritation: Not classified
5. Serious eye damage/irritation: Not classified
6. Respiratory or skin sensitization: Not classified
7. Germ cell mutagenicity: Not classified
8. Carcinogenicity: Not classified
Ecological Information 1. Persistence and degradability: No ecological damage caused
by this product.
2. BCF fish 1: (no bioaccumulation)
3. Log Pow: See section 12.1 on ecotoxicology. Not applicable
for inorganic
4. Bio-accumulative potential: No ecological damage caused
by this product.
5. Log Pow: See section 12.1 on ecotoxicology. Not applicable
for inorganic
6. Ecology – soil: No ecological damage caused by this product
Disposal Considerations 1. Waste treatment methods: May be vented to atmosphere in
a well-ventilated place. Do not discharge into any place where
543
its accumulation could be dangerous. Return unused product in
original cylinder to supplier
Methane
Identification
Product name Methane
CAS-No 74-82-8
Hazard Identifications Methane is an odourless, colourless gas, or a colourless, odourless
liquid in its cryogenic form. Both the liquid and the gas pose a
serious fire hazard when accidentally released. The liquid will
rapidly boil to the gas at standard temperatures and pressures. As a
gas, it will act as a simple asphyxiant and present a significant
health hazard by displacing the oxygen in the atmosphere. The gas
is lighter than air and may spread long distances. Distant ignition
and flashback are possible. The liquefied gas can cause frostbite to
any contaminated tissue. Flame or high temperature impinging on
a localized area of the cylinder of Methane can cause the cylinder
to rupture without activating the cylinder’s relief devices. Provide
adequate fire protection during emergency response situations.
Allow the released gas to dissipate in the atmosphere.
Fire and Explosion 1. Suitable extinguishing media: Alcohol-resistant foam, dry
chemical and carbon dioxide (CO2).
2. Unsuitable extinguishing media: High volume water jet.
3. Fire hazard: The product is not flammable.
4. Firefighting instructions: For safety reasons in case of fire, cans
should be stored separately in closed containments. Use a water
spray to cool fully closed containers.
5. Protection during firefighting: Wear self-contained breathing
apparatus for firefighting if necessary.
Accidental Release 1. Response to cryogenic release: Clear the affected area and allow
Measures the liquid to evaporate and the gas to dissipate. After the gas is
formed, follow the instructions provided in the previous
544
paragraphs. If the area must be entered by emergency personnel,
SCBA, Kevlar gloves, and appropriate foot and leg protection must
be worn.
2. This is an extremely flammable gas. Protection of all personnel
and the area must be maintained.
Stability and 1. Stability: Stable.
Reactivity Data 2. Decomposition products: When ignited in the presence of
oxygen, this gas will burn to produce carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide.
3. Materials with which substance is incompatible: Strong oxidizers
(e.g., chlorine, bromine pentafluoride, oxygen, oxygen difluoride,
and nitrogen trifluoride).
4. Hazardous polymerization: Will not occur.
5. Conditions to avoid: Contact with incompatible materials and
exposure to heat, sparks, and other sources of ignition. Cylinders
exposed to high temperatures or direct flame can rupture or burst.
Toxicological Acute toxicity
Information Oral: No data available
Inhalation: No data available
Skin corrosion/irritation: No data available
Serious eye damage/eye irritation: No data available
Respiratory or skin sensitization: No data available
Ecological 1. Toxicity to fish: LC50 (Fish): 27.98 mg/l, Exposure time: 96 h
Information 2. Toxicity to daphnia and other aquatic invertebrates: LC50
(Daphnia (water flea)): 14.22 mg/l, Exposure time: 48 h
3. Toxicity to algae: EC50 (Green Algae): 7.7 mg/l Exposure time:
96 h
Disposal 1. Waste treatment methods: Waste material must be disposed of in
Considerations accordance with the national and local regulations. Leave
chemicals in original containers. No mixing with other waste.
Handle uncleaned containers like the product itself. Pressurised gas
bottle: dispose of only in empty condition! According to Quality
Environment Regulation (Scheduled Waste) 2005, waste need to be
545
sent to designated premise for recycle, treatment or disposal. Please
contact Kualiti Alam for waste classification and correct disposal
method.
Carbon Dioxide
Identification
Product name Carbon Dioxide
CAS-No 124-38-4
Hazard Identifications Contact with liquid may cause cold burns/frostbite. In high
concentrations CO2 causes rapid circulatory insufficiency even at
normal levels of oxygen concentration. Symptoms are headache,
nausea and vomiting, which may lead to unconsciousness and
death. The substance/mixture has no endocrine disrupting
properties.
Fire and Explosion 1. Flammability of the product: Non-flammable.
2. Products of combustion: Decomposition products may include
the following materials: carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
3. Fire-fighting media and instructions: Use an extinguishing
agent suitable for the surrounding fire. Apply water from a safe
distance to cool container and protect surrounding area. If
involved in fire, shut off flow immediately if it can be done
without risk. Contains gas under pressure. In a fire or if heated,
a pressure increase will occur and the container may burst or
explode.
4. Special protective equipment for fire-fighters: Fire-fighters
should wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full face-piece
operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release 1. Personal precautions: Immediately contact emergency
Measures personnel. Keep unnecessary personnel away. Use suitable
protective equipment (section 8). Shut off gas supply if
546
this can be done safely. Isolate area until gas has
dispersed.
2. Environmental precautions: Avoid dispersal of spilled
material and runoff and contact with soil, waterways,
drains and sewers.
3. Methods for cleaning up: Immediately contact emergency
personnel. Stop leak if without risk. Note: see section 1 for
emergency contact information and section 13 for waste
disposal.
Stability and 1. Stability and reactivity: The products are stable.
Reactivity Data 2. Hazardous decomposition products: Under normal
conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition
products should not be produced.
3. Hazardous polymerization: Under normal conditions of
storage and use, hazardous polymerization will not occur
Toxicological Nausea, Dizziness, Headache, Low to medium concentrations of
Information carbon dioxide can:, affect regulation of blood circulation, affect
the acidity of body fluids, respiratory difficulties, At high
concentrations:, Breathing difficulties, Increased pulse rate,
change in body acidity, Very high concentrations can cause:,
Unconsciousness, death To the best of our knowledge, the
chemical, physical, and toxicological properties have not been
thoroughly investigated.
Ecological Toxicity: No data available
Information
Disposal Product removed from the cylinder must be disposed of in
Considerations accordance with appropriate Federal, State, local regulation.
Return cylinders with residual product to Airgas, Inc. Do not
dispose of locally.
547
Hydrogen
Identification
Product name Hydrogen
CAS-No 1333-74-0
Hazard Identifications Hydrogen is a colourless gas with no odour. It is not toxic; the
immediate health hazard is that it may cause thermal burns. It is
flammable and may form mixtures with air that are flammable or
explosive. Hydrogen may react violently if combined with
oxidizers, such as air, oxygen, and halogens. Hydrogen is an
asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in a workplace atmosphere.
The concentrations at which flammable or explosive mixtures
form are much lower than the concentration at which asphyxiation
risk is significant.
Fire and Explosion 1. Suitable extinguishing media: Carbon dioxide, dry
chemical powder, water spray, fog.
2. Fire hazard: EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE GAS. The
hydrogen flame is nearly invisible. Hydrogen has a low
ignition energy; escaping hydrogen gas may ignite
spontaneously. A fireball forms if the gas cloud ignites
immediately after release. Hydrogen forms explosive
mixtures with air and oxidizing agents.
3. Explosion hazard: EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE GAS.
Forms explosive mixtures with air and oxidizing agents.
4. Reactivity: No reactivity hazard other than the effects
described in sub-sections below.
Accidental Release DANGER: EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE GAS. Forms
Measures explosive mixtures with air and oxidizing agents. See section 5.
Evacuate personnel to a safe area. Appropriate self-contained
breathing apparatus may be required. Approach suspected leak
area with caution. Remove all sources of ignition. if safe to do so.
Reduce gas with fog or fine water spray. Stop flow of product if
safe to do so. Ventilate area or move container to a well-ventilated
area. Flammable gas may spread from leak. Before entering the
548
area, especially a confined area, check the atmosphere with an
appropriate device.
Handling and Storage 1. Precautions for safe handling: Keep away from heat, hot
surfaces, sparks, open flames and other ignition sources. No
smoking. Use only non-sparking tools. Use only explosion-proof
equipment. Wear leather safety gloves and safety shoes when
handling cylinders. Protect cylinders from physical damage; do
not drag, roll, slide or drop. While moving cylinder, always keep
in place removable valve cover. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by
its cap; the cap is intended solely to protect the valve. When
moving cylinders, even for short distances, use a cart (trolley,
hand truck, etc.) designed to transport cylinders. Never insert an
object (e.g, wrench, screwdriver, pry bar) into cap openings;
doing so may damage the valve and cause a leak. Use an
adjustable strap wrench to remove over-tight or rusted caps.
Slowly open the valve. If the valve is hard to open, discontinue
use and contact your supplier. Close the container valve after each
use; keep closed even when empty. Never apply flame or
localized heat directly to any part of the container. High
temperatures may damage the container and could cause the
pressure relief device to fail prematurely, venting the container
contents.
Stability and 1. Chemical Stability: Hydrogen is stable.
Reactivity Data 2. Conditions to Avoid: Sources of ignition, exposure to air.
3. Incompatibility with Other Materials: Oxidizers, including
air, oxygen, and halogens.
4. Hazardous Decomposition, Reaction and Oxidation (other
than burning) Products: None.
5. Hazardous Polymerization: Has not been observed.
Toxicological 1. Acute Data (by route): None, hydrogen is a simple
Information asphyxiant.
549
2. Chronic and Sub chronic Data: Hydrogen is listed in
RTECS, but no information on its carcinogenicity or other
effects is included.
3. Special Studies: None known.
Ecological 1. Ecotoxicity: None known to Voltaix, Inc.
Information 2. Environmental Fate: None known to Voltaix, Inc.
Disposal Dispose of contents/container in accordance with
Considerations local/regional/national/international regulations. Contact supplier
for any special requirements.
Water
Identification
Product name Water
CAS-No 7732-18-5
Hazard Identifications Not classified as hazardous chemical.
First Aid Measures SKIN: Wash affected area with mild soap and water and rinse
area until no evidence of chemical remains.
EYES: Rinse eyes with plenty of water or normal saline solution
for at least 15 minutes.
INHALATION: Remove from exposure area to fresh air. If victim
is not breathing administer artificial respiration according to your
level of training and obtain professional medical assistance
immediately .
INGESTION: Do not induce vomiting unless instructed to do so
by a physician.
ADVICE TO PHYSICIAN: No specific antidote. Treat
symptomatically and supportively.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions
Measures 1. Protective equipment: Equip clean-up crew with proper
protection.
2. Emergency procedures: Ventilate area.
Environmental Precautions
550
1. Prevent entry to sewers and public waters.
2. Notify authorities if liquid enters sewers or public waters.
Stability and 1. Stable under normal conditions.
Reactivity Data 2. Condition to avoid: Extremely high or low temperatures.
3. Incompatible materials: Metallic sodium
Toxicological IMMEDIATE (ACUTE) EFFECTS: Not determined.
Information DELAYED (SUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC) EFFECTS: None
determined
Ecological Insufficient Data
Information
Disposal Dispose in a safe manner in accordance with local/national
Considerations regulations.
Urea
Identification
Product name Urea
CAS-No 57-13-6
Hazard Identifications Not a hazardous substance or mixture.
Fire and Explosion 1. Suitable extinguishing media: Water Foam Carbon dioxide
(CO2) Dry powder
2. Unsuitable extinguishing media: For this
substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents
are given.
Accidental Release 1. Personal precautions, protective equipment, and
Measures emergency procedures: Advice for non-emergency
personnel. Avoid inhalation of dusts. Evacuate the danger
area, observe emergency procedures, consult an expert.
2. Environmental precautions: Do not let product enter
drains.
3. Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Cover drains. Collect, bind, and pump off spills. Observe
551
possible material restrictions. Take up dry. Dispose of
properly. Clean up affected area. Avoid generation of
dusts.
Stability and 1. Reactivity: The following applies in general to flammable
Reactivity Data organic substances and mixtures: in correspondingly fine
distribution, when whirled up a dust explosion potential
may generally be assumed.
2. Chemical stability: The product is chemically stable under
standard ambient conditions (room temperature).
3. Possibility of hazardous reactions: a) Exothermic reaction
with: metallic chlorides, Chlorites
chromates/perchromates, Fluorine, nitrates, strong
oxidising agents, hydrogen peroxide. b) Generates
dangerous gases or fumes in contact with: bases,
chlorinated solvents c) Risk of explosion/exothermic
reaction with: ammonium nitrate, calcium hypochlorite,
Chlorine, chromyl chloride, Nitroso compound, sodium
hypochlorite, nitrosyl compounds, phosphorus
pentachloride, perchlorates, nitrites, Nitro compounds
Toxicological 1. Acute toxicity:
Information LD50 Oral - Rat - 8,471 mg/kg
Remarks: (RTECS)
Symptoms: Nausea, Vomiting
Inhalation: No data available
Dermal: No data available
2. Skin corrosion/irritation:
Skin - Rabbit
Result: No skin irritation - 4 h (OECD Test Guideline 404)
3. Serious eye damage/eye irritation:
Eyes - Rabbit
Result: slight irritation (OECD Test Guideline 405)
Ecological When urea is released to soil, this material will hydrolyze into
Information ammonium in a matter of days to several weeks. When released
552
into the soil, this material may leach into groundwater. When
released into water, this material may biodegrade to a moderate
extent. When released into water, this material is not expected to
evaporate significantly. This material has an experimentally
determined bioconcentration factor (BCF) of less than 100. This
material is not expected to significantly bioaccumulate. When
released into the air, this material is expected to be readily
degraded by reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl
radicals. When released into the air, this material is expected to
have a half-life of less than 1 day.
Disposal
Considerations
Carbon
Identification
Product name Activated Carbon
CAS-No 7440-44-0
Hazard Identifications 4. Inhalation: No adverse effects expected. May cause mild
irritation to the respiratory tract.
5. Ingestion: No adverse effects expected. May cause mild
irritation to the gastrointestinal tract.
6. Skin Contact: Not expected to be a health hazard from
skin exposure. May cause mild irritation and redness.
7. Eye Contact: No adverse effects expected. May cause mild
irritation, possible reddening.
8. Chronic Exposure: Prolonged inhalation of excessive dust
may produce pulmonary disorders. Aggravation of Pre-
existing
9. Conditions: No information found.
Fire and Explosion 1. Fire: As with most organic solids, fire is possible at
elevated temperatures or by contact with an ignition
source. Activated carbon is difficult to ignite and tends to
burn slowly (smolder) without producing smoke or flame.
553
Wet activated carbon depletes oxygen from the air.
Materials allowed to smolder for long periods in enclosed
spaces, may produce amounts of carbon monoxide which
may reach the lower explosive limit for carbon monoxide
of 12.5% in air. Contact with strong oxidizers such as
ozone or liquid oxygen may cause rapid combustion.
2. Explosion: Fine dust dispersed in air in sufficient
concentrations, and in the presence of an ignition source is
a potential dust explosion hazard. Minimum explosible
concentration 0.140 g/l.
3. Fire Extinguishing Media: Water spray, dry chemical,
alcohol foam, or carbon dioxide.
4. Special Information: In the event of a fire, wear full
protective clothing and NIOSH-approved self-contained
breathing apparatus with full facepiece operated in the
pressure demand or other positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Remove all sources of ignition. Ventilate area of leak or spill.
Measures Wear appropriate personal protective equipment.
• Spills: Clean up spills in a manner that does not disperse
dust into the air. Use non-sparking tools and equipment.
Reduce airborne dust and prevent scattering by moistening
with water. Pick up spill for recovery or disposal and place
in a closed container.
• Warning! Spent product may have absorbed hazardous
materials.
Stability and 1. Stability: Stable under ordinary conditions of use and
Reactivity Data storage.
2. Hazardous Decomposition Products: Involvement in a fire
causes formation of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
3. Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.
4. Incompatibilities: Strong oxidizers such as ozone, liquid
oxygen, chlorine, permanganate, etc. may result in rapid
combustion. Avoid contact with strong acids.
554
5. Conditions to Avoid: Moisture and incompatibles.
Toxicological No data available.
Information
Ecological 1. Environmental Fate: No information found.
Information 2. Environmental Toxicity: No information found
Disposal Whatever cannot be saved for recovery or recycling should be
Considerations managed in an appropriate and approved waste disposal facility.
Processing, use or contamination of this product may change the
waste management options. State and local disposal regulations
may differ from federal disposal regulations. Dispose of container
and unused contents in accordance with federal, state and local
requirements.
555
APPENDIX G: SIZING AND COSTING FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Primary Clarifier
Table F. 1: Design criteria for the primary clarifier
Primary Clarifier
Function To remove suspended solid as primary sludge
Shape Circular
Overflow rate 35 m/day
Diameter, d 1.15
Volume, V 3.59
Area, A 1.03
Depth, h 3
Cost
RM 552,529.64
In the primary clarifier tank, about 50 – 75% of the suspended solids will be the average
removal for a well operated system. Thus, from Figure F.1, an overflow rate of 35 m/d should
yield a suspended solids removal efficiency of about 60%.
Figure F. 1: Suspended solids and BOD removal as a function of Overflow rate
(Source: From Environmental Engineering book by Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe,

George)
556
𝑄 36.05 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
Required Surface area, A = = = 1.03𝑚2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 35 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Using circular tank,
4A 0.5 4 × 1.03 0.5
D=( ) =( ) = 1.15𝑚
π 𝜋
Assuming sidewall depth of 3m, volume of tank is:
Volume = A × depth = 3.09m3
Detention time at average flow is:
𝑣
𝑡= = 0.086 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 2.06 ℎ
𝑄
The actual height of the primary clarifier tank is the sum of water depth and the freeboard
which is 0.5m.
Wastewater volume in the primary clarifier tank = 3.09 m3
Actual Volume of tank (including freeboard) = 3.59 m3
Aeration Tank
Table F. 2: Design criteria for the aeration tank
Aeration Tank
Function An activated sludge process where air is added
into the water to encourage microbial growth
Shape Circular
Volumetric flow rate 36.05m3/day
Mixed liquor suspended solid 3000mg/L
Detention time, t 18.9h
Food to mass ratio 0.8
Volume, V 28.34m3
Width 3m
Length 5m
Depth, h 2m
Cost
RM 481,066.87
From Environmental Engineering book by Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe, George

Tchobanoglous, at Table 5-6, page 242, a completely mixed reactor is used and data extracted
as follows:
557
Figure F. 2: Design and operational parameters
(Source: From Environmental Engineering book by Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe,

George)
MLSS: 3000 mg/L

VSS/SS: 0.8
Yield coefficient, Y: 0.5kg/kg
Decay constant, kd: 0.05d-1
Mean cell residence time, θC :10d
The formula to calculate the volume:
1 QY(SO − S)
= − kd
θC VX
𝑉𝑆𝑆
X = MLSS ( ) = 3000 (0.8) = 2400
𝑆𝑆
1 (36.05)(0.5)(583.80 − 17.51)
= − 0.05
10 V(2400)
Volume = 28.34m3
The width: depth ratio must be between 1:1.1 to 1:2.1 ratio.
Assume depth 2m and width = 3
28.34
L= = 4.72m ≅ 5m
2×3
Retention time,
𝑉 28.34𝑚3
= = 0.786𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 18.9ℎ
𝑄 36.05𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
558
Secondary Clarifier
Table F. 3: Design criteria for the secondary clarifier
Secondary Clarifier
Function To separate the activated sludge from the treated
wastewater, allowing the clarified water for
further processing, while the sludge is recycled
back to the biological treatment process.
Shape Circular
Overflow rate 24 m3/m2.day
Detention time, t 3h
Diameter, d 1.38𝑚
Volume, V 4.51𝑚3
Area, A 1.50𝑚2
Depth, h 3m
Cost
RM 525,174.76
To yield a high removal efficiency of secondary clarifier, the overflow rate must in the range
of 16 to 32 m3/m2.day. Besides, the retention time stated by IPS 1997 should not be less than 2
hours. We assume that the retention time to be 3 hours to calculate the following design.
Assume overflow rate is 24 m3/m2.day
𝑚3 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 36.05 × 3ℎ × = 4.51𝑚3
𝑑𝑎𝑦 24ℎ
𝑚3
𝑄 36.05
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 3 = 1.50𝑚2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚
24 2
𝑚 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦
4A 0.5 4 × 1.50 0.5

Diameter = ( ) =( ) = 1.38𝑚
π 𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 4.51𝑚3
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = = = 3𝑚
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 1.50 𝑚2
559
Neutralization Tank
Table F. 4: Design criteria for the neutralization tank
Neutralization Tank
Function To neutralize the pH of the wastewater
Shape
Settling time 24h
Diameter, d 2.84m
Volume, V 36.05m3
Diameter of impeller 0.994m
Width of impeller 0.124m
Baffle width 1.42m
Distance between upper axial impeller 2.84m
and impeller
Distance between upper axial impeller 1.89m
and water level
Cost
RM 446,758.38
𝑚3
Total volumetric flow rate of wastewater, V = 36.05
𝑑𝑎𝑦
It is assumed the tank has a settling time of 24 hours. Thus, minimum volume required =
36.05 𝑚3
The minimum H/D is 1.4. H represents the height of neutralization tank and D is diameter of
the tank.
The H/D ratio used is assumed to be 2.
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2
𝑉= 𝐻= (2𝐷) = 36.05𝑚3
4 4
D = 2.84m, H = 5.68m
The diameter and width of impeller, baffle width and off-set are assumed as shown below.
Diameter of impeller, d = 0.35D = 0.994m
Width of impeller, w = d/8 = 0.124m
Baffle width, b = D/2 = 1.42m
560
Offset = b/6 = 0.237m
Distance between upper axial impeller and impeller, H/2 = 2.84m
Distance between upper axial impeller and water level, H/3 = 1.89m
Based on the sizing of neutralization tank, the volume of the neutralization tank is 36.05 𝑚3
Sizing of Sludge Thickener

Table F. 5: Design criteria for Sludge Thickener
Sludge Thickener
Function Reduce the volume of sludge from primary and
secondary clarifier.
Shape
Material of construction
Desired Flow to Thickener 13.1 m3/d
Diameter, d 2𝑚
Volume, V 2.22𝑚3
Area, A 1.11𝑚2
Depth, h 2𝑚
Cost
RM 200,121.96
According to Qasim (1999), the detention period for thickener is 24h and the thickened solid
content is assumed as 5% as shown in Figure F.3. The solids loading is between 25 to 80 kg/m2.
d while hydraulic loading is between 6 to 12 m3/m2. d.
Figure F. 3: Design Criteria of Thickener (Qasim, 1999).
561
Assume the solid loading is not exceeding 47 kg/m2. d and hydraulic loading should more than
9 m3/m2. d. The specific gravity of combined sludge is assumed as 1.02 (Qasim, 1999).
Therefore, quantity of primary sludge, 𝑀𝑇𝑝 in unit kg/d is calculated as shown below:
𝑀𝑃 = 𝐸 × 𝑠𝑠 × 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑃 = 0.65 × 0.5 × 36.05 = 11.72𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
By assuming the primary sludge has 4% of solid, S = 0.04. The volume of primary sludge, 𝑉𝑃
is calculated as shown below:
𝑀𝑝 𝑚3
𝑉𝑃 = = 0.293
1000 × 𝑆 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Based on the generalized diagram of excess sludge production as a function of food to biomass
ratio, the biomass conversion factor is 0.46 (Abbassi et al., n.d.)
𝑀𝑠 = 𝑌 × 𝐵𝑂𝐷 × 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑠 = 0.46 × 3.02 × 36.05
= 50.081 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
By assuming the activated sludge has concentration of 0.75%, the volume of secondary sludge
is calculated as shown below:
𝑀𝑠 𝑚3
𝑉𝑠 = = 6.677
1000 × 𝑆 𝑑𝑎𝑦
The total mass of solids to the thickener,
𝑀𝑇 = 𝑀𝑝 + 𝑀𝑠
𝑀𝑇 = 11.72 + 50.08 = 61.79 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
The total volume of sludge to the thickener,
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑝 + 𝑉𝑠
𝑚3
𝑉𝑇 = 0.293 + 6.677 = 6.97
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑇𝑝
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑘𝑔
61.79
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑 = 1.31 𝑚2
47 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑑
𝑉𝑇𝑝
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
6.97 𝑚3 /𝑑 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 5.30 2 < 9 2
1.31 𝑚2 𝑚 𝑑 𝑚 𝑑
562
Since the hydraulic loading is far lower than design hydraulic loading, dilution of combined
sludge with water should be done in order to achieve higher hydraulic loading.
Assume the hydraulic loading is 10 m3/m2. d,
Desired Flow to Thickener = 10*1.31 = 13.1 m3/d
As mentioned in Qasim (1999), the maximum solid concentration in gravity thickener should
less than 10%.
4
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = √ × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋
4
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = √ × 1.31 = 1.29 𝑚
𝜋
Therefore, diameter of thickener is designed as 2m.

𝜋
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (22 ) = 3.14 𝑚2 > 1.31 𝑚2
4
An overflow rate of 0.2736 m3/m2.day to 0.5472 m3/m2.day is recommended to prevent septic
conditions. Besides, the range tank side-water depth is within 2 to 4 m. We assume that
overflow rate of 0.3 m3/m2.h and the depth of 2m are used to calculate the following design.
𝑄𝑤 = 𝑞𝑜 × 𝐴𝑠
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞𝑜 = 0.3 × 24 = 7.2
𝑚2 . ℎ 𝑚2 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 𝑚3
6.97 = 7.2 2 × 𝐴𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑠 = 0.97𝑚2
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑑 = 1.11𝑚2
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 2.22𝑚3
Sizing of Press Filter Sizing

Table F. 6: Design criteria for Press Filter
Press Filter
Function .
Press Volume 0.57
Plate Size 800mm
563
Number of Chambers 40
Cost
RM 16,352.00
Mass flowrate = 149.05 kg/hr = 3577.20 kg/day = 930.07gal/day

By allowing 8 hours of processing time per day,
930.07 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 310.02 𝑔𝑎𝑙
× =
𝑑𝑎𝑦 3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Figure F. 4: Press volume per cycle graph
At 10% slurry and 310.02 gal/cycle, the press volume per cycle is 20 ft3 /cycle = 0.57 m3 /cycle.
The number of chambers can be determined based on the figure below:
564
Figure F. 5: Press volumes with 32mm cake thickness
From figure F.5, the press filter used is either 800mm filter press with approximately 40
chambers or 1000mm filter press with approximately 25 chambers. In order to get higher
separation efficiency, 800mm filter press with approximately 40 chambers.
Costing of equipment
The cost of equipment is calculated for each main equipment in this wastewater treatment plant.
Primary Clarifier
Since there is roof required for the primary clarifier, it will be defined as fixed roof.
According to the Table A.1 in Project Management & Economic (PEE) Handbook, at API-
fixed roof of a tank, the equation below is used.
Based on the sizing of clarifier, the volume of the clarifier is 3.59m3.
Equipment Description 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
Tank Fixed roof 4.8059 -0.3973 0.1445
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.8509 + (−0.3973)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3.59 + 0.1445(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3.59)2

𝐶𝑝0 = $47302.68
Bare Module Factor for concrete tank 1.1
0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $52032.95
565
The CEPCI in 2001 and 2024 are 397 and 941 respectively.
941 𝑅𝑀 4.48
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2024 = $52032.95 × × = 𝑅𝑀 552,529.64
394.3 $1
Aeration Tank
Figure F. 6: Illustration of aerator tank
Figure F.6 shows the illustration of aerator tank. Since there is roof required for the aerator
tank, it will be defined as fixed roof. According to the Table A.1 in Project Management &
Economic (PEE) Handbook, at API-fixed roof of a tank, the equation below is used.
Based on the sizing of aeration tank, the volume of aeration tank is 28.34 m3
Equipment Description 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
Tank Fixed roof 4.8059 -0.3973 0.1445
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.8059 + (−0.3973)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 28.34 + (0.1445)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 28.34)2

𝐶𝑝0 = $37903.50
941 𝑅𝑀 4.48
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2024 = $37903.50 × × = 𝑅𝑀 402,491.22
394.3 $1
Secondary Clarifier
Based on the sizing of clarifier, the volume of the clarifier is 4.51m3.
Assumed the tank is fixed roof,
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.8509 + (−0.3973)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 4.51 + 0.1445(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 4.51)2
𝐶𝑝0 = $44960.80
0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $49456.88
566
941 𝑅𝑀 4.48
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2024 = $49456.88 × × = 𝑅𝑀 481,066.87
394.3 $1
Neutralization Tank
Based on the sizing of neutralization tank, the volume of the neutralization tank is 36.05 m3.
Assumed the tank is fixed roof,
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 4.8509 + (−0.3973)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 36.05 + 0.1445(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 36.05)2
𝐶𝑝0 = $38247.49
0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $42072.23
941 𝑅𝑀 4.48
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2024 = $42072.23 × × = 𝑅𝑀 446,758.38
394.3 $1
Sludge Thickener
Material of construction: Carbon Steel
Equipment type: Tank
Equipment description: API-floating roof
Diameter: 2m
Volume: 2.22m3
From table A.1,
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝0 = 3.4974 + (0.4485)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2.22 + (0.1074)(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2.22)2
𝐶𝑝0 = $4630.45
From table A.4,
𝐵1 = 2.25 ; 𝐵2 = 1.82
Fp = 1
From figure A.18, Fm = 1
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝0 × [𝐵1 + (𝐵2 × 𝐹𝑝 × 𝐹𝑚 )]
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $4630.45 × [2.25 + (1.82 × 1 × 1)] = $18845.93
941 𝑅𝑀 4.48
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2024 = $18845.93 × × = 𝑅𝑀 200121.96
394.3 $1
Press Filter
The costing of filter press is referred to Alibaba selling cost as shown in figure below.
567
Figure F. 7: Price of Filter Press
(Source: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Refinery-Wastewater-Treatment-Saving-
Water-Industrial_1600073932685.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.0.0.23661850ZizNRV)
Cost of Filter Press = RM 16352.00
568
APPENDIX H: INDUSTRIAL AND UMP PANEL’S COMMENT ON FINAL
PRESENTATION
No Comment Explanation & clarification (CO9)

[PO10, BT – A4]
MR JONATHAN DAVID A/L ALLYMOTHU
Review compressor design; operating Compressor design has been revised.
1. temperature range too high (> 1000degC). Revised version shown under Appendix A.
2 To review selection for material of construction The design of reactors, R-101 and R-102 is
for several equipment based on operating checked and revised based on the
comments since carbon steel is limited to a
condition.
maximum design operating temperature
Service with high pressure and temperature not of (427°C) and corrosion rates frequently
suitable to use carbon steel. increase with temperature.
R-101 using stainless steel 316 as it is
having good heat resistance at a
temperature above 843 ℃ while R-102
using carbon steel as R-102 operating
temperature is 480°C.
3 HAZOP – Deviation of “Low” and “None” HAZOP analysis has been corrected by
could be clustered together (e.g No/Low Flow) “Low” and “None” clustered together.
PROF. TS. DR JOLIUS BIN GIMBUN

4 CEPCI should be for 2024, after the design CEPCI for all costing of equipment has
phase. been changed to 2024.
5 Compressor design need to re-do, Tout = Compressor design has been revised.
1773℃
DR. JUN HASLINDA BT HJ. SHARIFUDDIN
6 Revise your plant layout. Why there is The plant layout is amended according to
management office. the comments.
7 Please check your process control. Process control has been revised and
amendments shown in P&ID.
569
8 Look back on the utilities/consumption. Correction is made based on the comment.
The cost of utilities/consumption is
recalculated.
AP. IR. DR CHIN SIM YEE
9 Heat integration should be done by heat Amendment was done at heat integration.
exchanging between process streams. Please
revise it.
10 Check the pressure control of V-102. Pressure control of V-102 is revised and
corrected.
570

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SEMESTER 2 2022/2023

BKC4934 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II

PRODUCTION OF 40,000 MTPA OF UREA FROM METHANE

SUPERVISOR: DR. SITI KHOLIJAH BINTI ABDUL MUDALIP

PREPARED BY: GROUP A06

SUVEETHA A/P SUKUMARAN KA19178

RAJA ANAS NAZRIN BIN RAJA SHUHAIMI KA19070

NURUL IFFAH BINTI ABDUL HAMID KA19094

JASMINE HACQUEEN BT MOHD FARID KA19033

Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology

Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology

SUVEETHA A/P SUKUMARAN KA19178

RAJA ANAS NAZRIN BIN RAJA SHUHAIMI KA19070

NURUL IFFAH BINTI ABDUL HAMID KA19094

JASMINE HACQUEEN BT MOHD FARID KA19033

(DR SITI KHOLIJAH BINTI ABDUL MUDALIP)

Chapter 3: Process PFD &MEB

Chapter 4: Heat Integration

Chapter 5: Equipment Sizing & Costing

Chapter 6: Process Control and Safety

Chapter 7: Waste Management and Pollution Control

Chapter 8: Economic Analysis

Figure 1. 1: 2D Structure of Urea Compound................................................................................. 1

Table 1. 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of Ammonia, Methane and Urea............................ 2

1.1.1 Background of Urea

Figure 1. 1: 2D Structure of Urea Compound

1.1.2 Physical & Chemical Properties

Properties Ammonia Methane Urea

Colour Colourless Colourless Colourless to white

Physical state Gas (at room Gas Liquid

Odour Sharp, Irritating Odourless Almost odourless

Density 0.7710 g/L (gas) 0.554 g/L 1.34 g/L

0.6818 g/L (liquid)

Flash point 11℃ -188℃ -

Melting point -77.7℃ -182.57℃ 132.7℃

Boiling point -33.35℃ -161.50℃ Decomposes

Heat of vaporization 23.3 kJ/mol 8.19 kJ/mol 14.6 kJ/mol

Heat of combustion -316 kJ/mol -890.8 kJ/mol -635 kJ/mol

Heat of formation -46.0 kJ/mol -74.6 kJ/mol -333.39 kJ/mol

1.1.3 Toxicity of Urea

1.1.3.1 Mechanism of Toxicity

1.1.3.2 Safety and Precautions

1.2 APPLICATION OF UREA

1.2.2 Automobile system

1.2.4 Medical Use

1.3 MARKET SURVEY

1.3.1 Overview of Urea

Figure 1. 3: Urea Market Share, By Grade and by volume

Figure 1. 4: Global Urea Capacity by Region

1.3.3 Global Supply and Demand of Urea

Figure 1. 5: Urea Supply and Demands Based on Trading Economics

Demand = 197.885 million tonnes/year

1.3.4 Urea in Asia Pacific

1.3.5 Urea in Malaysia

Fertilizer used in Malaysia is primarily imported. Large quantities of urea, ammonium-

1.3.6 Market Analysis for Urea

1.3.7 Market Analysis for Raw Materials

Methane (CH4) is a hydrocarbon that is a primary component of natural gas. Methane is

1.3.8 Plant Capacity

A06_final Report PD1-PD2_SEM 22'23

A06_final Report PD1-PD2_SEM 22'23

A06_final Report PD1-PD2_SEM 22'23