b07_production of 150,000 Mta of Monopropylene Glycol From Propylene Oxide and Water (2)

PRODUCTION OF 150,000 METRIC TONNES PER
YEAR OF MONOPROPYLENE GLYCOL FROM

PROPYLENE OXIDE AND WATER
FINAL REPORT
PREPARED BY: GROUP B 07
1. FELICIA TAN HENG YEE KA 15252

2. NURUL IZATIE BINTI ISMANNI KA 15266
3. ABDUL WAFIE AFNAN BIN ABDUL HADI KA 15299
4. JANAGARAJ A/L SUKUMARAN KA 15011
A design project submitted to the Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Pahang
MAY 2019
Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Engineering
The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Chemical and
Natural Resources Engineering for acceptance, a design project entitled production of 150,000
MTA of Monopropylene Glycol from Propylene Oxide and Water.
FELICIA TAN HENG YEE (KA 15252)

NURUL IZATIE BINTI ISMANNI (KA 15266)
ABDUL WAFIE AFNAN BIN ABDUL HADI (KA 15299)
JANAGARAJ A/L SUKUMARAN (KA 15011)
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Chemical Engineering
_________________________________
DR HERMA DINA BINTI SETIABUDI
_________________________________
DR. VO NGUYEN DAI VIET
Date: 16th May 2019

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, we wish to express our deep and sincere gratitude to Dr. Herma Dina Binti
Setiabudi and Dr. Vo Nguyen Dai Viet, as our supervisors for this plant design project. They
were very supportive and willingly shared their time and knowledge with us without any
hesitation.
We are highly indebted for their guidance, monitoring and constant supervisions and
encouragement as well as providing necessary information regarding the project throughout
this plant design report project completion. With their guidance and help, we have learned a
lot regarding the real practices in chemical engineering. We also would like to thank again for
giving us adequate freedom and flexibility while working on this project.
Secondly, we wish to convey our gratitude towards all our panels for giving us suggestions and
constructive comments on our work for further improvements. We also would like to show our
appreciation for our friends and family members for their endless love, support and keep us
motivated during our final year study. With their supports, we managed to perform well for our
plant design project and also our final year of undergraduate study. Finally, big congratulations
to our team members for being extremely supportive and united striving so hard to put up with
all the challenges that arose throughout the duration we were all in a team.
The study has indeed helped us to explore more knowledgeable avenues related to our topic
and we were sure it will help us in future.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This design project with the title of Monopropylene Glycol Production from Propylene Oxide
and Water is conducted to fulfil the requirements for Bachelor of Chemical Engineering. This
production plant as designed to produce 150,000 MTA monopropylene glycol because the
demand of monopropylene glycol has grown rapidly in manufacturing sector of different
industries. Even though recent advances in technology have increase the demand for
monopropylene glycol production, there are still lack of monopropylene glycol plant build
locally in Malaysia. Therefore, this report aims to serve as a technical and economic feasibility
study for the establishment of a monopropylene glycol production plant in Malaysia. Catalytic
hydrolysis route is preferable over other process route because it is the most beneficial due to
the higher yield and selectivity of desired product with the present of heterogeneous catalyst,
which is Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3–, lower risk due to operating parameters and cost
saving in terms of energy consumption.
To acquire a good understanding of the process capability, this design project therefore
involves a review on market survey for the supply and demand of monopropylene glycol
globally and identified a reasonable production rate for the model plant. Apart from that, this
report provides an analysis on current process technologies and viable raw material, synthesis
routes, reactor technologies, catalysts, and separation technologies. Safety aspects were
analyzed in an elementary level and detailed economic potentials were calculated and detailed
out from Level 1 to Level 4. A model was developed using Aspen Plus which showed that our
designed was able to produce targeted production rate and product purity of higher than 99.5%.
Detailed reaction and separation unit costing, heat integration and detailed costing as well as
risk analysis and safety analysis are covered.
Chapter 1: This chapter details out the products to be formed which is monopropylene glycol.
Its physical and chemical properties and applications are outlined. A market survey is done to
identify the gap between the supply and demand and the projected demand and supply of was
determined for the next five years. Based on the market survey analysis, it is
decided that the production rate of monopropylene glycol to be produced was
determined. The raw materials, propylene oxide was also thoroughly discussed by outlining
their physical and chemical properties. The process synthesis, reactor technology and catalyst
are also decided upon in which catalytic hydrolysis of propylene oxide process with Lewatit
MonoPlus M500/HCO3– chosen as its catalyst. After referring upon heuristics, the choice of
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mode of operation is also decided upon which are to be a continuous process. This chapter also
discusses in detail on the selection of the site to build the plant and on the layout of the plant.
Various factors were considered as a selection parameter and all these parameters will be
discussed at first. Next, four promising locations in Malaysia will be suggested and evaluated
to identify the best location to build the plant. After the best location has been determined, site
layout will be done. All auxiliary building and services required on site will be identified and
a rough diagram of the placement of process line and every building will be drawn.
Chapter 2: This chapter will be divided into three parts which are Level 1, Level 1 and Level
3 decisions, adhering to the heuristics. In Level 1, to analyse the current economic and technical
status of the available synthesis routes for monopropylene glycol. The best synthesis route
mostly will be chosen according to the economic potential of the method. The aspects that are
chosen for comparison of synthesis routes involved reaction, raw material, operating condition,
catalyst, safety and environmental issues, unit operations, advantages and disadvantages of
every processes. A simple economic potential 1 was carried out for the commercial process
routes to aid in choosing the best and profitable to produce the selected product. In Level 2,
propylene oxide is obtained at minimum purity of 99% and pure water at 99.99% from Jabatan
Bekalan Air (Pahang). Distillation is decided to be necessary as a final purification to produce
monopropylene glycol. Extent of reaction method is used to analyse the mole balance in this
project. Economic potential 2 was carried out based on product price, side product price and
raw material cost. Material balance in level 2 for the reactor are based in the reactive species.
The conversion for liquid phase hydrolysis reactor is 90% based on the Polymath program.
Safety and health aspects are discussed in this section for hydrolysis reactor and materials
involved in propylene glycol production according to the selected synthesis route. In
Level 3, the recycle streams are detailed out. Unreacted propylene oxide and water are decided
to be recycled to the liquid phase hydrolysis reactor respectively. The reaction kinetics are
detailed out and block flow diagram with recycle streams are made. Degree of freedom analysis
and material and energy balances are calculated for a maximum achievable propylene
conversion of 90%. The reactor sizing, costing and catalyst costing were done. Economic
Potential 3 is calculated.
Chapter 3: From referred process flow diagram, some modification were made to improve the
process efficiency. In the process flow diagram suggested by Aakyalcin, raw materials and
recycled stream are entered into a mixer before transferring into reactor for well mixing. Some
modification was made such that these three streams entered the reactor. Rigorous manual
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calculations of material and energy balances were done, and the
results were compared with Aspen Plus simulation results. The comparison of manual
calculations results and Aspen Plus simulation results were deviate under the allowable error
which are 5% for material balance and 30% for energy balance.
Chapter 4: This chapter will be divided into two parts which are the heat integration section
and the utilities section. In the first section, heat integration will be done using the famous
pinch technology. All related theories, concepts and guidelines will be discussed
regarding heat integration and pinch technology. After that, heat integration will be done to
reduce the heat duty of the plant. First, the cold and hot stream will be identified in the plant
heating and cooling systems. Then, a stream table was created and after the minimum
approach temperature was determined, the stream data was shifted. Once the stream data is
shifted, the temperature interval diagram will be prepared, and cascade diagram will also be
done. Once cascading is done and pinch point is determined, the Heat Exchanger Network
(HEN) was designed and the energy consumed before and after maximum energy recovery is
determined. For the utilities section, electricity, cooling water, steam and chilled water
refrigerant was discussed, and costing was done. Based on that, the Economic Potential Level
4 will be determined.
Chapter 5: This chapter will discuss in detail on the sizing of the major equipment’s involved
in the design of this plant. Detailed sizing was to be done for the reactors, distillation columns,
pumps, heat exchangers, valve, cooling tower and storage tanks. All the theoretical frameworks
will be laid out in an understandable fashion and the design procedure will be outlined. Fluid
allocation for hot and cold fluid will be done for each heat exchanger and types of trays for the
columns are determined. The calculated specifications, such as dimensions and mechanical
data for each major unit were tabulated and the price was determined. All design calculations
and mechanical calculations, along with detailed reference to journal data are attached at the
appendices for further understanding.
Chapter 6: This chapter will be divided into three parts, which are the identification of hazard,
process control studies part, and HAZOP summary. Material Safety Data Sheet for each
chemical involved was summarized and the toxicity of each of those chemicals was discussed.
Dow Fire and Explosion Index studies were also done. The procedures for control system
design were outlined and control systems were designed for every major equipment in the plant.
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Next, the HAZOP studies will be discussed, and a complete Process Instrumentation Diagram
was drawn.
Chapter 7: This chapter basically discusses all the wastes that will be generated from this
design project. The waste is outlined, and the related environmental act was discussed. After
that, a conceptual design of waste treatment will be done for the wastewater produced. The
process description will be outlined and the design specifications of the waste treatment plant
or facility will be tabulated. All related calculations will be attached at the appendix. The
disposal of the treated wastewater must also be discussed in theory. Apart from that, solid
waste management such as waste or spent catalyst will be discussed with the correlation with
the related waste management acts and regulations. Air waste control will be also discussed
where stack gas management was theoretically discussed.
Chapter 8: This chapter deals with economic analysis of the designed plant. First, the grass
root capital cost for all the equipment will be calculated. The Fixed Capital Investment is
discussed and the Total Capital Investment will be calculated. The direct manufacturing cost
will be calculated by first summing up all the raw material, utilities, waste treatment, and
operating labor cost. The fixed manufacturing cost and the general expenses are calculated.
Then, cash flow analysis is to be done, and cumulative non-discounted cash flow analysis,
cumulative discounted cash flow analysis, payback period, financial ratio and operating
margin ratio will be roughly discussed and calculated. Finally, after calculating the gross
profit margin and the net profit margin, the final feasibility of the designed plant will be
determined.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................ii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Background of Monopropylene Glycol....................................................................... 1
1.3.1 Application of Monopropylene Glycol.................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Applications of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol .................................. 6
1.4 Physical & Chemical Properties .................................................................................. 7
1.4.1 Physical & Chemical Properties of Monoropylene Glycol ..................................... 7
1.4.2 Physical & Chemical Properties of Dipropylene Glycol ......................................... 9
1.4.3 Physical & Chemical Properties of Tripropylene Glycol ...................................... 10
1.5 Toxicity of Propylene Glycol .................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Toxicity on Environmental Effect ......................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Toxicity on Human Health .................................................................................... 13
1.6 Market Survey ........................................................................................................... 13
1.6.1 Overview of Propylene Glycol .............................................................................. 13
1.6.2 Global Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol ........................................ 14
1.6.3 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Asia Pacific ........................... 16
1.6.4 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia ................................ 18
1.6.5 Demand of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol....................................... 19
1.6.6 Forecast Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol ..................................... 21
1.6.7 Competitors/Producers for Production of Propylene Glycol ................................. 23
1.6.8 Potential Customers ............................................................................................... 26
1.6.9 History of Global Pricing ...................................................................................... 28
1.6.10 Raw Material Availability ..................................................................................... 34
1.6.11 SWOT Analysis for Propylene Glycol Production................................................ 35
1.6.12 Plant Capacity Decision......................................................................................... 35
1.6.13 Calculation for Profit Margin ................................................................................ 36
1.7 Site Selection & Plant Layout ................................................................................... 37
1.7.1 General Consideration of Site Location ................................................................ 37
1.7.2 Overview of Strategic Locations ........................................................................... 41
1.7.3 Comparison of Potential Site Locations ................................................................ 51
1.7.4 Selection of Plant Site............................................................................................ 54
1.7.5 Plant Layout ........................................................................................................... 55
1.8 Process Technology................................................................................................... 58
1.8.1 Non-Catalytic Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide ...................................................... 58
1.8.2 Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide with Sulphuric Acid Catalyst .............................. 59
1.8.3 Catalytic Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide with Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 –
catalyst ............................................................................................................................. 61
1.8.4 Carbonation of Propylene Oxide followed by Hydrolysis of Propylene
Carbonate with Methyl Triphenyl Phosphonium Iodide Catalyst ................................... 63
1.9 Project Objective ....................................................................................................... 64
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS ROUTES ....................................... 65
2.1 Level 1: Process Selection......................................................................................... 65
2.1.1 Economic Potential 1 (Profit Margin) ................................................................... 65
2.1.2 Screening of Synthesis Routes .............................................................................. 69
2.1.3 Decision of Synthesis Routes Selection ................................................................ 72
2.1.4 Decision on Process Mode .................................................................................... 72
2.2 Level 2: Input & Output Structure Block Diagram ................................................... 73
2.2.1 Raw Material Selection and Impurities Management ........................................... 73
2.2.2 Output Materials Destination Decision ................................................................. 73
2.2.3 Production of Propylene Glycol Block Flow Diagram ......................................... 74
2.2.4 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Process .................................................................... 75
2.2.5 Economic Potential 2 ............................................................................................. 83
2.2.6 Level 2 Material Balance ....................................................................................... 85
2.2.7 Safety Considerations ............................................................................................ 86
2.3 Level 3: Recycle Structure ........................................................................................ 91
2.3.1 Degree-of-Freedom ............................................................................................... 91
2.3.2 Level 3 Material Balance in Hydrolysis Process ................................................... 93
2.3.3 Reaction Kinetic .................................................................................................... 94
2.3.4 Hydrolysis Reactor Design .................................................................................... 95
2.3.5 Design of Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor.......................................................... 95
2.3.6 Heat Effects ........................................................................................................... 96
2.3.7 Conversion at Adiabatic Condition ....................................................................... 99
2.3.8 Cost of Hydrolysis Reactor.................................................................................. 100
2.3.9 Solid Catalyst Weight for Hydrolysis Reactor .................................................... 102
2.3.10 Cost of Catalyst for Hydrolysis Reactor .............................................................. 102
2.3.11 Design and Cost of Pump .................................................................................... 103
2.3.12 Economic Potential 3 ........................................................................................... 105
CHAPTER 3 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM, MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE .. 107
3.1 Modified Process Flow Diagram............................................................................. 107
3.1.1 Process Flow Detail Description ......................................................................... 107
3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production ..................................... 109
3.1.3 Equipment involved in PFD of Propylene Glycol Production ............................ 110
3.1.4 Description of Unit Operation ............................................................................. 110
3.1.5 Stream Operating Conditions .............................................................................. 111
3.2 Material Balance Manual Calculation ..................................................................... 112
3.2.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 ...................................................... 113
3.2.2 Distillation Column, T-101.................................................................................. 114
3.2.5 Pump, P-101 A/B................................................................................................. 117
3.2.6 Pump, P-102 A/B................................................................................................. 117
3.2.7 Pump, P-103 A/B................................................................................................. 118
3.2.8 Pump, P-104 A/B................................................................................................. 119
3.2.9 Pump, P-105 A/B................................................................................................. 120
3.2.10 Pump, P-106 A/B................................................................................................. 121
3.2.11 Pump, P-107 A/B................................................................................................. 122
3.2.12 Pump, P-108 A/B................................................................................................. 123
3.2.13 Heat Exchanger, E-101 ........................................................................................ 124
3.2.14 Heat Exchanger, E-102 ........................................................................................ 124
3.2.15 Heat Exchanger, E-103 ........................................................................................ 125
3.2.16 Heat Exchanger, E-104 ........................................................................................ 126
3.2.17 Heat Exchanger, E-105 ........................................................................................ 127
3.2.18 Heat Exchanger, E-106 ........................................................................................ 128
3.2.19 Valve, VLV-101 .................................................................................................. 129
3.3 Summary of Stream Material Balance .................................................................... 130
3.4 Energy Balance Manual Calculation ....................................................................... 131
3.4.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 ...................................................... 132
3.4.2 Distillation Column, T-101 ................................................................................. 134
3.4.3 Distillation Column, T-102 ................................................................................. 137
3.4.5 Pump, P-101 A/B................................................................................................. 141
3.4.6 Pump, P-102 A/B................................................................................................. 142
3.4.7 Pump, P-103 A/B................................................................................................. 142
3.4.8 Pump, P-104 A/B................................................................................................. 143
3.4.9 Pump, P-105 A/B................................................................................................. 143
3.4.10 Pump, P-106 A/B................................................................................................. 144
3.4.11 Pump, P-107 A/B................................................................................................. 144
3.4.12 Pump, P-108 A/B................................................................................................. 145
3.4.13 Heat Exchanger, E-101 ........................................................................................ 145
3.4.14 Heat Exchanger, E-102 ........................................................................................ 146
3.4.15 Heat Exchanger, E-103 ........................................................................................ 146
3.4.16 Heat Exchanger, E-104 ........................................................................................ 147
3.4.17 Heat Exchanger, E-105 ........................................................................................ 147
3.4.18 Heat Exchanger, E-106 ........................................................................................ 148
3.5 Process Simulation .................................................................................................. 149
3.5.1 Process Simulation Stream Results ..................................................................... 150
3.6 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results ...................................................... 153
3.6.1 Material Balance Comparison ............................................................................. 153
3.6.2 Energy Balance Comparison ............................................................................... 154
CHAPTER 4 UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION........................................................... 155
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 155
4.2 Heat Exchanger Network ........................................................................................ 155
4.2.1 Pinch Technology ................................................................................................ 155
4.2.2 Heat Integration Process Flow ............................................................................. 157
4.2.3 Heat Integration of Propylene Glycol Plant ........................................................ 157
4.2.4 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram ............................................................... 164
4.3 Process Utilities ....................................................................................................... 165
4.3.1 Steam Consumption............................................................................................. 165
4.3.2 Cooling Water Consumption ............................................................................... 167
4.3.3 Electricity............................................................................................................. 168
4.4 Economic Potential 4 .............................................................................................. 170
CHAPTER 5 PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING & COSTING ........................................... 171
5.1 Process Equipment Sizing ....................................................................................... 171
5.2 Major Equipment Sizing ......................................................................................... 171
5.2.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)................................................................................. 171
5.2.2 Distillation Column (T-101) ................................................................................ 173
5.2.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111) ...................................................................... 179
5.3 Minor Equipment Sizing ......................................................................................... 182
5.3.1 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105) .................................................................... 182
5.3.2 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B) ....................................................................... 184
5.3.3 Valve (VLV-101) ................................................................................................ 186
5.3.4 Cooling Tower (T-104) ....................................................................................... 188
CHAPTER 6 PROCESS CONTROL & SAFETY STUDIES .............................................. 189
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 189
6.1.1 General Safety Procedure .................................................................................... 189
6.1.2 Chemical Storage ................................................................................................. 190
6.1.3 Transportation ...................................................................................................... 190
6.1.4 Permit Procedures ................................................................................................ 191
6.1.5 General Worker Safety ........................................................................................ 191
6.1.6 Emergency Response Plan................................................................................... 193
6.1.7 Waste Disposal Operation ................................................................................... 194
6.2 Equipment Control .................................................................................................. 195
6.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 195
6.2.2 Classification of Control Strategies ..................................................................... 197
6.2.3 Procedure of Designing Control System ............................................................. 198
6.2.4 Control System for Equipment ............................................................................ 198
6.2.5 Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID) ...................................................... 208
6.3 Identification of Hazards ......................................................................................... 209
6.3.1 Flammability........................................................................................................ 209
6.3.2 Flammable Prevention ......................................................................................... 209
6.3.3 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) .................................................................. 211
6.3.4 Toxicity................................................................................................................ 214
6.3.5 Dow, Fire & Explosion Index.............................................................................. 216
6.3.6 Calculation Steps of Dow Fire & Explosion Index ............................................. 217
6.3.7 Fire & Explosion Index Calculation .................................................................... 218
6.3.8 Toxicity Index (TI) .............................................................................................. 223
6.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP).............................................................. 226
6.4.1 HAZOP for Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)............................................................. 230
6.4.2 HAZOP for Distillation Columns ........................................................................ 231
6.4.3 HAZOP for Storage Tanks .................................................................................. 232
6.4.4 HAZOP for Heat Exchangers .............................................................................. 233
6.4.5 HAZOP for Pumps .............................................................................................. 234
6.5 General Start-up and Shut-down Procedure ............................................................ 235
6.5.1 Plant Start-up for New Plant ................................................................................ 236
6.5.2 The Importance of Start-up Steps ........................................................................ 237
6.5.3 Preparing for Plant Shut-down ............................................................................ 238
6.5.4 Emergency Shut-down ........................................................................................ 239
CHAPTER 7 WASTE MANAGEMENT & POLLUTION CONTROL .............................. 240
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 240
7.2 Sources of Waste ..................................................................................................... 242
7.3 Related Environmental Act ..................................................................................... 242
7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 ......................................................................... 243
7.3.2 Gaseous Emissions & Effluent Standards ........................................................... 244
7.3.3 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standards A & B . 246
7.4 Waste Treatment of System .................................................................................... 247
7.4.1 Solid Waste Management .................................................................................... 247
7.5 Types of Waste Management .................................................................................. 248
7.5.1 Incineration Plant ................................................................................................. 252
7.5.2 Solidification Plant .............................................................................................. 252
7.5.3 Physical & Chemical Treatment Plant................................................................. 253
7.5.4 Vertical Secured Landfill..................................................................................... 253
7.5.5 Clinical Waste Treatment Care............................................................................ 253
7.5.6 Effluent Treatment Plant ..................................................................................... 254
7.5.7 Leachate Treatment Plant .................................................................................... 254
CHAPTER 8 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 255
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 255
8.2 Grass-Root Capital .................................................................................................. 255
8.3 Fixed & Total Capital Investment ........................................................................... 257
8.4 Manufacturing Cost & Total Cost Production ........................................................ 257
8.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) ..................................................................... 259
8.4.2 Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) ....................................................................... 261
8.4.3 General Expenses (GE) ....................................................................................... 261
8.4.4 Total Manufacturing Cost .................................................................................... 261
8.5 Cash Flow Analysis ................................................................................................. 262
8.5.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis .............................................. 262
8.5.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis ...................................................... 264
8.6 Financial Ratios (Profitability Analysis) ................................................................. 267
8.6.1 Operating Margin Ratio ....................................................................................... 268
8.6.2 Gross Profit Margin ............................................................................................. 268
8.6.3 Net Profit Margin................................................................................................. 268
8.6.4 Return of Investment (ROI) ................................................................................. 268
8.7 Feasibility ................................................................................................................ 269
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 270
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 273
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 282
APPENDIX A: POLYMATH REPORT ........................................................................... 282
A.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 Polymath Simulation ................... 282
APPENDIX B: MATERIAL BALANCE IN LEVEL 2 & LEVEL 3 ............................... 285
B.1 Material Balance in Level 2................................................................................. 285
B.2 Material Balance in Level 3................................................................................. 286
APPENDIX C: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATION STEPS ................................... 287
C.1 Pump (P-102 A/B to P-108 A/B) ......................................................................... 287
APPENDIX D: ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION ................................................ 294
D.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 ...................................................... 294
D.2 Distillation Columns (T-101 to T-103) ............................................................... 295
D.3 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B) ....................................................................... 298
D.3 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-106) ...................................................................... 301
APPENDIX E: SIMULATION REPORT ......................................................................... 304
APPENDIX F: UTILITIES COST .................................................................................... 328
F.1 Cooling Water...................................................................................................... 328
APPENDIX G: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATION STEPS................................... 330
G.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)................................................................................. 330
G.2 Distillation Column (T-101) ................................................................................ 334
G.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111) ...................................................................... 366
G.6 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105) .................................................................... 373
G.7 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B) ....................................................................... 381
G.8 Cooling Tower (T-104) ....................................................................................... 390
APPENDIX H: EQUIPMENT COSTING CALCULATION STEPS .............................. 392
H.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)................................................................................. 392
H.2 Distillation Column (T-101) ................................................................................ 394
H.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111) ...................................................................... 401
H.6 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105) .................................................................... 402
H.7 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B) ....................................................................... 407
H.8 Cooling Tower (T-104) ....................................................................................... 415
APPENDIX I: MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS) .................................... 416
I.1 Propylene Oxide MSDS ...................................................................................... 416
I.2 Water MSDS........................................................................................................ 422
I.3 Monopropylene Glycol MSDS ............................................................................ 425
I.4 Dipropylene Glycol MSDS ................................................................................. 428
I.5 Tripropylene Glycol MSDS................................................................................. 433
APPENDIX J: DOW FIRE AND EXPLOSION INDEX (F&EI) AND TOXICITY ....... 438
J.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)................................................................................. 438
J.2 Distillation Column (T-101) ................................................................................ 439
J.5 Propylene Oxide Tank (TK-101) ......................................................................... 442
J.6 Monopropylene Glycol Tank (TK-103) .............................................................. 443
J.7 Dipropylene Glycol Tank (TK-104) .................................................................... 444
J.8 Tripropylene Glycol Tank (TK-105) ................................................................... 445
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Vinyl Monomers for Unsaturated Polyester Resins (Fink, 2018). .......................... 3
Table 1.2: Common Industrial Application of Monopropylene Glycol (DOW Chemical, 2018).
.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 1.3: Physical and Chemical Properties of Monopropylene Glycol (ATSDR, 2018),
(DOW Chemical, 2017) and (Szajewski, 1994). ....................................................................... 7
Table 1.4: Physical and Chemical Properties of Dipropylene Glycol (CISCO, 2018), (DOW
Chemical, 2017), (Anna & Wypych, 2014) and (INCHEM, 2001). .......................................... 9
Table 1.5: Physical and Chemical Properties of Tripropylene Glycol (DOW Chemical, 2017)
and (Anna & Wypych, 2014). .................................................................................................. 10
Table 1.6: Type of Hazard and Exposure to Propylene Glycol (Zar et al., 2007). ................. 11
Table 1.7: The Sales Specification of Propylene Glycol from Different Producers. .............. 26
Table 1.8: Summary of Potential Customers. ......................................................................... 26
Table 1.9: Prices of Raw Materials and Products in 2018. ..................................................... 36
Table 1.10: Tariff value according voltage peak /off-peak ..................................................... 44
Table 1.11： Comparison of short-listed Potential Site Locations ......................................... 51
Table 1.12: Function and preferable location of buildings ..................................................... 57
Table 1.13: Correlation Between Water/PO Ratio and PG/DPG/TPG Production Ratio. ...... 60
Table 2.1: Price of Raw Materials and Products for Hydrolysis Routes. ............................... 66
Table 2.2: Price of Raw Material and Products for Carbonation followed by Hydrolysis Route.
.................................................................................................................................................. 67
Table 2.3: Comparison of Synthesis Routes for Propylene Glycol Production. ..................... 69
Table 2.4: Process Decision on Batch and Continuous Mode (Sinnott, 2005). ...................... 72
Table 2.5: Purity and Price of Raw Materials. ........................................................................ 73
Table 2.6: Destination Code for Propylene Glycol Production. ............................................. 73
Table 2.7: Mole Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis. ..................................................... 76
Table 2.8: Stoichiometry Table for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Process. .................................. 78
Table 2.9: Price List of Raw Materials and Products. ............................................................ 84
Table 2.10: Economic Potential 2 with Different Overall Conversion. .................................. 84
Table 2.11: Summary of Material Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis in Level 2. ........ 85
Table 2.12: Safety Data of Raw Materials involved in the Process. ....................................... 86
Table 2.13: Safety Data of Products involved in the Process. ................................................ 88
Table 2.14: Summary of Material Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor System.
.................................................................................................................................................. 93
Table 2.15: Summary of Material Balance of Separation and Purification System. .............. 94
Table 2.16: Heat Capacities Constant of Each Species in Liquid. .......................................... 96
Table 2.17: Heat of Formation for Each Species (ASPEN, 2018). ......................................... 96
Table 2.18: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products involved
in each Reaction. ...................................................................................................................... 98
Table 2.19: Equipment Cost Data for Hydrolysis Reactor based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009).
................................................................................................................................................ 100
Table 2.20: Equipment Cost Data for Pump based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009). ............... 103
Table 2.21: Pressure Factors for Pump (Turton, 2009)......................................................... 104
Table 2.22: Summary for Cost of Pump. .............................................................................. 104
Table 2.23: Economic Potential 3 with Different Overall Conversion. ................................ 105
Table 3.1: Equipment involved in PFD of Propylene Glycol Plant. ..................................... 110
Table 3.2: Description of Unit Operation in Propylene Glycol Plant. .................................. 110
Table 3.3: Operating Conditions of Each Stream in Propylene Glycol. ............................... 111
Table 3.4: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.
................................................................................................................................................ 113
Table 3.5: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Distillation Column, T-101. ....................... 114
Table 3.8: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Pump, P-101 A/B. ...................................... 117
Table 3.9: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Pump, P-102 A/B. ...................................... 117
Table 3.10: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Pump, P-103 A/B. .................................... 118
Table 3.16: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Heat Exchanger, E-101. ............................ 124
Table 3.17: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Heat Exchanger, E-102............................. 124
Table 3.22: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Valve, VLV-101. ...................................... 129
Table 3.23: Summary of Stream Mass Balance. ................................................................... 130
Table 3.24: Heat Capacities Constant of Each Species in Liquid. ........................................ 131
Table 3.25: Heat of Formation for Each Species (ASPEN, 2018). ....................................... 131
Table 3.26: Boiling Point, Critical Temperature and Heat of Vaporization for Each Species
(ASPEN, 2018). ..................................................................................................................... 131
Table 3.27: Antoine Equation Parameters for each Species (NIST Chemistry WebBook, 2018).
................................................................................................................................................ 132
Table 3.28: Molar Flow Rate of Inlet and Outlet Streams of Reactor, R-101. ..................... 132
Table 3.29: Heat of Raw Materials for Reactor, R-101. ....................................................... 133
Table 3.30: Heat of Products for Reactor, R-101. ................................................................ 133
Table 3.31: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products involved
in each Reaction. .................................................................................................................... 133
Table 3.32: Dew Point Calculation for T-101....................................................................... 134
Table 3.33: Bubble Point Calculation for T-101................................................................... 134
Table 3.34: Heat of Vaporization for Condenser Heat Duty T-101...................................... 135
Table 3.35: Heat of Vaporization for Reboiler Heat Duty T-101. ........................................ 136
Table 3.44: Heat Duty of Pump, P-101 A/B. ........................................................................ 141
Table 3.52: Heat Duty of Heat Exchanger, E-101. ............................................................... 145
Table 3.58: Summary of Simulation Results. ....................................................................... 150
Table 3.59: Comparison of Material Balance. ...................................................................... 153
Table 3.60: Comparison of Energy Balance. ........................................................................ 154
Table 4.1: Summary of Hot and Cold Streams. .................................................................... 158
Table 4.2: Shifting Source and Target temperature for Hot and Cold Streams. ................... 159
Table 4.3: Summary of Heat Duty for Heat Exchangers Before and After MER. ............... 163
Table 4.4: Summary of Energy Usage. ................................................................................. 163
Table 4.5: Comparison of Heat Exchanger and Utilities Cost Before and After Heat Integration.
................................................................................................................................................ 163
Table 4.6: Cost of Types Process Steam in 2001 year (Turton, 2009). ................................ 165
Table 4.7: Summary of Steam Consumption used by the Equipment. ................................. 166
Table 4.8: Summary of Cost for Steam Consumption. ......................................................... 166
Table 4.9: Summary of Cooling Water Consumption. ......................................................... 167
Table 4.10: Cost of Cooling Water. ...................................................................................... 168
Table 4.11: Industries Tariff for Electrical Usage of Tenaga Nasional Berhad (Tenaga Nasional,
2018). ..................................................................................................................................... 168
Table 4.12: Summary of Electricity Consumption. .............................................................. 169
Table 4.13: Summary of Utilities Cost for Equipment. ........................................................ 170
Table 5.1: Quantity of Identical Equipment.......................................................................... 171
Table 5.2: Design Specification Sheet of Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101. ................................. 172
Table 5.3: Design Specification Sheet of Distillation Column, T-101. ................................ 173
Table 5.6: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-101 to E-105. ...................... 179
Table 5.7: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-106 to E-109. ...................... 179
Table 5.8: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-110 and E-111. ................... 180
Table 5.9: Design Specification Sheet of Storage Tanks, TK-101 to TK-105. .................... 182
Table 5.10: Design Specification Sheet of Pumps, P-101 to P-104...................................... 184
Table 5.11: Design Specification Sheet of Pumps, P-105 to P-108...................................... 185
Table 5.12: Type of Pressure Reducing Valves used in Industry. ........................................ 186
Table 5.13: Design Specification Sheet of Valve (VLV-101). ............................................. 187
Table 5.14: Design Specification Sheet of Cooling Tower, T-104. ...................................... 188
Table 6.1: Type of Personal Protective Equipment. ............................................................. 192
Table 6.2: Control System Loop Elements. .......................................................................... 197
Table 6.3: Instrument Identification System (Mulley et al., 1992). ...................................... 199
Table 6.4: Legends sued in P&ID. ........................................................................................ 199
Table 6.5: General Function of Control Element in a Plant.................................................. 200
Table 6.6: Basic Symbols used to show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops................ 201
Table 6.7: Control and Feedback System for Hydrolysis Reactor. ....................................... 202
Table 6.8: Control and Feedback System for Distillation Columns. .................................... 204
Table 6.9: Control and Feedback System for Storage Tanks. ............................................... 205
Table 6.10: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers. ........................................ 206
Table 6.11: Control and Feedback System for Pumps. ......................................................... 207
Table 6.12: Summary of material data sheet of components. ............................................... 213
Table 6.13: Assessment of Hazard. ....................................................................................... 216
Table 6.14: Elements in Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index Analysis. ................................... 216
Table 6.15: Material Factor Determination Guide. ............................................................... 219
Table 6.16: Summary of Dow Fire & Explosion Index. ....................................................... 223
Table 6.17: The Toxicity Number (Th) based on NFPA Health Factor. ............................... 224
Table 6.18: Penalty Factor (Ts) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV). .......................... 224
Table 6.19: Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level.................................................... 224
Table 6.20: Summary of Toxicity Index. .............................................................................. 225
Table 6.21: Type of Toxicity. ............................................................................................... 225
Table 6.22: Types of Hazards. .............................................................................................. 226
Table 6.23: HAZOP Guide Words. ....................................................................................... 228
Table 6.24: Deviation and Some Typical Causes. ................................................................ 229
Table 6.25: HAZOP for Hydrolysis Reactor. ....................................................................... 230
Table 6.26: HAZOP for Distillation Columns. ..................................................................... 231
Table 6.27: HAZOP for Storage Tanks. ............................................................................... 232
Table 6.28: HAZOP for Heat Exchangers. ........................................................................... 233
Table 6.29: HAZOP for Pumps............................................................................................. 234
Table 7.1: Stack Gas Emission Standards. ............................................................................ 244
Table 7.2: Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (at 25 ℃ and 1 atm). ............ 245
Table 7.3: Parameter limits of effluent of Standard A and B. .............................................. 246
Table 7.4: Cost of Solid Waste Management of Catalyst by Kualiti Alam Service (A Cenviro
Company, 2017). .................................................................................................................... 247
Table 7.5: Summary of End-to-end Facilities. ...................................................................... 254
Table 8.1: Bare Module Cost for all Equipment. .................................................................. 256
Table 8.2: Grass Roots Capital Cost. .................................................................................... 256
Table 8.3: Factors Influence on Manufacturing Cost ........................................................... 258
Table 8.4: Raw Material Cost. .............................................................................................. 259
Table 8.5: Utilities Cost. ....................................................................................................... 259
Table 8.6: Labor Requirement Based on Equipment and Auxiliary Facilities. .................... 260
Table 8.7: Direct Manufacturing Cost. ................................................................................. 260
Table 8.8: Fixed Manufacturing Cost. .................................................................................. 261
Table 8.9: General Expenses. ................................................................................................ 261
Table 8.10: Total Manufacturing Costs. ............................................................................... 261
Table 8.11: Sales Revenue. ................................................................................................... 261
Table 8.12: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits. ................................................................ 262
Table 8.13: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow (RM) ................................................. 263
Table 8.14: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow at Different Discount Rate. ....................... 265
Table 8.15: Net Present Value at Different Discount Rate. .................................................. 266
Table 8.16: Summary of Economic Analysis. ...................................................................... 267
Table B.1: Molecular weight of Components. ...................................................................... 285
Table D.1: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products involved
in each Reaction. .................................................................................................................... 294
Table F.1: Summary of Equipment involved Cooling Water. .............................................. 328
Table G.1: Typical Design Stress and Tensile Strength of Material (Skinnet, 1993). ......... 346
Table G.2: Degree of Radiography by Type of Joint (Skinnet, 1993).................................. 346
Table G.1: Specification of Fluid for Heat Transfer Process. .............................................. 366
Table G.2: Physical Properties of Fluid A and Fluid B. ....................................................... 366
Table H.1: Equipment Cost Data for Hydrolysis Reactor based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009).
................................................................................................................................................ 392
Table H.2: Equipment cost for Vessel of Distillation Column. ............................................ 394
Table H.3: Equipment cost for Sieve Tray of Distillation Column. ..................................... 395
Table H.5: Equipment cost for Heat Exchangers. ................................................................ 401
Table H.4: Equipment cost for Storage Tanks. ..................................................................... 402
Table H.6: Equipment Cost Data for Pumps. ....................................................................... 407
Table I.1: Propylene Oxide MSDS (Balchem, 2016). .......................................................... 416
Table I.2: Water MSDS. ....................................................................................................... 422
Table I.3: Monopropylene Glycol MSDS (Pure Chem, 2018). ............................................ 425
Table I.4: Dipropylene Glycol MSDS (CISCO, 2018). ........................................................ 428
Table I.5: Tripropylene Glycol MSDS (CISCO, 2015). ....................................................... 433
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Chemical Structure of Monopropylene Glycol. ..................................................... 1

Figure 1.2: Chemical Structure of Dipropylene Glycol. ........................................................... 2
Figure 1.3: Chemical Structure of Tripropylene Glycol. .......................................................... 2
Figure 1.4: Primary Application of Monopropylene Glycol (Air Liquide Engineering &
Construction, 2018).................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 1.5: World Production of Propylene Glycol by Country............................................. 15
Figure 1.6: World Capacity of Propylene Glycol Broken Down by Region. ......................... 15
Figure 1.7: World Consumption of Propylene Glycols in 2016 (Air Liquide Engineering &
Construction, 2018).................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 1.8: The Export Capacity of Propylene Glycol in China from 2014 to 2016
(International Trader Publications Blog, 2016). ...................................................................... 17
Figure 1.9: Import of Monoropylene Glycol in Indonesia from 2011 to 2015. ...................... 18
Figure 1.10: Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia. ............................ 19
Figure 1.11: Major Uses for Dipropylene Glycol in United State (The Dow Chemical
Company, 2013) ....................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 1.12: Global Consumption of Monporopylene Glycol from 2013 to 2023. ................ 22
Figure 1.13: U.S. Propylene Glycol Market by Application from 2014 to 2024 (Research
Ameri, 2017). ........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 1.14: Price Chart of Propylene Oxide and Polyether Polyol in the First Half of (GHW,
2017). ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 1.15: Price Trend of TDI in East China....................................................................... 29
Figure 1.16: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2017 (Analysis Echemi, 2017). ................... 31
Figure 1.17: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2017 (Chong, 2017)..................................... 32
Figure 1.18: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2018 (ICIS, 2018). ....................................... 33
Figure 1.19: SWOT Analysis for Production of Propylene Glycol. ....................................... 35
Figure 1.20: Map of Kerteh Industries, Kemaman, Terengganu ............................................ 43
Figure 1.21: Map of Gebeng (Phase IV), Industrial Area Kuantan, Pahang. ......................... 46
Figure 1.22: Map of Pasir Gudang, Johor. .............................................................................. 48
Figure 1.23: Map of Tanjung Kidurong, Sarawak. ................................................................. 50
Figure 1.24: Specific Location in Gebeng Industrial Area IV for Plant Construction. .......... 55
Figure 1.25: Plant Layout for Production of Propylene Glycol. ............................................. 56
Figure 1.26: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production by Non- Catalytic
Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide (Andres et al.., 2017). ............................................................ 59
Figure 1.27: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production by Hydrolysis of
Propylene Oxide with sulphuric acid catalyst (Patel, 2018). ................................................... 60
Propylene Oxide with Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – solid catalyst (Aakyalcin, 2017). .... 62
Figure 1.29: Block Flow Diagram of Production Propylene Glycol from Carbonation followed
by Hydrolysis of Propylene Carbonate. ................................................................................... 64
Figure 2.1: Block Flow Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Process. ........................... 74
Figure 2.2: Block Flow Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor. ........................... 75
Figure 2.3: Conversion Network of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis.......................................... 79
Figure 2.4: Graph of Selectivity versus Overall Conversion. ................................................. 82
Figure 2.5: Graph of Yield Versus Overall Conversion. ........................................................ 83
Figure 2.6: Graph of Economic Potential 2 versus Overall Conversion. ............................... 85
Figure 2.7: Level 3 Block Flow Diagram of Hydrolysis Process. .......................................... 91
Figure 2.8: Input and Output Block Diagram of Overall System. .......................................... 91
Figure 2.9: Input and Output Block Diagram of Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor System. . 92
Figure 2.10: Input and Output Block Diagram of Separation and Purification System. ........ 93
Figure 2.11: Levenspiel Plot for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor. ...................................... 95
Figure 2.12: Mole Balance and Condition for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor. ................. 97
Figure 2.13: Hypothetical Path for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis. ................................................ 97
Figure 2.14: Graph of Temperature versus Overall Conversion of Hydrolysis Reactor. ..... 100
Figure 2.15: Graph of Weight of Catalyst versus Overall Conversion of Propylene Oxide. 102
Figure 2.16: Graph of Economic Potential 3 versus Overall Conversion. ........................... 105
Figure 3.1: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production ................................... 109
Figure 3.2: Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.................................. 113
Figure 3.3: Diagram of Distillation Column, T-101. ............................................................ 114
Figure 3.6: Diagram of Pump, P-101 A/B. ........................................................................... 117
Figure 3.10: Diagram of Pump, P-105 A/B. ......................................................................... 120
Figure 3.14: Diagram of Heat Exchanger, E-101. ................................................................ 124
Figure 3.20: Diagram of Valve, VLV-101 ........................................................................... 129
Figure 3.21: Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101................................ 132
Figure 3.22: Diagram of Distillation Column, T-101. .......................................................... 135
Figure 3.34: Diagram of Heat Exchanger, E-102. ............................................................... 146
Figure 3.39: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production in Aspen Plus Simulation.
................................................................................................................................................ 149
Figure 4.1: Heat Integration Process Flow. .......................................................................... 157
Figure 4.2: Cascade Diagram for Pinch Analysis. ................................................................ 159
Figure 4.3: Heat Balance Diagram for Heat Integration. ...................................................... 160
Figure 4.4: Grand Composite Curve. .................................................................................... 161
Figure 4.5: Heat Exchanger Network (HEN). ...................................................................... 162
Figure 4.6: Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram. ............................................................. 164
Figure 6.1: Feed Forward Control Loop. .............................................................................. 196
Figure 6.2: Feedback Control Loop. ..................................................................................... 196
Figure 6.3: Cascade Control Loop. ....................................................................................... 196
Figure 6.4: Control System of Hydrolysis Reactor............................................................... 202
Figure 6.5: Control System of Distillation Columns. ........................................................... 203
Figure 6.6: Control System of Storage Tanks (left side: TK-101, right side: TK-103 to TK-
105). ....................................................................................................................................... 205
Figure 6.7: Control System of Heat Exchangers. ................................................................. 206
Figure 6.8: Control System of Pumps................................................................................... 207
Figure 6.9: Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID) ..................................................... 208
Figure 6.10: Procedure for Calculating Fire and Explosion Index. ...................................... 217
Figure 6.11: Form used in the Dow Fire and Explosion Index............................................. 221
Figure 7.1: Waste Management Service in Kualiti Alam (Kualiti Alam, 2019). ................. 251
Figure 8.1: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow along the Project Life. ....................... 264
Figure 8.2: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow for Different Discount Rate. ...................... 266
Figure 8.3: Net Present Value at Different Interest Rate. ..................................................... 266
Figure F.1: Schematic Diagram of Cooling Water Loop. .................................................... 329
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Introduction
The main purpose of this project is to produce 150,000 metric tons of monopropylene glycol
annually. This report consists of the overall start up and fundamentals in order to make sure this
project available and completed without any delay.
This report includes all literature study as listed at below:
1. Project background: Overview of propylene glycol.

2. Property: Chemical and physical properties of propylene glycol.
3. Toxicity: Safety and health of the products involved.
4. Market survey: All the price of raw materials and products, demand and supply of
propylene glycol in Malaysia, Asia Pacific and global.
5. Site location and plant layout: Site selection for the production for propylene glycol
according to specific aspects.
6. Process technology: General view of all the technologies used for the synthesis routes
selection.
1.3 Background of Monopropylene Glycol

Monopropylene glycol (MPG) with the IUPAC name propane-1,2-diol is a viscous and
colourless liquid. It possesses a faintly sweet taste and nearly odourless. As a hygroscopic
liquid, this synthetic organic compound with the chemical formula C3H8O2 can absorb the
water from surrounding air and have a good miscibility at any temperature with a broad range
of solvents including water, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone as well as chloroform.
Figure 1.1: Chemical Structure of Monopropylene Glycol.
1
Monopropylene glycol can exist in two enantiomers due to it contain a symmetrical carbon
atom. It has molecular weight of 76.10 g/mol with the density of 1.036 g/cm3. The melting
point of monopropylene glycol falls to -59 ℃ while the boiling point is about 188.2 ℃. Since
it is mostly prepared by hydrolysis of propylene oxide, it also has the by-product which is
dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol. Both of this by-product also have been used in
same application with almost the same chemical and physical properties as shown in Table 1.4
and Table 1.5. The chemical structure of dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycols are
shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3 respectively.
Figure 1.2: Chemical Structure of Dipropylene Glycol.
Figure 1.3: Chemical Structure of Tripropylene Glycol.
1.3.1 Application of Monopropylene Glycol

Monopropylene glycol are widely used in various industries. There are five main industries
that are used monopropylene glycol in their application like have been shown in Figure 1.4.
Based on this pie chart in 2014, 35% of the production of monopropylene glycol is used in
polyester resins industrial followed by 21% of functional fluids industrial. This propylene oxide
also has been used in pharmaceuticals area especially in the production of food, drugs and
cosmetic. Other application of the monopropylene glycol is in liquid detergent production
fields and the rest of 16% is for others application (ICIS, 2018). Due to the high proportion of
2
monopropylene glycol is being produced polyester resins, thus the purity of 99.5% of
monopropylene glycol needs to be fulfilled to supply for the resins manufacturing customers.
Figure 1.4: Primary Application of Monopropylene Glycol (Air Liquide Engineering &
Construction, 2018).
1.3.1.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR)

Production of unsaturated polyester resins usually used about forty- five percent of
monopropylene glycol as its chemical feedstock. Unsaturated polyester resins are a
combination of polyester that are freshly synthesized in a plant with the vinyl monomer in the
molten state.
Vinyl monomers plays as solvent for the polyester and thus reducing its viscosity. Further, it is
the agent of copolymerization in the course of curing. Few vinyl monomers for unsaturated
polyester resins are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Vinyl Monomers for Unsaturated Polyester Resins (Fink, 2018).
Monomer Remarks
Styrene Most common but carcinogenic
Vinyl toluene Not really a substitute for styrene
Methylstyrene Slows the curing
Methyl acrylate
Methyl methacrylate Good optical properties
Diallyl phthalate
Triallyl cyanurate
3
This monopropylene glycol is used with mixture of unsaturated maleic anhydride and
isophthalic acid in order to get a copolymer. It is because ether containing alcohol like
monopropylene glycol will exhibit better air-drying properties though transesterification
method compared by the direct polycondensation (Fink, 2018). This partially unsaturated
polymer will undergo further crosslinking then in order to yield a thermoset plastic. There are
several top companies that produce unsaturated polyester resins around the world.
For example, Polynt Group through Distitron brand name has production sites in China, Hong
Kong, Germany, Poland, Spain, France and UK. BASF also provide the unsaturated polyester
resins through Ludopal brand name. Besides, Reichold, Ashland and DSM also one of a leading
manufacturer and supplier of unsaturated polyester resins that have been listed as top five
vendor in the global market (Maida, 2017). In Malaysia, Luxchem Polymer Industries Sdn.
Bhd. and Cray Valley Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. in Johor Bahru (Parmly, 2017) is an example of
leading unsaturated polyester resins manufacturer company. Luxchem under brand name
Polymal have a capacity of over 30 000 metric tons per annum in producing this UPR
(Luxchem Trading Sdn. Bhd., 2016).
1.3.1.2 Coolant & Antifreeze

Monopropylene glycol also being used as antifreeze due to its low toxicity. It usually be applied
in food processing systems or in water pipes in home. Since it can be oxidizing when exposed
to air and heat and form the organic acid like glycolic acid, glyoxylic acid, formic acid, carbonic
acid as well as oxalic acid, this monopropylene glycol needs to be added with protodin that
will act as buffer. Thus, preventing it from corrosion. Coolant Propylenglykol is a one brand
name of coolant from Motorex Oil of Switzerland, that is suitable use in the over wintering
regime of engine with a single-circuit coolant and for over wintering regime of field sprayer in
agricultural industry due to its ability to against frost and corrosion (Motorex-Bucher-Group,
2017).
1.3.1.3 Paints & Coating

As a raw material in the production of alkyd resins for paint and varnishes, monopropylene
glycol plays an important role in order to control the flexibility and the hardness of the coating.
This monopropylene glycol is used to preserve the surfaces as well as protecting buildings
against weathering beside its ability to maintain the quality and beauty of the surfaces. This
substance also controls the flexibility as well as the hardness of coating beside providing freeze
and thaw stability which is good to maintain the quality of the paint and coating itself. Repsol
4
and Shell Chemical in an example of company that produce monopropylene glycol as well as
di- and tripropylene glycol for production of paints and coating for providing a sustainable
weather.
1.3.1.4 Pharmaceuticals Industry

Monopropylene glycol are widely used in pharmaceutical industry. Normally the grade of
monopropylene glycol used in this kind of industry is USP/EP as a non-active enabling agent.
This agent that known as excipient will help to retain taste and moisture in pet and livestock
feed. It also will act as a carrier of active ingredients in gel capsules and cough syrup as well
as carries flavours in food and beverages (Green, 2017). Having a role as food additive means
that monopropylene glycol is safe to human as it can be metabolized in the body besides used
it as a normal carbohydrate source. Monopropylene glycol also can be consuming for long term
with substantial quantities up to five percent of total food intake without causing toxicity due
to U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Propylene Glycol, 2018). As an excipient,
monopropylene glycol has the ability to stabilize foam and therefore it is broadly use in
personal care and health care products besides its nature that can keep this personal care product
consistent, soft and moist. Mostly monopropylene glycol is use in deodorant sticks, sunscreen,
body lotion, face cream and lipstick as well. One of brand name for veterinary use is Acedex.
It is used to provide an energy as well as boost the appetite and glucose level in cattle and sheep
(Animal Health Direct Limited, 2016). For personal and health care product, Solugel and
Secaris are example of monopropylene glycol’s application. Solugel is designed to help smooth
and hydrate the skin by reducing the blistering and peeling. This brand has been widely used
in New Zealand and Johnson & Johnson Company (Clays, 2017). While Secaris, a brand name
of PendoPharm, Canada is to relief the dryness and irritation within the nose (Resse, 2017).
5
1.3.1.5 Other Common Industrial Applications of Monopropylene Glycol
As a multifunction compound, monopropylene glycol also has been used in a different
application in different field as tabulated in the Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2: Common Industrial Application of Monopropylene Glycol (DOW Chemical,

2018).
Application Advantages
Adhesive, Sealant and Coatings Low mammalian toxicity
Alkyd Resins for Paint and Coating Biodegradability
Latex Paints Low mammalian toxicity
Low volatile organic compound (VOC)
UV-Curable Resins
emissions
Unsaturated Polyester resins Ease of handling
Urethanes Low freezing point
Aircraft Deicing Fluids The ability to decrease the boiling point of water
Heat Transfer/ Thermal Fluids Burst protection
Low flammability
Hydraulic and Brake Fluids
Excellent heat transfer properties
Coolant and Antifreeze High boiling point and low vapor pressure
Other Application: dust suspension,
Dyes and Inks, Lubricants, Natural
Low corrosive nature to metals
Gas Dehydration, Plasticizers,
Surfactants, Waxes
1.3.2 Applications of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol

There are two common byproducts of propylene glycol production by hydration reaction of
propylene oxide which are di- and tripropylene glycol. Generally, the production of di-
propylene glycol and tri-propylene glycol are about to 10 percent and 1 percent respectively to
propylene glycol output (ICIS, 2005). In this section, the applications of these two side products
were discussed and the production designed is decided to purify the side products until final
stages to sell and supply to other sectors to increase the profit of production.
Dipropylene glycol is a raw material to produce polymer for the usage of numerous
applications. For example, it usually used just as glycol component in unsaturated polyester
6
resins and alkyd resins or as benzoate ester plasticizer in other polymer like polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). Its application is mostly same as the application of propylene glycol as it will function
as a one of printing inks component, a part of cleaning agent or it also usually used as a carrier
in other formulations (Shell Global, 2017). It can be used in hydraulic brake fluid formation
along with caster oil and used in cutting oils, industrial soap and lubricants due to its affinity.
Furthermore, it can be used as reactive monomer in production of polyurethane, plasticizers
and polyester. In addition, dipropylene glycol also will act as a raw material for cosmetics and
other health care products since it has the characteristics of preserving skin moisture and
maintaining youthfulness. Therefore, dipropylene glycol is mainly used in texture modifiers
(Ishihara et al.., 2014).
Whereas tripropylene glycol has ability to solubilize printing ink so it is used in cream
formulation which removes inks stains from the hand. Moreover, it is in textile soap due to its
solubility power for water and organic compounds and as well low volatility. Besides, it also
can be used to produce acrylate resins and applied in production of adhesives, inks and radiation
cured coatings. It is widely used for the glycol component in ultraviolet (UV) and electron
beam (EB) cured resins as well as in other applications like propylene glycol. UV and EB
curing refer to a special method in which inks, adhesives, coatings, composites and other
materials be cured (dried) that use less energy and create less harmful emissions (RadTech
International, 2017).
1.4 Physical & Chemical Properties

Physical and chemical properties of main product (monopropylene glycol) and side products
(di- and tri-propylene glycol) are discussed in the following section.
1.4.1 Physical & Chemical Properties of Monoropylene Glycol

Table 1.3 shows the physical and chemical properties of the main product from hydrolysis of
propylene oxide which is monopropylene glycol.
Table 1.3: Physical and Chemical Properties of Monopropylene Glycol (ATSDR, 2018),
(DOW Chemical, 2017) and (Szajewski, 1994).
Properties Value
Chemical Formula C3H8O2
State Liquid
7
Synonym and Trades Name 1,2-Dihydroxypropane; 1,2-Propanediol; 1,2-
Propylene Glycol; 2,3-Propanediol; Hydroxy-
propanol; α-Propylene Glycol; Methyl Glycol;
Methylethyl Glycol; Monopropylene Glycol;
Trimethyl Glycol
Registered Trade Name PG-12; Sirlene
Colour Colourless
Door Odourless
Molar Mass 76.10 g/mol
Density 1.036 g/cm3 at 20 ℃
Vapor Pressure 0.88 mmHg at 20 ℃
0.13 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 188.2 ℃ (370.8 ℉; 461.3 K)
Melting Point -59 ˚C (-74 ℉; 215 K)
Flash Point 99 ℃ (210 ℉)
Auto ignition Temperature 700 ℃ (1292 ℉)
Flammability Slightly flammable at high temperature
Viscosity 48.6 mPa.s at 25 ℃
Thermal Conductivity 0.206 W/mK at 25 ℃
0.34 W/mK (50% H2O at 90 ℃)
Solubility in Water Miscible at 20 ℃
Solubility in Organic Solvents:
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Conversion factor 1 ppm = 3.11 mg/m3
1mg/L = 321.6 ppm
Partition Coefficients:
Log Kow -0.92
Log Koc 0.88; 0.76
Henry’s Law Constant At 25 ℃:
1.2×10-8 atm.m3/mole
8
1.4.2 Physical & Chemical Properties of Dipropylene Glycol
Table 1.4 displays the physical and chemical properties of dipropylene glycol which is the
side product form the hydrolysis reaction.
Table 1.4: Physical and Chemical Properties of Dipropylene Glycol (CISCO, 2018), (DOW
Chemical, 2017), (Anna & Wypych, 2014) and (INCHEM, 2001).
Properties Value
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name DPG; 1,1-Oxybis (1-propanol); 1,1-Oxybis (2-
propanol); Di-1,2-propyleneglycol
Colour Colourless
Odour Odourless
Vapor Pressure 0.01 hPa at 20 ℃
0.05 hPa at 21 ℃
0.016 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 230.5 ℃ (446.9 ℉; 503.6 K)
Melting Point -39 ℃ (-38.2 ℉; 234 K)
Flash Point 121 ℃ (250 ℉; 394 K)
Auto ignition Temperature 310 ℃ (590 ℉; 583 K)
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Ester Miscible
Log Kow -1.486
9
1.4.3 Physical & Chemical Properties of Tripropylene Glycol
The physical and chemical properties of tripropylene glycol which is the side product form
the hydrolysis reaction is indicated in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Physical and Chemical Properties of Tripropylene Glycol (DOW Chemical, 2017)
and (Anna & Wypych, 2014).
Properties Value
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name [(1-methyl-1,2-ethanediyl)bis(oxy)]bispropanol
Color Colorless
Odor Odorless
Vapour Pressure 0.022 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 271 ℃ (519.8 ˚F; 544 K)
Melting Point -49 ℃ (-56.2 ℉; 224 K)
Flash Point 141 ˚C (285.8 ℉)
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Ether Miscible
10
1.5 Toxicity of Propylene Glycol
According to the Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry under Environmental
Health and Medicine Education, propylene glycol is a Generally Recognized as safe (GRAS)
chemical that is widely used in food and tobacco product, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and so on.
It is also a synthetic organic compound which is vicious, colourless liquid and nearly odourless
but possess a faintly sweet taste. Safety precautions are important to avoid any undesired
incident when handling with propylene glycol.
There are chances for propylene glycol to be exposed to those who are in the medical,
pharmaceuticals, textile industry and food industry, such as chemical process operator, quality
control officers, operating room nurses, and pharmacists.
Most of propylene glycol is assumed to be emitted to water and is very limited amount being
releases to soil and air. The chances for the propylene glycol to be released into the water is
very low and the chemical is a rarely causes toxic effects only under very unusual
circumstances that will cause fatal. Acute fatal doses for propylene glycol is when given
intramuscularly and intravenously injected (Weatherby, 2006).
Exposure of more than 10% propylene glycol may cause harm to human body. For example,
intramuscular fatal and intravenous fatal doses. An experiment was conducted on the lab rat
which being injected with more than 10% of propylene glycol and it only can survive for about
140 days. The summary of hazards on handling propylene glycol and its prevention methods
are tabulated in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Type of Hazard and Exposure to Propylene Glycol (Zar et al., 2007).
Type of
First Aid/Fire
Hazards/ Acute Hazards/Symptoms Prevention
Fighting
Exposure
Exposure
Nasal hemorrhaging
Ventilation,
decreased white blood Fresh air, rest. Refer
Inhalation breathing
cells, decreased kidney for medical attention.
protection
weight, myocardial edema
Protective Remove contaminated
gloves, clothes. Rinse and
Skin Dehydration,
protective then wash skin with
clothing water and soap.
Do not eat, Rinse mouth. Refer for
Ingestion Nausea, Vomiting
drink or smoke medical attention.
11
1.5.1 Toxicity on Environmental Effect
Waste streams from manufacturer of propylene glycol are primarily responsible for the
releasing into the air, water and soil. Propylene glycol also can enter the environment when it
is used as a runway and aircraft de-icing agent. It can enter the environment through the
disposal of products that consists of it. When small amount of propylene glycol entering the
air, it will quickly break down, thus it will not exist in the air in large amount. It escapes into
the air, it will take between 24 to 50 hours for half the amount released to break down.
Furthermore, propylene glycol can mix with water and can soak into soil completely. It also
can travel from certain types of food packages into the food that contains in the package.
1.5.1.1 Air
Little information was found according to the releasing of propylene glycol to the atmosphere.
Propylene glycol used as a solvent in paints, inks, and coatings will slowly volatilize to the atmosphere
(EPA, 1987a). It is estimated 49 to 80% of de-icing solutions containing both ethylene glycol and
propylene glycol are released on airport runway aprons during the application of de-icing solutions to
aircraft. The remainder is retained on the aircraft or is immediately dispersed to the air (Sills &
Blakeslee, 1992). However, the change of propylene glycol releases to the atmosphere is very limited
due to its low vapor pressure.
There is no information on releases of propylene glycol to the atmosphere from domestic manufacturing
and processing facilities because these releases are not required to be reported (EPA, 1995c). Propylene
glycol has not been detected in air samples collected at any hazardous waste sites where it was detected
in some environmental media (HazDat, 1995)
1.5.1.2 Water
From production and processing facilities and from spills and in runoff, propylene glycol is released to
surface water in wastewater. For example, through the use of the compound in de-icing fluids.
Propylene glycol concentrations up to 19,000 mg/L (ppm) were detected in storm water runoff at the
Salt Lake City Airport in Utah (Sills & Blakeslee, 1992). Propylene glycol was detected, but the
concentration was not quantified in effluents from a chemical manufacturing plant in Memphis,
Tennessee. Propylene glycol may also be released to surface waters as a metabolite of propylene glycol
dinitrate which is a military propellant found in wastewater streams from munitions facilities.
There is no information in the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) on releases of propylene glycol to surface
or groundwater from domestic manufacturing and processing facilities because these releases are not
required to be reported (EPA, 1995c).
12
Groundwater samples collected from a perched water table at the Ottawa Airport in Canada contained
4 mg/L (ppm) of propylene glycol (Sills & Blakeslee, 1992); Propylene glycol also has been detected
in groundwater samples collected at two hazardous waste sites where it was detected in various
environmental media (HazDat, 1995).
1.5.1.3 Soil
The major sources of propylene glycol releases to soil are the disposal of used antifreeze fluids and de-
icing fluids containing the compounds (EPA, 1987a).
There is no information in the TRI on releases of propylene glycol to soil from domestic manufacturing
and processing facilities because these releases are not required to be reported (EPA, 1995c). Propylene
glycol has not been detected in any soil samples collected at hazardous waste sites although it has been
detected in other environmental media (HazDat, 1995).
1.5.2 Toxicity on Human Health

Propylene glycol can enter human blood stream if the breathing air containing mists or vapours
from either compound. It can also enter the bloodstream through human skin if direct
contacting with it and do not wash it off. Exposure of the general population to propylene glycol
is likely since many foods, drugs, and cosmetics contain it. It will break down in the body in about
48 hours. However, studies of people and animals show that if repeating eye, skin, nasal, or oral
exposures to propylene glycol for a short time, it might develop some irritation.
1.6 Market Survey

This section includes the overview, demand and supply of propylene glycol in global, Asia
Pacific and Malaysia. Besides, forecast of supply and demand of propylene global in coming
five years also had been discussed in this section. The competitors, producers involved, and
history global pricing of raw material and products had been reviewed in detail. In addition,
SWOT analysis, plant capacity decision and profit margin involved in this project had been
made and discussed.
1.6.1 Overview of Propylene Glycol

Based on the market survey by finding the market supply and demand of the product in the
global is very important before designing a project in order to decide the optimum production
rate for the plant capacity. It is crucial to know the producers and consumers in the global to
decide the region that will become as the target market. Furthermore, the prices history of the
raw materials and product needs to be studied to determine the profit margin of the production.
13
If the world consumption is more than the current production, it is feasible and reasonable to
continue the project.
The characteristics of monopropylene glycol is the key to drive its demand globally as it is
miscible with water, chloroform, and acetone and is hygroscopic in nature. It is chemically
neutral that does not react with other substances. This property of monopropylene glycol makes
it useful in mixing contrasting elements such as perfumes. Unique features of monopropylene
glycol make it useful in a wide variety of applications as shown in Figure 1.4. It is used as
solvent, holds and dissolves active ingredients equally in the medium, acts as an emulsifier and
excipient, reduced freezing point and many more. Monopropylene glycol is manufactured in
two grades namely, industrial or technical grade and USD or EP grade. It designates the
requirements for the U.S. and European Pharmacopeia, but it has use in the personal care, food
and feed applications. Dipropylene glycol is used in unsaturated polyester resins, plasticizer
and personal care products and tripropylene glycol has application in acrylates and
polyurethanes (Future Market Insights, 2018).
Moreover, monopropylene glycol is used for many industrial and consumer applications such
as feed, food and beverages, pharmaceutical and cosmetic among others. The major consumers
of polypropylene glycol include the pharmaceutical, food and beverage industry, which
account for major share in the market. Monopropylene glycol is also used as a humectant,
preservative in tobacco and food products, solvents and as a major constituent of e-liquid that
is used in electric cigarettes with vegetable glycerine. In case of food and consumables,
monopropylene glycol is safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. As a solvent, in
pharmaceutical which includes injectable, oral and topical formulations namely lorazepam,
diazepam does not dissolve in water (Future Market Insights, 2018).
1.6.2 Global Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol

The global monopropylene glycol production grew by 8% annually and exceeded 2.18 million
tonnes in the year of 2013. One of the major drivers of such robust growth was the launch of a
new SCG-Dow PG unit in Thailand in March with an annual capacity of around 150,000 tonnes
per year. In the year of 2018, the global production of monopropylene glycol is more than 3.2
million tonnes per annum and United States is the main country of monopropylene glycol
producer accounting for over 30% of the global monopropylene glycol supply. Figure 1.5
shows the production of monopropylene glycol from different country.
14
Figure 1.5: World Production of Propylene Glycol by Country.
The global monopropylene glycol consumption volume exceeded 2.12 million tonnes in the
year of 2013. Novel capacity additions and a noticeable increase of capacity utilization rates
have provoked a slight oversupply in the world monopropylene glycol market. The overall
monopropylene glycol market is anticipated to grow by nearly 4.5% per year in the upcoming
years. The strongest growth was registered in China and a number of other emerging regions.
Thus, there was a balance reached between monopropylene glycol supply and demand globally
in 2015 (Merchant Research & Consulting Itd, 2014). From the year of 2016 to 2023, the global
demand increment of monopropylene glycol is around 5.8% per annum. Figure 1.6 displays
the world capacity of monopropylene glycol broken down by region. Thus, it can be noticed
that the demand of monopropylene glycol is less than global supply in the year of 2018, so the
project can be continued.
Figure 1.6: World Capacity of Propylene Glycol Broken Down by Region.
There are large economic influences on demand in cyclical markets. For instances,
consumption of monopropylene glycol for the production of unsaturated polyester resins
15
dropped by 22% per year in the United States and 7% in Western Europe as a result of the
decreases in the construction and industrial markets during year of 2008 to 2009, although
production in both regions recovered to some extent during year of 2010 to 2011. The market
is consolidating and shifting to China and other Asian countries excluding Japan. The market
is at continued high risk for consolidation and rationalization, which will affect an increasing
number of global players and small, older producers or production lines (IHS Markit, 2017).
Figure 1.7: World Consumption of Propylene Glycols in 2016 (Air Liquide Engineering &
1.6.3 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Asia Pacific

Demand for monopropylene glycol has grown at a rapid pace in China in the past decade. It is
expected that both production and demand will continue to grow in the next decade.
Manufacture of Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR) are the largest end-use for
monopropylene glycol in the United States (14%), western Europe (28%) and China
(58%). The Chinese economy maintains a high-speed growth which has been stimulated by
the consecutive increases of industrial output, imports and exports, consumer consumption and
capital investment for over two decades. Unsaturated polyester resins are the largest end use
for monopropylene glycol, especially in China and other developing countries in Asia Pacific.
This market segment accounted for 41% of consumption in the major world regions in 2016.
Demand is heavily influenced by regional construction industry trends and the overall health
of local economies. Monopropylene glycol consumption in this market will grow at a rate of
16
almost 3% annually over the forecast period. High growth rates will occur especially in China,
others Asia, and Central and Eastern Europe.
The volume of monopropylene glycol traded globally showed a 1% rise through August 2016,
to over 600,000 tons, based on earliest available data. Asia Pacific exported over 80,000 tons
of monopropylene glycol to other regions through that period, up 28% mainly on gains to
Europe, the Middle East and Africa. With monopropylene glycol exports of 92,000 tons
through August, up 17%, China was the largest monopropylene glycol exporter in the region.
China’s top growth export destinations within the region were India, Japan and Taiwan; growth
markets outside Asia Pacific were Russia, Turkey, Iran, Egypt and South Africa. China’s
exports have been high since December of 2015; average prices have hovered around the
$1000/ton mark since June of 2016.
Figure 1.8: The Export Capacity of Propylene Glycol in China from 2014 to 2016
(International Trader Publications Blog, 2016).
Moreover, other industrial uses including functional fluids, polyurethanes, paints and coatings,
and miscellaneous applications have increased the consumption of monopropylene glycol,
accounting for 30% of consumption in the major world regions in 2016. Growth will occur
especially in China and other developing regions. For Indonesia, it is necessary to import
monopropylene glycol to meet the need of society. The amount of monopropylene glycol in
Indonesia from 2011 to 2015 is shown in Figure 1.9.
17
Amount of monopropylene glycol import in Indonesia
3,500,000.00
Amount of propylene glycol (kg)
3,000,000.00
2,500,000.00
2,000,000.00
1,500,000.00
1,000,000.00
500,000.00
-
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year
Figure 1.9: Import of Monoropylene Glycol in Indonesia from 2011 to 2015.
Many additional smaller uses for monopropylene glycol will exhibit varying degrees of growth.
In the United States, the markets with the greatest growth potential are paints and coatings,
functional fluids, and personal care products. Growth prospects in Western Europe appear
relatively strong for food, personal care, and pharmaceutical usage. In China, the personal care
and pharmaceutical segments have strong growth potential.
Overall in Asia Pacific, growth in the primary markets for monopropylene glycols for
production of unsaturated polyester resins and a variety of industrial uses will depend on the
performance of the general economy. Its largest use is in the UPR which is further processed
to make reinforced plastics. This sector has driven global monopropylene glycol demand in the
last decade and is expected to further accelerate the demand. However, the future of the global
monopropylene glycol industry lies in the Asia Pacific, which has contributed the most through
consistent growth in UPR production. The supply of monopropylene glycol in Asia Pacific is
not that much compared with Europe countries. Thus, it can be concluded the demand of
monopropylene glycol from Asia Pacific is very high thus it is reasonable to increase its
production in this region.
1.6.4 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia

Malaysia’s domestic monopropylene glycols market anticipated to be stable until 2015. The
stagnant of market is caused by no known new expansion, investment or new capacity planned
to be built in Malaysia as the demand growth is forecasted to be rather limited from the
production.
18
In Malaysia, Duro Kimia Sdn. Bhd. is considered as only monopropylene glycol supplier with
99.5% to produce unsaturated polyester resins. It is a condensation product of unsaturated acids
or anhydrides and diols with or without diacids. The unsaturation present in this type of
polyesters provides a site for subsequent cross-linking. It has been used remarkably for wide
range of supplications making them a thermosetting system of major importance.
Monopropylene glycol market growth heavily relies on the resins demand and supply since it
is a feedstock in many applications.
The world unsaturated polyester resins demand based on market demand is rapidly growing at
6 to 7% rate for the next three years and Asia demand is expected with a growth rate of 15%.
This rapid growth had equally counter with new capacities in China, India and Middle East
which are perceived to introduce additional 1.5 million tons per annum of unsaturated polyester
resins supply. Eventually, this new market demand will gradually increase the demand of
monopropylene glycol in Asia.
Malaysia Monopropylene Glycol Supply and Demand

400.00
Amount (metric tonnes)
350.00
300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
-
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year
Capacity Production
Figure 1.10: Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia.
1.6.5 Demand of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol

In general overview, the demand for dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol are increasing
due to the increasing the production of several application of intermediate and finishing product
that use this kind of glycol as their raw materials. In Asia specifically China, the demand for
unsaturated polyester resins is undergoing outstanding expansion. Thus, as a one of denaturing
glycol component that have the toughness characteristics to unsaturated polyester resins for
19
fiber reinforced plastics (FRP), dipropylene glycol is expected to form a commensurate market
(Ishihara et al., 2014).
Figure 1.11: Major Uses for Dipropylene Glycol in United State (The Dow Chemical
Company, 2013)
According to Dow Chemical Company (2013), the major application of dipropylene glycol is
in fragrance and cosmetic industry like have been shown in Figure 1.11. Both of this industry
produce odour sensitive product. Therefore, it needs high purity of di-propylene glycol to be
used. The purity of this dipropylene glycol LO + (DPG LO +) used usually greater than 99.5%
with excellent co solvency for water, oil as well as hydrocarbon (Perfumer's Apprentice, 2018)
and (The Dow Chemical Company, 2017). This kind of di-propylene glycol also have minimal
odour and consistent isomer distribution that make it ideal to use in fragrance, cosmetic as well
as health care product because it sticks to fragrance molecule and helps to disperse slowly.
Dipropylene glycol with high purity also helps different essential oils, fragrance and absolutes
materials to bind together by giving s great control of viscosity (Lush Fresh Handmade
Cosmetics, 2018). For plasticizers application, it dominant 23% of major uses for dipropylene
glycol in United State. The purity of this propylene glycol used is more than 99.5% (Pure
Chems, 2018) and (Jini SCM (S). Pte. Ltd., 2017)
Meanwhile for the Europe and North America, tripropylene glycol are the dominant regions in
the global market due to the major usage of this tripropylene glycol in commercial and
industrial sectors. In the Asia Pacific market, the enlargement of cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals industries in countries such as China and Korea caused the tripropylene glycol
is expected to witness tremendous growth during forecast period. Even though the Rest of the
20
World (RoW) held the minimum share in the global tripropylene glycol market in the last few
years, but it is possible to have an economic upswing in the few years due to the surge of the
industries in the region (Transperency Market Research, 2014).
In Lyondell Chemical Company, Lyondell Chemie Nederland B.V. and Lyondell Chimie
France S.A.S, tripropylene glycol is used in both industrial and consumer products. Common
industrial uses of tripropylene glycol include its application as a raw material for the production
of polymers such as polyesters and alkyd resins, as a plasticizer in polymers such as PVC, and
as a component in cleaning agents, coatings, lubricants, cutting oils and printing inks.
Consumer applications of tripropylene glycol include the use in the formulation of products
such as fragrances, soaps and cosmetics. In the thermally coupled column, the tripropylene
glycol can be distilled off via the top of the column at a pressure of preferably from 5 to 500
mbar, more preferably from 10 to 200 mbar, and a temperature of preferably from 100 to 200 ℃
more preferably from 120 to 180 ℃. The purity of tripropylene glycol used is at least 95%.
Since the market for propylene glycol is prepared for strong growth during the forecast period
owing to the growth of numerous end user industry, it is expecting that the dipropylene glycol
and tripropylene glycol also will follow this strong growth. This is due to the production of
dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol produced is usually 9% and 1% respectively to the
production of propylene glycol produced. Based on the petroleum held significant and
unsaturated polyester resin held prominent share of the market in 2016 owing to its usage of
propylene glycol in transportation, building, construction as well as other applications. It is
expecting that there are is a witness strong growth during the forecast period (Nikam, 2017).
Ascending the investment in emerging economies such as China, India and Brazil for the
infrastructural development is driving the building and construction industry to increase. This
led to the transportation sector to be fast growing thus, increasing the sales of automobiles. At
the same time, the usage of propylene glycol in applications such as automotive coolants,
aircraft de-icing fluid, and hydraulics & brake fluids increase (Nikam, 2017).
1.6.6 Forecast Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol

The global monopropylene glycol market was valued at USD 3.47 Billion in 2016, and is
projected to reach USD 4.60 Billion by 2021, at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of
5.8% from 2016 to 2021. Growing automotive industry in Asia Pacific and eco-friendly
production process of bio-based monopropylene glycol are expected drive the market during
21
the forecast period. The major factors restraining the growth of the global monopropylene
glycol market is maturity of petroleum-based monopropylene glycol.
Figure 1.12 shows that the global production of monopropylene glycol is higher to the demand
from the year of 2013 to 2014. According to the Merchant Research & Consultant, Ltd, there
was a balance achieving between supply and demand in the year of 2015 and it is predicted
that there is a strongest growth of monopropylene glycol in Asia Pacific region due to its
characteristics and applications (Merchant Research & Consulting Itd, 2014). Thus, the
demand is increasing continuously and higher than current production from the suppliers.
Global Consumption of Monopropylene Glycol from 2013 to

2023
4
Amount of Propylene Glycol (million metric
3.5
3
2.5
2
Supply
tonnes)
1.5
Demand
1
0.5
0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Year
Figure 1.12: Global Consumption of Monporopylene Glycol from 2013 to 2023.
Growth of key end-use industries such as food, pharmaceutical and personal care in emerging
countries such as China, India, Brazil and Russia are anticipated to drive market growth over
the forecast period. It finds wide application scope across various industries including
cosmetics & personal care, liquid detergents, UPR and plasticizers. Increasing UPR demand
from reinforced plastic laminates, electrical components, ducts, tanks, and sheet moulding
components is projected to fuel industry growth significantly over the forecast period. Figure
1.13 shows the U.S. Monopropylene Glycol Market by Application from the year of 2014 to
2024.
22
Figure 1.13: U.S. Propylene Glycol Market by Application from 2014 to 2024 (Research
Ameri, 2017).
1.6.7 Competitors/Producers for Production of Propylene Glycol

1.6.7.1 Global Competitors
Below are the list of competitors or producers of propylene glycol in global, Asia Pacific and
Malaysia.
No. Company Description

1 Dow Chemical In 2010, the world production capacity for propylene
Company, United States. glycols was 1.6 million metric tons includes mono-, di-,
and tripropylene glycols. The Dow Chemical Company is
the major global producer of propylene glycols accounting
about 29% of world capacity. Dow’s 2010 estimated
annual production capacity was 760,000 metric tons (1.7
billion pounds). In the year of 2015, the production of
propylene glycol was 920,000 metric tons per year. Dow
has propylene glycol production facilities in Altona,
Australia; Aratu, Bahia, Brazil; Freeport, Texas and
Plaquemine, Louisiana (USA); Map Ta Phut, Thailand; and
Stade, Germany.
2 LyondellBasell LyondellBasell leads the industry in producing basic
Industries, United States. chemicals including ethylene, propylene, propylene oxide,
23
ethylene oxide, tertiary butyl alcohol, methanol, acetic acid
and their derivatives. This company has a large portion of
its propylene glycol capacity in France and Netherlands. It
accounted 14% of world capacity to produce propylene
glycol. In the year of 2015, the production of propylene
glycol was 410,000 metric tons per year. The chemicals
that produced from the company are the building blocks for
numerous products that advance modern living, including
fuels, automotive fluids, furniture and household goods,
coatings, adhesives, cleaners, cosmetics and personal care
products.
3 Huntsman, United Huntsman International is a major producer of propylene
States. glycol. This very versatile propylene oxide derivative is an
ingredient in many consumer products and industrial
applications including polyester and alkyd resins, paints
and coatings, antifreeze coolants and heat transfer fluids,
plasticizers, functional fluids, household detergents,
industrial solvents, and aircraft de-icing fluids.
Additionally, USP grade propylene glycol has many uses
in foods, pharmaceutical, and personal care products.
1.6.7.2 Asia Pacific Competitors

1 CSPCL Nanhai Shell chemicals companies are a leading supplier of
Petrochemicals propylene glycols which are monopropylene glycol (MPG)
Complex, China. and dipropylene glycol (DPG), the derivatives of propylene
oxide. Bowling alleys, bathrooms and boatyards are all
places where we can find things made of unsaturated
polyester resins, one of the main materials that can be made
using propylene glycols. CSPCL Nanhai is the culmination
of the largest Sino-foreign joint venture in history and is
helping to meet burgeoning demand for plastics and
24
petrochemicals in China. Currently, the plant facilities and
capacities for propylene glycol is 60,000 tpa.
2 Pan Asia Chemicals Pan Asia Chemical Corporation produces and sells
Corporate, Taiwan. chemical products in Taiwan. It provides coconut alcohol
polyethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, nonyl phenol
polyethylene glycol, methanol polyethylene glycol, high
alcohol polyethylene glycol, octyl phenol polyethylene
glycol, fatty acid polyethylene glycol, castor oil
polyethylene glycol, glycerine polyethylene glycol,
polyoxypropylene polyoxyethylene, fatty alcohol
polyethylene glycol, fatty amine polyethylene glycol, and
tridecyl alcohol polyethylene glycol ethers, as well as
polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid ester.
1.6.7.3 Malaysia Competitors

1 Duro Kimia Sdn. Bhd., Duro Kimia produces two types of propylene glycol for
Malaysia industrial and United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) grades.
It is a supplier or distributor of Dow Chemical’s high-
quality Propylene Glycol Industrial Grade (PGI) solvent.
Propylene Glycol Industrial Grade is a high purity
monopropylene glycol with a purity specification of
minimum 99.5%.
1.6.7.4 Specifications of Propylene Glycol

From the research, it can be noticed that most of the companies produce propylene glycol with
minimum purity of 99.5% as shown in the Table 1.7. Dow Chemical Company, LyondellBasell
Industries and Huntsman produce the higher quality of propylene glycol with minimum purity
of 99.8%.
25
Table 1.7: The Sales Specification of Propylene Glycol from Different Producers.
Sales
specification
Specific
1.035 to 1.035 to 1.035 to 1.035 to
gravity @ 1.036 1.035 to 1.037
1.037 1.037 1.037 1.037
25 ℃
Purity, 99.5
99.8 min 99.8 min 99.8 min 99.5 min 99.5 min
wt.% min
Water, 0.2
0.2 max 0.2 max 0.2 max 0.2 max 0.2 max
wt.% max
Acidity (as
0.005
acetic acid), 0.005 max 0.005 max 0.005 max 0.005 max 0.005 max
max
wt.%
Boiling 185 to
184 to 189 184 to 189 185 to 189 187.4 185 to 189
point, ℃ 189
1.6.8 Potential Customers

The potential customers for monopropylene glycol are discussed in detail in this section. There
are BASF, Luxchem Trading Sdn. Bhd., Motorex Oil and Johnson & Johnson with their
company background and applications.
Table 1.8: Summary of Potential Customers.
No. Company Company Background

1 BASF ➢ BASF is the world’s leading chemical company. Its
portfolio ranges from chemicals, plastics,
performance products and crop protection products to
oil and gas. Its products and system solutions
contribute to conserving resources, ensuring healthy
food and nutrition and helping to improve the quality
of life.
➢ Ludopal is the chemical brand name for UPR
produced from propylene glycol. Their resin enhances
the performance attributes of general metal, plastic,
26
and powder coating applications and applications
such as paper, paperboard, flexible films
(polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester, and
cellulose based), printing inks, functional packaging
coatings, and overprint varnishes and can be
formulated for properties such as chemical corrosion,
UV resistance, hardness, exterior durability, adhesion,
gloss, clarity, light stability, and energy curing.
2 Luxchem Trading Sdn. ➢ Luxchem Polymer Industries Sdn Bhd produces
Bhd. Malaysia's most comprehensive portfolio of UPR
under the brand name POLYMAL.
➢ These resins which contribute to the enhancement of
everyday lives, are used in a variety of consumer and
industrial applications in electrical, housing, aircraft,
sports, industrial equipment, construction, vessel,
railcar, plywood and automobile industries.
3 Motorex Oil ➢ Motorex is a Swiss oil blending and manufacturing
company located in Langenthal, Switzerland.
MOTOREX able to provide impressive products and
services of outstanding quality. The modern
MOTOREX laboratory controls the quality of the raw
materials used as well as ensuring leading-edge
expertise based on dedicated research and
development.
➢ Propylene glycol coolant (Coolant Propylenglykol) is
used particularly in cases where an environmentally
friendly coolant is required. It offers outstanding
protection against frost and corrosion. Suitable for use
in the over-wintering regime of engines with a single-
circuit coolant system, in water circulation systems
(not drinking water) on boats and in the agricultural
industry for the over-wintering regime of field
sprayers.
27
4 Johnson & Johnson ➢ Johnson & Johnson and its subsidiaries are engaged in
the research and development, manufacture and sale
of a range of products in the healthcare field. The
Company operates through three segments:
Consumer, Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices.
➢ This company produce Solugel to help smooth and
hydrate the skin by reducing the blistering and peeling
from propylene glycol.
1.6.9 History of Global Pricing

In this section, the history of global pricing for the raw material, propylene oxide and product,
propylene glycol had been discussed in detail.
1.6.9.1 History of Global Price of Propylene Oxide

The total output of propylene oxides in the first half of 2017 was about 1.2 million tons with
an average rate of operation of 78%. The total imports of propylene oxide in the first five
months was about 87,000 tons and the total exports in the first five months was about 500 tons,
and the apparent consumption in the first five months was about 1.14 million tons.
The total output of polyether polyols in the first half of 2017 was about 1.1 million tons with
an average rate of operation of 47%. The total imports of polyether polyols in the first five
months was about 210,000 tons and the total exports in the first five months was about 200,000
tons, and the apparent consumption in the first five months was about 920,000 tons (GHW,
2017).
28
+
Figure 1.14: Price Chart of Propylene Oxide and Polyether Polyol in the First Half of (GHW,
2017).
Figure 1.15: Price Trend of TDI in East China.
Figure 1.14 and Figure 1.15 show that in the first half of 2017, the price trend of polyether
polyols basically followed the price trend of propylene oxide, and the change was more stable.
At the same time, there was a trend of price increasing for propylene oxide and polyether polyol
in the price reduction period of TDI, and vice versa.
29
In the first two months of 2017, ahead of the Spring Festival, the market predicted that the price
of propylene oxide would continue to run high after the Festival, so manufacturers actively
prepared the goods. After the Spring Festival, propylene oxide and polyether polyol
manufacturers have accumulated a large quantity of inventory, and some of the main factory
inventories have accumulated to around 9,000 to 10,000 tons. Prices have fallen sharply. Later,
the main factories in Shandong province substantially reduced load, resulting in product
shortages of local areas, and the nationwide supply of goods was also affected, then the price
of propylene oxide was up slightly again.
At the beginning of March, the domestic large-scale environmental protection inspection and
Jilin Shenhua maintenance news both diffuse markets, resulting in the panic mood of
purchasing. Then the price of propylene oxide went high constantly, but the polyether polyol
was restricted by downstream demand, so most of the polyether polyol was unable to rise,
caught in a dilemma between propylene oxide and downstream.
At the beginning of April, since the market could not hold the double pressure of polyether
polyol and the downstream, the price of propylene oxide dropped sharply. As the price dropped
for about 1400-yuan, polyether polyol received orders moderately, stabilizing the propylene
oxide prices (80000 tons of propylene oxide devices of Bulestar Dongda was permanently shut
down for environmental problem on April 2). In May, the polyether polyol device of Gaoqiao
petrochemical company was officially shut down, and the market was mentally prepared ahead
of time and showed a smooth transition. In mid-May, several PO factories focused on
overhauling, pushing up another round of price increases of propylene oxide. In June, the
240,000 tons propylene oxide device of Jinling Huntsman began to be tested, and the fine
62,000 tons propylene oxide device of Zhonghai was reopened one year later.
On 6th July 2018, the average propylene oxide price in China inched up by yuan (CNY)
100/tonne ($15/tonne) from the previous week to CNY11,350/tonne DEL (delivered),
according to ICIS data (Chong, 2018).
1.6.9.2 History of Global Price of Monopropylene Glycol

The monopropylene glycol market trend in China, 2017 can be divided into two phases. The
major fluctuation range was between RMB 8,000/MT and RMB 10,000/MT. In July, though
the downstream industries were weak, firm prices of raw materials supported the
monopropylene glycol market. Moreover, some monopropylene glycol units were expected to
undergo maintenance. The monopropylene glycol market moved marginally in July. In August,
the output in Shandong shrank on the environmental protection supervision. Moreover, the
30
prices of raw materials jumped. Hence, the monopropylene glycol market prices boomed.
Around mid-September, units restarted gradually, and the supply was increasing. Raw material
prices slumped, but the monopropylene glycol market inched up as downstream users stoked
up before the National Day holiday (Analysis Echemi, 2017).
Figure 1.16: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2017 (Analysis Echemi, 2017).
Asia’s monopropylene glycol prices are likely to stay flat as tighter supply in domestic China
and from a southeast Asia-based producer is expected to be offset by declining upstream
propylene prices and largely stagnant demand, market sources said on Monday. A major
southeast Asia-based producer was previously heard facing issues at its monopropylene glycol
unit but sources familiar with the matter said instead of any technical faults, the shortage of
feedstock propylene oxide was likely to have limited the production of monopropylene glycol.
In China, turnarounds of monopropylene glycol production units have resulted in an overall

lower inventory level domestically, while heightened environmental checks on petrochemical
plants in April might also further curtail supply, market sources said. In the week ended 24
March, the average price for bulk industrial-grade monopropylene glycol was firmer by
$25/tonne at $1,100/tonne CFR (cost and freight) northeast (NE) Asia and was unchanged at
$1,190/tonne CFR southeast (SE) Asia, according to ICIS data. In the same week, average spot
price of drummed pharmaceutical-grade monopropylene glycol (USP) was stable at
$1,355/tonne CFR NE Asia and $1,455/tonne CFR SE Asia, ICIS data showed (Chong, 2017).
31
Figure 1.17: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2017 (Chong, 2017).
However, in July 2018, Asia’s spot monopropylene glycol prices are expected to remain under
downward pressure in the coming weeks because of tepid demand. In the week ended 6 July,
spot prices of bulk industrial-grade monopropylene glycol dropped to $1,200/tonne CFR (cost
& freight) NE (northeast) Asia; and to $1,405/tonne CFR SE (southeast) Asia, according to
ICIS data. Northeast Asian prices were down $25/tonne week on week, while southeast Asian
prices were $20/tonne lower. For drummed pharmaceutical grade monopropylene glycol (USP),
spot prices in northeast Asia slipped by $25/tonne to $1,500/tonne CFR; while southeast Asia
prices inched down by $5/tonne to $1,675/tonne CFR in the same period, ICIS data showed.
32
Figure 1.18: Propylene Glycol Market Price in 2018 (ICIS, 2018).
Spot monopropylene glycol import prices in Asia were stable to softer amid generally stagnant
demand and ample supply. In May and June 2018 are the seasonal lull period for PGI
downstream such as anti-freeze and unsaturated polyester resins used in construction. China's
import prices for monopropylene glycol have declined more compared with other markets in
southeast Asia, due to dwindling buying interest amid the weak Chinese yuan. A weak currency
makes US dollar-denominated imports more expensive. Firm feedstock propylene glycol prices
in China, however, may support monopropylene glycol prices going forward.
33
1.6.10 Raw Material Availability
Most of the companies in Malaysia are suppliers for propylene oxide instead of manufacturers.
There is no available manufacturer from Malaysia, while propylene oxide can be imported from
SCG-Dow, Thailand and Huntsman (Singapore) Pte Ltd. Both of these companies are an
integrated self-contained petrochemical complex comprising principally of propylene-based
petrochemical plants and centralised utility facilities.
Plant: Oxidation of propylene with hydrogen peroxide

Capacity: 390,000 tpa Propylene Oxide
Manufacturer: SCG-Dow, Thailand
Commissioning: January 2011
It is used primarily as a building block for the manufacture of a versatile
Uses:
range of derivative products.
Plant: Propylene Hydroperoxide

Capacity: 25,000 tpa Propylene Oxide
Manufacturer: Huntsman (Singapore) Pte Ltd
Commissioning: December 2014
It is an intermediate compound used to make polyurethane materials
Uses: ranging from energy-efficient home insulation and building materials to
comfort foams for automobiles and furniture.
34
1.6.11 SWOT Analysis for Propylene Glycol Production
SWOT analysis is very crucial in determination of the quality of project before running into
reality. It acts as a first step to manage business strategies and to analyse the possible threats
coming from the competitors. Both the internal and external causes that influence the success
and failure of the business can be determined form SWOT analysis.
• According to forecast, • From the market survey,

global demand is always the selling price of
more than production propylene glycol is
produced by the exist highly affected by the
companies. price of propylene oxide.
• It is acceptable for use
in flavorings, drugs, and Stength Weakness
cosmetics, and as a
direct food additive.
• Able to overcome the Opportunity Threat • Shrinking grounds for

increasing usage in the small capacity plants.
production of polyester
resins.
Figure 1.19: SWOT Analysis for Production of Propylene Glycol.
1.6.12 Plant Capacity Decision

The predicted operation for the production of monopropylene glycol from propylene oxide and
water is estimated to be in 2022 as the building of plant required 3 years from 2019 to 2021.
Based on the supply demand curve shown in Figure 1.12 from 2013 to 2023, there is still a
huge demand of monopropylene glycol required by global and Asia Pacific. From Figure 1.6,
it indicates that Asia Pacific requires largest capacity of monopropylene glycol compared with
other regions. From the market research, the world largest manufacturers of monopropylene
glycol which are DOW Chemical Company and LyondellBasell Industries accounted 43% of
global capacity.
In the year of 2022, the predicted amount of monopropylene glycol needed is 500,000 metric
tons. Thus, our plant capacity is decided to fulfil 30% from the global demand (3.4 million
metric tons) after deducting the estimated supply amount (2.9 million metric tons) in the year
of 2022 which is 150,000 metric tons per year. This production amount is considered affordable
for new plant to start-up the production. This production capacity is feasible based on a real
35
example where new SCG-Dow PG unit in Thailand with an annual capacity of around 150,000
tonnes per year in March 2011 was operated (Merchant Research & Consulting Itd, 2014).
With the characteristics and applications of propylene oxide from Figure 1.4, it is believed that
our plant capacity is competitive for the global demand in the coming year.
1.6.13 Calculation for Profit Margin

In this section, the profit margin is calculated based on the raw materials that involved in the
production of monopropylene glycol by assuming 100% conversion.
Table 1.9: Prices of Raw Materials and Products in 2018.
Molecular
Raw Materials and
Price Weight Sources of Prices
Product
(kg/kmol)
Propylene oxide RM 4.26/kg 58 (Alfa Aesar , 2018)
Water
(selected plant 0 – 227 m3 = RM0.92/m3
18 (Water Tariff, 2018)
location: Gebeng, Over 227 m3 = RM0.84/m3
Pahang)
Propylene glycol RM 6.44/kg 76 (ICIS, 2018)
Chemical equation that involved for the propylene glycol production:
C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2
Based on the stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of propylene oxide reacts with 1 kmol of water to
produce 1 kmol of monopropylene glycol by assuming 100% of conversion.
To yield 150,000 metric tons per year of monopropylene glycol, 1,973,684.211 kmol propylene
glycol per year is produced.
kmol 150,000 mtric tons 1000 kg 1 kmol

Production of C3 H8 O2 ( )= × ×
year year 1 metric tons 76 kg
C3 H8 O2 kmol
= 1,973,684.211 year
No. of moles of required for propylene oxide and water:
kmol 1 kmol C3 H6 O
No. of moles of C3 H6 O required = 1,973,684.211 ×
year 1 kmol C3 H8 O2
C3 H6 O kmol
= 1,973,684.211 year
36
kmol 1 kmol H2 O
No. of moles of H2 O required = 1,973,684.211 ×
year 1 kmol C3 H8 O2
H2 O kmol
= 1,973,684.211 year
C3 H8 O2 kmol RM6.44 76kg

Cost of product = 1,973,684.211 × ×
year kg kmol
= RM966,000,000.20/year
C3 H6 O kmol RM4.26 58kg
Cost of raw material = [1,973,684.211 × × ]+
year kg kmol
H2 O kmol 18 kg m3 RM0.84
[1,973,684.211 × × × ]
year kmol 1000kg m3
= RM487,687,737/year
Cost of product − Cost of raw material
Profit margin(%) =
Cost of raw material
966,000,000.20 − 487,687,737
= × 100 = 98.08%
487,687,737
**The profit margin calculated is not included costs side of products, catalysts, processing,
utilities, labours and others.
1.7 Site Selection & Plant Layout

The preliminary site selection is very crucial for the construction of new chemical processing
plant. It is important to determine the suitability of the recommended location for the
monopropylene glycol production by comparing some of the aspects such as availability of raw
materials, market potential of the products, land availability and the utilities provided. The
preferable location allows maximum profit with minimum operating and distribution costs.
1.7.1 General Consideration of Site Location

A strategic plant location needs to be chosen before the plant can be constructed. A feasibility
study must conduct before the plant can be constructed. It is important to know whether the
suggested plant of 150,000 MT/year of monopropylene glycol is feasible to be built or not,
due to many aspects, such as economics, environmental impacts, safety and the location of the
plant and others. The location of the plant mainly depends on the availability of raw materials,
production cost, raw material market, availability of land and utilities. Maximum profit gained
with minimum unit cost of production and distribution if right location is chosen.
More specifically, an area that provides the lowest cost of production and distribution would
be the most considered area. In other words, this area must be where the aggregate cost of raw
37
materials, transportation of the materials to the plant, manufacturing, selling and transportation
are all in minimum level (Foo, 2015).
In order to choose the best location for our plant, factors have been listed as below (Money
Matters, 2018):
1. Available of raw material

Availability of raw materials plays an important role in selection of plant location. Plants
manufacturing bulk chemical are best located near to source of raw material as it reduces
in transportation cost and avoid additional storage.
2. Land price
The land price depends on the location of the property and may vary between a rural district
and a highly industrialized area. The cost of land should be reasonable as it can reduce the
total investment.
3. Market area
Distance of marketing area plays a role in selection of plant location. Transportation cost
can be reduced for marketing finished product as market area near as it shorten time for
shipping. If the plant is located far away from the markets, then the chances of spoiling and
breakage become high during transport.
4. Transport facilities
Transport facilities are very important in order to bring the raw materials to the plant or to
carrying the finished product to the market area. Few types transportation mode such as
road, sea and air transportation can use depending on the marketing location.
5. Source of electricity and water

All the plant need to have utilities for their operation plant like electricity and water close
to their plant .The requirement for electricity and water is very important as it needed in
plant operation .Plants need large quantities of water for their operation such as cooling,
boiling, washing, steam generation, drinking and chemical reaction are the main things the
work done by water. Power is needed to run equipment and lighting electrical.
6. Availability of labour
Labour force will be extensively required for the construction of a plant and its operation.
Skilled workers will be needed for plant maintenance and supervising unskilled worker in
operating a plant, whereas unskilled workers can be employed to operate the production
38
process after receiving adequate training. In addition, every year there are many fresh
graduate students looking for job especially from the nearest universities and colleges.
7. Local community
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. Sufficient suitable land must be available for
the proposed plant and future expansion. On a new site, the local community must be able
to provide adequate facilities for the plant such as housing, modern handling and financial
facilities, emergency services, educational, medical, recreational and cultural facilities.
8. Political and strategic considerations

Political stable is one of the major factors attractive for investor to choose land site for their
plant. Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site
selection. Generally, new investor will take the place within looking to low assessment or
limiting term exemption. Furthermore, incentive from the government may have different
regulations on zoning, building codes, transportation facilities and permit release. The
better the incentive offered by the government, the feasibility of the plant would be better.
9. Waste and effluent disposal facilities

Nowadays, all the industrial process produces waste. Hence, the site selected should have
satisfactory and efficient disposal system for industrial effluent such as the drainage system
and dumping sites. Full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of the waste
and effluent disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluent will be covered by local
regulations and appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine the standard that must be met.
10. Safety and environment aspects of the site

The site selected should have satisfactory and efficient disposal system for plant wastes or
effluents such as the drainage systems and dumping sites. Waste water that discharge has
to be treated before channelled to open drains. Each plant must obtain approval site
suitability from Department of Environment before commencement of operation.
Furthermore, the safety and precaution must be alert by all the local communities who live
39
near to the Complex. It is to make sure they can escape from any accident happen in
industrial area. Therefore, it is important to choose a location that will secure a smooth
operation for the plant and gives low impact on the environment.
11. Climate
A suitable climate is really necessary for the polystyrene plant to operate with smooth
condition. Some natural obstacles such as flood, earthquake, thunderstorm and others may
affect the plant in bad ways. The land must be flat, have suitable load-bearing properties
and strong foundation. If the plant is built near the community, it must be accepted by local
community and does not pose any adverse risks and hazards to the community. Besides,
climate is also given full consideration when deciding a site.
a) Temperature
Abnormally low temperatures will require the additional insulation and special heating
for equipment and pipe runs. Daily temperature varies from 25°C to 31 °C.
b) Relative Humidity
The level of humidity is high at night and early morning.
c) Rainfall
Annual rainfall is about 2500 mm. Most rainfall falls on March and September. For the
east coast of peninsular Malaysia, rain falls heavily during the monsoon season, which
is from the end of September to early January.
40
1.7.2 Overview of Strategic Locations
The petrochemical industry is one of leading industry in Malaysia. Currently, there are few
locations for petrochemical plant such as Terengganu, Pahang and Johor. The production of
150,000 MTA monopropylene glycol has proposed at these locations.
I. Kerteh, Kemaman, Terengganu
II. Gebeng Industrial Area IV, Kuantan, Pahang
III. Pasir Gudang, Kuala Langsat, Johor
IV. Tanjung Kidurong Industrial Area (KINDA), Bintulu, Sarawak
1.7.2.1 Kerteh, Kemaman, Terengganu

Formerly a quiet fishing village, Kerteh has now transformed into a petrochemical hub. Kerteh
is located 52.9 km from Kemaman town. Kerteh Integrated Petrochemical Complex (KIPC),
located within the PETRONAS Petrochemical Industry Complex in Kerteh, Terengganu is an
important link in the gas value chain of Malaysia. The land price in Kerteh per square feet is
RM17 with 4.98 acres land available (EPIC, 2017).
a. Transportation
➢ Road Transport
The road links are Federal Road Kuala Terengganu – Kerteh – Teluk Kalong - Gebeng –
Kuantan – KL and Kuala Terengganu – Kuantan – KL Highway (Pelita).
➢ Port Transportation
The distance from the proposed plant to sea port is 9.3 km.
➢ Air Transportation
The distance from the proposed plant to airport is 4.6 km.
b. Utilities and amenities

➢ Electricity power supply
The Sultan Ismail Power Station is one of the largest gas turbine power stations in Malaysia,
located in Paka, Terengganu approximately 100 km from the state capital, Kuala
Terengganu. It generates 1,136 MW.
➢ Water supply
The water supply can be obtained from Syarikat Air Terengganu Sdn.Bhd.
41
c. Human resource
The Terengganu Government have many of training institute to produce manpower with
highly skilled. The institutes are:
• Institute Teknologi Petroleum PETRONAS (INSTEP)
• Terengganu Advanced Technical Institute (TATI)
• Terengganu Safety Training Center (TSTC)
• Mara Training Institute
d. Government Incentives
➢ Privileges under Pioneer Status
➢ Investment for Small-scale Companies
➢ Infrastructure Allowance.
➢ Incentives for Research and Development, Training & Exports.
➢ Incentives for Tourism, Agriculture, Hitech and ICT.
e. Port Facility
Kerteh Port
➢ Centralised tankage facilities
➢ Mainly bulk liquid port
42
Figure 1.20: Map of Kerteh Industries, Kemaman, Terengganu
1.7.2.2 Gebeng Industrial Area IV, Kuantan, Pahang

Gebeng is another petrochemical hub for multinational players like BASF, Amoco, Kaneka,
Eastman and Polyplastics. Gebeng is located 26 km from Kuantan Town. The land price in
Gebeng per square feet is RM15 with 3 acres land available (CBRE-WTW Joint Venture, 2017).
a. Transportation
➢ Road Transport
The road links are Federal road Kuala Terengganu – Kerteh – Gebeng – Kuantan – Kuala
Lumpur
The distance from the proposed plant to sea port is 25.3 km.
The distance from the proposed plant to airport is 57.1 km.
43
➢ Electricity power supply
The electricity power supplied from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) Kuantan with the
following tariff:
Table 1.10: Tariff value according voltage peak /off-peak
TARIFF D – LOW VOLTAGE INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For the first 200kWh (1-200kWh) per month

38.00 sen/kWh
For the next kWh (201 kWh onwards) per month
44.10 sen/kWh
The minimum monthly charge is RM 7.20
TARIFF E1-MEDIUM VOLTAGE GENERAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kilowatt or maximum demand per month

RM 29.60/kW
For all kWh
33.70 sen/kWh
The minimum monthly charge is RM600.00
TARIFF E2 – MEDIUM VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF-PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per month during the

RM 37.00/kW
peak period
For all kWh during the peak period
35.50 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period
21.90 sen/kWh
TARIFF E3-HIGH VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF- PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per month during the

RM 35.50/kW
peak period
For all kWh during the peak period
33.70 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period
20.20 sen/kWh
➢ Water supply
The water supply can be obtained from Pengurusan Air Pahang (PAIP).
44
c. Human resource
The Government, in collaboration with the private sector, runs the Pahang Professional
Development Institute (Institute Kemajuan Ikhtisas) and Pahang Skill Development Centre
(Pusat Pembangunan Kemahiran Pahang) both aimed at providing more skilled and semi-
skilled labour resources. The institutes are Pahang Professional Development Institute
(Institute Kemajuan Ikhtisas) and Pahang Skill Development Centre (Pusat Pembangunan
Kemahiran Pahang).
➢ Pioneer Status.
➢ Investment Tax Allowance.
➢ Re-investment Allowance.
➢ Accelerated Capital Allowance.
e. Port Facility
Kuantan Port
➢ Centralised tankage facilities
➢ Pipeline and piperack system connecting Gebeng to Kuantan Port
➢ Container and bulk liquid port
➢ Railway linking Kerteh, Gebeng and Kuantan Port
45
Figure 1.21: Map of Gebeng (Phase IV), Industrial Area Kuantan, Pahang.
1.7.2.3 Pasir Gudang, Tanjung Langsat, Johor

Pasir Gudang located at east of Johor Bahru in Malaysia. The industrial land that developed by
54 Perbadanan Tempatan Pasir Gudang is located beside the Pasir Gudang Industrial Areas.
This location is suitable for petrochemical, light, medium and heavy industries. The price of
the land is the range of RM 48 per square feet, it depends on the area of industrial but the area
still available is about 87120 square feet (Jamalunlaili et al, 2012).
a. Transportation
➢ Road Transport
The location of the Pasir Gudang Industrial Area is very feasible for this project because of
its close proximity (only 12.1 km) from the recently privatized Johor Port. Besides that, it
is only taking 15 minutes to go to Johor Bahru and Singapore by using highways. This has
eased the transportation problem where the journey and time to transport goods from
Malaysia to Singapore or vice-versa can be shortened.
The location of the Pasir Gudang Industrial Area is very feasible for this project because
its strategic location as the distances to the port is about 12.1 km.
46
Air transportation is easy to be accessed in Johor too. Senai Airport is about 57.1 km from
Pasir Gudang via Johor Bahru East Coast Highway.

For electrical supply, Sultan Iskandar Power Station (TNB Sultan Iskandar) will be
responsible to supply the electricity to the new plants. They provide varieties amount of
transmission voltages up to 132kV to Pasir Gudang industrial area. For water supply,
Syarikat Air Johor Holding Bhd (SAJ) will be responsible to supply treated water that will
produce about 1425ML/D water.
c. Human resources
Local technical institutions that will provide full strength manpower to assist in plant
operation such as University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), University of
Technology Malaysia (UTM), Institut Latihan Perindustrian Pasir Gudang (ILP), Pusat
Pembangunan Tenaga Industri Johor (Puspatri) and UNITAR International University.
A chemical and petrochemical production, especially EPS-based industries is the current
focus of Johor state government. The major advantage of setting up an EPS production
plant in Pasir Gudang is Johor’s eligibility for the following incentives such as pioneer
status, investment tax allowance, re-investment allowance and accelerated capital
allowance. This is due to the chemical and petrochemical production at Johor state
government.
47
Figure 1.22: Map of Pasir Gudang, Johor.
1.7.2.4 Tanjung Kidurong Industrial Area (KINDA), Bintulu, Sarawak

Tanjung Kidurong or simply known as Kidurong, is a port town in Sarawak, Malaysia.
Approximately 15 minutes from the centre of Bintulu, Kidurong functions as the main
industrial core of the Bintulu area. The MLNG Complex, which is the largest single gas
manufacturing complex in the world, is in Kidurong. Shell and Murphy are among the other
oil and gas multinationals that operate in the Kidurong Industrial Estate. The oil and gas
industry in the Kidurong Industrial Area since the 1980s has brought along an expatriate
community, who also live in Kidurong, notably around Tamam Matahari and MLNG Housing.
a. Transportation
➢ Road Transport
The industrial area is about 3.3km to Pan Borneo Highway.
The distance from the proposed plant to Bintulu Port is only 2km.
The distance from the proposed plant to Bintulu Airport is only 27.7km.
48
b. Utilities and Amenities
➢ Electricity is supplied by the Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO) At present
the electricity supply is generated by gas turbines which have the capacity to generate 132
megawatts (MW) per day. The power station at Tanjung Kidurong is connected to the
substation in Bintulu town via 33KV transmission.
➢ For water supply, Syarikat Air Sarawak Sdn Bhd and Bintulu Water Supply Treatment will
be responsible to supply treated water to the new plant. Water from the plant is channelled
through 800mm main to Tanjung Kidurong.
c. Human resources
Local technical institutions that will provide full strength manpower to assist in plant
operation such as Curtin University Miri, University Technology Mara (UiTM), Kota
Samarahan, and University Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS).
d. Government incentives
➢ Federal Tax Incentives
- Pioneer Status
- Investment tax allowance
- Strategic Project
➢ State Incentives
- Competitive land premium
- Flexible terms of payment for industrial land
- Rebate on land premiums if project is completed within expectation time
49
Figure 1.23: Map of Tanjung Kidurong, Sarawak.
50
1.7.3 Comparison of Potential Site Locations
Table 1.11： Comparison of short-listed Potential Site Locations
Tanjung Kidurong
Kerteh, Kemamam, Pasir Gudang, Tanjung Industrial Area
Criteria Gebeng Industrial Area IV, Kuantan
Terengganu Langsat, Johor (KINDA), Bintulu,
Sarawak
- 37 km from Johor Bharu
- 52.9 km from Kemaman.
town.
- 141 km from Kuala - 26 km from Kuantan town. - 16 km to Bintulu town.
Distance from - 14.9 km from Pasir
Terengganu. - 268 km from Kuala Lumpur.
town Gudang.
- 112 km from Kuantan.
- 51.2km from Singapore.
5 1 3 5
Propylene Oxide Propylene Oxide Propylene Oxide Propylene Oxide

Accessibility of - 453.6 km from Huntsman - 381.3 km from Huntsman - 49 km from Huntsman - 2865 km from
raw material (Singapore) Pte Ltd (Singapore) Pte Ltd (Singapore) Pte Ltd Huntsman (Singapore)
Pte Ltd
1 3 5 1
Federal Road Kuala Federal road Kuala Terengganu –
North South Highway
Terengganu – Kerteh – Teluk Kerteh – Gebeng – Kuantan – Kuala
Kalong - Gebeng – Kuantan – Lumpur
Federal Road
Transportation KL Pan Borneo Highway
Pasir Gudang –Johor
by land Kuantan-Kerteh Railway Linking the
Bahru
Kuala Terengganu – Kuantan Kerteh Industrial Area and Kuantan
– KL Highway (Pelita) Port
5 5 3 1
12.1 km from Pasir
Transportation 9.3 km from Kerteh Port. 25.3 km from Kuantan Port. 2 km to Bintulu Port.
Gudang Port.
by sea
5 1 3 5
51
Tanjung Kidurong
Sarawak
57.1 km from Senai 27.7 km from Bintulu
Transportation 4.6 km from Kerteh Airport 37.5 km from Kuantan Airport.
Airport. Airport.
by air
5 3 1 3
Land price (RM/ RM 17 RM15 RM48 RM 38
sqft) 3 5 1 1
Industrial Area 494.211 3879.554 4.98 2.9653
(acre) 3 5 1 1
- Syarikat Air Sarawak
- Syarikat Air Terengganu - Syarikat Air Johor
- Pengurusan Air Pahang (PAIP) Sdn Bhd
Source of water Sdn.Bhd. Holdings Sdn. Bhd.
- Semambu Water Treatment Plant - Bintulu Water Supply
Utilities
Treatment Plant
3 5 3 5
Source of Sultan Ismail Power Station Sultan Iskandar Power
Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) Bintulu Power Station
Electricity (TNB) Station (TNB)
Utilities 3 3 3 3
Exports to Asia Pacific Exports to Asia Pacific Exports to Asia Pacific
Exports to Asia Pacific Countries, North
Potential Countries, North America and Countries, North America Countries, North America
America and Europe.
Customer Europe. and Europe. and Europe.
3 3 3 3
52
Tanjung Kidurong
Sarawak
- Uni. Teknologi
- Universiti Malaysia Pahang Malaysia
- Uni. Malaysia Terengganu - Curtin University, Miri
- International Islamic University - Uni. Tun Hussein Onn
- Uni. Darul Iman Malaysia - University Technology
Malaysia Malaysia
- Institut Teknologi Mara (UITM), Kota
- MARA Community College - Institut Latihan
Training Petroleum Petronas Samarahan
- Sultan Ahmad Shah Polytechnic Perindustrian
Institute Terengganu - University Malaysia
- Widad University College - Pusat Tenaga Industri
- Pusat Latihan Keselamatan Sarawak (UNIMAS),
- University College of Yayasan Johor
- Terengganu (TESDEC) Kota Samarahan
Pahang - UNITAR International
University
3 5 3 3
- Privileges under Pioneer
- Pioneer Status.
Status
- Investment Tax
- Investment for Small-scale - Investment tax allowance. - Incentives for
Allowance.
Companies - Infrastructure allowance. Investment Tax
- Re-investment
- Infrastructure Allowance. - Five years exemption on import Allowance
Government Allowance.
- Incentives for Research duty. - Incentives for Pioneer
Incentives - Accelerated Capital
and Development, - 5% discount on monthly electric. Status
Allowance.
Training & Exports. - Manpower training allowance. - Incentives for Strategic
- Incentives for Tourism, - Pioneer status. Project.
Agriculture, Hitech and
ICT.
3 5 1 3
TOTAL 42 44 30 34
Ranking: 1 – Poor, 3 – Moderate, 5 – Excellent
53
1.7.4 Selection of Plant Site
After considering all criteria, Gebeng Industrial Area IV, Kuantan is the most suitable location
for 150,000 MTA monopropylene Glycol production plant. Generally, there are several main
reasons why Gebeng Industrial Area IV has been chosen as our industrial site:
i. The land price is RM 15 per square feet. This value is quite cheap, compared to Kerteh
and Pasir Gudang.
ii. There is Kuantan Port situated around 5.7 km from Gebeng Industrial Park. It eases the
works of exporting the product and importing the raw materials to the company and at
the same time, it saves lots of transportation fees. Besides, Kuantan Port is centralized
with tankage facilities, pipeline and pipe rack system directly connecting to Gebeng
Industrial Estate.
iii. Consistent support for raw material of propylene oxide suppliers from Huntsman
(Singapore) Pte Ltd.
iv. Pahang States of Government provides lucrative incentives for the company that is
build up in Pahang area such as:
- Investment tax allowance.
- Infrastructure allowance
- Five years exemption on import duty
- 5% discount on monthly electric
- Manpower training allowance
v. Gebeng Industrial Estate provides an excellent facilities and infrastructure to the
company. The water and electrical supplier to the plant would always sufficient for the
plant operation. The ready facilities and infrastructure make Pahang the best venue for
investors to locate their petrochemical business.
vi. There are numbers of universities, technical and vocational institutes ensure the stable
supply of trained person to support the growth of industry such as:
- University Malaysia Pahang (UMP)
- International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)
- MARA Skills Training Institute, Pekan
- Sultan Ahmad Shah Polytechnic
- Widad University College
- University College of Yayasan Pahang
54
vii. Gebeng Industrial Area IV is strategically located to the East of Malaysia and
neighbouring South China Sea. The local airport and seaports offer direct access to
main routes of the world. This provides an excellent and convenient service for import
and export purposes.
viii. The local authority’s successful administration has led the industrial area in Gebeng as
a favoured site for chemical and petrochemical plant.
Figure 1.24: Specific Location in Gebeng Industrial Area IV for Plant Construction.
1.7.5 Plant Layout

Plant layout is defined as the physical arrangement of production facilities. A well-designed
plant layout is concerned with maximum and effective utilization of available resources with
minimum operating expenses. The ancillary buildings and the main processing buildings will
include the elements as follow and plant site layout is shown in Figure 1.25 An efficient plant
layout is one that can be instrumental in achieving the following objectives:
i. Provide enough production capacity.

ii. Reduce material handling costs.
iii. Reduce hazards to personnel.
55
iv. Utilize labour efficiently.
v. Increase employee morale.
vi. Reduce accidents.
vii. Provide for volume and product flexibility.
viii. Provide ease of supervision and control.
ix. Provide for employee safety and health.
x. Allow ease of maintenance.
xi. Allow high machine or equipment utilization.
xii. Improve productivity.
Figure 1.25: Plant Layout for Production of Propylene Glycol.
Plant layout design is the fundamental of industrial plants as it can influence the efficiency and
smoothness of working system and consist of arrangement of machines, processing equipment
and service department. The importance of plant layout is to prevent, minimize or mitigate the
increase in adjacent accidents in a plant. Table 1.12 indicates the function and preferable
location of designed buildings in plant layout.
56
Table 1.12: Function and preferable location of buildings
Buildings/ Rooms Function Preferable Location

Administration office - Organizing company records Away form operations plant
- Office of management board and near the main entrance
Gate - Check all vehicle in and out of Located at every entrance
plant
- Make record with any visitors
Storage - To store raw materials for Located near to the
operating process production area and loading
area.
Control room - Manage and control all Located near production area
equipment in operation line
Laboratory - Analyze quality of the product Located near production area
- Carry out experiment for
better quality product
Workshop - For maintenance purpose Located near production area
- For mechanical and electrical
workshop
Loading area - To store packaged product Located near production area
- Transfer the product to be
deliver to customer
Parking lot - Parking for staff and visitor Located near administration
office
Assembly Point - Assembly place for employee Located near to main gate
or visitor if emergency and guard house
happens
Future expansion area - To further expand the capital Remaining land within the
size of plant plant area
57
1.8 Process Technology
The main objective in this section is to determine the current technology used, technical status
and economic analysis of the available routes for production of propylene glycol. There are
several methods to produce desired product. The first concern of selecting the best route for
the production is by choosing the most profitable method with safe technology.
This section will discuss about the production of propylene glycol. The criteria on selecting the
best synthesis routes included reaction, raw material, by-product, waste treatment, process
condition, catalyst and economic potential. The lists of advantages and disadvantages for every
route will be discussed.
There are four methods of producing propylene glycol which are:
1. Non-catalytic hydrolysis of propylene oxide

2. Hydrolysis of propylene oxide with sulphuric acid catalyst.
3. Hydrolysis of propylene oxide with Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – catalyst.
4. Catalytic carbonation of propylene oxide followed by hydrolysis of propylene
carbonate.
1.8.1 Non-Catalytic Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide

In chlorohydrin process, first propylene oxide was produced and further it was subsequently
hydrolyzed to monopropylene glycol. All of the commercial process employs non-catalytic
hydrolysis of propylene oxide at high temperature and high pressure. Typically, by this process,
90% monopropylene glycol and 10% byproducts are obtained. Figure 1.26 shows the process
flow diagram of the process. Propylene oxide and water are mixed according to the ratio of
1:15 (McKetta & Cunningham, 1993) as excess of water is required in the process to limit the
generation of byproducts such as dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol. The chemical
equation in this reaction is shown as below：
C3 H6 O (l) + H2 O (l) → C3 H8 O2 (l) (Main reaction)

Propylene oxide Monopropylene glycol
C3 H8 O2 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C6 H14 O3 (l)
Monopropylene glycol Propylene oxide Dipropylene glycol

(Side reaction)
C6 H14 O3 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C9 H20 O4 (l)
Dipropylene glycol Propylene oxide Tripropylene glycol

58
The reaction occurs at 190 ℃ and 18.25 bar achieving full conversion of propylene oxide with
a yield of 85% to monopropylene glycol, 10% to dipropylene glycol and 5% of tripropylene
glycol. Thus, it considered as a high-risk reaction due to involving higher operating temperature
and pressure. Distillation columns for purification and separation purposes operate under
vacuum at 0.1 bar to avoid decomposition of monopropylene glycol. Byproducts are recovered
with 99.5 wt% purity in both cases (Patel, 2018). This reaction may cause high emission of
greenhouse gas due to high energy consumption due to the absent of catalyst.
Figure 1.26: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production by Non- Catalytic
Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide (Andres et al.., 2017).
1.8.2 Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide with Sulphuric Acid Catalyst

Propylene glycol is manufactured from propylene oxide in a catalytic reaction in the presence
of small amount of sulphuric acid as a catalyst. The operating temperature of 210 ℃ and
pressure of 21.7 bar which considered as a high-risk reaction. The chemical equation in this
reaction is shown as below:
H2SO4
C3 H6 O (l) + H2 O (l) → C3 H8 O2 (l)
(Main reaction)
H2SO4
C3 H8 O2 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C6 H14 O3 (l)

(Side reaction)
H2SO4
C6 H14 O3 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C9 H20 O4 (l)
59
This reaction can be carried out in liquid phase by controlling the temperature of the reaction
mixture, since propylene oxide is a low boiling point chemical. After the hydration reaction
was completed, the excess water in the reaction mixture was dehydrated in multiple effect
evaporator and drying tower where the excessive water was removed continuously. Due to 97%
of yield in the reaction, the remaining propylene oxide reacts again with the products to form
byproducts which are di- and tripropylene glycol, thus further purification and separation is
needed. The mixture was introduced into distillation tower where all the glycols were separated
out as shown in Figure 1.27 (Patel, 2018). Environmental issue that will cause by this reaction
is the catalyst used will tend to remain in water, bind with soil and sediment if spilled or
discarded before degraded.

Propylene Oxide with sulphuric acid catalyst (Patel, 2018).
The proportions of mono-, di-. tripropylene glycol produced varying by the mole ratio of
propylene oxide and water. Table 1.13 shows the relationship between mole ratio and the
proportions of each of the propylene glycols produced (Shusei, 1970).
Table 1.13: Correlation Between Water/PO Ratio and PG/DPG/TPG Production Ratio.
60
1.8.3 Catalytic Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide with Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 –
catalyst
Propylene glycol is produced through the hydrolysis reaction of propylene oxide and water
with Lewatit Monoplus M500/HCO3 – catalyst. The reaction takes place in the liquid phase
under a temperature of 110 °C and a pressure of 9 bar, obtained a conversion of 90% (Aakyalcin,
2017). The amount of water must be in excess as the boiling point of propylene oxide is quite
low. The molar ratio for propylene oxide: water is 1: 11.8 respectively and the selectivity of
monopropylene glycol is 91 wt%. To purify propylene glycol, distillation process is carried out
in order to obtain products of monopropylene glycol with a purity of 99.5% (Anggraeni, 2016).
Environmental issue that will cause by this reaction is the catalyst used will tend to remain in
water, bind with soil and sediment if spilled or discarded before degraded. Besides, dust
escaping may occur during catalyst regeneration. The chemical equation in this reaction is
shown as below:
Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 –

C3 H6 O (l) + H2 O (l) → C3 H8 O2 (l)
(Main reaction)
C3 H8 O2 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C6 H14 O3 (l)

(Side reaction)
C6 H14 O3 (l) + C3 H6 O (l) → C9 H20 O4 (l)
Propylene glycol production process by making a catalytic reaction between propylene oxide
and water in principle consists of some stages:
1. Raw materials preparation stage

In this process is done mixing the raw material propylene oxide and water. Mixer
operating temperature is 25 °C with a pressure of 1 bar. Raw materials obtained from
the process water utilities while propylene oxide stored in a liquid phase with a purity
of 99.95% and stored in tanks with a storage temperature of 25 °C and a pressure of 1
atm. A result of the mixer is put into the reactor (R-101).
61
2. Reaction stage
In the reactor R-01 conversions generated by 90 % by adding Lewatit MonoPlus M500
with 0.15 mol HCO3-/L. Hydration reaction intended for reacting the raw material
propylene oxide with water in the reactor R-01 which react under operating conditions
of 110 °C and a pressure of 9 bar. The reaction is exothermic, so that the reactor needs
to be given a cooling jacket to maintain the temperature for stable operation.
3. Recycling stage
Product mix in reactor R-01 is then fed to the flash column (DT-01) and the raw
materials such as propylene oxide and water are recycled back to the mixer for
production for cost saving purpose. Thus, there are made-up streams introduced to top
up insufficient amount of reactants.
4. Purification products stage
In this stage aims to purify the main products and side products from the reaction for
storage and selling purposes. The bottom products from DT-01 which consists of mono-,
di- and tripropylene glycol then entered the distillation column (DT-02 and DT-03) for
purification. From the DT-02, top product which is monopropylene oxide with the
purity of 99.5% is stored into storage tank at 1 bar and 25 ℃ while bottom products
(di- and tripropylene glycol) are entered to the DT-03 for further separation process.

Propylene Oxide with Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – solid catalyst (Aakyalcin, 2017).
62
1.8.4 Carbonation of Propylene Oxide followed by Hydrolysis of Propylene
Carbonate with Methyl Triphenyl Phosphonium Iodide Catalyst
This synthesis routes involves multiple reaction steps. Propylene oxide is first reacted with
carbon dioxide to produce propylene carbonate. Then, propylene carbonate is further
hydrolyzed to the desired products, propylene glycol and carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Organic phosphonium halide such as methyl triphenyl phosphonium iodide is used as the
catalyst for both of the reactions (Van et al., 2004).
CH3P(C6H5)3I
C3 H6 O (l) + CO2 (v) → C4 H6 O3 (l) (Carbonation)
Propylene oxide Propylene carbonate
CH3P(C6H5)3I
C4 H6 O3 (l) + H2 O (l) → C3 H8 O2 (l) + CO2 (v) (Hydrolysis)
Propylene carbonate Monopropylene glycol
For propylene carbonate production, reactions occur at temperature from 50 ℃ and 200 ℃
with the pressure in the range of 10 bar to 30 bar. The carbon dioxide needs to be stored in
supercritical condition. The concentration of methyl triphenyl phosphonium iodide is about 0.5
to 20 wt % preferably 1 to 5 wt %. The molar ratio of propylene oxide and propylene carbonate
is from 0.01:1 to 1.1. The unreacted raw material is stripped off. For the hydrolysis process to
produce propylene glycol, 1 to 5 moles of water are added to react with each mole of propylene
carbonate. Monopropylene glycol selectivity exceeds 99%. This reaction is carried out under
temperature 150 ℃ with pressure 30 bar with the same catalyst as previous reaction which is
considered as a high-risk reaction as it required higher operating pressure. This reaction
presented monopropylene glycol with 96% yield and carbon dioxide as the products and did
not give substantial number of byproducts. Propylene glycol formed is undergone conventional
distillation for increasing purity from carbon dioxide whereas catalyst is recirculated to
carbonation reaction (Van et al., 2004).
This reaction will tend to produce high emission of carbon dioxide as byproduct and catalyst
involved in this reaction has the tendency to remain in the water or soil if spilled and discarded
before being degraded.
63
Figure 1.29: Block Flow Diagram of Production Propylene Glycol from Carbonation
followed by Hydrolysis of Propylene Carbonate.
1.9 Project Objective

This project design is to produce monopropylene glycol from propylene oxide. Thus, the
objectives of this production plant are:
1. To produce 150,000 metric tons per annum of monopropylene glycol by reacting

propylene oxide and water with the molar ratio of 1:11.8 with the present of Lewatit
MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – as the solid catalyst.
2. To meet the increasing global demand of propylene glycol in the year of 2022.
3. To produce product with the technologies which as environmental-friendly and low
energy consumption.
4. To contribute to the economic growth of the country.
64
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS ROUTES
2.1 Level 1: Process Selection

The main objective of this section is to analyze the current economic and technical status of
the available synthesis routes for monopropylene glycol. There are several ways to produce the
desired product. The best synthesis route mostly will be chosen according to the economic
potential of the method. The aspects that are chosen for comparison of synthesis routes
involved reaction, raw material, operating condition, catalyst, safety and environmental issues,
unit operations, advantages and disadvantages of every processes.
2.1.1 Economic Potential 1 (Profit Margin)

A simple economic bound for the commercial process routes was done to aid in choosing the
best and profitable to produce the selected product. Four of the routes mentioned in Section
1.7 for hydrolysis of propylene oxide is having the same economic potential due to same
reaction is chosen with different operating conditions and present of catalyst used. The fourth
synthesis route is having different reaction. Thus, these two different chemicals reaction in
producing propylene glycol will be compared in terms of profitability. The maximum potential
profits are calculated based on the following equation:
Economic Potential 1 (EP1) = Revenue − Raw Material Cost
Assumption: 100% conversion of reaction
65
2.1.1.1 Hydrolysis of Propylene Oxide (Synthesis Routes 1 to 3)
Assumption: Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
The unit price of the chemicals used in three of the synthesis routes as shown as below:
Table 2.1: Price of Raw Materials and Products for Hydrolysis Routes.
Molecular
Raw Materials Price Sources of
Price Weight
and Product (RM/kmol) Prices
(kg/kmol)
(Alfa Aesar ,
Propylene oxide RM 4.26/kg 58 247.08
2018)
Water (selected
0 – 227 m3 = RM0.92/m3 (Water
plant location: 18 0.02
Over 227 m3 = RM0.84/m3 Tariff, 2018)
Gebeng, Pahang)
Monopropylene
RM 6.44/kg 76 489.44 (ICIS, 2018)
glycol
Chemical equation that involved:
C3 H6 O (l) + H2 O(l) → C3 H8 O2 (l)
To yield 150,000 metric tons per year of propylene glycol, 1,973,684.211 kmol propylene
Profit margin of 1kmol of Propylene glycol
RM242.34
= RM489.44 − RM247.08 − RM0.02 =
kmol C3 H8 O2
489.44 − (247.08 + 0.02)

Profit Margin = × 100 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟕%
247.08 + 0.02
RM242.34 1,973,684.211 kmol C3 H8 O2

EP1 = × = 𝐑𝐌𝟒𝟕𝟖. 𝟑𝟎 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
kmol C3 H8 O2 year
66
2.1.1.2 Catalytic Carbonation of Propylene Oxide followed by Hydrolysis of Propylene
Carbonate (Synthesis Route 4)
In this route, carbon credit is considered as carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials for the
production. This concept is very beneficial and easy to understand. This concept was brought
to help to reduce carbon dioxide, the biggest contributor to greenhouse gases leading to global
warming (Help Save Nature, 2018). The price for carbon credit for the use of carbon dioxide
is $ 13.86/ton which is equivalent to RM 0.61/kmol (Kinhal, 2018).
Table 2.2: Price of Raw Material and Products for Carbonation followed by Hydrolysis
Route.
Molecular
Raw Materials and Price Sources of
Price Weight
Product (RM/kmol) Prices
(kg/kmol)
(Alfa Aesar ,
Propylene oxide RM 4.26/kg 58 247.08
2018)
(Montel,
Carbon dioxide RM 0.67/kg 44 29.35
2018)
Water (selected 0 – 227 m3 = RM0.92/m3
(Water Tariff,
plant location: Over 227 m3 = 18 0.02
2018)
Gebeng, Pahang) RM0.84/m3
Monopropylene
RM 6.44/kg 76 489.44 (ICIS, 2018)
glycol
Chemical equation that involved:
C3 H6 O (l) + CO2 (v) → C4 H6 O3 (l)
C4 H6 O3 (l) + H2 O (l) → C3 H8 O2 (l) + CO2 (v)
Based on the stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of propylene oxide reacts with 1 kmol of carbon
dioxide to produce 1 kmol of propylene carbonate and it will react with 1kmol of water to
produce 1 kmol of propylene glycol.
To yield 150,000 metric tons per year of propylene glycol, 1,973,684.211 kmol propylene
Profit margin of 1kmol of Propylene glycol (with carbon credit)
RM212.30
= RM489.44 − RM247.08 − RM1.32 − RM29.35 + RM0.61 =
kmol C3 H8 O2
67
489.44 + 0.61 − (247.08 + 1.32 + 29.35)
Profit Margin = × 100 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟒%
247.08 + 1.32 + 29.35
RM212.30 1,973,684.211 kmol C3 H8 O2

EP1 = × = 𝐑𝐌𝟒𝟏𝟗. 𝟎𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
kmol C3 H8 O2 year
From the calculated result, hydrolysis of propylene oxide routes is having RM 478.30
million/year profit margin while carbonation followed by hydrolysis of propylene carbonate
route is RM 419.01 million/year with carbon credit. So, it is preferable to choose hydrolysis of
propylene oxide routes for propylene glycol production.
68
2.1.2 Screening of Synthesis Routes
In this section, there are four different synthesis routes being compared in the Table 2.3 and the best route are selected.
Table 2.3: Comparison of Synthesis Routes for Propylene Glycol Production.
Catalytic hydrolysis of propylene oxide Catalytic Carbonation of

Non-catalytic Propylene Oxide followed
Aspect hydrolysis of propylene Lewatit MonoPlus by Hydrolysis of
Sulphuric acid catalyst
oxide M500/HCO3 – catalyst Propylene
Carbonate
Single step reaction Single step reaction Single step reaction Multiple step reaction
Reaction step
5 5 5 1
90 97 95 96
Yield, %
1 5 3 3
Operating 190 210 110 150
temperature, ℃ 3 3 5 3
Operating pressure, 18.25 21.70 9.00 30
bar 1 1 5 1
Propylene oxide, water &
Propylene oxide, water Propylene oxide, water Propylene oxide, water
Raw materials carbon dioxide
3 3 3 1
PO: H2O = 1:15 PO: H2O = 1:25 PO: H2O = 1:11.8 PO: CO2: H2O= 1:2:2
Molar ratio of feed
3 1 3 5
98.07 98.07 98.07 97.02
Profit margin, %
3 3 3 1
Lewatit MonoPlus Methyl triphenyl
- Sulphuric acid
Catalyst used M500/HCO3 – phosphonium iodide
5 3 3 3
69
Carbonate
- High risk as higher
- High risk as higher - High risk as higher - Less risk as lower operating temperature
operating temperature operating temperature and operating temperature and pressure required.
Safety issue
and pressure required. pressure required. and pressure required. - CO2 under supercritical
condition.
3 3 5 1
- Escaping dust of - Produced high emissions
- May cause high
- Catalyst will tend to remain catalyst regeneration. of CO2.
emission of
in water, bind with soil and - Catalyst will tend to - Catalyst will tend to
greenhouse gas due to
sediment if spilled or remain in water, bind remain in water, bind
Environmental issue high energy
discarded before being with soil and sediment with soil and sediment if
consumption.
degrade. if spilled or discarded spilled or discarded
before being degrade. before being degrade.
5 5 3 3
Established but not
Well established. Well established. Well established.
Technology common.
5 5 5 3
- Cost of propylene - Cost of propylene oxide is - Cost of propylene - Cost of propylene oxide
oxide is high as large higher. oxide is higher. is higher.
Economic
amount is needed. - Cost of catalyst is needed. - Cost of catalyst is - Cost of catalyst is
consideration
needed. needed.
3 1 1 1
1 reactor, 2 multiple effect 1 mixer, 1 reactor, 1 flash
1 reactor, 1 flash column 2 reactors, 1 stripper & 1
evaporator, 1 drying tower & 1 column, 2 distillation
Units of operation & 3 distillation columns. flash column.
vacuum distillation column. columns.
3 3 3 5
70
Carbonate
- Higher selectivity and
- Higher yield.
- Save cost as no purity of products.
- Higher yield. - Relatively less by-
Advantages catalyst required. - Easy to be removed
product produced.
from the reaction.
3 3 5 5
- Higher cost of catalyst - High complexity of
- Higher energy
as ion exchange resins reaction to obtain desired
consumption. - Corrosive as homogeneous
need to work with product.
Disadvantages - Lower yield due to catalyst is used.
solvent (HCO3 -). - Required two reactors
absent of catalyst.
for production.
1 3 3 1
(Andres et al., 2017),
References (Patel, 2018) (Aakyalcin, 2017) (Van et al., 2004)
(Patel, 2018)
TOTAL 47 47 55 37
Ranking: 1 – Poor, 3 – Moderate, 5 – Excellent
71
2.1.3 Decision of Synthesis Routes Selection
As a conclusion, it is the most preferable to use catalytic hydrolysis of propylene oxide with
low temperature and pressure route as production method of propylene glycol according to
Table 2.3. It is the most beneficial due to the higher yield and selectivity of desired product
with the present of heterogeneous catalyst, which is Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 –, lower
risk due to operating parameters and cost saving in terms of energy consumption. There are
two side products that will be produced from this reaction which are dipropylene glycol and
tripropylene glycol. The reaction processes are shown in the following equations:
1. C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2
Propylene oxide + Water → Monopropylene Glycol
2. C3 H8 O2 + C3 H6 O → C6 H14 O3
Monopropylene Glycol + Propylene Oxide → Dipropylene Glycol
3. C6 H14 O3 + C3 H6 O → C9 H20 O4
Dipropylene Glycol + Propylene Oxide → Tripropylene Glycol
The conditions of hydrolysis of propylene oxide process.
• Catalyst: Lewatit MonoPlus M500/ HCO3 -
• Operating conditions: T = 110 ℃ and 9 bar
• Molar feed ratio of propylene oxide and water: 1:11.8
• Conversion of propylene oxide = 90%
• Product distribution (%wt) for mono-, di- and tripropylene glycol = 91:8:1
2.1.4 Decision on Process Mode

Batch and continuous are the available modes for process reactors. A small-scale operation for
researching and testing new processes that have not been fully developed is considered as batch
reactor. However, continuous flow reactors always operate in steady state. The selection of
process mode is based on few criteria as shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Process Decision on Batch and Continuous Mode (Sinnott, 2005).
Description Batch Continuous Process Condition

Production Rate Less than 500 MTA More than 5,000 MTA 100,000 MTA
Product Types Multiple products Single product Single product
Fouling Severe fouling No severe fouling No severe fouling
Catalyst Short lifespan Long lifespan Long lifespan
Market Uncertain design Established market Established market
72
Based on the rules provided, it is decided to select continuous process mode for monopropylene
glycol production.
2.2 Level 2: Input & Output Structure Block Diagram

2.2.1 Raw Material Selection and Impurities Management
The raw materials used in the production of propylene glycol using hydrolysis of propylene
oxide is propylene oxide and water. Generally, industrial grade of purity for each raw material
is estimated to follow the global production standards. Propylene oxide is produced at
minimum purity of 99% (BASF, 2018) and pure water at 99.99% from Jabatan Bekalan Air
(Pahang). The purity and price of raw materials are listed in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Purity and Price of Raw Materials.
Components Purity (%) Source Price (RM)

Purity 99 with
Propylene oxide, Huntsman (Singapore) Pte
impurities less than 4.26/kg
C3H6O Ltd
1%.
Jabatan Bekalan Air,
Water, H2O 99.99 0.84/m3
Pahang
2.2.2 Output Materials Destination Decision

Table 2.6: Destination Code for Propylene Glycol Production.
Components Boiling Point (℃) Destination Code

Propylene oxide, C3H6O 34 Recycle to R-101
Water, H2O 100 Recycle to R-101
Monopropylene Glycol, C3H8O2 188.2 Main product
Dipropylene Glycol, C6H14O3 230.5 Side product
Tripropylene Glycol, C9H20O4 271 Side Product
The target for plant design production is 150,000 metric tonnes per annum of propylene glycol
which is equivalent to 18.75 metric tonnes per hour or 246.7105 kmol/hr propylene glycol
production by assuming 8,000 working hours per year.
73
2.2.3 Production of Propylene Glycol Block Flow Diagram
Figure 2.1: Block Flow Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Process.
74
2.2.4 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Process
This section will describe the block flow diagram of hydrolysis reactor system, mole balance
in terms of extent of reaction, degree-of-freedom analysis, stoichiometry, yield analysis,
economic potential 2 and material balance in Level 2.
2.2.4.1 Block Flow Diagram for Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis

Figure 2.2 indicates the block flow diagram for hydrolysis of propylene oxide process where
propylene oxide and water are feed to the reactor with the present of Lewatit MonoPlus
M500/HCO3 – and produce monopropylene glycol as main product, dipropylene glycol and
tripropylene glycol as side products. The outlet stream also consists of unreacted propylene
oxide and water together with the main and side products produced from the reaction.
The type of reactor selected is continuous-stirred tank reactor with fluidized bed to improve
controllability and mixing. It is much easier to adjust optimal temperature and concentration
profile. Besides, it is also easier to construct, versatile and cheap reactor which allows simple
catalyst charging and replacement (Chaplin, 2014). This is a highly exothermic reaction (-
6718.4065 kW) and to avoid certain part of PBR overheating such as formation of hot spot,
thus CSTR is chosen. Furthermore, CSTR not required mixer to mix both raw materials
(propylene oxide and water) before entering to the reactor while PBR required this kind of
facility. Thus, capital cost for mixer construction is not required.
Figure 2.2: Block Flow Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor.
2.2.4.2 Mole Balance in Term of Extent of Reaction

Extent of reaction method is used to analyze the mole balance in this project. The symbol ξ is
used to denote the extent of reaction. The mole balances of all chemical species are generally
computed using the correlations as follow:
𝐧̇ 𝐈,𝐨 = 𝐧̇ 𝐈,𝐢 + 𝐯𝐈,𝐣 𝛏𝐣
75
1. C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2 … ξ1
Propylene oxide + Water → Monopropylene Glycol … ξ1
2. C3 H8 O2 + C3 H6 O → C6 H14 O3 … ξ2
Monopropylene Glycol + Propylene Oxide → Dipropylene Glycol … ξ2
3. C6 H14 O3 + C3 H6 O → C9 H20 O4 … ξ3
Dipropylene Glycol + Propylene Oxide → Tripropylene Glycol … ξ3
Where ṅI,o stands for output molar flow rate for species I, ṅI,i stands for input molar flow rate
for species I, vI,j stands for stoichiometric coefficient of species I for reaction j, and ξj stands
for extent of reaction for reaction j. A summary of flow rate through R-101 is as followed:
Table 2.7: Mole Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis.
Species Inlet Change Outlet

C3H6O FC3 H6O,i −ξ1 − ξ2 − ξ3 FC3 H6O,o = FC3 H6 O,i − ξ1 − ξ2 − ξ3
H2 O FH2 O,i −ξ1 FH2 O,o = FH2 O,i − ξ1
C3H8O2 - +ξ1 − ξ2 FC3 H8O2 ,o = ξ1 − ξ2
C6H14O3 - +ξ2 − ξ3 FC6 H14 O3,o = ξ2 − ξ3
C9H20O4 - +ξ3 FC9 H20 O4,o = ξ3
Where FI,i denotes the inlet molar flow rate of species I while FI,o denotes the outlet molar flow
rate of species I.
2.2.4.3 Degree-of-Freedom Analysis

There are 7 unknows for the hydrolysis of propylene oxide which are FC3H6 O,i , FH2 O,i, FC3H6 O,o ,
FH2 O,o , FC3 H8 O2,o , FC6H14O3 ,o and FC9 H20O4 ,o.The degree of freedom analysis which is based on
the extent of reaction was analyzed to determine the information that required for solving mole
balance.
No. of unknown labeled variables 7
(FC3 H6 O,i, FH2 O,i, FC3 H6 O,o, FH2 O,o, FC3 H8O2 ,o , FC6 H14 O3,o and FC9H20 O4 ,o )
No. of independent reaction +3
No. of independent reactive species -5
Additional information:
Molar ratio of C3H6O: H2O feed -1
Production rate of C3H8O2 -1
Stoichiometric relations between C3H8O and H2O -1
No. of degree-of-freedom 2
76
Based on the calculation above, the number of degree-of-freedom is 2. The additional
information that required to solve the material balance of this reaction is overall conversion of
propylene oxide and product selectivity by using Polymath to achieve the desired production
capacity of monopropylene glycol which is 150,000 MTA.
77
2.2.4.4 Stoichiometry
In propylene oxide hydrolysis process:
1. C3 H6 O(l) + H2 O(l) → C3 H8 O2 (l) ------------------ Equation 2.1

2. C3 H8 O2 (l) + C3 H6 O(l) → C6 H14 O3 (l) ------------ Equation 2.2
3. C6 H14 O3 (l) + C3 H6 O(l) → C9 H20 O4 (l) ----------- Equation 2.3
The limiting reactant for this process is propylene oxide. Stoichiometry for propylene oxide hydrolysis process is shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Stoichiometry Table for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Process.
Species Symbol Initial Change Remaining

FPO,i FPO,i (X1 + X1 X2 + X1 X2 X3 )
FPO,i FPO,i (X1 + X1 X2 + X1 X2 X3 ) CPO,o = −
vi vi
C3 H6 O PO CPO,i = −
vi vi CPO,o = CPO,i [1 − (X1 + X1 X2 + X1 X2 X3 )]
ϴH2 O FPO,i FPO,i X1

ϴH2 O FPO,i FPO,i X1 CH2 O,o = −
vi vi
H2 O H2O CH2 O,i = −
vi vi CH2 O,o = CPO,i (ϴH2 O − X1 ) = CPO,i (11.8 − X1 )
FPO,i X1 (1 − X2 ) FPO,i X1 (1 − X2 )
C3 H8 O2 MPG CMPG,i = 0 CMPG,o = = CPO,i X1 (1 − X2 )
vi vi
FPO,i X1 X2 (1 − X 3 ) FPO,i X1 X2 (1 − X3 )
C6 H14 O3 DPG CDPG,i = 0 CDPG,o = = CPO,i X1 X2 (1 − X3 )
vi vi
FPO,i X1 X2 X3 FPO,i X1 X2 X3
C9 H20 O4 TPG CTPG,i = 0 CTPG,o = =CPO,i X1 X2 X3
vi vi
v = vo as the reaction is in liquid phase. C denotes concentration, F denotes molar flow rate, X denotes conversion and v denotes volumetric flow
rate.
78
2.2.4.5 Yield Parameters
The complex reaction in hydrolysis reactor consists of series and parallel reactions as shown
in the Figure 2.3. Propylene oxide as raw material reacts with water to produce monopropylene
glycol; followed by monopropylene glycol reacts with propylene oxide to produce dipropylene
glycol; and the last step is reaction between dipropylene glycol and propylene oxide to produce
tripropylene glycol.
Tripropylene
X3 glycol
Dipropylene
X2 glycol
1 − X2
Unreacted
Monopropylene diropylene glycol
X1 glycol
1 − X2 Unreacted
Propylene oxide monoropylene glycol
1 − X1 Unreacted
propylene oxide
Figure 2.3: Conversion Network of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis.
Remaining propylene oxide is calculated as below:
Reacted propylene oxide in Equation 2.1, FPO,reacted = −FPO,i X1
Reacted propylene oxide in Equation 2.2, FPO,reacted = −FPO,i X1 X2
Reacted propylene oxide in Equation 2.3, FPO,reacted = −FPO,i X1 𝑋2 𝑋3
Remaining propylene oxide, FPO,o = FPO,i − FPO,i X1 − FPO,i X1 X2 − FPO,i X1 𝑋2 𝑋3
= FPO,i [1 − (X1 + X1 X2 + X1 X2 X3 )]
Remaining water is calculated as below:
Reacted water in Equation 2.1, FH2 O,reacted = −FPO,i X1
Remaining water, FH2 O,o = θH2 O FPO,i − FPO,i X1 = FPO,i (11.8 − X1 )
Remaining monopropylene glycol is calculated as below:
Monopropylene glycol produced in Equation 2.1, FMPG,produced = FPO,i X1
79
Reacted monopropylene glycol in Equation 2.2, FMPG,reacted = −FPO,i X1 X2
Remaining monopropylene glycol, FMPG,o = FPO,i X1 − FPO,i X1 X2 = FPO,i X1 (1 − X2 )
Remaining dipropylene glycol is calculated as below:
Dipropylene glycol produced in Equation 2.2, FDPG,produced = FPO,i X1 X2
Reacted dipropylene glycol in Equation 2.3, FDPG,reacted = −FPO,i X1 X2 X3
Remaining dipropylene glycol, FMPG,o = FPO,i X1 X2 − FPO,i X1 X2 X3 = CPO,i X1 X 2 (1 − X3 )
Remaining dipropylene glycol is calculated as below:
Dipropylene glycol produced in Equation 2.3, FTPG,produced = FTPG,o = FPO,i X1 X2 𝑋3
Net Rates
Reaction kinetics for the catalytic hydrolysis reactor are shown as below:
′ rPO
rPO = −k1 CPO CH − k2 CPO CMPG − k3 CPO CDPG , rPO =
2O ρC
′ rH2 O rH2 O
rH2 O = −k1 CPO CH , rH 2O
= , rH′ 2 O =
2O ρC ρC
′ rMPG
rMPG = k1 CPO CH − k2 CPO CMPG , rMPG =
2O ρC
′ rDPG
rDPG = k2 CPO CMPG − k3 CPO CDPG , rDPG = ρC
′ rTPG
rTPG = k3 CPO CDPG , rTPG = ρC
g
The density of catalyst, ρC = 1080 L (Lewatit, 2018)
The reaction constant, k:
8705
k1 = exp (15.72 − )
T
10777
k 2 = exp (20.53 − )
T
19086
k 3 = exp (43.45 − ) (Aakyalcin, 2017)
T
L
**The unit of reaction constant, k is mol⸳min and operating temperature, T is K.
80
Stoichiometry
CPO,o = CPO,i (1 − X1 + X1 X2 + X1 X2 X3 )
CH2 O,o = CPO,i (11.3 − X1 )
CMPG,o = CPO,i X1 (1 − X2 )
CDPG,o = CPO,i X1 X2 (1 − X 3 )
CTPG,o = CPO,i X1 X2 X3
CSTR Mole Balance

FPO,i − FPO,o kmol
f(PO) = ′ , FPO,i = 5083.93
rPO h
FH2 O,i − FH2 O,o kmol
f(H2 O) = , F H O,i = 59990.375
rH′ 2 O 2
h
FMPG,i − FMPG,o kmol
f(MPG) = ′ , FMPG,i = 0
rMPG h
FDPG,i − FDPG,o kmol
f(DPG) = ′ , FDPG,i = 0
rDPG h
FTPG,i − FTPG,o kmol
f(TPG) = ′ , FTPG,i = 0
rTPG h
Assume isobaric condition, operating pressure, Po = P = 9 bar.
Assume isothermal condition, operating temperature, To = T = 110 ℃ = 388.15 K.
Conversion (X1, X2 and X3)

FH2 O − FH2 O,o
X1 = × 11.8
F H2 O
FPO,i X1 − FMPG,o
X2 =
FPO,i X1
FPO,i X1 X2 − FDPG,o
X3 =
FPO,i X1 X2
Overall Conversion (X)

X = X1 + X1 X 2 + X1 X 2 X 3
The equations above are solved by using differential equation in Polymath program as shown
in Appendix A.1.
Selectivity
r Rate of formation of desired product
SD/U = rD = Rate of formation of undesired product (Fogler, 2014)
U
81
k1 CPO CH
2O
SD/U =
k2 CPO CMPG + k3 CPO CDPG
Graph of Selectivity verus Overall Conversion

200
180
160
140
Selectivity, S
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.12 0.19 0.28 0.41 0.54 0.61 0.70 0.79 0.90 0.97
Overall Conversion, X
Figure 2.4: Graph of Selectivity versus Overall Conversion.
The selectivity decreasing as overall conversion increasing where this is due to when
conversion increasing, the desired product, monopropylene glycol production is higher and it
tends to react with propylene oxide to produce the side product, dipropylene glycol. With 90%
conversion, the production of side products is higher, and they will be supplied to customers
because there is a demand for di- and tripropylene glycol according to the market survey.
Yield (YMPG, YDPG and YTPG)

No.of moles of desired product formed
Yield = No.of moles of limiting reactant consumed (Fogler, 2014)
FMPG,o
YMPG =
FPO,i − FPO,o
FDPG,o
YDPG =
FPO,i − FPO,o
FTPG,o
YTPG =
FPO,i − FPO,o
By having all the equations, polymath is used to obtain the yield of the monopropylene glycol
(MPG) based on the overall conversion, X which considering X1, X2 and X3. The graphs of the
yield versus conversion is shown in Figure 2.5.
82
Graph of Yield versus Overall Conversion
1.2
0.8
Yield, Y
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Monopropylene Glycol Dipropylene Glycol Tripropylene Glycol
Figure 2.5: Graph of Yield Versus Overall Conversion.
2.2.5 Economic Potential 2

For the hydrolysis of propylene oxide process, amount of reactants feed into the reactor with
molar ratio propylene oxide to water is 1:11.8 at temperature of 110 ℃ and pressure of 9 bar
to convert into the main product, monopropylene glycol and side products dipropylene glycol
and tripropylene glycol. In this stage, all the products are all recovered (100% separation
efficiency for second level decision) in the separation process and product distribution of
mono-, di- and tripropylene glycol is 91 wt%, 8 wt% and 1 wt% respectively. The side products
which are dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol are valuable due to their applications.
Thus, they can be sold and supplied to the market to increase the cost of revenue. The economic
potential at the second level is
Economic Potential 2 (EP2) = Product Price + Side Products Price − Raw Material Cost
83
Table 2.9: Price List of Raw Materials and Products.
Raw Materials Price (RM/mol) References

Propylene oxide 0.25 (Alfa Aesar , 2018)
Water 0.00002 (Water Tariff, 2018)
Products Price (RM/mol) References
Monopropylene glycol 0.49 (ICIS, 2018)
(Hong Kong Jia Ying
Dipropylene glycol 0.30
International, 2018)
(Anhui Eapearl Chemical,
Tripropylene glycol 0.61
2018)
To determine the graph of economic potential 2 versus overall conversion, the desired molar
flow rates of the main and side products are constant which are monopropylene glycol
(246.7105 kmol/hr), dipropylene glycol (12.3011 kmol/hr) and tripropylene glycol (1.0731
kmol/hr).
Table 2.10: Economic Potential 2 with Different Overall Conversion.
Molar Flow
Cost of Molar Economic
Overall Rate of Cost of
Propylene Flow Rate Potential 2,
Conversion, Propylene Water (RM
Oxide (RM of Water EP2 (RM
X Oxide million/yr)
million/yr) (mol/yr) million/yr)
(mol/yr)
0.11 1.89×1010 4736.73 2.24×1011 4.47 (3,739.34)
0.21 9.39×109 2346.42 1.11×1011 2.22 (1346.77)
0.32 6.39×109 1598.29 7.54×1010 1.51 (597.94)
0.42 4.85×109 1211.55 5.72×1010 1.14 (210.83)
0.54 3.87×109 967.95 4.57×1010 0.91 33.00
0.60 3.48×109 870.76 4.11×1010 0.82 130.29
0.73 2.91×109 726.61 3.43×1010 0.69 274.57
0.81 2.64×109 660.39 3.12×1010 0.62 340.85
0.90 2.23×109 595.01 2.81×1010 0.56 406.29
1.00 2.18×109 565.44 2.57×1010 0.53 456.85
84
Graph of Economic Potential 2 versus Overall Conversion
1000.00
500.00
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
EP 2 (RM million/yr)
-500.00
-1000.00
-1500.00
-2000.00
-2500.00
-3000.00
-3500.00
-4000.00
Figure 2.6: Graph of Economic Potential 2 versus Overall Conversion.
Based on the Figure 2.6, when the conversion of propylene oxide getting higher, the values of
EP2 is increasing. Value of EP2 starts to become positive at the conversion of 50% and
continues increasing when conversion is increasing. The calculation of Economic Potential 2
is shown as below:
Economic Potential 2 (EP2) = 967.11 + 34.76 − 595.58 = 𝐑𝐌 𝟒𝟎𝟔. 𝟐𝟗 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐲𝐫
2.2.6 Level 2 Material Balance

Material balance in level 2 for the reactor are based in the reactive species. The conversion for
liquid phase hydrolysis reactor is 90% based on the Polymath program. The detail calculations
and summary of material balance for the reactor is shown in Appendix B.1 and Table 2.11.
Table 2.11: Summary of Material Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis in Level 2.
Species Inlet flow rate Inlet flow rate Outlet flow rate Outlet flow rate
(kmol/h) (MT/yr) (kmol/h) (MT/yr)
𝐂𝟑 𝐇 𝟔 𝐎 305.0358 141536.6146 30.5036 14153.6615
𝐇𝟐 𝐎 3599.4225 518316.8437 3339.3377 480864.6320
𝐂 𝟑 𝐇 𝟖 𝐎𝟐 0 0 246.7105 150000.0000
𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟒 𝐎𝟑 0 0 12.3011 13186.8132
𝐂𝟗 𝐇𝟐𝟎 𝐎𝟒 0 0 1.0731 1648.3516
Total 3904.4583 659853.4583 3629.9261 659853.4583
85
2.2.7 Safety Considerations
Safety and health aspects are discussed in this section for hydrolysis reactor and materials
involved in propylene glycol production according to the selected synthesis route.
2.2.7.1 Hydrolysis Reactor

Hydrolysis process is a double decomposition reaction with water as one of the reactants. This
process using the water to break down the molecule into two parts. In this case, water is used
to breakdown the propylene oxide into the mono-, di- and tri-propylene glycol with the
presence of catalyst which is Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3. The weight of catalyst used
inside this reactor is around 25,200 kg. One type of hydrolysis reactor which is suitable for
this reaction is CSTR reactor. This reactor is generally made from stainless steel to prevent
from the corrosion occur as well as to withstand the pressure. This hydrolysis reactor can be
carried out in 9 bars with the low operating temperature of 383.15 K. The conversion achieved
by this reactor is 90% (Aakyalcin, 2017).
2.2.7.2 Safety Information for Raw Materials

There are two raw materials that involves in this reaction which are propylene oxide and water.
Table below shows the safety data for each raw material which involves in the process.
Table 2.12: Safety Data of Raw Materials involved in the Process.
Propylene Oxide Description - Colorless volatile liquid

- Soluble in water and miscible with many
organic solvents
- Have ethereal and benzene-like odour
- Non-corrosive
Flammability - Highly flammable
- Easily ignited by heat, sparks or flames
- Vapor may form explosive mixtures with
air
- Will burns at temperature over 420 ˚C
- Lower explosive limit: 1.9 to 2.8% v/v
Upper explosive limit: 21.5 to 45% v/v
(Kezner, 2002)
86
Toxicity - Affects a skin and eye irritation from
animal studies.
- Direct acting mutagen (Kezner, 2002)
- Classified as Group B2 Probable Human
Carcinogen (U.S National Library of
Medicine, 2018)
- There is due to the sufficient evidence in
experimental animal for the
carcinogenicity of propylene oxide
however inadequate evidence in humans
Handling - Handled with special precautions to avoid
contamination.
- Wear rubber gloves, large and heavy face
shields (body shields are also
recommendable) & self-contained
breathing apparatus when handling
propylene oxide
- No acetylide forming metals such as
copper or copper alloy should be contact
with propylene oxide during handling
- Shipped only in securely sealed glass
bottle or ampoules in which the propylene
oxide is placed inside strong screw cap or
snap top container that will not open
when dropped and will resist attack from
the carcinogen. Both bottle and the
outside container should be appropriately
labelled.
Storage - Stored in glass or metal containers sealed
with nitrogen
- Should kept in only one section of
cupboard, an explosion proof refrigerator
or freezer due to its carcinogenic material.
87
Water Description - Tasteless and odourless liquid.
- Nearly colourless apart from an inherent
of blue
- Poorly soluble in halo alkanes, aliphatic,
aromatics hydrocarbon.
- Improved solubility in carboxylates,
alcohols, ketones and amines.
- Miscible with mostly alcohol
- Partially miscible with diethyl ether,
methyl ether, ketone and bromine
- Can exist in three states of matter; solid,
liquid and gas
Flammability - Inflammable
Toxicity - Not toxic
2.2.7.3 Safety Information for Products

Chemicals product that involves in this reaction are Monopropylene glycol, Dipropylene glycol
and Tripropylene glycol. Table below shows the safety data for each product which involves
in the process.
Table 2.13: Safety Data of Products involved in the Process.
Monopropylene Description - Colourless, vicious and odourless liquid.

glycol - Highly hygroscopic and miscible in all
ratios with water, alcohol, ester, ketones
and amines.
- Has limited miscibility with halogenated
hydrocarbons and is not miscible with
aliphatic hydrocarbons.
- Will burn at temperatures over 200 to
244 °F / 90 to 120 °C.
Toxicity - Low acute toxicity by oral, dermal or
inhalation routes.
88
- It is non-irritating to skin and eyes from
animal studies.
Handling - Handled with special precautions to avoid
contamination.
- Shipped only in resin lined tank cars
and/or stainless-steel tank wagons.
Storage - Stored and moved in stainless steel or
mild steel tanks and can be transported by
tank trucks.
- Not classified as dangerous for any mode
of transport and is not hazardous to
health.
Dipropylene glycol Description - Colourless, viscous and odourless liquid.
- Highly hygroscopic and miscible in all
ratios with water and most organic
solvents.
- Will burn at temperatures over 224 °C.
inhalation routes.
- It is non-irritating to skin and eyes and
there is no evidence of allergic skin
reactions.
Handling - Avoid direct physical contact.
- Use appropriate, approved safety
equipment. Handling should occur in a
chemical fume hood.
Storage - Keep in a cool, dry, dark location in a
tightly sealed container or cylinder.
- Stored and distributed in stainless steel,
aluminum or lined tank cars, tank trucks,
or drums.
89
Tripropylene glycol Description - Colorless and odorless liquid at room
temperature.
- It is hygroscopic, completely soluble in
water and miscible with many organic
solvents.
- Lower flammable limit = N/A
- Upper flammable limit = N/A
inhalation routes.
- It is non-irritating to skin and eyes and
there is no evidence of allergic skin
reactions.
Handling - Must be handled with special precautions
to avoid contamination.
- Under ordinary conditions, mild steel is a
satisfactory material of construction.
Storage - Keep container dry. Keep in a cool place.
- Keep container tightly closed. Keep in a
cool, well-ventilated place.
90
2.3 Level 3: Recycle Structure
At third level, the reactive unit involved in hydrolysis of propylene oxide is shown in Figure
2.7. The feed molar ratio of propylene oxide with water is 1 to 11.8 to ensure the complete
reaction in the reactor, R-101. The conversion of this reaction is 90%, thus unconverted
propylene oxide and large volume of water are separated out from the products by flash column
and recycled back to the mixer to enhance overall conversion and cost saving purpose. The
made-up streams designed to add insufficient reactants into the mixer to achieve the desired
capacity of products. In separation and purification system, the main product (monopropylene
glycol) and side products (di- and tripropylene glycol) are separated out and purified using
distillation column. The side products will be sold because they are having demand and values
in market. The red dash lines shown in the block flow diagram is for mixer, reactor, separation
and purification systems.
Figure 2.7: Level 3 Block Flow Diagram of Hydrolysis Process.
2.3.1 Degree-of-Freedom
This section will discuss about the degree-of-freedom for overall system, mixer, liquid phase
hydrolysis reactor system, separation and purification system that involved in this production.
2.3.1.1 Overall System
Figure 2.8: Input and Output Block Diagram of Overall System.
91
(FPO,i, FH2 O,i, FMPG,o , FDPG,o and FTPG,o)
No. of component balances -5
2.3.1.2 Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor
Figure 2.9: Input and Output Block Diagram of Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor System.
The overall conversion of propylene oxide and products selectivity are determined by Polymath
results in Level 2 decision.
(FPO,i, FH2 O,i, FPO , FH2 O , FMPG , FDPG and FTPG )
No. of independent reaction +3
No. of independent reactive species -5
Additional information:
Molar ratio of PO: H2O feed -1
Production rate of MPG -1
Stoichiometric relations between PO and H2O -1
Conversion of PO (Polymath) -1
Products selectivity (Polymath) -1
92
2.3.1.3 Separation and Purification System
Figure 2.10: Input and Output Block Diagram of Separation and Purification System.
At this level, all the separation and purification processes are assumed 100% separation
efficiency.
No. of unknown labeled variables (FPO , FH2 O , FMPG , FDPG and FTPG ) 5
No. of component balances (100% separation efficiency) -5
2.3.2 Level 3 Material Balance in Hydrolysis Process

From Polymath results, the material balances of the variables in the reactor can be determined.
The overall conversion of propylene oxide is 90%. The detail calculations and summary of
material balance for the hydrolysis of propylene oxide process for 150,000 MTA production
of monopropylene glycol is shown in Appendix B.2, Table 2.14 and Table 2.15 respectively.
Table 2.14: Summary of Material Balance of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor System.
Inlet flow Outlet flow Recycle

Inlet flow Outlet flow Recycle flow
Species rate rate flow rate
rate (MT/yr) rate (MT/yr) rate (MT/yr)
(kmol/h) (kmol/h) (kmol/h)
𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟔 𝐎 274.5322 127382.9531 30.5036 14153.6615 30.5036 14153.6615
𝐇𝟐 𝐎 260.0848 37452.2117 3339.3377 480864.6320 3339.3377 480864.6320
𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟖 𝐎𝟐 0 0 246.7105 150000.0000 0 0
𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟒 𝐎𝟑 0 0 12.3011 13186.8132 0 0
𝐂𝟗 𝐇𝟐𝟎 𝐎𝟒 0 0 1.0731 1648.3516 0 0
Total 534.6170 164835.1648 3629.9261 659853.4583 3369.8413 495018.2935
93
Table 2.15: Summary of Material Balance of Separation and Purification System.
Outlet
Inlet flow Inlet flow Recycle Recycle
flow Outlet flow
Species rate rate flow rate flow rate
rate rate (MT/yr)
(kmol/h) (MT/yr) (kmol/h) (MT/yr)
(kmol/h)
𝐂𝟑 𝐇 𝟔 𝐎 30.5036 14153.6615 30.5036 14153.6615 0 0
𝐇𝟐 𝐎 3339.3377 480864.6320 3339.3377 480864.6320 0 0
𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟖 𝐎𝟐 246.7105 150000.0000 0 0 246.7105 150000.0000
𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟒 𝐎𝟑 12.3011 13186.8132 0 0 12.3011 13186.8132
𝐂𝟗 𝐇𝟐𝟎 𝐎𝟒 1.0731 1648.3516 0 0 1.0731 1648.3516
Total 3629.9261 659853.4583 3369.8413 495018.2934 260.0847 164835.1648
2.3.3 Reaction Kinetic

The overall reaction for hydrolysis of propylene oxide is shown in the equation below. The
operating temperature and pressure of this reaction is 110 ℃ and 9 bar to produce main product,
monopropylene glycol, and side products, di- and tripropylene glycol.
r1 : C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2
r2 : C3 H8 O2 + C3 H6 O → C6 H14 O3
r3 : C6 H14 O3 + C3 H6 O → C9 H20 O4
Reaction kinetics for the catalytic hydrolysis reactor are shown as below:
′ rPO
rPO = −r1 − r2 − r3 = −k1 CPO CH − k2 CPO CMPG − k3 CPO CDPG , rPO =
2O ρC
′ rH2 O rH2 O
rH2 O = −r1 = −k1 CPO CH , rH 2O
= , rH′ 2 O =
2O ρC ρC
′ rMPG
rMPG = r1 − r2 = k1 CPO CH − k2 CPO CMPG , rMPG =
2O ρC
′ rDPG
rDPG = r2 − r3 = k2 CPO CMPG − k3 CPO CDPG , rDPG = ρC
′ rTPG
rTPG = r3 = k3 CPO CDPG , rTPG = ρC
g
The density of catalyst, ρC = 1080 L (Lewatit, 2018)
The reaction constant, k (Aakyalcin, 2017):

8705
k1 = exp (15.72 − )
T
10777
k 2 = exp (20.53 − )
T
19086
k 3 = exp (43.45 − )
T
L
**The unit of reaction constant, k is mol⸳min and operating temperature, T is K.
94
2.3.4 Hydrolysis Reactor Design
The weight of catalyst that required for the reaction can be obtained from the area of Figure
2.11 as the continuous stirred-rate reactor is chosen to be used in this production. The weight
of catalyst can be obtained from the Polymath program where with 90% overall conversion of
propylene oxide, the weight of catalyst required is 25200 kg.
Levenspiel Plot
40000000
35000000
30000000
FPOo/-r'PO
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion of PO, X
Figure 2.11: Levenspiel Plot for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor.
2.3.5 Design of Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor

From the polymath results, the weight of catalyst required for 90% overall conversion is 29,910
kg. The catalyst used is Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – with the bulk density of the catalyst,
kg
ρb = 690 m3 (Lewatit, 2018).
Weight of catalyst, W = Volume of reactor, V × Bulk density, ρb (Fogler, 2014)

w 25200 kg
V= = = 36.5217m3
ρb kg
690 3
m
The preferable ratio of height to diameter of CSTR reactor is 3 to 1 (Geoffrey, 2007).
π
V = D2 H = 36.5217m3
4
H = 3D
Thus, diameter of reactor is 2.4933 m and height of reactor is 7.48 m.
95
2.3.6 Heat Effects
The heat capacities constant and heat of formation of each species that involved in the
hydrolysis process are shown in Table 2.16 and Table 2.17 respectively. The formula to
calculate heat capacity is shown as below:
J
Cp [ ] = a + bT + cT 2 + dT 3 + eT 4
kmol⸳K
Table 2.16: Heat Capacities Constant of Each Species in Liquid.

𝐉
Heat capacities constant (𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥⸳𝐊)
Species Formula References
a b c d e
Propylene (Studylib,
C3H6O 113080 -150.85 0.67 - -
oxide (l) 2018)
9.3701 × (Perry,
Water (l) H2O 276370 -2090.1 8.125 -0.014116
10-6 1997)
Monopropylene (Perry,
C3H8O2 58080 445.2 - - -
glycol (l) 1997)
(Shell
Dipropylene
C6H14O3 282702.511 - - - - Chemicals,
glycol (l)
2018)
Tripropylene (Chemeo,
C9H20O4 440600 - - - -
glycol (l) 2018)
Table 2.17: Heat of Formation for Each Species (ASPEN, 2018).
𝐨 𝐤𝐉
Species Formula ∆𝐇𝐟𝟐𝟗𝟖 ( )
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
Propylene oxide (l) C3H6O -93700
Water (l) H2O -241818
Monopropylene glycol (l) C3H8O2 -421500
Dipropylene glycol (l) C6H14O3 -628000
Tripropylene glycol (l) C9H20O4 -829700
96
Figure 2.12: Mole Balance and Condition for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor.
The hypothetical path for production of monopropylene glycol in liquid phase hydrolysis
reactor from inlet temperature of 383.15 K and 9 bar to room temperature, 298 K and to outlet
temperature of 383.15 K and 9 bar.
C3H6O (l)
C3H6O (l) H2O (l)
H2O (l) ∆H C3H8O2 (l)
T=383.15K C6H14O3 (l)
C9H20O4 (l)
T=383.15K
∆HR ∆HP
C3H6O (l)
C3H6O (l) H2O (l)
H2O (l) C3H8O2 (l)
T=298.15K C6H14O3 (l)
C9H20O4 (l)
o
∆Hf298 T=298.15K
Figure 2.13: Hypothetical Path for Liquid Phase Hydrolysis.
298.15K
∆HR = ṅ ∫383.15K CpC3 H6 O + CpH2O dT
298.15K
∆HR = 305.0358 ∫383.15K 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
298.15K
+3599.4225 ∫383.15K 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.01412T 3 dT
J kJ
= −26736055370 = −26736055.37
h h
97
383.15K
∆HP = ṅ ∫298.15K CpC3 H6 O + CpH2O + CpC3 H8 O2 + CpC6 H14 O3 + CpC9 H20 O4 dT
383.15K
∆HP = 30.5036 ∫298.15K 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
383.15K
+3339.338 ∫298.15K 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.01412T 3 dT
383.15K 358K
+246.7105 ∫298.15K 58080 − 445.2T dT + 12.3011 ∫298.15K 282702.511 dT
383.15K J kJ
+1.0731 ∫298.15K 440600 dT = 26536921414 h = 26536921.41 h
Table 2.18: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products
involved in each Reaction.
Molar flow rate (kmol/hr)

Species
Reaction 1, R1 Reaction 2, R2 Reaction 3, R3
C3H6O 260.0848 13.3743 1.0731
H2 O 260.0848 - -
C3H8O2 260.0848 13.3743 -
C6H14O3 - 13.3743 1.0731
C9H20O4 - - 1.0731
o o o
∆Hf298 = ∑ ∆Hf298 (products) − ∑ ∆Hf298 (reactants)
o
∆Hf298,R1 = −421500(260.0848) − [−93700(260.0848) − 241818(260.0848)]
kJ
= −22362611.2736 h
o
∆Hf298,R2 = −628000(13.3743) − [−93700(13.3743) − 421500(13.3743)]
kJ
= −1508618.4804 h
o
∆Hf298,R3 = −829700(1.0731) − [−93700(1.0731) − 628000(1.0731)]
kJ
= −115899.7253 h
o
∆𝐇 = ∆Hr + ∆Hp + ∆Hf298 = −26736055.37 + 26536921.41 − 22362611.2736
kJ
−1508618.4804 − 115899.7253 = −24186263.4393 = −𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓𝐤𝐖
h
98
From the heat effect calculation, it can be concluded that the reaction in liquid phase hydrolysis
reactor is an exothermic reaction which released 6,718.4065 kW of heat.
2.3.7 Conversion at Adiabatic Condition

The following calculations were shown to determine whether the reactor should be operated
adiabatically or non-adiabatically. It aims to estimate the temperature change of the reactor at
different conversion. The conversion at adiabatic condition is determined by using equation
below:
X[−∆Ho
Rx (TR )]+∑ θi Cp To +X∆CP TR
i
T= ∑ θi Cp +X∆CP
(Fogler, 2014)
i
For liquid phase hydrolysis reactor, the equations involved are:
C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2
C3 H8 O2 + C3 H6 O → C6 H14 O3
C6 H14 O3 + C3 H6 O → C9 H20 O4
o
∆HRX,R1 (TR ) = HCo3 H8O2 (TR ) − HCo3 H6O (TR ) − HH
o
2O
(TR )
kJ
= −421500 − (−93700) − (−241818) = −85982 kmol
o
∆HRX,R2 (TR ) = HCo6 H14O3 (TR ) − HCo3 H8 O2 (TR ) − HCo3 H6 O (TR )
kJ
= −628000 − (−421500) − (−93700) = −112800
kmol
o
∆HRX,R3 (TR ) = HCo9 H20O4 (TR ) − HCo6 H14 O3 (TR ) − HCo3 H6O (TR )
kJ
= −829700 − (−628000) − (−93700) = −108000
kmol
o
kJ
∆HRx (TR ) = −85982 + (−112800 ) + (−108000) = −306782
kmol
∑ θi Cp = CpC3 H6 O + θH2 O CPH2 O = 127662.6656 + 11.8(75278.1894)

i
J kJ
= 1015945.3 kmol⸳K = 1015.9453 kmol⸳K
∆CP = CPC3 H8 O2 + CPC6 H14O3 + CPC9 H20O4 − CPC3 H6 0 − CPH2 O
= 58080 + 282702.511 + 440600 − 127662.6656 − 75278.1894

J kJ
= 578441.656 = 578.4417
kmol⸳K kmol⸳K
99
Therefore,
306782X + 1015.9453(383.15) + 578.4417(298.15)X

T=
1015.9453 + 578.4417X
Temperature versus Overall Conversion of Hydrolysis Reactor

600
500
Temperature, K
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 2.14: Graph of Temperature versus Overall Conversion of Hydrolysis Reactor.
Figure 2.14 shows that the predicted outlet temperature after the reaction is increased from
383.15 K to 518.09 K when the overall conversion is 90%. Therefore, the reactor should be
designed isothermally in order to maintain the operating temperature to ensure the catalytic
reaction can be occurred effectively.
2.3.8 Cost of Hydrolysis Reactor

The type of reactor used in the hydrolysis of propylene oxide reactor system is jacketed agitated
type for continuous-stirred tank reactor. The cost of reactor can be calculated by using the
following formula with the constant shown in Table 2.19 (Turton, 2009).
Table 2.19: Equipment Cost Data for Hydrolysis Reactor based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009).
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Reactor Jacketed agitated 4.1052 0.532 -0.0005
log10 CPo = K1 + K 2 log10 (A) + K 3 [log10 (A)] 2
where A is the volume of the reactor (m3).
100
For the hydrolysis reactor, the operating pressure is at 9 bar with the diameter of 2.49633 m
from the above calculation.
A = 36.5217 m3
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 4.1052 − 0.532 log10 (36.5217) − 0.0005[log10 (36.5217)] 2
log10 CPo = 4.9353
CPo = $86,150.21
Bare module factor, FBM of jacketed agitated reactor is 4.0, regardless of pressure factor of the
reactor (Turton, 2009).
CBM = CPo FBM
CBM = $86,150.21 × 4.0 = $344,600.84
The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2019. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 615.10 (Chemical Engineering, 2018) and
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3. By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.16,
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
Where C = CBM and I represents cost index.
615.10
CBM = $344,600.84 × ( ) = $537,570.32
394.3
Therefore, the cost for hydrolysis reactor, R-101 is RM 2,236,292.53.
101
2.3.9 Solid Catalyst Weight for Hydrolysis Reactor
Figure 2.15 shows that when the overall conversion of propylene oxide increases, the weight
of catalyst, Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – required is increasing. When the conversion is
90%, the weight of catalyst required is 25200 kg.
Graph of Weight of Catalyst versus Overall Conversion of

Propylene Oxide
40000
35000
Weight of catalyst (kg)
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 2.15: Graph of Weight of Catalyst versus Overall Conversion of Propylene Oxide.
2.3.10 Cost of Catalyst for Hydrolysis Reactor

The solid catalyst used in this propylene oxide hydrolysis reactor is Lewatit MonoPlus
M500/HCO3 – and the total weight required of catalyst to achieve 90% overall conversion is
25200 kg. The price of catalyst is RM 10.89/kg (Zauba, 2018).
RM 10.89
Cost of catalyst = × 25200kg = RM274,352.40
kg
The catalyst needs to be replaced for every 2 years (MatWeb, 2018), therefore the annum cost
is as followed:
RM274,352.40
Cost of catalyst = = 𝐑𝐌𝟏𝟑𝟕, 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟐𝟎/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
2 years
102
2.3.11 Design and Cost of Pump
There are total eight of pumps involved in the propylene glycol production plant. The
centrifugal pump is selected in this process because it consists of variable capacity control over
operating range at constant speed and can handle liquids containing catalyst or dirt solids. The
efficiency of centrifugal pump is 75% to 90% (ROTECH, 2018). Thus, 80% pump efficiency
is selected. The design and cost calculations are shown as below:
Qin P
Power of pump, W =
ρ
For pump (P-101 A/B),
kg
Qin = 15922.8691
hr
Ibf
Pressure difference, P = (9 − 1)bar = 8bar = 7barg = 14619.7936
ft 2
kg
ρC3 H6 O = 830
m3
Power of pump, W
kg Ibf
(15922.8691 )(14619.7963 2 ) 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W
hr ft ×
= × ×
kg 1m 3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
830 3 s
m
= 3741.7579 W = 3.7418 kW
3.7418 kW
Assume pump efficiency is 80%, actual power = = 4.6773 kW
0.8
For Bare Module cost for pump,
CBM = CPo FBM = CPo (B1 + B2 FM FP )
Table 2.20: Equipment Cost Data for Pump based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009).
Pump Centrifugal 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538
where A is the shaft power of the pump (kW).
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (4.6773) + 0.1538[log10 (4.6773)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.4942
CPo = $3,119.98
103
Table 2.21: Pressure Factors for Pump (Turton, 2009).
Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Pump Centrifugal -0.3935 0.3957 -0.00226
log10 FP = C1 + C2 log10 (P) + C3 [log10 (P)] 2
log10 FP = −0.3935 + 0.3957 log10 (7) − 0.00226[log10 (7)] 2

FP = 0.8695
By using stainless steel as the material for centrifugal pump, B1 = 1.89, B2 = 1.35 and FM =
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $3,119.98 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(0.8695)] = $13,953.85
By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.16,
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $13,953.85 × ( ) = $21,767.72
394.3
Therefore, the cost for centrifugal pump, P-101 is RM 90,553.72.
The design and cost for the rest of the pumps (P-102 to P-108) are calculated with similar steps
where can be obtained from Appendix C.1 of this document. The summary of pump cost is
shown in Table 2.22.
Table 2.22: Summary for Cost of Pump.
Pump involved Cost (RM)

P-101 90,553.72
P-102 71,703.30
P-103 134,839.08
P-104 90,273.73
P-105 92,177.02
P-106 218,793.40
P-107 233,117.60
P-108 967,231.10
Total 1,898,669.00
104
2.3.12 Economic Potential 3
The cost of reactor, catalyst used, and pumps installed are considered in this level. The formula
of economic potential 3 calculation is shown as below:
Economic Potential 3 (EP3) = EP2 − Reactor Cost − Catalyst Cost − Pumps Cost
Table 2.23: Economic Potential 3 with Different Overall Conversion.
Economic
Overall Catalyst Economic
Potential 2, Reactor Cost Pump Cost
Conversion, Cost Potential 3, EP3
EP2 (RM (RM) (RM)
X (RM) (RM million/yr)
million/yr)
0.21 (1,346.78) 333,270.36 2,333,744.35 3,801 (1,349.44)
0.32 (597.94) 443,915.28 2,180,969.49 6,516 (600.46)
0.42 (210.83) 566,767.21 2,096,237.13 10,317 (213.38)
0.54 33.00 722,485.89 2,039,290.82 16,290 30.38
0.60 130.29 830,554.26 2,015,474.34 21,177 127.53
0.73 274.57 1,133,157.94 1,978,464.67 38,010 271.72
0.81 340.85 1,440,464.00 1,960,610.62 59,730 337.70
0.91 406.29 2,236,293.80 1,942,265.17 136,836 402.77
0.95 431.62 3,222,891.48 1,928,733.56 272,586 428.98
0.96 435.89 12,012,292.30 1,931,818.28 3,268,860 427.47
Graph of Economic Potential 3 versus Overall Conversion

600.00
400.00
200.00
EP 3 (RM million/yr)
0.00
-200.000.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
-400.00
-600.00
-800.00
-1000.00
-1200.00
-1400.00
-1600.00
Figure 2.16: Graph of Economic Potential 3 versus Overall Conversion.
105
Based on Figure 2.16, when the conversion of propylene oxide getting higher, the values of
EP3 is increasing until certain conversion. Value of EP3 starts to become positive at the
conversion around 54% and continues increasing when conversion is increasing until it reached
conversion at 95%, the values of EP3 started to decrease. From the calculations below, the
economic potential in Level 3 when 90% conversion is RM402.02 million/yr.
Economic Potential 3 (EP3)
= 406,289,136.70 − 2,236,292.53 − 137,176.20 − 1,898,669.00
= 𝐑𝐌𝟒𝟎𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐧/𝐲𝐫
106
CHAPTER 3
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM, MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
3.1 Modified Process Flow Diagram

From referred process flow diagram (Aakyalcin, 2017) in Section 1.8.3, some modification
were made to improve the process efficiency. In the process flow diagram suggested by
Aakyalcin, raw materials and recycled stream are entered into a mixer before transferring into
reactor for well mixing. Some modification was made such that these three streams entered the
reactor directly rather than entering the mixer first to avoid any reaction occurred in the pipe
line. Besides, another modification is distillation column is used to separate the unreacted raw
materials with main and side products to increase the separation efficiency rather than using
flash column. In this section, the detailed process description, major and minor equipment
involved in the production and stream operating conditoins were discussed.
3.1.1 Process Flow Detail Description

At initial, propylene oxide and water are stored in the storage tank (TK-101 and TK-102
respectively) at 25 ℃ and 1 bar. Then, they are transferred into pumps to increase pressure to
9 bar and pass through heat exchanger to increase temperature to 110 ℃ before entering the
hydrolysis reactor (R-101). The operating condition of R-101 is 100 ℃ and 9 bar with the
present of heterogeneous catalyst, Lewatit MonPlus M500/ HCO3 –. The overall conversion of
propylene oxide is 90% with selectivity of 91 wt% converted into monopropylene glycol, 8 wt%
into dipropylene glycol and 1wt% into tripropylene glycol.
Then, the unreacted raw material (propylene oxide and water), main product (monopropylene
glycol) and side products (di- and tripropylene glycol) after reactor are entering a relief valve
(VLV-101) to reduce its pressure from 9 bar to 1.2 bar before transferring into distillation
column (T-101). In distillation column (T-101), the distillate products are propylene oxide and
water at 84.04 ℃ and 1 bar while bottom products are mono-, di- and tripropylene glycol at
183.32 ℃ and 1 bar. The recycle stream which consisted unreacted propylene oxide and excess
water are heated up to 110 ℃ and pumped to 9 bar before entering into the hydrolysis reactor
(R-101) to meet the operating condition and for cost saving purpose.
After that, the bottom products of T-101 enter the second distillation column (T-102) to
separate the purify main and side products. The distillate product is monopropylene glycol with
107
purity greater than 99.5%. Then, it is stored into the storage tank (TK-103) at 35 ℃ and 1 bar.
While for the bottom product, the side products which are di- and tripropylene glycol enter into
the third distillation column for separation and purification process. The distillate product
consists of dipropylene glycol with the purity greater than 99.5% while the bottom product
consists of tripropylene glycol with the purity higher than 95%. All the products have achieved
the desired purity. The final state of di- and tripropylene glycol are pumped into storage tanks
(TK-104 and TK-105 respectively) at 35 ℃ and 1 bar.
108
3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production
R-101 TK-104
TK-101 P-101 A/B E-101 T-101 P-103 A/B T-102 P-105 A/B E-105 P-107 A/B
Catalytic Hydrolysis P-106 A/B Dipropylene
Propylene Oxide Tank Pump Heat Exchanger Distillation Column Pump Distillation Column Pump Heat Exchanger Pump
Reactor Pump Glycol Tank
TK-103
TK-102 P-102 A/B E-102 VLV-101 E-103 P-104 A/B E-104 TK-105
Monopropylene T-103 E-106 P-108 A/B
Water Tank Pump Heat Exchanger Relief Valve Heat Exchanger Pump Heat Exchanger Tripropylene
Glycol Tank Distillation Column Heat Exchanger Pump
Glycol Tank
110 84
84
9 9
1
11 10
9
26 110 E-103
25 9 9 P-103 A/B
1
2 3
1 35
E-101 182 35
110 2
P-101 A/B 110 1 1
9 1.2
16
14 15
7 8 183
TK-101 VLV-101 183 1.4 E-104 P-105 A/B
1
R-101 13
110 233
26 12 P-293 TK-103
25
9 9 T-101 1
1 P-104 A/B
5 6 17
4
T-102
E-102
P-102 A/B
232 35
35
TK-102 1 2
1
21
19 20
E-105 P-107 A/B

Symbol:
233 TK-104
1.4
Temperature, 18 35
35
266 2
1 1
Pressure, bar P-106 A/B

22 23
24
T-103
E-106
P-108 A/B
TK-105
Figure 3.1: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production
109
3.1.3 Equipment involved in PFD of Propylene Glycol Production
There are total of 24 major and minor equipment required in propylene glycol production plant.
The listing of equipment according to their tag number in Figure 3.1 are tabulated in Table
3.1.
Table 3.1: Equipment involved in PFD of Propylene Glycol Plant.
Tag Number Type of Equipment Equipment Name

TK-101 Propylene Oxide Storage Tank
TK-102 Water Storage Tank
TK-103 Storage Tank Monopropylene Glycol Storage Tank
TK-104 Dipropylene Glycol Storage Tank
TK-105 Tripropylene Glycol Storage Tank
R-101 Reactor Hydrolysis Reactor
VLV-101 Relief Valve -
T-101 to T-103 Distillation Column -
P-101 to P-108 Pump -
E-101 to E-106 Heat Exchanger -
3.1.4 Description of Unit Operation

The description and function of each unit operation used in propylene glycol production is
shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Description of Unit Operation in Propylene Glycol Plant.
Tag Number Equipment Name Equipment Description

R-101 Raw material: Propylene Oxide, Water
Main product: Monopropylene glycol
Side product: Di- and tripropylene glycol
Hydrolysis Reactor
Operating condition: T = 110 ℃ and P = 9 bar
Propylene Oxide conversion: 90%
Monopropylene glycol yield: 91 wt%
T-101 Separate mono-, di- and tripropylene glycol from
Distillation Column
unreacted propylene oxide and excess water.
T-102 Separate monopropylene glycol from di- and
Distillation Column
tripropylene glycol.
T-103 Separate dipropylene glycol from tripropylene
Distillation Column
glycol.
V-101 To reduce pressure of unreacted raw materials
Relief Valve
and products from 9 bar to 1 bar.
P-101 A/B To increase pressure of pure propylene oxide
Pump
from 1 bar to 9 bar.
P-102 A/B To increase pressure of pure water from 1 bar to
Pump
9 bar.
P-103 A/B To increase pressure of recycled stream from 1
Pump
bar to 9 bar.
110
Tag Number Equipment Name Equipment Description
To increase pressure of mono-, di- and
P-104 A/B Pump
tripropylene glycol from 1 bar to 1.2 bar.
To increase pressure of monopropylene glycol
P-105 A/B Pump
from 1 bar to 1.2 bar.
To increase pressure of di- and tripropylene
P-106 A/B Pump
glycol from 1 bar to 1.2 bar.
To increase pressure of dipropylene glycol from
P-107 A/B Pump
1 bar to 1.2 bar.
To increase pressure of tripropylene glycol from
P-108 A/B Pump
1 bar to 1.2 bar.
Heat up pure propylene oxide from 25 ℃ to
E-101 Heat Exchanger
110 ℃.
E-102 Heat Exchanger Heat up pure water from 25 ℃ to 110 ℃.
E-103 Heat Exchanger Heat up recycled stream from 25 ℃ to 110 ℃.
Cold down monopropylene glycol from
181.82 ℃ to 35 ℃.
Cold down dipropylene glycol from 231.51 ℃ to
35 ℃.
Cold down monopropylene glycol from
266.45 ℃ to 35 ℃.
3.1.5 Stream Operating Conditions

Table 3.3 shows that temperature and pressure of each streams in the production of propylene
glycol.
Table 3.3: Operating Conditions of Each Stream in Propylene Glycol.
Stream Temperature Pressure Stream Temperature Pressure

Number (℃) (bar) Number (℃) (bar)
1 25.00 1 13 183.34 1.2
2 25.85 9 14 181.82 1
3 110.00 9 15 35.00 1
4 25.00 1 16 35.02 1.2
5 25.64 9 17 233.31 1
6 110.00 9 18 233.33 1.2
7 110.00 9 19 231.51 1
8 110.00 1.2 20 35.00 1
9 84.04 1 21 35.03 1.2
10 84.33 9 22 266.45 1
11 110.00 9 23 35.00 1
12 183.32 1 24 35.04 1.2
111
3.2 Material Balance Manual Calculation
The material balance for all the equipment involved in the production of 150,000 MTA of
propylene glycol from propylene oxide was calculated manually. The results obtained are
compared with the simulation results from Aspen Plus program. To ease and simplify the
manual calculation, some assumptions had been made for specific equipment and mentioned
in the following subtopics.
The basic equation used in the material balance is shown below:
Input − Generation − Output − Consumption = Accumulation
The general mass balance equation for continuous steady state is displayed below:
Input + Generation = Output + Consumption
There are some basic assumptions had been made for manual material balance calculations:
1. The plant is operating for 8000 hours per year.

2. The accumulation rate for each process is equal to zero as the system is in steady state.
3. There are no leakage of pipes and vessels in the system.
4. All equipment in the system is in ideal state condition.
5. Solid catalyst used does not affect the material balance in the reactor, R-101.
6. Total inlet of any components into the mixer, pump, valve and heat exchanger are assumed
equal to the total outlet of the components as no reaction occurred.
112
3.2.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101
Figure 3.2: Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.
The feed molar ratio of propylene oxide and water to the reactor, R-101 are assumed to be
1:11.8. Thus, the feed ratio in molar flow rates are propylene oxide and water or in mass flow
rate are
The reactions that involved in this reactor are:
C3 H6 O + H2 O → C3 H8 O2
C3 H8 O2 + C3 H6 O → C6 H14 O3
C6 H14 O3 + C3 H6 O → C9 H20 O4
The overall conversion of propylene oxide in the hydrolysis process to produce 150,000 MTA
propylene glycol is 90%. The material balance calculation results are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)

Component Stream Inlet Recycle Stream Stream Outlet
S3 S6 S11 S7
Propylene Oxide 15927.6471 - 1769.7386 1769.7386
Water - 4743.0574 60065.9895 60126.1156
Monopropylene Glycol - - 1.8756 18755.6263
Dipropylene Glycol - - - 1648.8463
Tripropylene Glycol - - - 206.1058
Total 15927.6471 4743.0574 61837.6036 82506.4326
113
3.2.2 Distillation Column, T-101
Figure 3.3: Diagram of Distillation Column, T-101.
Distillation column, T-101 is assumed to operate 100% propylene oxide and 99.9% water
separation efficiency. The material balance for distillation column, T-101 calculation results
are shown in Table 3.5.
Total Mass Flow Inlet = Total Mass Flow Outlet
Stream 8 = Stream 9 + Stream 12 = 82506.4326 kg/hr
Table 3.5: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Distillation Column, T-101.

Component Stream Inlet Stream Outlet
S8 S9 S12
Propylene Oxide 1769.7386 1769.7386 -
Water 60126.1156 60065.9895 60.1261
Monopropylene Glycol 18755.6263 1.8756 18753.7508
Dipropylene Glycol 1648.8463 - 1648.8463
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1058 - 206.1058
Total 82506.4326 61837.6036 20668.8289
114
Distillation column, T-102 is assumed to operate 99.98% monopropylene glycol separation

efficiency. The material balance for distillation column, T-102 calculation results are shown in
Table 3.6.

S13 S14 S17
Propylene Oxide - - -
Water 60.1261 60.1261 -
Dipropylene Glycol 1648.8463 1.6488 1647.1974
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1058 - 206.1058
Total 20668.8289 18811.7750 1857.0540
115
Distillation column, T-103 is assumed to operate 99.99% dipropylene glycol separation

efficiency. The material balance for distillation column, T-103 calculation results are shown in
Table 3.7.

S18 S19 S22
Propylene Oxide - - -
Water - - -
Monopropylene Glycol 3.7508 3.7508 -
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1058 0.0618 206.0440
Total 1857.0540 1650.8453 206.2087
116
3.2.5 Pump, P-101 A/B
Figure 3.6: Diagram of Pump, P-101 A/B.
The inlet of outlet mass flow rate for pump is assumed to be the same which are shown in
Table 3.8.

Stream 2 = Stream 3 = 15927.6471 kg/hr
Table 3.8: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Pump, P-101 A/B.

S2 S3
Propylene Oxide 15927.6471 15927.6471
Total 15927.6471 15927.6471
3.2.6 Pump, P-102 A/B
Table 3.9.


S4 S5
Water 4743.0574 4743.0574
Total 4743.0574 4743.0574
117
3.2.7 Pump, P-103 A/B
Table 3.10.

S10 S11
Propylene Oxide 1769.7386 1769.7386
Water 60065.9895 60065.9895
Monopropylene Glycol 1.8756 1.8756
Total 61837.6036 61837.6036
118
3.2.8 Pump, P-104 A/B
Table 3.11.

S12 S13
Water 60.1261 60.1261
Dipropylene Glycol 1648.8463 1648.8463
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1058 206.1058
Total 20668.8289 20668.8289
119
3.2.9 Pump, P-105 A/B
Table 3.12.

S15 S16
Total 18751.6488 18751.6488
120
3.2.10 Pump, P-106 A/B
Table 3.13.

S17 S18
Total 1857.0540 1857.0540
121
3.2.11 Pump, P-107 A/B
Table 3.14.

S20 S21
Total 1650.8453 1650.8453
122
3.2.12 Pump, P-108 A/B
Table 3.15.

S23 S24
Total 206.2087 206.2087
123
3.2.13 Heat Exchanger, E-101
Figure 3.14: Diagram of Heat Exchanger, E-101.
The inlet of outlet mass flow rate for heat exchanger is assumed to be the same which are shown
in Table 3.16.
Table 3.16: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Heat Exchanger, E-101.

S2 S3
Propylene Oxide 15927.6471 15927.6471
Total 15927.6471 15927.6471
in Table 3.17.

S5 S6
Water 4743.0574 4743.0574
Total 4743.0574 4743.0574
124
in Table 3.18.

S9 S10
Water 60065.9895 60065.9895
Total 61837.6036 61837.6036
125
in Table 3.19.

S9 S10
Total 18751.6488 18751.6488
126
in Table 3.20.

S9 S10
Total 1650.8453 1650.8453
127
in Table 3.21.

S9 S10
Total 206.2087 206.2087
128
3.2.19 Valve, VLV-101
Figure 3.20: Diagram of Valve, VLV-101
Table 3.22.
Table 3.22: Inlet and Outlet Mass Flow Rate of Valve, VLV-101.

S7 S8
Water 60126.1156 60126.1156
Total 82506.4326 82506.4326
129
3.3 Summary of Stream Material Balance
Table 3.23: Summary of Stream Mass Balance.
Mass flow rate (kg/hr)

Species
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Propylene Oxide 15927.6471 15927.6471 15927.6471 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1769.7386 1769.7386
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4743.0574 4743.0574 4743.0574 60126.1156 60126.1156
Monopropylene
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 18755.6263 18755.6263
Glycol
Dipropylene Glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1648.8463 1648.8463
Tripropylene Glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 206.1058 206.1058
Total 15927.6471 15927.6471 15927.6471 4743.0574 4743.0574 4743.0574 82506.4326 82506.4326
Species 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Propylene Oxide 1769.7386 1769.7386 1769.7386 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 60065.9895 60065.9895 60065.9895 60.1261 60.1261 60.1261 60.1261 60.1261
Monopropylene
1.8756 1.8756 1.8756 18753.7508 18753.7508 18750.0000 18750.0000 18750.0000
Glycol
Total 61837.6036 61837.6036 61837.6036 20668.8289 20668.8289 18811.7750 18811.7750 18811.7750
Species 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Propylene Oxide 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Monopropylene
3.7508 3.7508 3.7508 3.7508 3.7508 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Glycol
Total 1857.0540 1857.0540 1650.8453 1650.8453 1650.8453 206.2087 206.2087 206.2087
130
3.4 Energy Balance Manual Calculation
In this section, heat effect of each equipment in the production of propylene glycol are
calculated. Table 3.24 and Table 3.25 show the heat capacities constant and heat of formation
for each species. The critical temperature, boiling point and heat of vaporization for each
component are shown in Table 3.26. The formula to calculate heat capacity is shown as below:
J
Cp [ ] = a + bT + cT 2 + dT 3 + eT 4
kmol⸳K
Table 3.24: Heat Capacities Constant of Each Species in Liquid.

𝐉
Heat capacities constant (𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥⸳𝐊)
Species Formula References
a b c d e
Propylene (Studylib,
C 3 H6 O 113080 -150.85 0.67 - -
oxide (l) 2018)
9.3701 × (Perry,
Water (l) H2O 276370 -2090.1 8.125 -0.014116
10-6 1997)
Monopropylene (Perry,
C3H8O2 58080 445.2 - - -
glycol (l) 1997)
Dipropylene (Chemicals,
C6H14O3 282702.511 - - - -
glycol (l) 2018)
Tripropylene (Chemeo,
C9H20O4 440600 - - - -
glycol (l) 2018)
Table 3.25: Heat of Formation for Each Species (ASPEN, 2018).
𝐨 𝐤𝐉
Species Formula ∆𝐇𝐟𝟐𝟗𝟖 ( )
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
Propylene oxide (l) C3H6O -93,700
Water (l) H2O -241,818
Monopropylene glycol (l) C3H8O2 -421,500
Dipropylene glycol (l) C6H14O3 -628,000
Tripropylene glycol (l) C9H20O4 -829,700
Table 3.26: Boiling Point, Critical Temperature and Heat of Vaporization for Each Species
(ASPEN, 2018).
𝐤𝐉
Species Formula Tc (K) Tb (K) ∆𝐇𝐯 ( )
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
Propylene oxide (l) C3H6O 482.25 307.65 27.2106
Water (l) H2O 647.096 373.15 40.6937
Monopropylene glycol (l) C3H8O2 626 460.75 52.1473
Dipropylene glycol (l) C6H14O3 654 504.95 60.8104
Tripropylene glycol (l) C9H20O4 677 540.35 62.251
131
Table 3.27: Antoine Equation Parameters for each Species (NIST Chemistry WebBook,
2018).
Unit of Unit of
Species Formula A B C
Temperature Pressure
Propylene
C 3 H6 O 3.55046 802.487 -81.348 K Bar
oxide (l)
Water (l) H2O 3.55959 643.748 -198.043 K Bar
Monopropylene
C3H8O2 6.07936 2692.187 -17.94 K Bar
glycol (l)
Dipropylene
C6H14O3 6.39086 3246.493 3.5 K Bar
glycol (l)
Tripropylene
C9H20O4 7.6302007 2156.4581 165.92442 ℃ mmHg
glycol (l)
3.4.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101
Figure 3.21: Diagram of Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.
Table 3.28: Molar Flow Rate of Inlet and Outlet Streams of Reactor, R-101.

Species Stream in Stream out
S3 S6 S11 S7
Propylene Oxide 274.5681 - 27.4549 27.4549
Water - 262.0905 3324.5750 3327.9029
Monopropylene
- - 0.0246 246.4672
Glycol
Dipropylene Glycol - - - 12.2925
Propylene Oxide - - - 1.0722
TOTAL 274.5681 262.0905 3352.0546 3615.1897
132
For heat of raw material, ∆Hr :
Temperature changes from T1 : 383.15 K to T2 : 298.15 K,
Table 3.29: Heat of Raw Materials for Reactor, R-101.
Species Molar flow rate, kmol/hr Cp, J/kmol⸳K ∆𝐇𝐫 , 𝐤𝐉/𝐡𝐫

Propylene Oxide 302.0230 -11886805.1447 -3590089077.0297
Water 3586.6655 -6420517.2506 -
23028247886.0022
Monopropylene Glycol 0.0246 -17827677.3000 -439393.7203
Total: -26618776.3568
For heat of product, ∆Hp :
Temperature changes from T1 : 298.15 K to T2 : 383.15 K

Table 3.30: Heat of Products for Reactor, R-101.
Species Molar flow rate, kmol/hr Cp, J/kmol⸳K ∆𝐇𝐫 , 𝐤𝐉/𝐡𝐫

Propylene Oxide 27.4549 11886805.1447 326351573.3900
Water 3327.9029 6420517.2506 21366858167.6860
Total: 26422686.7074
o
For heat of formation, ∆Hf298 :
Table 3.31: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products

𝐧̇ × ∆𝐇𝐟 , 𝐧̇ , 𝐧̇ × ∆𝐇𝐟 , 𝐧̇ × ∆𝐇𝐟 ,
Species 𝐧̇ , 𝐧̇ ,
𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐡𝐫 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐡𝐫
/𝐡𝐫
C3H6O 259.8319 -(-24346244.9448) 13.3647 -(-1252268.7905) 1.0722 -(-100465.5632)
H2 O 259.8319 -(-62832019.8513) - - - -
C3H8O2 259.8319 -109519127.4732 13.3647 -(-5633204.8579) - -
C6H14O3 - - 13.3647 -8393007.4750 1.0722 -(-673344.4367)
C9H20O4 - - - - 1.0722 -889608.0878
Total: -22340862.6771 Total: -1507533.8267 Total: -115798.0878
o o o
o
∆𝐇 = ∆Hr + ∆Hp + ∆Hf298 = −26618776.3568 + 26422686.7074 − 22340862.6771
133
kJ
−1507533.8267 − 115798.0878 = −24160284.2410 = −𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟏 𝐤𝐖
h
Dew point and bubble point of distillation column (T-101) are calculated manually as shown
in Table 3.32 and Table 3.33 respectively.
Trial Tdew: 84.33 ℃
Table 3.32: Dew Point Calculation for T-101.

𝐲𝐢
𝐏𝐢 𝐊𝐢 𝐲𝐢 𝛂𝐢
Species yiD 𝐊𝐢 = 𝛂𝐢 = 𝐱𝐢 =
𝐏 𝐊 𝐇𝐊 𝛂𝐢 𝐲𝐢
∑
𝛂𝐢
C3H6O 0.0091 7.1104 171.6315 0.0001 0.0013
H2 O 0.9909 0.9924 23.9541 0.0414 0.9985
C3H8O2 0.0000 0.0414 1.0000 0.0000 0.0002
C6H14O3 0.0000 0.0079 0.1905 0.0000 0.0000
C9H20O4 0.0000 0.0006 0.0157 0.0000 0.0000
Total: 1.0000 0.0414 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐝𝐞𝐰 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 ℃
Trial Tbubble: 183.34 ℃
Table 3.33: Bubble Point Calculation for T-101.
𝐏𝐢 𝐊𝐢 𝛂𝐢𝐱𝐢
Species xiW 𝐊𝐢 = 𝛂𝐢 = 𝛂𝐢𝐱𝐢 𝐱𝐢 =
𝐏 𝐊 𝐇𝐊 ∑ 𝛂𝐢𝐱𝐢
C3H6O 0.0000 26.0568 29.1114 0.0000 0.0000
H2 O 0.0127 11.9276 13.3258 0.1689 0.1512
C3H8O2 0.9365 0.8951 1.0000 0.9365 0.8383
C6H14O3 0.0467 0.2216 0.2476 0.0116 0.0103
C9H20O4 0.0041 0.0394 0.0440 0.0002 0.0002
Total: 1.0000 1.1172 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐛𝐮𝐛𝐛𝐥𝐞 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 ℃
134
For heat duty of condenser,
Qcond = −(R + 1) ∑ Dk △ Hvap k

k
Where R = reflux ratio

Dk = molar flow rate of component k as distillate product D
△ Hvap k = heat of vaporization of component k
Heat of vaporization of component k,

0.38
k k Tc k (T) − T
△ Hvap (T) = △ Hvap (Tb ) [ k ]
Tc (T) − Tb
Table 3.34: Heat of Vaporization for Condenser Heat Duty T-101.
Species 𝐃𝐤 , 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐡𝐫 △ 𝐇𝐯𝐚𝐩 𝐤 (𝐓), 𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐃𝐤 △ 𝐇𝐯𝐚𝐩 𝐤 (𝐓), 𝐊𝐉/𝐡𝐫

Propylene Oxide 27.4549 23970.2107 658100.7990
Water 3324.5750 41579.0556 138232690.0170
Total: 138892337.8049
kJ
Qcond = −(0.7318 + 1) (138892337.8049 )
hr
kJ
= − 240539429.2238 = −𝟔𝟔𝟖𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝐤𝐖
hr
135
For heat duty of reboiler,
Qreb = V ∑ XB △ Hvap k
k
Where V = reflux flow rate L + flowrate of distillate product D

XB = mole fraction of bottom product
Table 3.35: Heat of Vaporization for Reboiler Heat Duty T-101.
Species 𝐗𝐁 △ 𝐇𝐯𝐚𝐩 𝐤 (𝐓), 𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐃𝐤 △ 𝐇𝐯𝐚𝐩 𝐤 (𝐓), 𝐊𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥

Water 0.0126 35455.3660 448.4085
Total: 53230.1538
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap k
k
kmol kJ
= (0.7318 + 1) (3352.05463 ) (53230.1538 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 309013033.1937 = 𝟖𝟓𝟖𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 𝐤𝐖
hr
136
in Table 3.36 and Table 3.37Table 3.32 respectively.
𝐲𝐢
∑
𝛂𝐢
C3H6O 0.0000 27.1227 109.8587 0.0000 0.0000
H2 O 0.0134 12.7590 51.6796 0.0003 0.0010
C3H8O2 0.9866 0.9878 4.0011 0.2466 0.9988
C6H14O3 0.0000 0.2469 1.0000 0.0000 0.0002
C9H20O4 0.0000 0.0446 0.1805 0.0000 0.0000
Total: 1.0000 0.2469 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐝𝐞𝐰 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 ℃
C3H6O 0.0000 45.9736 43.5018 0.0000 0.0000
H2 O 0.0000 29.6451 28.0512 0.0000 0.0000
C3H8O2 0.0037 3.6969 3.4981 0.0129 0.0136
C6H14O3 0.9163 1.0568 1.0000 0.9163 0.9684
C9H20O4 0.0800 0.2254 0.2132 0.0171 0.0180
Total: 1.0000 0.9462 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐛𝐮𝐛𝐛𝐥𝐞 = 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟏 ℃
137


Water 3.3279 35561.1967 118344.2080
Total: 13137287.4701

k
kJ kJ
Qcond = −(0.5889 + 1) (13137287.4701 ) = −20874014.0847
hr hr
= −𝟓𝟕𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟐 𝐤𝐖

Total: 61103.5173
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap k
k
kmol kJ
= (0.5889 + 1) (249.7417 ) (61103.5173 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 24246972.0480 = 𝟔𝟕𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐖
hr
138
in Table 3.36 and Table 3.37Table 3.32 respectively.

𝐲𝐢
∑
𝛂𝐢
C3H6O 0.0000 45.0411 212.7438 0.0000 0.0000
H2 O 0.0000 28.7319 135.7099 0.0000 0.0000
C3H8O2 0.0040 3.5095 16.5764 0.0002 0.0011
C6H14O3 0.9960 0.9977 4.7125 0.2113 0.9987
C9H20O4 0.0000 0.2117 1.0000 0.0000 0.0001
Total: 1.0000 0.2116 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐝𝐞𝐰 = 𝟐𝟑𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 ℃
C3H6O 0.0000 75.1457 75.4324 0.0000 0.0000
H2 O 0.0000 60.7959 61.0279 0.0000 0.0000
C3H8O2 0.0000 13.1223 13.1723 0.0000 0.0000
C6H14O3 0.0011 4.3192 4.3356 0.0050 0.0049
C9H20O4 0.9989 0.9962 1.0000 0.9989 0.9951
Total: 1.0000 1.0038 1.0000
⸫ 𝐓𝐛𝐮𝐛𝐛𝐥𝐞 = 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 ℃
139


Total: 748938.7199
kJ kJ
Qcond = −(1.8669 + 1) (748938.7199 ) = −2147162.3737 = −𝟓𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐖
hr hr

Total: 62346.8924
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap k
k
kmol kJ
= (1.86694 + 1) (12.31652 ) (62346.8924 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 2201514.4195 = 𝟔𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝐖
hr
140
3.4.5 Pump, P-101 A/B

P2 T2
W = ∆H = ∫ PdV + ṅ ∫ Cp dT
P1 T1
T2
∆H = V̇∆P + ṅ ∫ Cp dT
T1
Table 3.44: Heat Duty of Pump, P-101 A/B.
Mass flow Density, Volumetric

Molar flow
Species rate, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
rate, kmol/hr
kg/hr 𝐦𝟑 /𝐡𝐫
Propylene Oxide 15946.9254 274.5681 830 19.2132 4.2696
Total: 4.2696
Total ∆H = ∆H ÷ Pump Efficiency

= 4.2696 kW ÷ 0.5147
= 𝟖. 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝐤𝐖
141
3.4.6 Pump, P-102 A/B
Density, Volumetric
Mass flow rate, Molar flow
Species 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
kg/hr rate, kmol/hr
𝐦𝟑 /𝐡𝐫
Water 4721.6330 262.0905 1000 4.7216 1.0493
Total: 1.0493
Total ∆H = 1.0493 kW ÷ 0.3032

= 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐖
3.4.7 Pump, P-103 A/B
Mass flow Molar flow Density, Volumetric

Species rate, rate, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
kg/hr kmol/hr 𝐦𝟑 /𝐡𝐫
Propylene Oxide 1594.5843 27.4549 830 1.9212 0.4269
Water 59893.1500 3324.5750 1000 59.8931 13.3096
Monopropylene Glycol 1.8755 0.0246 1040 0.0018 0.0004
Total: 13.7369
Total ∆H = 13.7369 kW ÷ 0.6603

= 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐖
142
3.4.8 Pump, P-104 A/B
Mass flow Molar Density, Volumetric

Species rate, flow rate, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
Water 59.9531 3.3279 1000 0.0600 0.0003
Dipropylene Glycol 1649.3437 12.2924 1020 1.6170 0.0090
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1371 1.0722 1021 0.2019 0.0011
Total: 0.1106
Total ∆H = 0.1106 kW ÷ 0.5442

= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐖
3.4.9 Pump, P-105 A/B

Water 59.9531 3.3279 1000 0.0600 0.0003
Total: 0.1005
Total ∆H = 0.1005 kW ÷ 0.5067

= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟒 𝐤𝐖
143
3.4.10 Pump, P-106 A/B

Total: 0.0101
Total ∆H = 0.0101 kW ÷ 0.2957

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟐 𝐤𝐖
3.4.11 Pump, P-107 A/B
Mass Molar flow Density, Volumetric

Species flow rate, rate, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
Total: 0.0090
Total ∆H = 0.0090 kW ÷ 0.2957

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟒 𝐤𝐖
144
3.4.12 Pump, P-108 A/B
Mass flow Molar Density, Volumetric

Species rate, flow rate, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 Flow Rate, ΔH, kW
Dipropylene Glycol 0.6596 0.0049 1020.0000 0.0006 0.0000
Tripropylene Glycol 206.0944 1.0720 1021.0000 0.2019 0.0011
Total: 0.0011
Total ∆H = 0.0011 kW ÷ 0.2957

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟖 𝐤𝐖

T2
∆H = ṅ ∫ Cp dT
T1
Table 3.52: Heat Duty of Heat Exchanger, E-101.
Mass flow rate,

Species Cp, J/kmol ΔH, kW
kg/hr
Propylene Oxide 15946.9253 11778674.0167 898.3467
Total: 898.3467
145
Mass flow rate,

kg/hr
Water 4721.6330 6371953.5601 463.8967
Total: 463.8967
Mass flow rate,

kg/hr
Propylene Oxide 423632 3870848.7520 29.5205
Water 59893.1500 1972009.2028 1821.1368
Total: 1850.6970
146
Mass flow rate,

kg/hr
Water 59.9531 -11993343.8120 - 11.0869
Monopropylene Glycol 18750 -35398378.6047 - 2422.8370
Dipropylene Glycol 1.6494 -44333690.4775 - 0.1514
Total: -2434.0752
Mass flow rate,

kg/hr
Monopropylene Glycol 3.1246 -48897726.5822 - 0.5577
Tripropylene Glycol 0.0427 -90986984.2000 - 0.0056
Total: -199.6270
147

Mass flow rate,
kg/hr
Tripropylene Glycol 206.0944 -106382870.0000 -31.6779
Total: - 31.7711
148
3.5 Process Simulation
Figure 3.39: Process Flow Diagram of Propylene Glycol Production in Aspen Plus Simulation.
149
3.5.1 Process Simulation Stream Results
Table 3.58: Summary of Simulation Results.
Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 MIX S7 S8
Temperature, oC 25.00 25.85 110.00 25.00 25.64 110.00 110.00 110.00 110.00
Pressure, bar 1 9 9 1 9 9 9 9 1.2
Vapor Fraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total molar flow rate,
274.5681 274.5681 274.5681 262.0905 262.0905 262.0905 3614.8652 3615.1897 3615.1897
kmol/hr
Total mass flow rate,
15946.9254 15946.9254 15946.9254 4721.6330 4721.6330 4721.6330 66211.2440 82158.1694 82158.1694
kg/hr
Molar Enthalpy, kJ/mol -121.4557 -121.3459
-109.2125 -285.8002 -285.7523 -279.1495 -277.8229 -292.5850 -292.5850
Molar flow rate, kmol/hr
Propylene oxide 274.5681 274.5681 274.5681 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 27.1305 27.4549 27.4549
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 262.0905 262.0905 262.0905 3587.7097 3327.9029 3327.9029
Monopropylene glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0251 246.4672 246.4672
Dipropylene glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 12.2925 12.2925
Tripropylene glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0722 1.0722
Mass flow rate, kg/hr
Propylene oxide 15946.9254 15946.9254 15946.9254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1575.7378 1594.5843 1594.5843
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4721.6330 4721.6330 4721.6330 64633.5942 59953.1031 59953.1031
150
Stream S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16
Temperature, oC 84.04 84.33 110.00 183.32 183.34 181.82 35.00 35.02
Pressure, bar 1 9 9 1 1.2 1 1 1.2
Vapor Fraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3352.0546 3352.0546 3352.0546 263.1351 263.1351 249.7417 249.7417 249.7417
kmol/hr
Total mass flow rate, kg/hr 61489.6109 61489.6109 61489.6109 20668.5584 20668.5584 18811.6025 18811.6025 18811.6025
Molar Enthalpy, kJ/mol -279.8391 -279.8152 -277.7017 -463.9931 -463.9897 -452.9826 -486.0575 -486.0546
Propylene oxide 27.4549 27.4549 27.4549 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 3324.5750 3324.5750 3324.5750 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279
Monopropylene glycol 0.0246 0.0246 0.0246 246.4425 246.4425 246.4015 246.4015 246.4015
Dipropylene glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 12.2924 12.2924 0.0123 0.0123 0.0123
Tripropylene glycol 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0722 1.0722 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Propylene oxide 1594.5843 1594.5843 1594.5843 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 59893.1500 59893.1500 59893.1500 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531
151
Stream S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S24
Temperature, oC 233.31 233.33 231.51 35.00 35.03 266.45 35.00 35.04
Pressure, bar 1 1.2 1 1 1.2 1 1 1.2
13.3934 13.3934 12.3165 12.3165 12.3165 1.0769 1.0769 1.0769
kmol/hr
Propylene oxide 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Propylene oxide 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
152
3.6 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results
In this section, the manual calculation results for material and energy balance are compared
with simulation results that generated from Aspen Plus.
3.6.1 Material Balance Comparison

There are slight differences between manual calculation and simulation done in Aspen Plus for
material balance. Thus, the errors between both calculations are calculated to find the error
based on the formula shown as below:
Manual − Simulation
Error (%) = × 100
Simulation
Table 3.59: Comparison of Material Balance.
Stream Manual Mass Flow Rate, Simulation Mass Flow Rate, Error,
No. kg/hr kg/hr %
1 15927.6471 15946.9254 -0.1209
2 15927.6471 15946.9254 -0.1209
3 15927.6471 15946.9254 -0.1209
4 4743.0574 4721.6330 0.4537
5 4743.0574 4721.6330 0.4537
6 4743.0574 4721.6330 0.4537
7 82506.4326 82158.1694 0.4239
8 82506.4326 82158.1694 0.4239
9 61837.6036 61489.6110 0.5659
10 61837.6036 61489.6110 0.5659
11 61837.6036 61489.6110 0.5659
12 20668.8289 20668.5584 0.0013
13 20668.8289 20668.5584 0.0013
14 18811.7750 18811.6025 0.0009
15 18811.7750 18811.6025 0.0009
16 18811.7750 18811.6025 0.0009
17 1857.0540 1856.9560 0.0053
18 1857.0540 1856.9560 0.0053
19 1650.8453 1650.2019 0.0390
20 1650.8453 1650.2019 0.0390
21 1650.8453 1650.2019 0.0390
22 206.2087 206.7540 -0.2638
23 206.2087 206.7540 -0.2638
24 206.2087 206.7540 -0.2638
153
3.6.2 Energy Balance Comparison
A summary of energy balance for major and minor equipment through manual calculation and
the comparison obtained from Aspen Plus is show in (). The errors between both are calculated
by using formula as below:
Manual − Simulation
Error (%) = × 100
Simulation
Table 3.60: Comparison of Energy Balance.
Heat Duty, kW
Equipment ID Parts Difference (%)
Manual Simulation
Hydrolysis Reactor R-101 -6711.1901 -6519.9749 -2.9328
QCond -66816.5081 -67365.3239 0.8147
T-101
QReb 85836.9537 66704.8173 -28.6818
QCond -5798.3372 -5868.6368 1.1979
Distillation Column T-102
QReb 6735.2700 5922.1760 -13.7296
QCond -596.4340 -597.0457 0.1025
T-103
QReb 611.5318 599.9780 -1.9257
P-101 8.2956 8.3742 0.9383
P-102 3.4610 3.4821 0.6043
P-103 20.8025 22.2480 6.4971
P-104 0.2033 0.2481 18.0882
Pump 0.1984 0.2003 0.9880
P-105
P-106 0.0342 0.0439 22.0788
P-107 0.0304 0.0305 0.2090
P-108 0.0038 0.0038 0.2394
E-101 898.3467 925.3963 2.9230
E-102 463.8967 480.7045 3.4965
E-103 1850.6970 1967.8728 5.9544
H. Exchanger
E-104 -2434.0752 -2294.4914 -6.0834
E-105 -199.6270 -270.2128 26.1223
E-106 -31.7711 -33.6622 5.6177
* QCond = Heat duty of condenser, kW and QReb = Heat duty of reboiler, kW.
154
CHAPTER 4
UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 Introduction
Industrial plants encompass a huge number of heat exchanger equipment and involving many
heating and cooling duties. Pinch analysis that applied in heat integration is a well-established
methodology and has been demonstrated in many projects in the oil and gas industry
throughout the world. The main objective of heat integration is to maximize energy recovery
for cost saving purpose. In this section, heat integration by using pinch technology is performed
and the main utility systems such as boiler and cooling tower are designed to determine the
potential economic that involving cost of utilities in the whole plant.
4.2 Heat Exchanger Network

Heat exchanger network (HEN) is one of the most extensively studied design problem in
chemical engineering. This design is very important in determining energy costs and improving
the energy recovery in chemical processes. Heat exchanger network integrates streams that is
required to be cooled and heated to reduce cooling effort and recover heat from the process.
Pinch analysis is a methodology for minimizing energy consumption in the process by
optimizing heat recovery with consideration of thermodynamic limitation. Pinch analysis
enables process designers to obtain the best arrangement of heat exchanger in the plant to
achieve maximum heat recovery.
4.2.1 Pinch Technology

Pinch technology is a simple methodology for systematically analyzing chemical processes and
the surrounding utility systems with the assistance of the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics provides the energy equation for
calculating the enthalpy changes (ΔH) in the streams when passing through a heat exchanger.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics determines the direction of heat flow. The heat energy
may only flow in the direction of hot to cold. The prohibits ‘temperature crossover’ of the hot
and cold stream profiles through the exchange unit. In a heat exchanger unit neither a hot stream
can be cooled below cold stream supply temperature nor a cold stream can be heated to a
temperature more than the supply temperatre of hot stream. In practice the hot stream can only
be cooled to a temperature defined by the ‘temperature approach’ of the heat excahnger. The
155
temperature approach is the minimum allowable temperature difference (ΔTmin) in the stream
temperature profiles, for the heat exchanger unit. “Pinch point” or “pinch condition” is referred
to the temperature level at which ΔTmin is observed in the process. The pinch defines the
minimum driving force allowed in the exchanger unit. Pinch analysis is used to identify energy
cost and heat exchanger network (HEN) capital cost targets for a process and recognizing the
pinch point.
The procedure first predicts, ahead of design, the minimum requirements of external energy,
network area, and the number of units for a given process at the pinch point. Next a heat
exchanger network design that satisfies these targets is synthesized. Finally, the network is
optimized by comparing energy cost and the capital cost and the capital cost of the network so
that the total annual cost is minimized. Thus, the prime objective of pinch analysis is to achieve
financial savings by better process heat integration (maximizing process-to-process heat
recovery and reducing the external utility loads) (Linnhoff et al., 1994).
Common values for ΔTmin in the industry:
a. Oil refining = 20 – 40 ℃
b. Petrochemical = 10 – 20 ℃
c. Chemical = 10 – 20 ℃
d. Low temperature processes = 3 – 5 ℃
The minimum heating requirement, Q̇H,min , minimum cooling requirement, Q̇C,min and the
pinch temperature are determined from the cascade diagram. When performing pinch design,
there are two pinches known as above the pinch and below the pinch. The stream pairing should
always start with the biggest specific heat capacity (Cp) value. To perform heat integration
Cp,out should larger than Cp,in . In this section, comparison of utility consumption before and
after integration for the minimum energy requirement (MER) is done to determine the MER
efficiency.
156
4.2.2 Heat Integration Process Flow
The process flow of heat integration for propylene glycol is shown in Figure 4.1.
1. Hot and cold streams identification.
2. Stream table construction.
3. Set ΔTmin = 20 ℃ for propylene glycol plant (petrochemical plant).
4. Shifting of the stream table.
5. Construction of cascade diagram.
6. Heat balance at interval temperature is performed and normalization for pinch point
determination.
7. Heat exchanger network (HEN) design based on the pinch point obtained.
Figure 4.1: Heat Integration Process Flow.
4.2.3 Heat Integration of Propylene Glycol Plant

In this section, heat integration that involving heat exchanger is performed by using pinch
technology. The process flow is following Figure 4.1.
4.2.3.1 Hot and Cold Steams Identification

The hot and cold streams are defined as hot streams are the streams to be cooled while cold
streams are the streams to be heated up. The hot and cold streams of the plant are listed as
below:
Cold streams = S02, S05 and S10
Hot streams = S14, S19 and S22
157
4.2.3.2 Steam Table Construction
The operating temperature and heat duty of cold and hot streams and targeted steam
temperature to be achieved are shown in Table 4.1.
The specific heat capacity (Cp) is calculated by using formula:
Q
Cp =
|(TTarget − TSource )|
Table 4.1: Summary of Hot and Cold Streams.
Heat TSource TTarget Heat Duty Stream Cp

Stream
Exchanger (℃) (℃) (kW) Type (kW/℃)
E-101 2 25.85 110 898.3467 Cold 10.6755
E-102 5 25.64 110 463.8967 Cold 5.4990
E-103 10 84.33 110 1850.697 Cold 72.0957
E-104 14 181.82 35 -2434.0752 Hot 16.5786
E-105 19 231.51 35 -199.627 Hot 1.0159
E-106 22 266.45 35 -31.7711 Hot 0.1373
4.2.3.3 Selection of Minimum Temperature Approach

Minimum temperature approach represents the smallest temperature difference between two
streams entering or exiting of a heat exchanger that can be existed. The typical values for
minimum temperature difference are 10 ℃ to 20 ℃ for petrochemical industry. The of ΔTmin
20 ℃ is assumed for this plant as it is usually employed by most of the industry.
4.2.3.4 Shifting of Stream Table

Data from shifting temperature are used to construct cascade diagram in the next step to
determine the pinch point for heat integration. The formula used for shifted hot and cold
streams temperature are:
1
THot Stream = T − ∆ Tmin = T − 10 ℃
2
1
TCold Stream = T + ∆ Tmin = T + 10 ℃
2
The shifted streams data are shown in Table 4.2.
158
Table 4.2: Shifting Source and Target temperature for Hot and Cold Streams.
Heat Heat Duty Stream Cp

Stream TSource (℃) TTarget (℃)
Exchanger (kW) Type (kW/℃)
E-101 2 35.85 120 898.3467 Cold 10.6755
E-102 5 35.64 120 463.8967 Cold 5.4990
E-103 10 94.33 120 1850.697 Cold 72.0957
E-104 14 171.82 15 -2434.0752 Hot 16.5786
E-105 19 221.51 15 -199.627 Hot 1.0159
E-106 22 256.45 15 -31.7711 Hot 0.1373
4.2.3.5 Construction of Cascade Diagram

The net amount of energy in each temperature interval is shown in cascade diagram. If there is
excess energy in a given temperature interval, this energy can be cascaded down to the next
temperature level. The cold and hot streams duty for every temperature interval illustrated in
Figure 4.2 is determined by using Q = Cp ∆T . The differences in cold and hot duty is
calculated and the results are represented as deficit for positive value and surplus represents
negative value. These values are used in the heat balance section for pinch point determination.
Stream Population
Stream Type Cold Hot Cold Duty Hot Duty Cold - Hot Surplus/
Heat Exchanger E-101 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-105 E-106 (kW) (kW) (kW) Deficit
Cp (kW/℃) 10.6755 5.4990 72.0957 16.5786 1.0159 0.1373
256.45
0.0000 4.7962 -4.7962 Surplus
221.51
0.0000 57.2991 -57.2991 Surplus
171.82
0.0000 918.8601 -918.8601 Surplus
120
2265.8978 455.1745 1810.7233 Deficit
94.33
945.8878 1036.9537 -91.0659 Surplus
35.85
1.1548 3.7237 -2.5689 Surplus
35.64
0.0000 188.6660 -188.6660 Surplus
25
Figure 4.2: Cascade Diagram for Pinch Analysis.
159
4.2.3.6 Heat Balance at Internal Temperature
The net amount of energy at each temperature interval is shown in Figure 4.3.
Qnet (kW)
Temperature (℃) Hot utilities
Trial 1 Trial 2
256.45 0.0000 829.7679
-4.7962
221.51 4.7962 834.5641
-57.2991
171.82 62.0953 891.8632
-918.8601
120 980.9555 1810.7233
1810.7233
94.33 -829.7679 0.0000
-91.0659
35.85 -738.7020 91.0659
-2.5689
35.64 -736.1331 93.6348
-188.6660
25 -547.4671 282.3008
Cold utilities
Figure 4.3: Heat Balance Diagram for Heat Integration.
The amount of net heat flow showed in heat balance diagram must be positive value throughout
the course, if negative value is presented along the cascade diagram, normalization is required
to convert the negative flow to positive flow. From Figure 4.3, the first trial heat energy
balance shown a largest negative flow of 918.8663 kW at 94.33 ℃. In order to normalize the
cascade, it needs to add a maximum heat utility of 918.8663 kW so that there is no negative
heat flow. After the normalization, pinch point is achieved when there is no heat flow. Thus,
the feasible design is having a pinch point at 94.33 ℃. Hot and cold pinch temperatures are
identified using the formula as shown in below:
1
THot Pinch = TPinch + ∆Tmin = 94.33 ℃ + 10 ℃ = 104.33 ℃
2
1
TCold Pinch = TPinch − ∆Tmin = 94.33 ℃ − 10 ℃ = 84.33 ℃
2
160
Figure 4.4: Grand Composite Curve.
4.2.3.7 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN)

In this step, the heat integration between heat duties of each equipment takes place and a new
heat exchanger network can be achieved. This heat integration is done based on the pinch
temperature, 94.33 ℃ which was determined from the previous step. Heat exchanger network
is divided into two sections which are below the pinch and above the pinch. The hot stream is
connected to cold stream to achieve maximum heat recovery in each section based on the
following criteria:
i. Cpin ≤ Cpout
ii. Integration between above pinch and below pinch temperature is not allowed.
iii. If Cp value is too large for either of the stream, consider splitting the stream.
iv. Find arrangement that meet maximum heat recovery as shown in cascade diagram.
v. Remaining heat duty is to be covered by using heater or cooler.
Based on the rules stated above, heat exchanger network (HEN) was generated after pinch
analysis as shown in Figure 4.5 which will be applied in the new process flow diagram.
161
Pinch temperature = 94.33 ℃
Stream Cp (kW/℃) Heat Duty (kW) 251.7810 kW
84.33 ℃
2 10.6755 898.3467 25.85 ℃ 110 ℃
84.33 ℃ 11.9571 kW
5 5.4990 463.8967 25.64 ℃ 110 ℃
84.33 ℃ 566.0209 kW
10 72.0957 1850.697 110 ℃
202.3548 kW
104.33 ℃
14 16.5786 -2434.0752 35 ℃ 181.82 ℃
70.4323 kW
104.33 ℃
19 1.0159 -199.627 35 ℃ 231.51 ℃
9.5190 kW 104.33 ℃
22 0.1373 -31.7711 35 ℃ 266.45 ℃
Cooler Heater
Figure 4.5: Heat Exchanger Network (HEN).
Based on the heat integration in Figure 4.5, integration is performed in both below the pinch
and above the pinch. For below the pinch, S14 is integrated with S02 and S05 by providing
624.3032 kW and 322.7363 kW of energy respectively. S14 required a cooler to remove
additional energy (202.3548 kW) to achieve targeted temperature which is 35 ℃. Besides, S19
and S22 required coolers to remove the additional energy which are 70.4323 kW and 9.5190
kW respectively as there is no extra cold stream can be integrated above the pinch temperature.
For below the pinch temperature, S14 is integrated with S10 by providing 1284.6757 kW of
energy to S10. However, S10 still lack of 566.0209 kW of energy, thus a heater is installed to
achieve targeted temperature 110 ℃. Furthermore, S19 is integrated with S05 by providing
141.1593 kW of energy to S05. However, there is 11.9571 kW of insufficient energy in S05,
thus a heater is installed to achieve targeted temperature 110 ℃. In addition, S22 is providing
22.2591 kW of energy to S02 by integration but there is still lack of 251.7810 kW of energy in
S02, therefore a heater required to install to achieve the targeted temperature, 110 ℃.
4.2.3.8 Maximum Energy Recovery

After heat integration using pinch analysis, the maximum energy recovery (MER) for cold and
hot utility are determined. In order to calculate the percentage of energy saving, the formula
below is employed:
Heat Duty Before HEN − Heat Duty After HEN

% of Energy Saving = × 100
Heat Duty Before HEN
The summary of heat duty for heat exchangers before and after MER and percentage of energy
saving after MER are shown in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 respectively.
162
Table 4.3: Summary of Heat Duty for Heat Exchangers Before and After MER.
Before MER After MER

Heat
Stream Cooling Duty Heating Duty Cooling Duty Heating Duty
Exchanger
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
2 E-101 - 898.3467 - 251.781
5 E-102 - 463.8967 - 11.9571
10 E-103 - 1850.697 - 566.0209
14 E-104 2434.0752 - 202.3548 -
19 E-105 199.627 - 70.4323 -
22 E-106 31.7711 - 9.519 -
Total: 2665.4733 3212.9404 282.3061 829.759
Table 4.4 shows that after performing MER, the plant is able to save energy and cost as the
maximum energy recovery is achievable. There is total 2918.4336 kW energy can be recovered
from the system. It depicts that 86.07 % and 71.40 % of energy are saved from cooling and
heating processes respectively. All sizing affected by the newly proposed HEN were revised
and re-updated for all equipment. The network shown in Figure 4.6 is designed to provide the
maximum heat recovery.
Table 4.4: Summary of Energy Usage.
Specification Before MER After MER Saving (%)

Cold utility consumption (kW) 2665.4733 282.3061 89.4088
Hot utility consumption (kW) 3212.9404 829.759 74.1745
Total consumption (kW) 5878.4137 1112.0651 81.0822
Table 4.5 depicts the totals cost of heat exchangers required and utilities cost for before and
after heat integration. It shows that the payback period is around 11 months to obtain the capital
cost of additional heat exchanger if the new heat exchanger network is chosen as there is extra
five heat exchangers required compared to previous network. Thus, it can be concluded that
the new heat exchanger network is feasible to apply in the production cost as it can help for
cost saving in terms of steam and cooling water utilities in long term.
Table 4.5: Comparison of Heat Exchanger and Utilities Cost Before and After Heat
Integration.
Before Heat After Heat

Aspects Difference
Integration Integration
Number of Heat Exchanger 6 11 5
Total Equipment Cost of
3,128,673.08 5,735,900.65 2,607,227.57
Heat Exchangers (RM)
Cost of Utilities (RM/yr) 3,479,634.49 837,980.27 2,641,654.22
163
4.2.4 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram
TK-101 P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B R-101 TK-103 TK-105 Stream Indicators:
T-101 to T-103
Propylene Oxide Tank Pump Catalytic Hydrolysis Monopropylene Tripropylene
Distillation Columns
Reactor Glycol Tank Glycol Tank : Process Stream : Steam In : Cooling Water In
TK-102 T-104 TK-104 : Heat Integrated : Steam out : Cooling Water Out
E-101 to E-111 VLV-101
Water Tank Cooling Tower Dipropylene Glycol Tank Stream
Heat Exchangers Relief Valve
Steam In
T-104 110 102 84

84
9 9 9
1
47.2
1
16 15 14
13 22
26 84.3 86.4 110 E-108 E-107
25 9 9 9 P-103 A/B
9
1
110
2 3 4 5
1 9 35
E-101 E-102 E-103 11 182 35 2
P-101 A/B 110
1 1
1.2
24
19 23
12 183
TK-101 VLV-101 183 1.4 E-109
21 P-105 A/B
1
84.9
1
R-101 18
233
17 TK-103
T-101 1
104 P-104 A/B

25
1 T-102
28
26 84.3 108 110

25 9
9 9 9 35
1 35
104 2
7 8 9 10 1
1 232
6
30
E-104 E-105 E-106 1 29
20
P-102 A/B
E-110
27 P-107 A/B
104
TK-102 1
233 TK-104
32 1.4
26
266 35
1 35
2
P-106 A/B 1
31
T-103 34
33
E-111 P-108 A/B
TK-105
Steam Out
Figure 4.6: Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram.
164
4.3 Process Utilities
Process utilities are now generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production. Reliable and efficient utility systems are an important requirement for the
successful operation for a production plant. Central site facility will supply utility services such
as electricity, steam for heating and cooling processes, water for general use, compressed air,
demineralized water, inert gas supplied and effluent disposal facilities. The requirement
process utilities for propylene glycol production will be discussed in detail. In this stage, it
consists of steam consumption, cooling water and electricity used in this proposed plant.
4.3.1 Steam Consumption

Steam is widely used in the wide range of industries. Usually as a source of heating process, as
an aid to hydrolysis reaction and as the steam driven turbines in electric power as well. There
is also some typical application for steam in industry which are for cleaning purpose,
moisturization, humidification and atomization purpose. For heating process, steam is
generated and distributed at a positive pressure. Typically, at pressure above 0 psig (0 MPaG)
with the temperature higher than 100 ℃ (212 ℉) (Walker, 2018). In heat exchanger, steam
will raise the temperature of the product by heat transfer before it turns into condensate and
discharged through a stream trap. The steam is purchased from the Central Utilities and
Facilities (CUF) in Gebeng to operate the plant. Equation that involved:
Qabsorbed = Qreleased = ṁsteam Cp,steam (Tout − Tin )
Cp,steam = 1.996 kJ/kg⸳K, Δ Tmin = 20 ℃
Based on calculation, the total cost for steam utilities is about RM 206,856,864.30 per year.
Cp, steam = 1.996 kJ/kg⸳K, ΔTmin = 20 ℃.
Table 4.6: Cost of Types Process Steam in 2001 year (Turton, 2009).
Type of Process Steam (Latent heat only) Cost (RM/1000kg)

With credit for power 115.232
Low Pressure Steam (5 barg, 160 ˚C)
Without credit for power 121.8464
With credit for power 117.7696
Medium Pressure Steam (10 barg, 184 ˚C)
Without credit for power 123.0944
High Pressure Steam (41 barg, 254 ˚C) - 124.6752
*All the cost of steam is calculated by using price with credit for power.
165
Table 4.7: Summary of Steam Consumption used by the Equipment.
Actual Type of Process Mass flow

No. Equipment
Power (kW) Steam rate (kg/s)
Distillation Medium Pressure
1. Column, Reboiler 66704.8173 Steam (10 barg, 184 1670.9624
T-101 ˚C)
Distillation
High Pressure Steam
2. Column, Reboiler 5922.1760 148.3511
(41 barg, 254 ˚C)
T-102
Distillation
High Pressure Steam
3. Column, Reboiler 599.9780 15.0295
(41 barg, 254 ˚C)
T-103
Low Pressure Steam
4. Heat Exchanger, E-103 251.781 6.3071
(5 barg, 160 ˚C)
Low Pressure Steam
5. Heat Exchanger, E-106 11.9571 0.2995
(5 barg, 160 ˚C)
Low Pressure Steam
6. Heat Exchanger, E-108 566.0209 14.1789
(5 barg, 160 ˚C)
Table 4.8: Summary of Cost for Steam Consumption.
Types of steam Mass flow rate (kg/s) Cost (RM/s)

Low pressure steam 20.7855 0.02
Medium pressure steam 1670.9624 1.30
High pressure steam 163.3806 0.13
Total: 1.45
With 8000 operating hours per year,

RM 1.45 hr s
Total steam consumption cost = × 8000 × 3600
s yr hr
= RM 41,739,791.19 /year
The formula below is to calculate for utility cost in year 2022. The Chemical Engineering Plant
Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2022 is 695.5 (Chemical Engineering, 2018) and CEPCI for the base
year 2001 is 394.3.
I2022
C2022 = C2001 ( )
I2001
RM 41,739,791.19 695.5
C2022 = × ( ) = RM73,535,737.57/yr
yr 394.3
Therefore, the cost for utility steam consumption is RM 73,535,737.57/yr.
166
4.3.2 Cooling Water Consumption
Cooling water is used in the plant as a source of coolant for heat removal from equipment. It is
more efficient heat transfer fluid instead of cooling air due to water has a high boiling point,
high heat of vaporization and high specific heat. In industry, cooling process can be critical to
ensure the processes do not cause the equipment or products to overheat. Efficient removal of
heat is an economic requirement in the design and operation of cooling system. There are
several ways to set up an industrial cooling system, but the three basic types are once-through
cooling system, closed recirculating system or known as dry cooling tower and open
recirculating tower or wet cooling tower. In this case, open recirculating tower is used with the
range of average temperature change of 10 to 30 ˚F (Peters, 2018) . The source of water for
this plant is from Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad (PAIP) with the rate of industrial water at
RM 0.84/m3 (National Water Services Comission, 2017). This water is used to cool down the
component and to maintain the desired temperature in reactor
for optimum reaction and will be regenerated then for continuous use in the plant. Table 4.9
shown below is the summary of cooling water consumption cost with the calculation involved.
Cp, cw = 4.1870 kJ/kg⸳K, Tin = 30 ℃ and Tout = 45 ℃.
Table 4.9: Summary of Cooling Water Consumption.
Actual Power Mass flow rate Volumetric flow

No. Equipment
(kW) (kg/hr) rate (m3/hr)
1 Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 6519.9749 373726.7676 373.7268
2 Heat Exchanger, E-109 202.3548 11599.0332 11.5990
3 Heat Exchanger, E-110 70.4323 4037.1989 4.0372
4 Heat Exchanger, E-111 9.5190 598.4122 0.5984
5 Distillation
Condenser 67365.3239 3861399.0294 3861.3990
Column, T-101
6 Distillation
Condenser 5868.6368 336391.8873 336.3919
Column, T-101
7 Distillation
Condenser 597.0457 34222.8249 34.2228
Column, T-101
Total: 80559.9987 4621922.3731 4621.9224
167
Table 4.10: Cost of Cooling Water.
Types Cooling Water

Total cooling water flow (kg/hr) 4621922.3731
Cooling tower duty (kJ/hr) 2.8979 × 1011
Amount of water evaporated from tower (kg/hr) 119883.5447
Water makeup (kg/hr) 149859.5891
Pump power (kW) 456.5432
Fan power (kW) 417.6232
Total cost (RM/yr) 3,993,208.86
Therefore, the cost for utility cooling water consumption is RM 3,993,208.86/yr.
4.3.3 Electricity
The sources of electricity in Malaysia is provided by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) with
cooperation with Malaysian government, which provide a suitable power quality needed by the
customer so that equipment can be operated and get some production. Tenaga Nasional Berhad
(TNB) is the monopoly generator and supplier of electrical power in Peninsular Malaysia.
Pumps in the production plant required electricity to operate. The electricity consumption is
calculated based on the Table 4.12.
Table 4.11: Industries Tariff for Electrical Usage of Tenaga Nasional Berhad (Tenaga
Nasional, 2018).
TARIFF CATEGORY CURRENT RATE (1 JAN 2018)

TARIFF D – LOW VOLTAGE INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For the first 200 kWh (1-200kWh) per 38.00 sen/kWh
month
For the next kWh (201 kWh onwards) per 44.10 sen/kWh
month
TARIFF DS – SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF (FOR CONSUMERS WHO
QUALIFY ONLY)
For all kWh 42.70 sen/kWh
TARIFF E1 – MEDIUM VOLTAGE GENERAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per 29.60 RM/kWh
month
TARIFF E1S – SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF (FOR CONSUMERS WHO
QUALIFY ONLY)
168
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per 23.70 RM/kWh
month
TARIFF E2 – MEDIUM VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF–PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per 37.00 RM/kW
month during the peak period
For all kWh during the peak period 35.50 sen/kWh
For all kWh during the peak off-period 21.90 sen/kWh
TARIFF E2S – SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF (FORCONSUMERS WHO
QUALIFY ONLY)
TARIFF E3 – HIGH VOLTAGE PEAK/OFF–PEAK INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
TARIFF E3S – SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL TARIFF (FORCONSUMERS WHO
QUALIFY ONLY)
Table 4.12: Summary of Electricity Consumption.
No. Equipment Actual Power (kW)

1 Pump P-101 8.3742
2 Pump P-102 3.4821
3 Pump P-103 22.2481
4 Pump P-104 0.2481
5 Pump P-105 0.2003
6 Pump P-106 0.0439
7 Pump P-107 0.0305
8 Pump P-108 0.0038
Total: 34.6310
169
Taking 8000 operating hours per year, the total electric consumption is as shown:
8000 hours
E = Pt = 34.6310 kW × = 277 048 kWh/yr
1 yr
The electricity is charged at a rate of RM 0.427/kWh,
Electricity cost = 277 048kwh/yr × RM0.427/kwh = RM 118,299.50/yr
Therefore, the cost for utility electricity consumption is RM 118,299.50/yr.
4.4 Economic Potential 4

The economic potential Level 4 is performed by considering the cost of utilities for the
production plant. The economic potential in level 3 is RM402.02 million per year. Economic
Potential 4 is calculated by using the following equation:
Economic Potential 4 (EP 4) = EP3 − Cost of Utilities
The cost of utilities is summarized in the Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Summary of Utilities Cost for Equipment.
Types of Utilities Cost (RM/year)

Steam 73,535,737.57
Cooling tower 3,993,208.86
Electricity 118,299.50
Total: 77,647,245.93
Economic Potential 4 (EP 4) = EP3 − Cost of Utilities
= RM 402.02 million/yr − RM 77.65 million/yr
= RM 324.37 million/yr
From the calculations above, the economic potential in Level 4 after considering utilities cost
is RM 324.37 million/yr.
170
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING & COSTING
5.1 Process Equipment Sizing

Equipment design for this chapter included all equipment in the plant and selection of material
construction. There are total of 29 equipment which are hydrolysis reactor, distillation column,
heat exchangers, pumps, storage tanks and cooling tower. The material construction depends
on temperature and pressure of the equipment and the corrosive level. Table 5.1 shows the
total quantity of each identical equipment.
Table 5.1: Quantity of Identical Equipment.
Equipment Quantity
Hydrolysis reactor 1
Distillation column 3
Heat exchanger 11
Pump 8
Storage tank 5
Valve 1
Cooling tower 1
Total 29
5.2 Major Equipment Sizing

The major equipment in the production of propylene glycol plant are reactor (R-101),
distillation columns (T-101, T-102 and T-103), heat exchangers (E-101, E-102, E-103, E-104,
E-105, E-106, E-107, E-108, E-109, E-110 and E-111). The specification data sheets of each
equipment are shown as below.
5.2.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)

In a fluidized bed CSTR, one or more fluid reactants are introduced into a tank reactor with
minimum fluidizing velocity while the reactor effluent is removed continuously. The contents
of the reactors are completely mixed so that the complete contents of the reactors are at constant
concentration and temperature as the product stream. The flow rate of inlet and outlet streams
of reactor, as well as reactors conditions are remained unchanged since the reactor is designed
for steady state. Simply dividing the volume of the tank by the average volumetric flow rate
through the tank gives the residence time, or the average amount of time a discrete quantity of
reagent spends inside the tank.
171
Table 5.2: Design Specification Sheet of Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101.
Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 Specification Sheet

Item : Reactor Date : 22th February 2019
Code : R-101 By : Felicia Tan Heng Yee
General
Function: To produce monopropylene glycol from hydrolysis of propylene oxide
Type : Fluidized bed CSTR
Operating condition
Temperature (oC) 110
Pressure (bar) 9
Coolant Cooling water
Catalyst
Type Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3-
Weight (kg) 21002.358
Shape Spherical
Diameter (mm) 0.62
Bulk density (kg/m )3 690
3
Catalyst density (kg/m ) 1080
Reactor vessel
Design type Vertical
Volume (m )3 30.4382
Height (m) 3.3841
Diameter (m) 3.3841
Wall thickness (mm) 30
Residence time (h) 0.6357
Minimum fluidizing velocity (m/s) 1.4787 × 10-3
Material of construction Stainless Steel 304
Wire mesh screen
Width of opening (mm) 0.4318
Wire diameter (mm) 0.4064
Area of wire mesh screen (mm2) 8.9944
Construction type Plain
Construction material Stainless Steel 304
Total number of mesh 12547213.11
Cooling jacket
2
Jacket area (m ) 45.9321
Cooling water requirements (kg/s) 23.6081
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 700,045.24
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 324,690.51
172
5.2.2 Distillation Column (T-101)
Distillation column is an equipment used to separate a mixture of two (or more) components
into its virgin state by heating the mixture to a temperature between their respective boiling
points. In the production propylene glycol, three series of distillation columns (T-101, T-102
and T-103) are used to separate and purify the desired products.
Table 5.3: Design Specification Sheet of Distillation Column, T-101.
Distillation Column, T-101 Specification Sheet

Item : Distillation Column Date : 26th February 2019
Code : T-101 By : Nurul Izatie Ismanni
General
Function : To separate monopropylene glycol, dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol
from unreacted propylene oxide and water.
Type : Sieve tray column

Operation : Continuous Orientation : Vertical
Material of
Construction: Stainless steel 304
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S12 S13 (Top) S17 (Bottom)
Temperature (℃) 110 84.3327 183.322
Pressure (bar) 1.2 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 82158.1717 61489.6134 20668.5583
Vapor Fraction 0 0 0
Composition (kg/hr)
Propylene Oxide 1594.5844 1594.5844 0
Water 59953.1054 59893.1523 59.9531
Monopropylene
Glycol 18755.0000 1.87550 18753.1246
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1371 0 206.1371
Operational Design
Feed Pressure (bar) 1.2
Feed Temperature (℃) 110
Liquid Flow Pattern Single Pass Tray
Feed Tray 4
Reflux Ratio 0.7318
Mechanical Design
M.O.C : Stainless steel 304
Wall Thickness(cm) : 0.2239
Corrosion Allowance (mm) : 2
Closure for Packed Column
Type of Head Torispherical
173
Vessel Support
Type of Vessel Support Skirt
Skirt Height (m) 1.5
Column
Column Diameter (m) 3
Column Height (m) 10.845
Tray Spacing (m) 0.6
Column Cross Sectional Area (m2) 9.3601
Number of Trays 9
Provisional Plate Design
Type of Tray/Plate Sieve Tray
Tray M.O.C Stainless steel 304
Plate Thickness (mm) 5
Plate Area :
i. Down Corner Area (m2) 1.1232
ii. Net Area (m2) 8.2368
iii. Active Area(m2) 7.1136
iv. Hole Area (m2) 0.7114
Hole Design
Hole Diameter (mm) 5
Single Hole Area (m2) 1.96 ×10-5
Number of Holes 36221
Hole Pitch (mm) 13.4396
Weir Design
Weir Height (mm) 50
Entrainment
Percent Flooding (%) 32.36
Fractional Entrainment 0.0045
Plate Pressure Drop (mm liquid) 81.7965
Residence Time (s) 12.7106
Perforated Area (m2) 6.6208
Total Column Cost (RM) 4,094,546.73
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 69,592,737.04
174

Item : Distillation Column Date : 26th February 2019
Code : T-102 By : Janagaraj A/L Sukumaran
General
Function : To separate monopropylene glycol from dipropylene glycol and tripropylene
glycol.
Material of
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
Temperature (℃) 183.34 181.82 233.31
Quantity (kg/hr) 20668.5584 18811.6025 1856.9560
Composition (kg/hr)
Propylene Oxide 0 0 0
Water 59.9531 59.9531 0
Monopropylene 18753.1246 18750.0000 3.1246
Glycol
Tripropylene Glycol 206.1371 0 206.1371
Operational Design
Feed Temperature (℃) 183.34
Feed Tray 3
Reflux Ratio 0.5889
Mechanical Design
M.O.C : Stainless Steel 304
Vessel Support
Column
Column Height (m) 9.8430
175
Number of Trays 7
Plate Area :
Hole Design
Hole Diameter(mm) 5
Hole Pitch(mm) 14
Weir Design
Weir Height(mm) 50
Entrainment
176

Item : Distillation Column Date : 3rd March 2019
Code : T-103 By : Abdul Wafie Afnan bin Abdul
Hadi
General
Function : To separate dipropylene glycol from tripropylene glycol.
Material of
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
Temperature (℃) 233.33 231.51 266.45
Quantity (kg/hr) 1856.96 1650.2 206.754
Composition (kg/hr)
Propylene Oxide 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0
Monopropylene 3.125 3.125 0
Glycol
Operational Design
Feed Temperature (℃) 233.33
Feed Tray 3
Reflux Ratio 1.8669
Mechanical Design
M.O.C : Stainless Steel 304
Vessel Support
Column
Column Height (m) 9
Number of Trays 6
177
Plate Area :
Hole Design
Hole Diameter(mm) 5
Hole Pitch(mm) 14
Weir Design
Weir Height(mm) 50
Entrainment
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 625,513.70
178
5.2.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111)
Table 5.6: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-101 to E-105.
Heat Exchangers Specification Sheet

Design Type Split Ring Floating Head
Material Stainless Steel
Date 1st March 2019
By Nurul Izatie Ismanni
Identification No. E-101 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-105
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 898.3467 463.8967 251.781 2434.0752 321.606
Shell Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 26 84.3 84.3 26 84.3
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 84.3 86.4 86.4 84.3 108
• Flow rate (kg/s) 4.4297 4.4297 4.4297 5.2254 5.2254
Tube Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 266 84.9 106.4 232 104
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 104 47.2 47.2 104 84.9
• Flow rate (kg/s) 0.05743 6.3071 6.3071 0.4584 1.3116
Heat Transfer Area per tube (m2) 0.5841 0.5841 0.4381 0.4868 0.5948
Heat Transfer Area (m2) 199.1781 261.6768 261.5457 83.7296 277.1768
Number of passes 1 2 2 1 1
Number of tubes per pass, Nt 341 448 597 172 466
Reynold number, NRe 9500 6268 2463 2586 3312
Fluid velocity, v (m/s) 0.1488 0.0797 0.3132 0.0151 0.0045
Tube Inside diameter, di (m) 0.02753 0.0339 0.0339 0.0262 0.0285
Tube outside diameter, do (m) 0.03175 0.0381 0.0381 0.0318 0.0388
Length of tube, L (m) 4.88 4.88 3.66 3.66 4.88
Bundle diameter, Db (m) 0.8939 1.1000 1.0000 0.6556 1.2000
Shell Internal diameter, Ds (m) 0.9519 1.3009 1.4676 0.7251 1.3374
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U (W/m2 ℃) 61.3570 462.7343 1106.4256 57.3714 90.9356
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi
76.2551 289152.195 227198.638 76.0151 185.2612
(W/m2 ℃)
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs
1442.9341 594.3282 466.9878 1174.9408 345.3682
(W/m2 ℃)
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 217,714.32 441,442.32 639,188.55 639,188.55 276,321.50
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) - - 250,009.71 - -
179
Table 5.7: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-106 to E-109.
Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet
Date 1st March 2019
Identification No. E-106 E-107 E-108 E-109
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 11.7571 1313.365 566.0209 202.2348
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 108 84 102 30
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 110 102 110 45
• Flow rate (kg/s) 18.3921 61489.6134 61489.6134 61489.6134
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 128 182 130 47.2
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 118 104 110 35
• Flow rate (kg/s) 6.3071 5.2254 6.3071 3.2220
Heat Transfer Area per tube (m2) 0.2921 0.4461 0.3651 0.3651
Heat Transfer Area (m2) 21.0312 86.5453 59.1462 81.0522
Number of passes 1 1 1 1
Number of tubes per pass, Nt 72 194 162 222
Reynold number, NRe 3519 8711 2964 2115
Fluid velocity, v (m/s) 3.0799 1984.7350 2029.9530 2376.7290
Tube Inside diameter, di (m) 0.0186 0.0285 0.0275 0.0275
Tube outside diameter, do (m) 0.0254 0.0388 0.0318 0.0318
Length of tube, L (m) 3.66 3.66 3.66 3.66
Bundle diameter, Db (m) 0.3527 0.8456 0.6377 0.7360
Shell Internal diameter, Ds (m) 0.4067 0.9126 0.7077 0.8060
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
1934.9324 247.9076 1855.3756 647.3493
(W/m2 ℃)
439.6710 397.9295 446.9891 1209.2109
(W/m2 ℃)
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs 19092.9435
11156.10 11129.8033 20471.8112
(W/m2 ℃)
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 379,532.61 608,265.08 359,660.14 974,409.95
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 11,872.98 - 562,038.92 10,077.14
180
Table 5.8: Design Specification Sheet of Heat Exchangers, E-110 and E-111.
Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet
Date 1st March 2019
Identification No. E-110 E-111
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 70.4323 9.519
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 30 30
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 45 45
• Flow rate (kg/s) 1.1214 1.1214
• Inlet Temperature (°C) 104 104
• Outlet Temperature (°C) 35 35
• Flow rate (kg/s) 0.4584 0.05743
Heat Transfer Area per tube (m2) 0.1947 0.1095
Heat Transfer Area (m2) 0.1947 0.1095
Number of passes 1 1
Number of tubes per pass, Nt 47 16
Reynold number, NRe 8752 2671
Fluid velocity, v (m/s) 0.2381 0.8456
Tube Inside diameter, di (m) 0.0199 0.0135
Tube outside diameter, do (m) 0.0254 0.0191
Length of tube, L (m) 2.44 1.83
Bundle diameter, Db (m) 0.2916 0.3091
Shell Internal diameter, Ds (m) 0.3431 0.3923
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
201.5771 88.6960
(W/m2 ℃)
322.5013 134.4727
(W/m2 ℃)
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs
2463.2114 6122.9750
(W/m2 ℃)
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 674,077.30 526,100.33
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 3,507.48 474.04
181
5.3 Minor Equipment Sizing
The mior equipment in the production of propylene glycol plant are pumps (P-101, P-102, P-
103, P-104, P-105, P-106, P-107 and P-108), storage tank (TK-101, TK-102, TK-103, TK-104
and TK-105), valve (VLV-101) and cooling tower (T-104). The specification data sheets of
each equipment are shown as below.
5.3.1 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105)

Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed gases (gas tank) or mediums used for
the short- or long-term storage of heat or cold. There are total five storage tanks used to store the
reactants and products and all of them are in liquid phase.
Table 5.9: Design Specification Sheet of Storage Tanks, TK-101 to TK-105.
Storage Tanks Specification Sheet

By Janagaraj A/L Sukumaran
Date 26th February 2019
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
Type of storage tank Floating roof
Inventory Liquid propylene oxide
No. of tanks 1
Duration (days) 7
To store propylene Material Stainless steel
TK-101 3
oxide. Volume (m ) 3584.22
Height (m) 9.5
Diameter (m) 22.51
Height of roof (m) 0.66
Equipment cost (RM) 7,666,582.10
Inventory Liquid water
No. of tanks 1
Duration (days) 7
Material Stainless steel
TK-102 To store water. 3
Volume (m ) 877.87
Height (m) 9.5
Diameter (m) 11.41
Liquid monopropylene
Inventory
glycol
To store No. of tanks 1
TK-103 monopropylene
Duration (days) 4
glycol.
Material Stainless steel
3
Volume (m ) 1949.18
Height (m) 9.5
182
Diameter (m) 16.61
Liquid dipropylene
Inventory
glycol
No. of tanks 1
Duration (days) 4
To store dipropylene
TK-104 Material Stainless steel
glycol.
Volume (m3) 171.45
Height (m) 9.5
Diameter (m) 4.92
Inventory Liquid tripropylene
glycol
No. of tanks 1
Duration (days) 4
To store tripropylene
TK-105 Material Stainless steel
glycol.
Volume (m3) 21.46
Height (m) 9.5
Diameter (m) 1.74
183
5.3.2 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B)
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups
according to the method they use to move fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating
or rotary), ad consume energy to perform mechanical work. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines,
or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.
Table 5.10: Design Specification Sheet of Pumps, P-101 to P-104.
Pump Specification Sheet
Date :3rd March 2019

By : Abdul Wafie Afnan bin Abdul Hadi
General
To increase the pressure To increase the pressure To increase the pressure for To increase the pressure
Function of propylene oxide water before fed into recycle stream before before fed into second
before fed into reactor. reactor. entering into reactor. distillation column.
Type Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Material Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel
Operating Data
P-101 P-102 P-103 P-104
Inlet Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1
Outlet Pressure (bar) 9 9 9 1.4
Design Sizing
P-101 P-102 P-103 P-104
Mass flow rate (kg/h) 15946.9 4721.63 61489.6 20668.6
Efficiency (%) 80 70 80 72
Power consumption (kW) 5.3875 1.5080 18.3643 0.3751
Estimated cost (RM) 296,827.70 322,226.00 296,827.70 79,151.50
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 28,606.27 11,894.85 75,999.51 847.51
184
Table 5.11: Design Specification Sheet of Pumps, P-105 to P-108.
Pump Specification Sheet
Date :3rd March 2019

By : Abdul Wafie Afnan bin Abdul Hadi
General
To increase the To increase the pressure of
To increase the pressure of To increase the pressure
pressure of dipropylene glycol and
Function dipropylene glycol before of Tripropylene glycol
monopylene glycol tripropylene glycol to third
enter DPG tank. before entering TPG tank.
to MPG tank. distillation column.
Type Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Material Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel
Operating Data
P-105 P-106 P-107 P-108
Inlet Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1
Outlet Pressure (bar) 2 1.4 2 2
Design Sizing
P-105 P-106 P-107 P-108
Mass flow rate (kg/h) 18811.6 1856.96 1650.2 206.754
Efficiency (%) 70 65 65 50
Power consumption (kW) 0.7250 0.0399 0.0693 0.0113
Estimated cost (RM) 79,151.50 79,904.87 79,904.87 83,121.21
Equipment utility cost (RM/yr) 684.22 149.96 104.19 12.98
185
5.3.3 Valve (VLV-101)
The optimum sizing of pressure relief devices is essential to safely protect a piping system from
overpressurization. An undersized system would not be in a position to relieve the system
effectively and an oversized system will result in unnecessary material and labor costs. Table
4-14 introduces the types of pressure reducing valves used in industry.
Table 5.12: Type of Pressure Reducing Valves used in Industry.
No. Type of industrial valves Specifications

1 Valve for Hygiene Applications | Ultrapure • Double-seat angled valve for large
flow rate
Media (DM 462)
• Usable for liquids, gases, steam
• Tmax = 180 C, P1 up to 8 bar, P2 =
0.3 to 5 bar
2 Weight Loaded Pressure Reducing Valve • Balanced straight-way valve for

medium and very high flow rates
(DM 3,4)
• Useable for liquids, gases and steam
• Tmax = 280 C, P1 up to 40 bar, P2 =
0.5 to 10 bar
3 High Pressure Valve, Medium and High • Single-seat straight-way valve for
medium and high flow rates with
Flow Rates (DM 620 – 628)
balanced cone
• Usable for liquids and gases
• Hard-faced valve cone and seat
available for high pressure drops
• Tmax = 200 C, P1 up to 315 bar, P2
= 2 to 160 bar
186
Table 5.13: Design Specification Sheet of Valve (VLV-101).
Pressure Reducing Valve Specification

By Abdul Wafie Afnan Bin Abdul Hadi
Date 26th February 2019
Identification No. VLV-101
Type of valve Weight Loaded Pressure Reducing Valve (DM 3,4)
To reduce pressure before entering distillation column (T-
Function
101).
Operating Condition
Inlet Pressure 9 bar
Outlet Pressure 1.2 bar
Volumetric
1369.3 L/min
flow rate
Equipment cost (RM) 579.60 to 20,700
187
5.3.4 Cooling Tower (T-104)
The cooling water utility cost for producing a circulating cooling water stream using a
mechanical draft cooling tower. Flow cooling water required in the plant is 4621922.3731 kg/hr
used in cooling process for reactor (R-101), heat exchangers (E-109, E-110 and E-111) and
condensers in distillation columns (T-101, T-102 and T-103). Detail calculation steps for the
cooling tower are shown in Appendix I.2. The summary of its sizing is tabulated in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14: Design Specification Sheet of Cooling Tower, T-104.
Cooling tower, T-104 Specification Sheet

Item : Cooling tower Date : 22th February 2019
Code : T-104 By : Felicia Tan Heng Yee
General
Function: To produce cooling water for utility purpose.
Operation Condition
Temperature (℃) 30
Pressure (bar) 1
Mass flow rate of water (kg/hr) 4621922.3731
Amount of water evaporated (kg/hr) 119883.5447
Water makeup (kg/hr) 149859.5891
Specifications
Energy removal (kW) 80497.2222
Actual pump power: 75% efficiency (kW) 456.5432
Fan power (kW) 417.6232
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 992,638.19
188
CHAPTER 6
PROCESS CONTROL & SAFETY STUDIES
6.1 Introduction
All the safety analysis was done in this chapter. Information such as Material Safety Data,
DOW Fire and Explosion Index, and toxicity of materials were summarized and discussed in
detail. Besides, major equipment controls were outlined and determined. Lastly, a Process &
Instrumentation Diagram was done for the whole production plant. In addition, Hazard and
Operability Studies (HAZOP) was done for all major equipment in the designed plant.
Availability of advanced technology enables the chemical industries to embark into more complex
processes which involve higher pressure, more reactive chemicals and exotic chemistry. As
chemical process technology become more complex, chemical engineers need a better fundamental
understanding of safety in designing an industrial plant to minimize the likelihood of accidents to
happen and to assure the safety of the plant.
Safety is an important aspect in industry especially to the employees in the plant that always
exposed to life-threatening situations. Moreover, a safe and comfortable working environment
plays a very important part to assume the efficient production of the plant. Furthermore, a safe and
comfortable working environment plays a very important part to assume the efficient production
of the plant. Therefore, a process safety should always be considered during the early stage of
design of the plant with fully co-operation with the management, contractors, employees and
specialist in environment and industrial health.
6.1.1 General Safety Procedure

There are three major hazards in a process plant such as hazardous and corrosive chemicals,
fire and explosion and mechanical accidents which are common to all industrial activities
Unfortunately, hazards are not always identified until an accident occurs. Hence, safety training
Regarding to general safety procedures for the plant should be practiced by the workers before
the plant start its operation. This is one of the steps to ensure the process and operation in safe
condition throughout the life of a plant.
189
6.1.2 Chemical Storage
Chemical storage plays a vital role in a plant where various hazardous chemicals are stored.
The location of the storage tank should be at a suitable placing that avoid any form of
unnecessary risk. Some important aspects of storage layout are (Wiley,2012):
• Proper embankment of storage tank should be done to control spillage. Piping, valves, and
flanges should be kept to a minimum when located within the embankment and most likely
to be installed outside the dikes area.
• The storage tank should be kept away from process areas. This is because fire and explosion
in a process unit maybe endanger the tank.
• Secondary containment systems such drain valve and emergency exit door are considered
passive protective systems to the storage tank can be considered.
The design of the storage should be considered properly in order to eliminate the possibilities
of fireball, vapor cloud explosion (VCE), and toxic cloud.
6.1.3 Transportation
Transportation of chemicals inside the plant is a part of the daily routine. Many accidentals
released of hazardous liquid in process plant occurred at road and rail tanker of loading and
unloading stations. Thus, a safe handling program must be practiced by every personnel. This
is because they will be one closely associated with these materials and indirectly the safety of
the other workers is depending on them. Besides that, sites for loading and unloading stations
should be carefully selected with proper roof covering and good ventilation to protect the
transfer of chemicals to the storage (Daniel & Joseph, 1990).
Besides that, handling of hazardous material depends on:
• State of material: Liquid, solid or gas.

• Method of transport: Piping, ducts, conveyors, and tanks.
• Method of storage: Tanks, hoppers and pallets.
In our plant, the workers involved in mainly liquid handling of raw materials and some liquid
handling. On the site, the hazardous liquid handling must be transported and stored according
to the appropriate codes and standards. For example, aqueous NaOH, liquid butyraldehydes, 2-
Ethylhexenal and 2-Ethylhexanol are addressed to the hazard of handling and storing of liquid
chemicals. Furthermore, specially designed piping system with necessary safety devices such
as relief valve and backflow preventer (check valve) should be installed for transferring
190
hazardous liquid to tank car or trunks. On the other hand, the storage of solid material (if any)
usually generates dust in the plant. The generated dust that dispersed in air at certain
concentration and are exposed to a source of ignition will caused fire and explosion. In order
to minimize the dust escape, the filling bin can provide with metal or fabric skirt and air return
duct. The maintenance of every chemical handling should be well maintained for the safety of
the process plant.
6.1.4 Permit Procedures

Permit and licenses are required by law before a plant is permitted to operate. It is very
important every employee in the plant to acquire a permit before any operation such as hot
work, electric work to begin and confined space entry. In a plant, hot-work permit involving
welding, cutting and open flame is usually requires for operation because the operation
involves flame and produces sparks. The permit intended to prevent fire or injury to person
doing the work. A plant may choose to have specialized permits to regulate certain types of
work such as after-hours work and vehicle operation. All of this permit introduced in the plant
is to ensure that certain work is informed and is performed safely in the plant. Here are some
guidelines needs for documentation (Daniel & Joseph, 1990):
• Define the work to be done: Locations and area affected.

• Set duration for working period.
• Remove, or clearly mark all hazardous materials and conditions.
• Prepare the working sites.
• Notify all personnel in and around the area of the work.
• Restrict access to the work area.
• Provide all necessary safety, emergency and personal equipment.
6.1.5 General Worker Safety

The safety of personnel is very important when working in the industrial plant. Every worker
should be familiarized with the safety instructions and danger signs around the plant. Besides
that, employees in the plant should have undergo safety training for emergency response to
ensure they are aware of every emergency escape plan in the plant. In additional, the employers
are also required to prove effective information and train employees on the hazards of the
hazardous chemicals in the work area. At least, employee training must include: methods and
observations that may be used to detect the present or release of a hazardous chemical in the
191
work area such as monitoring on any visual appearance or odour of hazardous chemicals when
being released. Some of the safety rules should be informed to the workers is:
• No smoking except in specific areas designated for smoking.

• No eating, drinking of alcoholic liquor.
• Report all accidents to the supervisor.
• No flammable chemical substances and drugs allowed into the plant, except in need.
• Get immediate medical attention for serious injuries.
• Do not enter processing areas other than the place of work.
• Know the location of first aids, escape exits, fire alarms and fire extinguishers.
Besides that, personal protective equipment (PPE) is useful to protect the respiratory system,
skin, eyes, face, hands, feet, head, or hearing from chemical, physical, and biological hazards.
To be effective, the selection and use of PPE must be appropriate and accompanied by adequate
training, so they know at least the following: when PPE is necessary, what PPE is necessary,
how to properly to take off or put on, adjust and wear PPE and the proper care of PPE. Every
employee is provided their own protective equipment and the employer is responsible for
assuring its adequacy, proper maintenance and sanitation. The types of personal protective
equipment are listed in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Type of Personal Protective Equipment.
Type of clothing Codes and

Body part Type of protection
or accessory Standards
ANSI Z89.1-2009
Protects the head from
“American National
hard substances falling,
Head Safety helmet Standard for
electric shock and
Industrial
burns.
Head Protection
Protects against
Face shield
chemical splashes
ANSI Z87.1-2003
Protects against
“American National
Goggles vaporized chemicals and
Standard for
Eyes and face splashes.
Occupational and
Provides immediate
Educational Eye and
Eyewash/ Drench emergency use if
Face Protection‟
shower exposed to any
corrosive materials.
192
ASTM F-2412-2005
Protect feet from contact
Safety boots “Standard
with chemicals or
(Waterproof and Specification
Foot injured by falling,
slip for Performance
moving and sharp
resistant type) Requirements for
objects
Protective Footwear”
National Fire
Fully- Protects against Protection
Body encapsulating splashes, dust, gases and Association
suit vapor Standard 1991-EPA
level A&B
Protect against high
frequency of noise. OSHA Noise
Ears Ear plugs
(Average noise level of Standard
8.5 dBA)
Hands and Insulating rubber Protect hands and arms No ANSI standard
arm gloves and sleeves from chemical contact. available.
Safety is first important thing in industrial plat to ensure all process operating in good condition.
Hence, first aid is an essential primary care given to an injured person. Usually, the location of
the first aid kits box is easily visible and accessible by anyone during an emergency.
Furthermore, other first aid service such as CPR should be given to somebody who having
suffocation from chemical exposure and transfer promptly to a medical facility.
6.1.6 Emergency Response Plan

Working in processing plant is very dangerous because all the workers are exposed themselves
to life-threating situations every day. With advance planning for potential emergencies will
help to avoid personal injury or any damage to property. A comprehensive emergency
management plan will allow quick and effective response and so reduce the consequences of
any incident. Key actions for practicing response are:
• Identify potential emergencies.

• Assess possible damage.
• Estimate available response time.
• Prepare plan such as emergency communications and response approach needed.
• Publish and disseminate plan.
• Practice the plan through training.
193
Safe areas should be set aside for emergency assembly points for employees. The workers will
be evacuated and directed to the assembly point while the plant is running shutting down
process. At least one pre-arranged emergency control centre should be established with proper
communication with area around the works, as well as maps, site plans and relevant data and
equipment to assist in any emergencies. Besides that, outside authorities must be prepared to
deal with the effects of major accidents. They include police, ambulance, hospital and other
authority services.
Meanwhile, sounding alarm such as fire alarm should be installed in every corner in the plant
so that if any emergencies happen, it would alert the people in the plant. The alarm should be
actuated by an electrical signalling system with enough call points spread over the work for the
alert to be raised by anyone. For instances, automatic detection equipment such as thermal
sensor to detect the temperature rise around the work area to alert any present of fire going on
in the plant. The fire alarm should be well maintained to prevent any failure of detection and
to alert the workers.
6.1.7 Waste Disposal Operation

There is a waste treatment to treat all the waste from the process before it is getting exposed to
the environment. All information concerning the chemical, physical and toxicological
properties of each substance should be present on the site. This is to make sure the employees
performing their duties on the site alert the substance present in the waste. Besides that, training
is required for all employees who work at the waste clean-up sites of treatment storage and
disposal sites. The training must cover the necessary information to perform these jobs
including information on the proper personal protective equipment and procedure to safeguard
employees against hazards and effect of exposure to any toxic substances. Furthermore,
necessary decontamination procedure must be used to safeguard employees against hazards
and effect of exposure to any toxic substances are removed from workers before they leave the
worksite as well as from equipment that is to be taken off site (Daniel & Joseph, 1990). The
employer should shower, including change rooms, for all employees exposed to hazardous
substance and health hazard involved in hazardous waste clean-up operation. Shower should
be located in areas where exposure is below the permissible exposure limits and published
exposure levels. It is better if the shower areas are having a good ventilation system that
supplies sufficient air to the employees. Last but not least, emergency response plan it is very
important. The plan must be developed and implemented to handle any emergency happens
during waste clean-up operation (Daniel & Joseph, 1990).
194
6.2 Equipment Control
Process Control is the active changing of the process based on the results of process monitoring.
Once the process monitoring tools have detected an out-of-control situation, the person responsible
for the process makes a change to bring the process back into control. The objectives of control
system for this designed plant are to ensure the safe operating process of the plant and achieve the
desired efficiency of the output desired products.
6.2.1 Introduction
Nowadays, there are many types of control system and the most common system is the conventional
feedback control system. For a control system to work, feedback data is acquired by measuring the
controlled variable and that data will be compared with the set point for that particular unit
operations. Then, the data will be corrected if necessary until it reaches the desired set point that
has been set for each of the unit operations. The objective of the control strategy for the designed
plant are:
1. To control the production rate to maintain at 150,000 metric tonnes per annum of
monopropylene glycol.
2. To have a safe operation in the plant for production and to avoid explosion.
3. To avoid unnecessary losses in the usage of heating and cooling utility.
4. To achieve and maintain the product purity above 99%.
Rapid industrialization leads to greater requirements for process plants. Process control has become
extremely important to create an efficient plant operation. Modern plants especially those involving
complex, highly integrated and new technology causing it harder to prevent disturbances from
infecting from one unit to the other linked units. It would be impossible to run a modern plant
without computer-based process control. The chief objective of process control is to operate a plant
according to desired requirements with regards to safety, efficiency, product quality and
environmental sustainability (Seborg et al., 2011). Process variables such as temperatures, pressure,
flow rate and compositions are measured and must be controlled. It is to control a series of events
to transform a material into a desired product. In the industry, instrumentation acts as a substitute
of human in controlling a huge amount of variables simultaneously. A basic feedback and feed
forward control system loop is as shown below.
195
Figure 6.1: Feed Forward Control Loop.
Feed forward control performs before a disturbance affects the process by making appropriate
changes in the manipulated variables as disturbance is detected. Controlled variable will be
unchanged.
Figure 6.2: Feedback Control Loop.
A conventional way in controlling a process by measuring the controlled variable, it compares the
output value with the desired set point and feed the difference into a feedback controller that will
change the manipulated variable to get value closest to the set point value. Action employed after
a change happened in the process. Sometime an alternative control called cascade control system
can significantly improve the dynamic response to the disturbances in a process. In cascade control,
two controllers are “cascaded” together so that the output of one is the set point input for the other.
Cascade system strategy is to assure the associated feedback loop can react quickly when a second
measured variable is located close to a potential disturbance and thus improving the closed-loop
response.
Figure 6.3: Cascade Control Loop.
196
Table 6.2: Control System Loop Elements.
Refer to unit operation or a step of

Process -
process in a plant.
Sensor
Sensor devices which converts Transmitter
Measurement physical parameters repeatedly into a
form that readable and functional. Sensor-transmitter
Transducer (I/P) and (E/P)
Valve positioner
Act as error identification. It
determines the different between the
Comparator/Controller
measured variables and a desired set
point. Thus, drive a control element.
Computer control system
Control valve
Adjust the input to the process,
Actuators (motorized valve)
Final control element bringing the output variables to the
value of the set points.
Pneumatic control valve
6.2.2 Classification of Control Strategies
To achieve the objective that mentioned in previous section, each of the unit operations has been
implemented with the control system. Different parameters are set for each unit operations such as
temperature, pressure, flow and composition. The control system of each of the equipment are
summarised in this chapter. The control system that involved in the designed plant are:
• Hydrolysis reactor control system

• Distillation column control system
• Heat exchanger control system
• Pump control system
• Valve control system
• Storage tank control system
197
6.2.3 Procedure of Designing Control System
Control objectives are very important and must be first to be defined in developing a particular
control scheme. Then, controlled variables as well as measured variables are both identified
according to the control objectives. Manipulated variables must be decided to conceptualize the
control strategies. To identified and locate the control instruments in the process, following
procedure is used:
1. Understand and determine the control objective for drawing the control loop required for each
equipment in plant.
2. Identify and draw in those control loops that needed for steady plant operation, such as level
control, flow control, pressure control temperature control and composition control.
3. Identify the process variables that to be controlled to achieve the desired product quality.
4. Locate the final control valve to manipulate the stream in order to achieve the control variables.
5. Identify and include those additional control loops required for safe operation, not covered in
step 1 and 2.
6. Decide and show those ancillary instruments needed for the monitoring of the plant operation
by the operators and for trouble-shooting. Also decide on the alarms needed.
6.2.4 Control System for Equipment

The control system to produce 150,000 MTA of monopropylene glycol is designed integrated with
feedback control loops and cascade control loops in order to handle operation parameters such as
temperature, level, pressure, flow rate and composition. The process flowsheet exhibits the
arrangement of the major equipment and their interconnection involved. The Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram shows the engineering details of the equipment, instrument, piping, and
valves have been arranged accordingly. The description of the nature for P&ID of the plant is also
included in this chapter. The standard symbols of P&ID cite the arrangement of the process
equipment; piping and others are identified by ISA standard ISA-S5- 1.
198
Table 6.3: Instrument Identification System (Mulley et al., 1992).
First Letter Succeeding Letter

Readout or
Letter Measured or Output
Modifier Passive Modifier
Initiating Variable Function
Function
A Analysis - - Alarm -
C Composition - - Control -
F Flow Rate - - - -
I Current (Electrical) - Indicator Light, Low
L Level - - - -
P Pressure, Vacuum - - - -
S - Safety - Switch -
T Temperature - - Transmit -
V - - Valve - -
The commonly used legends for the control loop are pressure, temperature, liquid composition,
level and flow are listed in Table 6.4. The function of each control element is shown in Table 6.5
while Table 6.6 depicts the basic symbols used to show the valves, instrument and control loops.
Table 6.4: Legends sued in P&ID.
Symbol Description
TT and TC Temperature Transmitter and Temperature Controller
PT and PC Pressure Transmitter and Pressure Controller
LT and LC Level Transmitter and Level Controller
FT and FC Flow Transmitter and Flow Controller
AT and AC Composition Transmitter and Composition Controller
TAH and TAL Temperature Alarm High and Temperature Alarm Low
PAH and PAL Pressure Alarm High and Pressure Alarm Low
LAH and LAL Level Alarm High and Level Alarm Low
FAH and FAL Flow Alarm High and Flow Alarm Low
199
Table 6.5: General Function of Control Element in a Plant.
Control Element Function

Temperature Control Instruments
TT Detects temperature change in the equipment.
Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
TC
element (valve) to do an action.
Detects high temperature in the equipment. When temperature exceeds
TAH
temperature limit, it sends a signal to TC.
Detects low temperature in the equipment. When temperature is lower
TAL
than temperature limit, it sends a signal to TC.
Pressure Control Instruments
PT Detects pressure change in the equipment.
PC
Detects high pressure in the equipment. When pressure exceeds pressure
PAH
limit, it sends a signal to PC.
Detects low pressure in the equipment. When pressure is lower than
PAL
pressure limit, it sends a signal to PC.
Level Control Instruments
LT Detects level change in the equipment.
LC
Detects high level in the equipment. When level exceeds level limit, it
LAH
sends a signal to LC.
Detects low level in the equipment. When level is lower than level limit, it
LAL
sends a signal to LC.
Flow Control Instruments
FT Detects flow change in the equipment.
FC
Detects high flow in the equipment. When flow exceeds flow limit, it
FAH
sends a signal to FC.
Detects low flow in the equipment. When flow is lower than flow limit, it
FAL
sends a signal to FC.
Composition Control Instruments
AT Detects composition change in the equipment.
AC
200
Table 6.6: Basic Symbols used to show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops.
Hardware Element Symbol Description

TT Temperature Transmitter
PT Pressure Transmitter
LT Level Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
AT Composition Transmitter
TC Temperature Transmitter
PC Pressure Controller
LC Level Controller
FC Flow Controller
AC Composition Controller
TAH/TAL Temperature Alarm High/Low
PAH/PAL Pressure Alarm High/Low
LAH/LAL Level Alarm High/Low
FAH/FAL Flow Alarm High/Low
Pneumatic Transmission Line
Transmission Line
Electric Transmission Line
6.2.4.1 Control System of Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)

The control system involved in the reactor is often the most challenging part in chemical
engineering as reactor is considered as the heart of the chemical process. Therefore, it is important
to maintain a stable efficiency of the reaction in the entire plant. In this plant, there are one reactor
employed in the whole process to produce 150,000 MTA of monopropylene glycol. It is highly
exothermic and once a runaway reaction occurs will cause explosion to the entire plant. Thus,
it requires a well-designed control system to assure stable operation. To ensure that the
operating temperature can maintain in a desired state, a cooling jacket is designed on the reactor
with the inlet flow rate of cooling water which able to control the temperature of the jacketed
reactor.
Objective: To produce monopropylene glycol from propylene oxide and water.
The control system of the jacketed hydrolysis reactor is designed as:
1. To control and maintain temperature, pressure, level and inlet flow rate of the hydrolysis reactor
at the desired operating condition to ensure the reaction is always carried out continuously.
2. Responsibility of each control element is shown in Table 6.7.
201
Figure 6.4: Control System of Hydrolysis Reactor.
Table 6.7: Control and Feedback System for Hydrolysis Reactor.
Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Disturbance Set Point
Variables Variables Variable Controller
Inconsistent Adjust inlet T = 383.15 K
Temperature Temperature of flow rate of (If temperature exist
in the in the temperature cooling water Feedback ± 10% of set point,
hydrolysis hydrolysis for inlet flow required for controller temperature alarm
reactor. reactor. rate of oxo the jacketed high/low will be
reactor reactor. activated).
Controlled by
P = 9 bar
the safety
Pressure in (If pressure exist ±
Pressure in Fluctuating relief valve
the Feedback 10% of set point,
the hydrolysis inlet flow attached on
hydrolysis controller pressure alarm
reactor. rate of feed. the
reactor. high/low will be
hydrolysis
activated).
reactor.
ṁ = 15927.6471
Fluctuating
Inlet flow kg/hr
Inlet flow rate inlet flow Inlet flow rate
rate of Feedback (If flow rate exists ±
of propylene rate of of propylene
propylene controller 10% of set point,
oxide. propylene oxide.
oxide. level alarm high/low
oxide.
will be activated).
ṁ = 4743.0574 kg/hr
Fluctuating (If flow rate exists ±
Inlet flow Inlet flow rate Inlet flow rate Feedback
inlet flow 10% of set point,
rate of water. of water. of water. controller
rate of water. level alarm high/low
will be activated).
202
ṁ = 61837.6036
Fluctuating
Inlet flow kg/hr
Inlet flow rate Inlet flow Inlet flow rate
rate of Feedback (If flow rate exists ±
of recycle rate of of recycle
recycle controller 10% of set point,
stream recycle stream
stream level alarm high/low
stream
will be activated).
6.2.4.2 Control System of Distillation Columns (T-101 to T-103)
The production of monopropylene glycol will be at 99.5% purity in this plant and to achieve this
result, three distillation columns are used in this production plant. At first, the unreacted reactants
are required to separate from the main and side products and recycled back to the reactor. Besides,
the desired purity of side products such as di- and tripropyelene glycol are 99.5% and 99%
respectively which also required distillation column for separation and purification for selling
purpose. Thus, a suitable control system for these three columns are very important to meet the
desired results.
Objectives for these distillation columns:
1. To control the outlet pressure of the column.
2. To control the level in the column.
3. To control temperature in distillate and bottom.
Figure 6.5: Control System of Distillation Columns.
203
Table 6.8: Control and Feedback System for Distillation Columns.

Adjust inlet T-101: Ttop = 357.19 K
Temperature flow rate of Feedback : Tbottom = 456.47 K
of distillate. cooling water controller T-102: Ttop = 454.97 K
of condenser. : Tbottom = 506.46 K
Inconsistent
Temperature T-103: Ttop = 504.66 K
of inlet feed
in the : Tbottom = 539.6 K
temperature Adjust inlet
column. (If temperature exist ±
Temperature of column. flow rate of Feedback
10% of set point,
of bottom. steam of controller
temperature alarm
reboiler.
high/low will be
activated).
T-101: H = 10.845 m
T-102: H = 21.1 m
Adjust the
Fluctuating T-103: H = 19.63 m
Level in the Level in the inlet flow rate Feedback
inlet flow (If level exist ± 10% of
column. column. of mixtures controller
rate of feed. set point, temperature
into column.
alarm high/low will be
activated).
Controlled by P = 1 bar
Fluctuating the safety (If pressure exist ± 10%
Pressure in Pressure in Feedback
inlet flow relief valve of set point, pressure
the column. the column. controller
rate of feed. attached on alarm high/low will be
the column. activated).
204
6.2.4.3 Control System of Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105)
The storage tanks are used to store raw materials and products; thus, it is very important to
having a suitable control system so that these tanks can work effectively.
Objective: To store raw materials (propylene oxide and water) and products (mono-, di- and
tripropylene glycol).
Control system of the storage tank is designed as:

1. To control and maintain the level and pressure in the storage tank.
2. Responsibly of each control element is shown in Table 6.9.
Figure 6.6: Control System of Storage Tanks (left side: TK-101, right side: TK-103 to TK-
105).
Table 6.9: Control and Feedback System for Storage Tanks.
Storage Control Measured Manipulated Type of

Tank Variables Variables Variable Controller
T-101: H = 9 m
Level in (If level exist ±
Level in Fluctuating
TK-101 the Adjust the Cascade 10% of set point,
the storage inlet flow
storage next pump. controller temperature alarm
tank. rate.
tank. high/low will be
activated).
T-102: H = 9 m
T-103: H = 9 m
TK-102, T-104: H = 9 m
Level in
TK-103, Level in Fluctuating Adjusted by Feedback T-105: H = 9 m
the
TK-104 the storage inlet flow inlet flow controller (If level exist ±
storage
and tank. rate. rate. 10% of set point,
tank.
TK-105 temperature alarm
high/low will be
activated).
205
Controlled by
P = 1 bar
TK-101, the safety
Pressure (If pressure exist ±
TK-103, Pressure in Fluctuating relief valve
in the Feedback 10% of set point,
TK-104 the storage inlet flow attached on
storage controller pressure alarm
and tank. rate of feed. the
tank. high/low will be
TK-105 hydrolysis
activated).
reactor.
6.2.4.4 Control System of Heat Exchangers (H-101 to H-111)
Heat exchanger is normally used to change the temperature of the stream by cooling or heating the
stream that entering it. Specific temperature is set so that it will reach suitable temperature for
process or the temperature needed for a reaction to occur. For the control strategy used for heat
exchanger in this plant, the temperature of the outlet stream will be measured and the heating or
cooling element in the heat exchanger will be manipulated to reach the set temperature.
Figure 6.7: Control System of Heat Exchangers.
Table 6.10: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers.

Adjust inlet flow T = Desired temperature
Fluctuating
Outlet Outlet rate through the (If temperature exist ±
inlet flow
temperature temperature steam or cooling Feedback 10% of set point,
rate of the
of the heat of the heat water utility controller temperature alarm
heat
exchanger. exchanger. stream of the heat high/low will be
exchanger.
exchanger. activated).
206
6.2.4.5 Control System of Pumps (P-101 to P-108)
The purpose of having the pump control system is to maintain the outlet pressure of liquid products.
For this system to work, the outlet liquid pressure is compared to the set point and controlled by
using the feedback scheme. If the outlet liquid pressure is not up to the set point, the pressure is
manipulated by adjusting the centrifugal force of the pump until it reaches the set point. Besides,
inlet flow rate of the pump needs to be measured and controlled to avoid malfunction of pump.
Figure 6.8: Control System of Pumps.
Table 6.11: Control and Feedback System for Pumps.

P = Desired pressure
Outlet Outlet Fluctuating Adjust operating (If pressure level exist ±
Cascade
pressure of pressure of in outlet pressure of 10% of set point,
controller
the pump. the pump. flow rate. pump. pressure alarm high/low
will be activated)
ṁ = Desired mass flow
rate
Fluctuating
Inlet flow Inlet flow Manipulating the Cascade (If flow rate exists ±
of inlet flow
rate of pump. rate of pump pump. controller 10% of set point, level
rate of pump
alarm high/low will be
activated).
207
6.2.5 Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID)
R-101 TK-103 TK-105 Stream Indicators:

TK-101 P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B T-101 to T-103
Catalytic Hydrolysis Monopropylene Tripropylene
Propylene Oxide Tank Pump Distillation Columns
Reactor Glycol Tank Glycol Tank : Process Stream : Steam In : Cooling Water In
TK-102 E-101 to E-111 VLV-101 T-104 TK-104 : Heat Integrated : Steam out : Cooling Water Out
Water Tank Heat Exchangers Relief Valve Cooling Tower Dipropylene Glycol Tank Stream
Steam In
PAH
TC
T-104 TAH TAH
TC
PAL FAH
TAL TAL FAL
TT TT PT PC
FC FT
16 15 14
22
PAH E-108 E-107
PAL
TC TC 13
TAH TAH
P-103 A/B
TAL TAL
PC PT TT TT
PAL
PT PC
2 3 4 5 PAH
1 PT PC
PT PC PAL
E-101 E-103 11 TAH
E-102 TAL
TC
TAH
FC PAL PC PT
P-101 A/B TT
TAH FAH
TAH
TT TC
TAL
LT
FAL
TAL PT PC 19 TT
TAL 24
TC FT
PAH PT PC
TT TC TAH 23
TAH
LC 12 TAL FAH
PAL
TK-101 FC
VLV-101 FAL
TAL
E-109
FAH TT TC PC PT
TT TC
P-105 A/B
FAL LC LT
FT FC TAH LC LT
FT FT FC
18 TAL
R-101 LAH
FAH
21 LAL
17 TT TC
LAH
TK-103
T-101 FAL
LAL
LC LT
P-104 A/B
LAH
T-102
LAL
25
PAH
PAH
PAL
28 FAH PAL
TC
PC PT TAH FAL
PC PT
TAL
7 8 9 10 TT
FT FC
6 PAL
E-106 27 30
E-104 TT E-105 TT TT 29 PT PC
P-102 A/B TAH TAH TAH
TAL TAL
E-110
LT
TC
TAL
TC
PAL
P-107 A/B
TC
LAH PT PC LC LT
LAL 20
PAH
TK-102 LC FAH TC
LAH
FAL PAL TAH
TAL LAL
TK-104
32 FT FC PC PT TT
TAH
TAL
26 PAH
TT TC FAH PAL
FAL
PC PT
LC LT
P-106 A/B FT FC
31 PAL
LAH
T-103 34
LAL 33 PT PC
TC
TAH
P-108 A/B
TAL
TT
LC LT
E-111 LAH TK-105

LAL
Steam Out
Figure 6.9: Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID).
208
6.3 Identification of Hazards
In order to manage workplace health and safety and help prevent accidents and sickness absence,
it is very important to identify, monitor and reduce the risk associated with plant hazards.
6.3.1 Flammability
Flammability can be defined as the property of the gas, liquid and air material relating how
easily it ignited, burning or sustains combustion reaction rapidly in the air. The flammability of
gases, liquids and vapours of dispersed dusts and liquid droplets are the one of the main concern
in the process industries, all of which we refer to as fuels. The result of ignition can be a fire or
explosion. Fires and explosions of flammable air mixtures are often followed by combustible
materials, which may result from an unrestrained reaction or even an explosion within the process
or the whole plant itself. The constructional materials used in the process industries mostly possess
the low flammability character, although the plant and structure used often require fire protection
(Daniel & Joseph, 1990).
Flammable liquids can be very dangerous if split since the flammable vapours is highly possible
to ignite explosively. Thus, flammable gases and vapours of flammable liquids are more dangerous
than the liquids themselves. Moreover, since it cannot be contained it may travel to reasonable
distance before reach an ignition source and ignites fire.
6.3.2 Flammable Prevention

If the fires can proceed to the explosion, it can be considered the major hazard in the plant. The
existence, involvement of flammable liquid and gases in process may be the major threat to the
whole plant but it cannot be avoided. Therefore, the reliability on any fire extinguisher medium
such as water supplies, fireman, hydrants and foam are compulsory. Fixed extinguishing system
components and agents shall be designed and approved by the local authority for use on the
specific fire hazards either for control or extinguish they are expected to. The routines and
periodically check on any flammable substances and operation that operate in or near
flammability limit should be done to investigate any sign of leakage (OSHA, 1992).
Furthermore, all the workers are compulsory to have the basic training about the firefighting to
be used to ensure they know the proper way to put out the fire when there is an incident happened.
For example, a fire by electricity means cannot be put out by water-based fire
extinguisher. It should be put out by dry powder fire extinguisher or foam spray extinguishers for
a safer way of firefighting than water-based extinguisher if inadvertently sprayed onto live
electrical apparatus.
209
6.3.2.1 Fire Extinguisher
Fire extinguishers are designed to put out or control the small fires that may become catastrophic
incident if it does not extinguish earlier. Thus, fire extinguisher is one of the most important safety
equipment that must be equipped in the workplace and easy to be taken. All flammable
substances should be kept in the approved and properly sealed can and must be clearly labeled and
easily be seen by the workers. There are basically four different types or classes of fire
extinguishers, each of which extinguishes specific types of fire.
➢ Class A: The extinguishing agent can be water, dry chemical or the

foaming agents.
➢ Class B: Extinguishers should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as
thinners, grease, gasoline, oils, paints and tar. CO2, dry chemical and the aqueous film
forming foam can be used to put out this class of fire.
➢ Class C: Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrically energized fires and flammable
gas such methane and butane. CO2 or dry chemical type of extinguisher can be used.
➢ Class D: Extinguishers are designed for use on flammable metals, such as magnesium,
titanium or potassium. Dry powder is suitable for the specific flammable metals involved.
6.3.2.2 Fire Detector

Hydrogen flames are kind of unique because some of flames are invisible. To the large extent,
thermal and optical sensor have been invented and developed to detect with that problems.
Thermal fire detectors that can be classified as the converted thermal energy of a fire that increases
the temperature of a heat sensitive element and overheat detectors are not subject to frequent
failure. To cover a large area or volume, many thermal detectors are needed, and it must be located
at very near the site of a fire (Dugala, 2012).
Fire detection system is installed in storage area to ensure the warning get some
attentions by operators if the worst allowable condition exceeded. The fire detectors should give
a rapid and reliable indication of the existence, location, and size of fire. Automatic shutdown
systems, triggered by multiple fire detectors and activated quickly enough to prevent large-scale
damage, should be considered.
210
6.3.3 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a technical document which provides detailed and
comprehensive information on a controlled product regarding the properties of a particular
substance. MSDS are a widely used system for cataloguing information on chemicals, chemical
compounds, and chemical mixtures. The MSDS list the physical properties if a substance that may
be required to determine the potential hazards of the substance. The information may include
instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product.
These data sheets can be found anywhere where chemicals are being used. As an important
component of product stewardship and workplace safety, it is intended to provide workers and
emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working with that substance in a safe
manner, and includes information such as physical data (Brislin, 2014). MSDS formats can vary
from source to source within a country depending on national requirements. The MSDS may be
written, printed or otherwise expressed, and must meet the availability, design and content
requirements of WHMIS legislation. The legislation provides for flexibility of design and wording
but requires that a minimum number of categories of information be completed and that all
hazardous ingredients meeting certain criteria be listed subject to exemptions granted under the
Hazardous Materials Information Review Act. MSDS are available from the chemical
manufacturer, a commercial source or a private library developed by the chemical plant.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physio-chemical, health and/or
environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard black
diagonal cross on an orange background, used to denote a harmful substance. An MSDS for a
substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the
hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting. An MSDS also must be reviewed
at least every three years (Ronald, 2015)
The MSDS that we generally used is from the European Union which the MSDS will contain 16
sections as follow:
• SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

• SECTION 2: Hazards identification
• SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients
• SECTION 4: First aid measures
• SECTION 5: Firefighting measures
• SECTION 6: Accidental release measures
211
• SECTION 7: Handling and storage
• SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection
• SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection
• SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties
• SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity
• SECTION 11: Toxicological information
• SECTION 12: Ecological information
• SECTION 13: Disposal considerations
• SECTION 14: Transport information
• SECTION 15: Regulatory information
• SECTION 16: Other information
The summary of material safety data sheets of components is shown in Table 6.12. The detail
MSDS of each component are shown in Appendix I.
212
Table 6.12: Summary of material data sheet of components.
Component Propylene Oxide Water Monopropylene Glycol Dipropylene Glycol Tripropylene Glycol
Appearance/Colour Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless
Alcohol-like
Odor Odorless Odorless Odorless Odorless
ethereal odor
Molecular Weight
58.08 18.02 76.10 134.173 192.3
(g/mol)
Melting Point (°C) -111.9 0 -59 ˚C -39 -49
Boiling Point (°C) 35 100 188.2 230.5 141
Specific Liquid
0.8304 at 20 °C 1 at 25 °C 1.035 at 25 °C 1.023 at 25 °C 1.0125 at 25 °C
Density (water = 1)
17.2514 mmHg at
Vapor Pressure 455 mmHg at 20°C 0.129 mmHg at 25 ℃ 0.016 mmHg at 25 ℃ 0.022 mmHg at 25 ℃
20°C
Solubility in liquid Soluble Soluble Soluble Soluble Soluble
Stable under Stable under normal and Stable under normal Stable under normal
Stability &
normal temperature Stable temperature of use and and temperature of and temperature of
Reactivity
and pressure storage use and storage use and storage
213
6.3.4 Toxicity
In this section, the toxicity of all the reactants and products involved in propylene glycol
production plant are discussed in detailed.
6.3.4.1 Toxicity of Propylene Oxide

Propylene oxide is known to cause skin irritations and even necrosis, which is the degeneration of
most or all cells in a tissue or organ due to disease, injury, or lack of blood supply. In fact, if it is
left near to the skin for quite some time, it is sure to leave burns. Dermatitis also is a common
cause of propylene oxide exposure. It is also known carcinogenic and is said to cause tumors in
the stomach after ingestion and tumors in the nasal cavity after inhalation, according to the United
States Environmental Protection Agency. Even though the potential for propylene oxide to
produce cancer in humans has not been determined, the results of studies in animals fulfill the
criteria in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Cancer Policy [Title 29 of
the Code Federal Regulations, Section 1990.112] for classifying a substance as a potential
occupational carcinogen. According to EPA estimates, if an individual were to be continuously
exposed to propylene oxide at an average of 0.3 µg/m 3 (3 x 10 -4 mg/m 3) over the entirety of
his or her life, that person would have no more than a one-in-a-million increased chance of
developing cancer (Robinson, 2017). NIOSH therefore recommends that propylene oxide be
regarded as a potential occupational carcinogen and that occupational exposure be reduced to the
lowest feasible concentration. People who are handling the chemical should take care to well
protective clothing when doing so. Likewise, someone who is going to perform emergency rescues
of other people who have been exposed to propylene oxide should also take the same measures in
order to protect their own health (NIOSH, 2018).
6.3.4.2 Toxicity of Water

Usually water is considered one of the least toxic chemical compounds with an LD50 of over 90
ml/kg in rats. However toxic effect depends on the concentration of toxic substances and on the
sensitivity of the organisms as well as on the incubation period. In water toxicity is often calculated
as EC50. The effective concentration indicates the concentration at which 50% of the test
organisms are harmed (Toxicity in Water, 2017).
6.3.4.3 Toxicity of Monopropylene Glycol

Propylene glycol toxicity is very low. Humans are exposed to propylene glycol primarily through
oral intake or skin contact. It is expected to be readily absorbed by oral exposure whereas uptake
through the skin is very low. Once the body under conditions of normal low exposure, propylene
214
glycol is quickly metabolised and excreted. The half-life of propylene glycol in the blood stream
is about 2-4 hours. It is primarily metabolised to lactate which is further metabolized to pyruvate,
carbon dioxide and water. Lactate also contributes to glucose formation through gluconeogenic
pathways. Very large exposures to propylene glycol may result in lactic acidosis and hyperosmotic
changes in the blood (Adam, 2017). For the environment, propylene glycol actually quickly
degrades and hence does not persist nor does its bio-accumulate as it is readily biodegradable in
both seawater and fresh water.
6.3.4.4 Toxicity of Dipropylene Glycol

Dipropylene glycol is practically non-toxic by the oral, inhalation and dermal routes. It has not
been tested specifically for carcinogenicity, however, based on the results of a cancer bioassay of
propylene glycol (to which dipropylene glycol is rapidly converted), dipropylene glycol is not
expected to have carcinogenic potential. Based on QSAR data for Daphnia and algal toxicity, and
the measured data for fish and amphibians, DPG is not expected to be toxic to aquatic organisms
except at very high concentrations (Hernandez, 2001).
6.3.4.5 Toxicity of Tripropylene Glycol

Triropylene glycol can also enter the environment through the disposal of products that contains
it. The small amounts that may enter the air are likely to break down quickly as it will take between
24 and 50 hours for half the amount released to break down. Tripropylene glycol can mix
completely with water and can soak into soil. It can break down relatively quickly (within several
days to a week) in surface water and in soil. In the human body, it will break down in about 48
hours. However, studies of people and animals show that exposure of eye, skin, nasal, or oral
exposures to tripropylene glycol for a short time, may develop to some irritation. However, the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has classified tripropylene glycol as "generally recognized
as safe," which means that it is acceptable for use in flavorings, drugs, and cosmetics, and as a
direct food additive. According to the World Health Organization, the acceptable dietary intake of
propylene glycol is 25 mg of propylene glycol for every kilogram (kg) of body weight (Walter,
1997).
215
6.3.5 Dow, Fire & Explosion Index
The Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI) is a method that developed by Dow Chemical Company to
provide a simple method to help determine the areas of greatest loss potential in a process. It also
enables one to predict the physical damage that would occur in the event of an incident. A
numerical, Fire and Explosion Index‟ is calculated based on the nature of the process and
properties of materials. The larger the value of the index, the more hazardous is the process. Table
6.13 is used for determining the degree of hazard from the Dow Fire and Explosion Index.
Table 6.13: Assessment of Hazard.
Fire and explosion index range Degree of hazard

1-60 Light
61-96 Moderate
97-127 Intermediate
128-158 Heavy
>159 Severe
The Dow Fire and Explosion Index is normally calculated at the early stage in the process design
and also used as a guide to the selection and design of the preventive and protection equipment
needed for safe plant operation. The index only applies to the main process units and it does not
cover process auxiliaries such as warehouses, tank farms, utilities and control rooms. Only the fire
and explosion hazard are considered while toxicity and corrosion hazards are not covered. The
elements included in F&EI analysis are listed in Table 6.14.
Table 6.14: Elements in Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index Analysis.
Material Factor Flammability and Reactivity

General process hazard Exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions.
Material handling and transfer.
Enclosed or indoor process units.
Access to the area.
Drainage and spill control.
Special process hazard Toxic materials.
Operation in or near flammable range.
Dust explosion.
Low temperature.
Quantity of flammable and unstable materials.
Leakage in the case of joints and packing.
Use of fired heaters and hot oil exchange systems.
Rotating equipment.
Sub-atmospheric and relief pressure.
Corrosion and erosion.
216
6.3.6 Calculation Steps of Dow Fire & Explosion Index
General Process Hazards are factors that play an important role in determining the magnitude of
the loss following an incident. Six factors are listed on the calculation in Figure 6.10. Estimating
the F&EI index in the process design will indicate whether alternative, less hazardous, process
routes should be considered. The first step is to identify the units that would have the greatest
impact on the magnitude of any fire or explosion. The index is calculated for each of these units.
The basis of the F&EI is a Material Factor (MF). The MF is then multiplied by a Unit Hazard
Factor, F3, to determine the F&EI for the process unit. The Unit Hazard factor is the product of
two factors which take account of the hazards inherent in the operation of the particular process
unit: the general and special process hazards. The material factor is a measure of the intrinsic rate
of energy release from the burning, explosion, or other chemical reaction of the material. In
calculating the F&EI for a unit the value for the material with the highest MF, which is present in
significant quantities is used. The procedures for calculating fire and explosion index is shown in
Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10: Procedure for Calculating Fire and Explosion Index.
217
A. Exothermic chemical reactions: the penalty varies from 0.3 for a mild exotherm, such as
hydrogenation, to 1.25 for a particularly sensitive exotherm, such as nitration.
B. Endothermic processes: a penalty of 0.2 is applied to reactors, only. It is increased to 0.4 if the
reactor is heated by the combustion of a fuel.
C. Materials handling and transfer: this penalty takes account of the hazard involved in the
handling, transfer and warehousing of the material.
D. Enclosed or indoor process units: accounts for the additional hazard where ventilation is
restricted.
E. Access of emergency equipment: areas not having adequate access are penalized. Minimum
requirement is access from two sides.
F. Drainage and spill control: Penalize design conditions that would cause large spills of
flammable material adjacent to process equipment; such as inadequate design of drainage.
6.3.7 Fire & Explosion Index Calculation

The fire & explosion index calculation is performed for major equipment of designed propylene
glycol plant in the following section.
6.3.7.1 Selection of Pertinent Process Unit

In F&EI calculation, an efficient and logic procedure is required to determine which process units
should be studied. A process unit is defined as any major item of process equipment. The following
process units could be identified in the designed plant.
• Hydrolysis reactor
• Distillation columns
• Storage tanks
A plant can have many process units. But, to calculate F&IE, only process unit that has an impact
from a loss prevention standpoint should be evaluated. These are known as Pertinent Process Units
criteria for choosing Pertinent Process Units include:
• Chemical energy potential (Material Factor)

• Quantity of hazardous material in the process unit
• Process pressure and process temperature
• Units critical to plant operation, e.g. reactors
218
6.3.7.2 Determination of Material Factor (MF)
Material factor (MF) is the basic starting value in the computation of the F&EI and other risk
analysis values. The MF is a measure of the intrinsic rate of potential energy released from fire or
explosion produced by combustion or chemical reaction. The MF is obtained from NF and NR
which are NFPA ratings expressing flammability and reactivity (or instability) respectively.
Generally, NF and NR are ambient temperatures. It is recognized that the fire and reaction hazards
of a material increase markedly with temperature. The fire hazard from a combustible liquid at
temperature above its flash point is equivalent to hat from flammable liquid at ambient temperature.
For non-combustible materials, the factor is zero while for the combustible materials, the factor
can be calculated from the following equation:
MF = −ΔHC × 10 , where ΔHC = Heat of Combustion
The reactivity value (NR) can be obtained from a qualitative description of the instability (or
reactivity with water) of substances, mixtures or compounds at ambient temperature as follow
based on NFTA 704:
Material factor is obtained from the flammability and instability ranking. Generally, the ranking
is for ambient temperature. It is recognized that the fire and reaction hazards of a material increase
markedly with temperature. The fire hazard from a combustible liquid at a temperature above its
flash point is equivalent to that from a flammable liquid at ambient temperature. Reaction rates
also increase markedly with temperature. If the temperature of the material on which the MF based
is over 60 ℃, a certain adjustment may be required. Table 6.15 shows the MF determination guide.
Table 6.15: Material Factor Determination Guide.
Flammability
Guide Instability Ranking
Ranking
Non-combustible1 0 1 14 24 29 40
F.P. > 93.3 ℃ 1 4 14 24 29 40
F.P. > 37.8 ℃, ≤ 93.3 ℃ 2 10 14 24 29 40
F.P. ≥ 22.8 ℃, < 100 ℃ or
3 16 16 24 29 40
F.P. < 22.8 ℃ and B.P. ≥ 37.8 ℃
F.P. < 22.8 ℃ and B.P. < 37.8 ℃ 4 21 21 24 29 40
Combustible Dust or Mist2
St-1 (KSt ≤ 200 bar m/sec) 1 16 16 24 29 40
St-2 (KSt = 200 – 300 bar m/sec) 2 21 21 24 29 40
St-3 (KSt > 300 bar m/sec) 3 24 24 24 29 40
Combustible Solid
Dense > 40 mm thick3 1 4 14 24 29 40
Open < 40 mm thick4 2 10 14 24 29 40
Foam, fibre, powder, etc.5 3 16 16 24 29 40
219
F.P. = Flash point, closed cup
B.P. = Boiling point at standard temperatures and pressure (STP)
Notes:
1
Will not burn in air when exposed to a temperature of 816 ℃ for a period of five minutes.
2
KSt values for a 16 Liter or larger closed test vessel with strong ignition source.
3
Includes wood – 2 inches nominal thickness, magnesium ingots, tight stacks of solids and tight
rolls of paper or plastic film.
4
Includes coarse granular material such as plastic pellets, rack storage, wood pallets and non-
dusting ground material such as polystyrene.
5
Includes rubber goods such as tyres and boots.
6.3.7.3 Determination of Process Unit Hazard

After the appropriate Material Factor has been determined, the next step is to calculate the Process
Unit Hazards Factor (F3), which is the term that is multiplied by the Material Factor to obtain the
F&EI as stated in the form used in the Dow Fire and Explosion Index. The numerical value of the
Process Unit Hazards Factor is determined by first determining the General Process Hazards
Factor (F1) and Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) listed on the F&EI form. Each item which
contributes to the Process Hazards Factors contributes to the development or escalation of an
incident that could cause a fire or an explosion. The sample form used in the Dow Fire and
Explosion Index shows in Figure 6.11.
6.3.7.4 General Process Hazards (F1)

General process hazards cover six items, namely, exothermic chemical reactions, endothermic
processes, material handling and transfer, enclosed or indoor process units, access and drainage
and spill control. These factors are intended to allow for the general process hazards associated
with the unit being considered.
• Exothermic chemical reactions
The penalty varies from 0.3 for a mild exothermic, such as hydrogenation, to 1.25 for a
particularly sensitive exothermic, such as nitration.
• Endothermic processes
A penalty of 0.2 is applied to reactors, only. It is increased to 0.4 if the reactor is heated by the
combustion of a fuel.
• Materials handling and transfer
This penalty takes account of the hazard involved in the handling, transfer and warehousing
of the material.
220
• Enclosed or indoor process units
Accounts for the additional hazard where ventilation is restricted.
• Access of emergency equipment
Areas not having adequate access are penalized. Minimum requirement is access from two
sides.
• Drainage and spill control
Penalizes design conditions that would cause large spills of flammable material adjacent to
process equipment; such as inadequate design of drainage.
Figure 6.11: Form used in the Dow Fire and Explosion Index.
221
6.3.7.5 Special Process Hazard (F2)
The special process hazards are factors that are known from experience to contribute to the
probability of an incident involving loss. Twelve factors are listed in the calculation form, Figure
6.11:
• Toxic materials
The presence of toxic substances after an incident will make the task of the emergency
personnel more difficult. The factor applied ranges from 0 for non-toxic materials, to 0.8
for substances that can cause death after short exposure.
• Sub-atmospheric pressure
Allows for the hazard of air leakage into equipment. It is only applied for pressure less
than 500 mmHg (9.5 bar).
• Operation in or near flammable range
Covers for the possibility of air mixing with material in equipment or storage tanks, under
conditions where the mixture will be within the explosive range. Dust explosion covers for
the possibility of a dust explosion. The degree of risk is largely determined by the particle
size. The penalty factor varies from 0.25 for particles above 175 m, to 2.0 for particles
below 75 m.
• Relief pressure
This penalty accounts for the effect of pressure on the rate of leakage, should a leak occurs.
Equipment design and operation becomes more critical as the operating pressure is
increased. The factor to apply depends on the relief device setting and the physical nature
of the process material. It is determined from Figure 2 in the Dow Guide.
• Low temperature
This factor allows for the possibility of brittle fracture occurring in carbon steel, or other
metals, at low temperatures.
• Quantity of flammable material
The potential loss will be greater the greater the quantity of hazardous material in the
process or in storage. The factor to apply depends on the physical state and hazardous
nature of the process material, and the quantity of material. It varies from 0.1 to 3.0 and 5
in the Dow Guide, 1994.
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6.3.7.6 Calculation for Dow F&IE
Calculation of Dow F&IE for every process unit in the plant is shown in Appendix J. Table 6.16
concludes the summary for Dow F&IE for this plant (Scheffler et al., 1994).
Table 6.16: Summary of Dow Fire & Explosion Index.
Equipment Fire & Explosion Index Degree of Hazard

Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 333.21 Severe
Distillation Column, T-101 304.96 Severe
Distillation Column, T-102 19.41 Light
Distillation Column, T-103 14.14 Light
Propylene Oxide Tank, TK-101 317.12 Severe
Monopropylene Glycol Tank, TK-103 24.85 Light
Dipropylene Glycol Tank, TK-104 20.42 Light
Tripropylene Glycol Tank, TK-105 17.88 Light
6.3.8 Toxicity Index (TI)

The Toxicity Index (TI) is calculated from toxicity number, Th and penalty factor, Ts plus the
hazard factors of Fire & Explosion (F&EI). The TI is found from the following formula:
Th + Ts (1 + GPH + SPH)
TI =
100
Where
Th = Toxicity factor based on NFPA hazard index (0-4)
TS = Correction factor (additional penalty) for toxicity based on maximum allowable

concentration (MAC) value in ppm
GPH = General process hazard
SPH = Special process hazard
The toxicity number (Th) is derived from the NFPA health factor Nh (NFPA 704, 325M or 49).
Nh is integer number ranging from 0 to 4. The five degrees of hazards are related to the protective
equipment normally available to fire fighters. The toxicity number (Th) based on NFPA Health
Factor is shown in Table 6.17.
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Table 6.17: The Toxicity Number (Th) based on NFPA Health Factor.
NFPA Health Factor, Nh Toxicity Number, Th

0 0
1 50
2 125
3 250
The penalty factor (Ts) is the second toxicity index parameter used to determine the TI. The Ts
value is derived from the Threshold Limit Values (TLV). The TLV-values are drawn up by the
American Conference of Governance Industries Hygienist. TLV represent a time weighted 372
average (TWA) air concentration to which workers can be exposed during a normal working week
without ill effects. TLV often indicated as a TWA-value, both are the same. The penalty factors
are determined from Table 6.18.
Table 6.18: Penalty Factor (Ts) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV).
Threshold limit value (TLVs) Penalty factor (Ts)

<5 125
5-50 75
> 50 > 50
The equipment with higher or moderate level of toxicity as measured by the TI is fitted with alarms
and extra sensors to enhance personnel safety. Table 6.19 shows the toxicity index for every
equipment in plant.
Table 6.19: Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level.
Toxicity Index Qualitative Hazard Level

1-5 Light
6-9 Moderate
10+ High
Toxicity Index for each of the equipment is summarized in Table 6.20.
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Table 6.20: Summary of Toxicity Index.
Equipment Toxicity Index Degree of Hazard

Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 5.17 Moderate
Distillation Column, T-101 5.24 Moderate
Propylene Oxide Tank, TK-101 5.13 Moderate
Monopropylene Glycol Tank, TK-103 4.29 Light
Dipropylene Glycol Tank, TK-104 6.93 Moderate
Tripropylene Glycol Tank, TK-105 6.54 Moderate
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance (a toxin or poison) can harm humans or animals. The
potential hazard will depend on the inherent toxicity of the material and the frequency and duration
of any exposure. Toxicity is subdivided into different type which is shown as in Table 6.21.
Table 6.21: Type of Toxicity.
Type Description
Acute (Light) Adverse effects are observed within a short time of exposure to the
chemical. This exposure may be a single dose, or a short continuous
exposure, or multiple doses administered over 24 hours or less.
Sub-acute Adverse effects are observed following repeated daily exposure to

(Moderate) a chemical, or exposure for a significant part of an organism’s
lifespan (usually not exceeding 10%). With experimental animals,
the period of exposure may range from a few days to 6 months.
Chronic (High) Adverse effects are observed following repeated exposure to a
chemical during a substantial fraction of an organism’s lifespan
(usually more than 50%). For humans, chronic exposure typically
means several decades; for experimental animals, it is typically
more than 3 months. Chronic exposure to chemicals over periods
of 2 years using rats or mice may be used to assess the carcinogenic
potential of chemicals.
225
6.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) are a structured and systematic examination of a complex
planned or existing process or operation in order to identify and evaluate problems that may
represent risks to personnel or equipment. The intention of performing a HAZOP is to review the
design to pick up design and engineering issues that may otherwise not have been found. It is
important to identify the hazards to reduce the risk of accident in chemical plant. Table 6.22
depicts the type of commonly known hazards.
Table 6.22: Types of Hazards.
Types of Description Examples

Hazards
• High exposure to sunlight or
Within the environment without
Physical extreme temperature
necessarily touching it
• Loud noise (steam explosion)
• Liquid chemical: Aqueous
When is exposed to any chemical sodium hydroxide
Chemical (in any form of solid, liquid or gas) • Solid chemical:
preparation in the workplace Monochloroacetic acid
• Volatile gases
Associated with sick animals and • Bacteria and viruses
Biological
people or infectious plant materials • Blood and other body fluids
Body positions and working • Improper sitting positions
Ergonomic conditions that put strain on the • Repeating the same movement
body over and over
• Spills on the floors or tripping
hazards
Safety Unsafe act in workplaces • Moving machinery parts
• Machinery-related hazards
(boiler safety, forklift and etc)
Hazard identification followed by the risk assessment is commonly called as hazard evaluation of
the process plant. The evaluation is usually performed at the initial design stage. It enables
modifications to be easily incorporated into the final design for the process plant. There are a few
hazards identification methods described as follows:
226
• Process hazard checklists: This is a list of items and possible problems in the process that
must be checked.
• Hazards surveys: Surveys on the inventory of hazardous materials and Dow indexes. Dow
indexes are a formal rating system such as income tax form that provides penalties for
hazards and credits for safety equipment and procedures.
• Hazards and operability (HAZOP) studies: This approach allows imaginations to go free
and think of all possible ways in which hazards or operating problems might arise.
• Safety review: An effective study depends on the experience and synergism of the group
reviewing the process.
HAZOP study is a formal and systematic procedure reviewing the design and operation of a
system to identify potential hazards in a chemical process to people, property, environment,
and efficiency of production. HAZOP may be performed by brainstorming involving a whole
HAZOP team to study all the possible ways that process, and operational failures can occur.
HAZOP is a qualitative risk assessment tool to predict deviations by a team of process experts.
The objectives of carrying out the HAZOP study are:

1. To identify causes and consequences of perceived mal operations of equipment and
associated operators’ interfaces and context of the complete system.
2. To identify hazards or deficiency and potential operability problems which may lead to
hazards such as fire, explosion, toxic release or reduce productivity.
3. To identify and prevent hazards in process plants that are growing in complexity with
standards are no longer adequate.
4. To meet the legislative requirements for example, DOSH.
5. To identify the need for emergency procedure to mitigate or prevent the event from
happening.
6. To critically examine the inadequacies in systems by considering it as a fully integrated
dynamic unit rather than the „ad hoc‟ design approach.
HAZOP has been used and developed to identify potential hazards and operability problems
caused by deviations from the design intent of the process plants. The study is discussed with
the combination of a “Property Words” and “Guide Words” to apply on various part of the
process design equipment. The technique is essentially useful to involve taking a full
description of a process and systematically questioning every part of it to establish deviations
from the design intent can arise. The result from the study is that there is a good chance that
227
potential failures and problems will be identified that had not previously been experienced in
the type of plant being studied. Then, actions for prevention and mitigation of the
consequences may also be outlined.
The HAZOP study is important to be recorded in a table so that it can be referred in the future.
It should contain the important features such as “item”, “study node”, “guide words”,
“deviations from design intention”, “causes” and “consequences”. These “guide words” are
shown in Table 6.23 and are applied to all the unit operations to be considered (Daniel &
Joseph, 1990).
Table 6.23: HAZOP Guide Words.
Guide Words Meaning Comment

The complete negation of No part of the intentions is achieved but
NO or NOT
these intentions nothing else happens.
Applies to quantities such as flow rate and
MORE or
Quantitative increases temperature and to activities such as heating
GREATER
and reaction.
Applies to quantities such as flow rate and
LESS or LOWER Quantitative increases temperature and to activities such as heating
and reaction.
All the design and operating intentions are
AS WELL AS Quantitative increases achieved together with some additional
activity.
Only some of the attention achieved; some are
PART OF Quantitative increases
not.
This is more applicable to activities for
The logical opposite of the example reverse flow or chemical reaction. It
REVERSE
intention can also be applied to substances such as
„Poison‟ instead of „Antidote‟.
No part of the original intentions is achieved.
OTHER THAN Complete substitution
Something quite different happens.
Too early or in the wrong
SOONER THAN Applies to process steps or actions.
order
Too late or in the wrong
LATER THAN Applies to process steps or actions.
order
Applies to process location, or location in
WHERE ELSE In additional location
operating procedures.
The identified “Causes” and “Consequences” will be dependent on the type of system under study
as shown in Table 6.24. The typical type of causes involved in system:
i. Equipment failure in which a mechanical, structural or operating failure results in the
release of hazardous or flammable material.
ii. Human error which is acts of omission or commission by an operator, designer,
constructor or other person creating a hazard that could possibly result in a release of
hazardous or flammable material.
228
iii. External Events such as fire or explosion.
iv. Extreme environmental events.
v. Control system and supply failure.
The consequences of the identified deviation typically fall into the following categories:
i. Effect on other sub-system or system
ii. Effect on operators
iii. Environmental impact
iv. Damage to property
v. Efficiency in productivity
Table 6.24: Deviation and Some Typical Causes.
Deviations Common Causes

No flow Isolation in error wrong routing, blockage, equipment failure (control
valve, isolation valve, pump, vessel)
Reverse flow Incorrect differential pressure causes twoway flow, incorrect
operation, pump reversed
Less flow Line restriction, partial blockage, defective pumps, cavitations, fouling
of vessels, valves restrictor or orifice plates, density or viscosity
problems, incorrect specification of process fluid, process turndown
More flow Increase pumping capacity, increased suction pressure, reduced
delivery head, greater fluid density, exchanger tube leaks, restriction
orifice plates deleted, cross connection of system, control faults,
control set wrong
More pressure Gas breakthrough, inadequate venting, failed open control valves,
heating of blocked in system explosion, fire imbalance of input and
output, external pressure
Less pressure Vacuum condition, condensation, gas dissolving in liquid, restricted
pump/compressor suction line, leakage, vessel drainage imbalance of
input and output
More Failed exchanger tubes, cooling water failure, failure connected to
temperature source, energy from machines
Less Failed exchanger tubes, loss of heating, weather, failure connected to
temperature source
Density viscosity Incorrect material, incorrect temperature, extra phase
Composition Phase change, incorrect feed, incorrect or reversed ratio, separation
failures, change in reaction, emergency discharge
Contamination Incorrect routing, interconnected systems, effect of corrosion, wrong
additives, ingress of air, water, lube oils, shutdown and start up
conditions, accumulation of solid
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6.4.1 HAZOP for Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)
Table 6.25: HAZOP for Hydrolysis Reactor.
Deviation
No. Cause Consequences Recommendation
Parameter Guideword
-Always supervise tank filling.
Valves of propylene oxide
Overfill of hydrolysis reactor -High flow cut off system installation to the
More and water pipeline supply
tank. liquid feed supply at pump.
failed.
-Install solenoid valve.
-Always ensure pipeline cleaning.
-Regular maintenance procedures ensure
Item stuck in line or line Longer time required to fill
clean equipment.
Less blocked or valve not fully tank. Delays in scheduling
-High flow cut off system installation to the
open. and causes production loss.
1 Flow liquid feed supply at pump.
-Low reactor pressure. -Install digital sensor to detect and trace
-No reactions.
No -Pipeline leakage or leakage.
-Production loss.
blockage. -Install solenoid valve.
-Install reverse flow cut off system.
-Pump failure
Reverse pressure -Provide interlock to shut down the system
Reverse -No reaction
differential. and to prevent backward flow into the
-Back mixing.
vessel.
-Reactor overheated and
Blocked inlet (air-to- close
exploded.
High control valve) of cooling
-Runaway reaction might
jacket. Temperature alarm installation to detect the
2 Temperature happen.
changes of temperature inside the reactor.
Affect production
More chilled water
Low rate/production rate
entering the jacket
decreased.
High Thermal overpressure. Reactor exploded.
-Pressure alarm installation to detect the
-High product flow rate Affect production
3 Pressure changes of pressure inside the reactor.
Low from reactor. rate/production rate
-Install a pressure safety valve.
-Pipeline leakage. decreased.
230
6.4.2 HAZOP for Distillation Columns
Table 6.26: HAZOP for Distillation Columns.
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
-Install a high temperature
-The heating system of the
alarm system at the outlet
reboiler providing too much heat. -Possible runaway or
bottom stream to alert the
High -More steam flow in reboiler. explosion.
operator.
Cooling water -Pressure will change.
-Check on cooling water
system failure in condenser.
supply.
1 Temperature -Accumulation of product
within the distillation
-Install a temperature controller
column as the feed is
-Heating service of the reboiler and low temperature alarm
Low liquid and no vapour is
fails. system at the outlet bottom
produced, possible
reboiler and condenser.
runaway.
-Inefficient separation.
-Install high pressure alarm.
-The controller fails and open -Possible runaway, -Install pressure indicator.
High
valve explosion -Install pressure relieve valve.
-Install a low-pressure detector

alarm system at outlet stream to
2 Pressure alert the operator.
-The controller fails and partially
-Install a system to trigger the
close valve -Inefficient separation of
Low alarm system and shut down the
-Leakage in the pipeline entering specific product
plant if pressure is too low.
distillation column
-Install a pressure sensor at the
outlet overhead stream.
-Install a pressure safety valve.
231
-Inefficient separation -Install a high/low level
-Possible runaway, detector alarm system.
High -Inlet valve malfunction
explosion -Install an interlock system to
3 Level trigger the alarm system and
shut down the plant if level is
-Inlet valve blockage, valve
Low -Inefficient separation too high/low.
malfunctions
6.4.3 HAZOP for Storage Tanks

Table 6.27: HAZOP for Storage Tanks.
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
-Too high inlet flow -Overflow and result in -Install level indicator and
High
-Prolonged storage time pressure increase. controller.
-Install air -to-open control
valve to control inlet or
1 Level
-Inlet valve blockage or leakage outlet flow rate in order to
Low -Production loss
-Storage tank leakage make sure the level of the
storage tank in optimum
level.
High -Thermal over pressure -Storage tank overpressure
-Install pressure safety
2 Pressure -Loss of product due to
Low -Pipeline leakage valve.
leakage
232
6.4.4 HAZOP for Heat Exchangers
Table 6.28: HAZOP for Heat Exchangers.

Deviation
Parameter Guideword
-Material reach undesired
-Low flow rate of coolant medium
temperature which might affect later
or cold stream.
process.
-High flow rate of heating medium
More -Overheating might cause
or hot stream.
explosion.
-Temperature controller -Install solenoid valve.
-Heat exchanger network affected.
1 Temperature malfunction. -Install flow meter for both
hot and cold stream.
-High flow rate of coolant medium
-Material reach undesired
or cold stream.
temperature which might affect later
Less -Low flow rate of heating medium
process.
or hot stream.
-Heat exchanger network affected.
-Blocked inlet pipe.
233
6.4.5 HAZOP for Pumps
Table 6.29: HAZOP for Pumps.
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
-Motor speed is higher than -Outlet pressure obtained is higher
-Install pressure indicator and
required. than required.
More controller.
-Fault of pressure controller. -Too high flow of materials.
-Install interlock system to
-Possible damage to pump.
1 Pressure trigger emergency shutdown
-Outlet pressure obtained lower than
-Fault of pressure controller. of plant if pressure too high.
required.
Less -Speed of motor less than required. -Regular maintenance on
-Too low flow of materials.
-Blockage or leakage of pipeline. pump.
-Install digital sensor to detect
-Pump malfunction as air maybe
2 Flow No -Pipeline leakage or blockage. and trace leakage.
enters it.
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6.5 General Start-up and Shut-down Procedure
The general procedures to start up and shut down of a plant are very important to be known by
every employee including the employers themselves in operating a plant. The knowledge of
the general procedures is useful to prevent the undesired risks and hazards happen towards the
employees, property, community and environment during certain operations such as
maintenance. Preliminary preparation for start-up of unit should include:
1. Inspection of the inside and outside to make sure that all parts are ready for start-up.
2. Activation of auxiliary equipment such utility system and instrument systems.
3. Removal of shut down blinds and installation of running blinds.
Improper removal of shut down blinds and improper installation of running blinds could cause
serious upsets and damage. Firstly, materials that must later flow in the unit could be blocked.
Secondly, materials that must be improperly removed of installed blind were found and should
be corrected. To eliminate such difficulties, the list of blinds installed during the shutdown
should be thoroughly checked.
Before doing plant start-up, it still has the important items that must be completed in the all of
the unit after turnaround of the plant. Below is the start-up procedure that should be followed.
1. Final inspection which made in interiors for the conformance to the requirement before the
man which ways covers are install on the tower or vessel.
2. Turnaround work list where everything has been completed and the associated line has been
correctly resembled.
3. Hydrostatically test in order to make sure the equipment must test after it has been
assembled.
4. Check instrument control loops, control system and also the alarm system circuit to make
sure that it has been correctly located.
5. Check level gauges glasses to confirm clear and the operator can easily record its reading.
6. Check control valves to determine whether it is operable.
7. Check orifice plates to make sure installed properly.
8. Check utilities such as power, steam and cooling water supply are functional well.
9. Check on site fire protection equipment such as extinguishers, water hoses, nozzles and
steam hoses are in place and ready for immediate use.
10. Check conditions of drains are unplugged whether water is drained out of the equipment.
11. Check flanges and man heads to have good gasket and are made up tight.
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12. Check safety valve header such blow-down, flare system are successfully commissioned.
13. All blinds tested for tightness and air freeing is available.
14. Check steam tracings are operable.
15. Supply of chemical are adequate and at hand.
16. Undergo air freeing and tightness are testing.
17. Gas blanketing is checking.
18. Catalyst should be activated first when the flow of reactant is started.
6.5.1 Plant Start-up for New Plant
Plant start-up usually is carried out for a timeframe during the testing and commissioning period
joint by the contractor, client, consultant and the owner of the plant project. Every equipment in
the plant should be inspected thoroughly from inside to outside before the start-up procedures of
the plant is carried out. It is to make sure that all parts are ready for start-up. Among the testing and
trial of equipment and processes are listed as beneath.
6.5.1.1 Dry Runs and Hot Tests
These tests will check the motions of operating equipment after installation to ensure that the
motors are connected correctly and turned in the right direction as well as the shafts and impellers
move freely is intended. Dry-run test of operating equipment should be performed by a
manufacturer’s delegates with the presence of members of the operating group who can use the
occasion to become thoroughly familiar with the equipment and judge the adequacy of the tests.
6.5.1.2 Dynamic Test

Closed-loop dynamic testing with safe fluid consists of operating equipment or systems with
air, water and inert gas. This permits flow testing of the equipment gives the first indication of
how the control loops respond. It is crucial thoroughly acquaints because forego to the dynamic
testing is a dangerous in addition with the presence of risky materials and may lead to costly
operators with the equipment prior to the introduction of hazardous materials delays, since
equipment can be repaired much more easily when it contains only air, nitrogen or water.
6.5.1.3 Pressure Test

The construction group typically does it. Be that as it may, the working team may wind up
engaged with some special or unusual tests, for instance the final check of a vacuum system,
which is best done by utilizing the plant operating equipment to pull the vacuum and then
monitoring the leakage rate on the blocked-in system. Essentially, the operating group might
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carry out the tests on equipment containing noxious or especially dangerous fumes, although
the construction group would normally test pipes, ducts and equipment operating at or near
atmospheric pressure.
6.5.1.4 Directing the Start-up

The chief operating engineer must have technical control of the plant during start up, while
supervisions of the hourly employees will remain under the plant 150 management. Due to the
situation changes rapidly during the initial stages of start-up, as new information comes to light
or as troubles develop, the start-up group must have daily meetings to agree on procedures and
coordinate their effort. At meetings, the chief operator should provide perspective and an
objective viewpoint. Under the chief operator's guidance, the start-up and plant management
groups will cooperate through three general stages of operations planning and organization,
pre-start-up testing and start-up testing.
6.5.1.5 Performance Test and Guarantees

The new plant will have been ensured by a licensor, an engineering department or an
engineering firm and certain tests must be performed in the plant while it is still under the
guarantor's technical supervision. As the condition of these tests is as rule plainly laid out in
the agreement, the method of making the measurement is often left up to the guarantor's
representative and the plant's operating management.
6.5.2 The Importance of Start-up Steps

Problems must be avoided strictly when start up a new plant. There are several guidelines on
how the chemical engineers can start-up their new plant:
1. Organize the various groups, crafts and technical personnel who will participate in the
commissioning and the necessary information.
2. Prepare the detailed plans, schedules and budgets.
3. Train the personnel.
4. Perform the pressure tests, the dry runs, the hot tests, the dynamic safe-fluid tests, the
dynamic solvent tests, the process-fluid tests.
5. Operate the plant to make product.
6. Trouble shoots and makes performance analysis.
7. Maintain the plant and make modifications.
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6.5.3 Preparing for Plant Shut-down
There are two types of plant shut-down: planned and unplanned. A planned shut-down is
undertaken for major overhaul or for short (lasting only for a few hour) maintenance. An
unplanned shutdown (partial or total) may happen due to equipment failure or sudden power
outage. Prior to any planned shutdown, plant status must be carefully reviewed. To do any
planned shutdown, firstly the status of the plant must be reviewed such as manufacturer's
operating instructions and must be understood before shutting down any equipment.
Procedures as below must be carried out before doing any shut down:
1. Work permit for any maintenance job must be ready for each equipment. Critical Path
Monitoring Chart detailed plan of the shutdown and turnaround for day to day and properly
hour-to-hour schedule of the sequence of the events should be prepared.
2. Check the following:
a) The fire equipment at the correct location
b) The personnel protection equipment available for immediate use, and
c) All the precaution that is specified for the shutdown has been take care.
3. The turnaround work lists are to be prepared to include all items for repairing, clearing,
inspection and modification.
4. Advanced preparation works are to be carried out prior to the shut-shown of the units, to
avoid any delay in mechanical work during the actual time such as stringing of steam or
fire hoses, placing of equipment to be used by the maintenance section.
5. All the items that are required during shut down of the units are available. These items
include binds, hoses for steaming out circuits and equipment.
6.5.3.1 Cooling and De-pressuring the Unit

The initial step in shut down of plant activity is to gradually reduce the heat supply to each unit
before finally cut off. Then the temperature of the material ought to be brought down to the
point at which vaporization stop. The decreased in vaporization soon renders the overhead and
side streams systems inactive and permits them to be shutdown.
6.5.3.2 Pumping out the Unit

Each material should be pumped to prescribed place. Centrifugal pumps should be watched
carefully to make sure that completely none loses suction before it is shut down. Running a
centrifugal pump dry even a short time may seriously damage it. If available, reciprocating
pumps are the best for pump out because they have superior suction characteristics and are less
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susceptible to damage. As the materials are pumped from the unit, it should be further cooled
in heat exchange equipment to a temperature where it will not cause flashing of water in
delivery lines or tanks and to a temperature below its flash point so it will not cause fire hazards
in the delivery tanks. Inert gas should be admitted to the unit continuously during pump out
operation for two reasons: to prevent entrance of air into the unit close to atmospheric pressure
and thus prevent collapse of any equipment not designed to withstand sub atmospheric
pressures.
An unplanned shut down initiated by a power outage, compressor trip or shut down caused by
the automatic shut-down system employed in the process. This plant shut down is actuated by
signal from so-called voting system, during emergency situation. This system consisting of
three instruments on each potential cause of general shut down indicates presence of the
relative cause only when the system detects any failure. After a general shut down is trigged
by the shut-down system, the plant can operate safely and quickly after the emergency. When
the system has been carefully designed and cabling in properly sheathed, the general shut down
system is the safest, dependable and economical addition to a plant.
6.5.4 Emergency Shut-down

A special plant protection control system, emergency shut-down system is designed to affect
the emergency shut-down of the plant when this becomes necessary. Usually, the emergency
conditions on the operating units are caused by the following conditions:
1. Mechanical failure of equipment which prevents normal operations or results in a serious

fire or lead.
2. Losses of utility such as electrical power, instrument air, steam or cooling water.
In some instance, it is possible to continue operation during a localized emergency by blocking

any bypassing the malfunctioning equipment while repairing the failure. Under other
circumstances, however it is necessary to shut down the unit as rapidly as possible, without
damaging the equipment or creating additional hazards. The following steps to be taken in the
event of the emergency.
i. Determine the extent of emergency condition.

ii. Decide how the cope with the emergency.
iii. Handle the emergency as a localized condition without shutting down the entire unit.
iv. Shutdown the unit by using emergency practice and procedure.
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CHAPTER 7
WASTE MANAGEMENT & POLLUTION CONTROL
7.1 Introduction
Waste are material and objects that have no economic value either at present or in future
because it is no longer useful or required after the completion of process. Besides, storage of
this waste typically incurs financial or other disadvantages to the owner. Therefore, we
need to have a waste management before it is released to the environment. The waste
management includes the formation, treatment and disposal of waste materials and their
resulting products. By analyse the entire material flow of process, it can help to discover
the waste and try to manage it properly. Waste products are introduced as pollution into
the ecological system that is into the earth, water or air. These residues must be
rendered harmless to the environment before it is deposited or sent to safety landfill.
The task of waste management is to isolate, convert and possibly reutilize potentially
harmful substances so that their impact on the earth, water, and air of an ecosystem is
minimal (Langlois, 2008).
Local, state, and federal legislation and regulation require the leaders to know what is in
the waste stream, the costs of collection and disposing of those wastes, and any health
and safety issues that might be raised. However, waste management tend to end up
toward the bottom of the environmental policy agenda and are less visible than other
environmental issues such as water or air pollution. Waste management became
important to many policy makers only when health or environmental issues reach the
crisis stages (Vaughn, 2009).
Most of chemical plant will discharge their waste from industrial plant. This waste may
contain lot of chemical or waste that can give bad impact to the environment either earth,
water or air. With the fast development of industry areas, the discharge of industrial
waste, either the gaseous pollutant or wastewater accumulates rapidly. Many of the
waste contain chemicals that are hazardous materials, for example: acids, bases,
flammable hydrocarbons, toxic chemicals and reactive monomers that can bring
negative impact to the environment. Therefore, before discharging it to the environment, it
must be treated well and comply the parameters with Environmental Quality Act 1974,
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in order to follow the standard of waste discharge from Department of Environment
(DOE).
Regarding to John Pichtel, most of the consumers, manufacturers, utilities generate a

wide range of waste which is different in chemical or physical properties. In order to
practice waste management strategies, the waste must first be classified then indeed
managed separately under separate sets of federal and state regulation. Some major
classes of waste include; Municipal, Hazardous, Industrial, Medical, Universal,
Construction and demolition, Radioactive, Mining and Agricultural. Although all the
wastes is regulated by separate and distinct bodies of laws and regulations but the fact is,
all the three categories are closely interrelated, both as they impact the environment and
as they are generated and managed by individual industries facilities; often waste
treatment processes can transfer substances from one of the three waste categories to
one or both of the others. The entire wastes must be treated to fulfil the requirement of
Environmental Quality Act (1974) standards before can be discharge to the environment.
Thus, it becomes the main goal in every treatment process design to minimize the
volume and toxicity of both process waste and the final treatment residue, since final
disposal can incur significant cost and liability.
In Malaysia, Department of Environment (DOE) is responsible to make sure the all

chemical plants design a waste treatment unit to treat the waste to an acceptable form or
level before discharging them into the environment. Direct discharge of unwanted
material into the natural ecosystem may pollute and destroy the balance of the
ecosystem. Before the wastes are discharged to the environment, some consideration
must be done. Firstly, considered the economic aspect, whether the waste can be recovering
and sell as a by-product or not. There are two approaches to deal with waste produced
from an industry:
a) Waste minimization
b) End-of-pipe Treatment
Besides, other applicable regulations such as (e.g. Resources Conservation and Clean
Water Act, Toxic substances Control Act, Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act) required
regulation activities and operations to be conducted to minimize potential environmental
impacts. Improper treatment such as directly choosing disposal and incineration of waste arises
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the global warming and local impact including odor and hazard, such as the risk of fires and
explosion.
Waste minimization is to eliminate or reduce the waste generated at the source or by not
producing it in the first place. Therefore, it will eliminate any problems in treating it and
at the same time we can save more on capital cost. On the other hand, end-of-pipe
treatment means to transform the generated waste into another kind of materials or
components that is harmless so that it can be released to the environment by using any
physical, chemical, and biological or the combination of three methods. Waste
treatments are done to ensure it is complying with the Malaysia Environmental Quality Act
1974.
i. Consider the economic aspect, whether the waste can be recovered and sell as a product
or not.
ii. Consider the waste properties, whether it can be discharged directly to the
environment or we need to treat it first.
iii. Consider from the safety reason, whether it is dangerous to the environment or not.
7.2 Sources of Waste

Waste that produced from monopropylene glycol production plant is a type of solid waste,
Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – catalyst. It is an ion exchange resin which is necessary to be
replaced after two years. The weight of catalyst used in the hydrolysis reactor, R-101 is 25200
kg to obtain the desired conversion. All the chemical compounds must be ensured to comply with
the Laws of Malaysia Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Act 127) before ejecting to the
environment.
7.3 Related Environmental Act

To make sure the environment is safe, the waste treatment strategy for this plant has been
planned to meet the regulation of Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (EQA, 1974) and Malaysia
and International Standard ISO 14001. Others quality act and regulations that need to follow
are Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluent), 1979, Environmental Quality
(Industrial Effluent) Regulations and 2009 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guideline.
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7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
Malaysia had legislation relate with environmental since early of 1920s. But the
legislation is limited in scope and inadequate for handling complex emerging
environmental problems. So, through Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (EQA, 1974), a
more comprehensive form of legislation and an agency to control pollution was
established.
EQA, 1974 is a piece of legislation for preventing and controlling pollution, and
enhancing the environment, or other related purposes. Pollution, as declared in EQA,
1974 includes the direct or indirect alteration of any quality of the environment or any
part of it by means of a positive act or act of emission. Pollution is “controlled” through
the mechanism of licenses issued by Department of Environment (DOE). The mode of
control is by prescribing, by means of a ministerial regulation, that licenses are
mandatory for:
i. The use and occupation of prescribed premises.

ii. Discharging or emitting wastes exceeding acceptable conditions into the atmosphere as
well as noise pollution, polluting or causing the pollution of any soil or surface of any land.
iii. Emitting, discharging, or depositing any waste or oil, in excess of acceptable conditions,
into inland waters or Malaysian waters.
Currently, there are 16 sets of regulations and orders are enforced by the DOE under EQA,
1974. Despite government efforts to implement environmental laws and regulations, it has been
found that enforcement measures need to be further enhanced to ensure the full compliance
with laws and regulations. Below are the listed laws and regulations have been introduced and
are strictly enforced by the DOE:
i. Control of agro-based water pollution

• Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulation, 1977.
ii. Control of municipal and industrial wastewater pollution
• Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979.
• Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Controlled Substances in Soap,
Synthesis Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents) Order, 1995.
iii. Control of industrial emissions
• Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978.
• Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offenses) Rules, 1978.
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iv. Control of motor vehicle emissions
• Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke and Gas Emission) Rules, 1977 (made under the
Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958).
• Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Gasoline)
Regulations, 1985.
• Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise) Regulations, 1987.
v. Control of toxic and hazardous waste management
• Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations, 1989.
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989.
• Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Regulation, 1989.
7.3.2 Gaseous Emissions & Effluent Standards

Industries are required to comply with both air emission and effluent discharge
standards which are regarded as acceptable conditions allowed in Malaysia, as
stipulated in the Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978 and the
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979. Therefore,
air emissions and effluent discharge standards shown in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 below
respectively and both must fulfil the quality standard before release to the environment
or before sending it to safe landfill.
Table 7.1: Stack Gas Emission Standards.
Pollution Emission Sources Standards

Dark Solid Fuel Equipment to Facilities Ringlemann Chart No.2
Smoke Equipment using other types of fuel Ringlemann Chart No.1
Dust Facilities used for the heating of metal other than 0.2 gm/Nm3
Cold Blast Foundry Cupola
Facilities discharging dust containing asbestos and 0.12 gm/Nm3
free silica
Portland Cement Manufacturing:
i. Kiln 0.2 gm/Nm3
ii. Clinker, cooler, grinder, others 0.1 gm/Nm3
Asphalt concrete/ bituminous mixing plant:

i. Stationery Plant 0.3 gm/Nm3
ii. Mobile Plant 0.4 gm/Nm3
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Other Sources 0.4 gm/Nm3
Metal and Mercury Industry 0.01 gm/Nm3
Metallic Lead Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Compund Arsenic Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Zinc Industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Copper Industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Gases 3.5 gm of SO3 /Nm3 and
Acid Gases from Sulphuric Acid Manufacturing
no persistent mist
Sulphuric Acid, Mist or SO3 from any other 0.2 gm of SO3 /Nm3 and
sources no persistent mist
Chlorine gas from any sources 0.2 gm of HCL/Nm3
HCl from any sources 0.2 gm of HCL/Nm3
Hydrogen sulphide from any sources 5 ppm (Vol%)
All type of pollution shown in Table 7.1 allowable to exceed standard not longer than 5
minutes in any period of one hour and 15 minutes in any period of 24 hours.
Table 7.2: Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (at 25 ℃ and 1 atm).
Pollutant Averaging time Malaysian Guidelines

and method ppm 𝐮𝐠/𝐦𝐬
Ozone 1 hour 0.10 260
8 hours 0.06 120
Carbon Monoxide 1 hour 30 35
8 hours 9 10
Nitrogen Monoxide 1 hour 0.17 320
Sulfur Dioxide 10 minutes 0.19 50
1 hour 0.13 350
24 hours 0.04 105
Particle TSP 24 hours 260
1 year 90
PM10 24 hours 150
1 year 50
Lead 3 months 1.5
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7.3.3 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standards A & B
The Malaysia Guidelines that must be followed for industrial wastewater are as stated in
the Environmental Quality Act, 1974 which specifies two standards for effluent
discharge: Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water intake and Standard B
for discharge downstream of any raw water intake (Doe.gov.my, 2017). The parameter
limits are shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Parameter limits of effluent of Standard A and B.
Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B

Temperature ℃ 40 40
pH value - 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
BOD at 20 C mg/L 20 50
COD mg/L 50 100
Suspended solids mg/L 50 100
Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05
Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.02
Chromium mg/L 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.1
Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.1
Lead mg/L 0.1 0.5
Chromium mg/L 0.2 1
Copper mg/L 0.2 1
Manganese mg/L 0.2 1
Nickel mg/L 0.2 1
Tin mg/L 0.2 1
Zinc mg/L 2 2
Boron mg/L 1 4
Iron (Fe) mg/L 1 5
Phenol mg/L 0.001 1
Free Chlorine mg/L 1 2
Sulphide mg/L 0.5 0.5
Oil and grease mg/L Non-detectable 10
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7.4 Waste Treatment of System
The traditional approach to waste has been to dispose of it as cheaper as possible without much
concern on what is going to be happened once the waste leaves the industrial premises. The
overlooked by manufacturers is that waste is not only a potential source of environmental damage,
but also causes a waste of their resources in terms of raw material, energy and water.
Manufacturers can reduce costs by recycling waste and create a cleaner and safer working
environment to improve the quality and safety of the product. The good waste management
protects the environment and improves profitability.
7.4.1 Solid Waste Management

The wastes that will be discussed in this section is the waste catalyst which classified as scheduled
waste listed in Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 2005. Thus,
the code for this type of waste is SW 202. The catalyst should be replaced when exceeding its life
span to maintain the efficiency and performance of the process as catalyst cannot be used
permanently. Therefore, after every few years, the respective equipment or the whole plant will be
stopped or shut down to remove all the catalysts, perform maintenance and process modifications
and then replacing with new catalyst. The solid waste that generated from the hydrolysis reactor is
Lewatit MonoPlus M500/HCO3 – catalyst which is needed to be disposed because the efficiency
of this catalyst will be decreased with time. There are two types of solid waste management are
suggested for this kind of waste which are incineration and landfill when recycling is not feasible
(Lanxess, 2019). It is recommended to safely store the waste catalyst according to scheduled waste
regulations and to send to Kualiti Alam Sdn.Bhd for final processing and disposal. So, it can just
be sent directly to Kualiti Alam Sdn.Bhd for final processing and disposal. The final processing
which recommend is incinerating in an incinerator or a kiln can be considered can effectively
reduce the formation of dangerous and persistent air pollutants. The cost that involved for solid
waste management of catalyst by Kualitit Alam Service is shown in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4: Cost of Solid Waste Management of Catalyst by Kualiti Alam Service (A Cenviro
Company, 2017).
Treatment Cost
Kualiti Alam service 1 ton RM 3600
21002.358 kg × × = RM 90,720.00
(Waste group 4-B) 1000 kg ton
Transportation service
1 ton RM 105.26
(Gebeng to Waste 21002.358 kg × × = RM 2652.55
1000 kg ton
Management Centre)
Total RM 93,372.55/2 years
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7.5 Types of Waste Management
Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd will be responsible in collecting the waste from the plant to the waste
management centre. Treatment and disposal of waste are based under Environmental Quality
Act 1974 under Environmental Quality (Schedule Waste) Regulations 2005. The regulations
are:
1) Regulation 3: Notification of generation schedule wastes
2) Regulation 4: Disposal of schedule waste
3) Regulation 5: Treatment of schedule waste
4) Regulation 6: Recovery of material or product from schedule waste
5) Regulation 7: Application of special management of schedule waste
6) Regulation 8: Responsibility of waste generator
7) Regulation 9: Storage of schedule wastes
8) Regulation 10: Labeling of schedule wastes
9) Regulation 11: Waste generator shall keep an inventory of schedule wastes
10) Regulation 12: Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and occupier of
prescribed premises
11) Regulation 13: Schedule waste transported outside waste generator‟s premises to be
accompanied by information
12) Regulation 14: Spill or accidental discharge
13) Regulation 15: Conduct of training
14) Regulation 16: Compounding of offences
At Kualiti Alam, disposal cost varies based on treatment on disposal method and location. The
costs are listed as below.
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SCHEDULE A (Rates of Transportation Fee)
(All Rates are quoted in Ringgit Malaysia per tonne / per pallet) (Kualiti Alam, 2016)
Per Pallet (RM)

1st
Tier 2nd Tier
Note State Per MT (RM)
Min. 18
Above 18 Pallets
Pallets
1 Negeri Sembilan 52.88 26.44 66.10
Kuala Lumpur
2 59.73 29.87 74.66
(Wilayah Persekutuan)
3 Melaka 60.71 30.36 75.89
4 Selangor 65.61 32.80 82.01
5 Perak 79.32 39.66 99.14
6 Johor 82.25 41.13 102.82
7 Pahang 84.21 42.11 105.26
8 Penang 113.59 56.79 141.98
9 Terengganu 180.17 90.09 225.22
10 Kedah 181.15 90.58 226.44
11 Kedah (Kulim) 142.24 71.12 177.80
12 Kelantan 183.11 91.56 228.89
13 Perlis 184.09 92.04 230.11
SCHEDULE B (Rates of Treatment Fee)
(All Rates are quoted in Ringgit Malaysia per tonne / per pallet) (Kualiti Alam, 2016)
(1A) ORGANIC WASTE FOR INCINERATION
WASTE PACKAGE WASTE BULK WASTE

GROUP PUMPABLE SOLID PUMPABLE SOLID
LIQUID LIQUID
A 810 630
B 3150 3600
C 1350
H/Z 1890 2790 1800 2700
T 3150 3600
(1A) TENORM WASTE FOR INCINERATION
WASTE GROUP PACKAGED WASTE* WASTE IN BULK

Z 4000 Not Applicable
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(2) INORGANIC WASTE FOR PHYSICAL / CHEMICAL TREATMENT
800 LITRE PALLET

WASTE GROUP (X/K) 200 LITRE DRUMS
TANKS
Acid Waste Without
1440 1620
Chromate (X)
Alkaline Waste Without
1440 1620
Cyanide (X)
Chromate Waste (X) 1800 1980
Cyanide Waste (X) 1800 1980
Mercury Waste (K) 3600 3780
(3) INORGANIC WASTE FOR SOLIDIFICATION

X/Z 810 765
(4) INORGANIC WASTE FOR DIRECT LANDFILL

X/Z 495 450
(4A) RUBBER SLUDGE WASTE FOR RUBBER SLUDGE LANDFILL

X 700 Not Applicable
(5) ENCAPSULATION
WASTE GROUP (Z) PACKAGED WASTE*

Contaminated Crushed Drum and Other
1500
Contaminated Waste
(6) CEMENTATION
WASTE GROUP (Z) PACKAGED WASTE*

Dry cell Batteries and Other Miscellaneous
900
Waste
Note: * Packaged Waste refers to wastes packed in standard 200 litres drum or 1 m3 PP Bag.
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The legislation was supported with the development of a national scheduled waste program
aimed at developing an integrated scheduled waste management system which was given to
two private companies to design. In 1995, one of the companies, Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, a
consortium of Malaysian and Danish companies was given approval to establish integrated
scheduled waste plant and was granted the exclusive right operate the plant for 15 years. Kualiti
Alam Sdn Bhd was given the responsibilities for waste collection, transportation, treatment,
and final disposal of hazardous waste.
With the rapid growth in the country development, Kualiti Alam is always at the top of the
game by improving its quality of work and upgrading their facilities to a new level with state-
of-the art facilities, thus proves its credibility in the waste management services. All facilities
are designed and managed to meet stringent international standards. These facilities have the
capacity to store, treat and dispose more than 100,000 tonnes of all classes of hazardous wastes
annually. The end-to-end facilities are shown below.
Figure 7.1: Waste Management Service in Kualiti Alam (Kualiti Alam, 2019).
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7.5.1 Incineration Plant
The Incineration Plant for scheduled waste is built to cater for all organic waste that requires
thermal treatment to achieve maximum destruction efficiency. Scheduled organic waste,
including toxic, hazardous, clinical and pathological waste in all forms, solids, sludge and
liquids are treated here. A rotary kiln as the primary combustion chamber with a temperature
of up to 1000°C and secondary combustion chamber operating at above 1000°C to ensure the
highest possible destruction efficiency, followed by heat recovery system and finally an
extensive multi-stage flue-gas treatment system.
Designed with multiple feed streams, dual combustion chambers, rapid cooling, dry and wet
scrubbing systems, the plant is designed to achieve 99.99% destruction and flue-gas removal
efficiency. Emissions from this plant meet all Malaysian Environmental standards. The
incineration process is being monitored by Continuous Emissions Systems (GEMS) in order to
ensure the compliance with Department of Environment, Malaysia (DOE) license condition.
Fully computerized and equipped with continuous monitoring systems, the Incineration Plant
represents the latest standard in rotary kiln incineration technology.
Incineration is one of the popular forms of waste treatments, especially when organic waste is
involved. It destroys most organic components in the waste and the resulting sludge and ash
are almost always less hazardous and easier to dispose of than the original waste.
7.5.2 Solidification Plant

Stabilization and solidification aim to immobilize the toxic constituents of hazardous wastes to
prevent them leaching from the wastes once disposed. The Solidification technologies are often
used to treat the residues from other treatment processes such as fly ash from incineration or
sludges from heavy metal precipitation. Cement, lime and sand are also used in the
solidification process. Solidification technologies are effective in treating a variety of difficult
to manage inorganic wastes.
At Solidification Plant, inorganic wastes that are typically metal hydroxide sludge containing
heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, nickel, zinc and chromium which do not fulfil the Direct
Landfill Waste Acceptance Criteria for direct disposal into Secured Landfill are treated. This
Plant can be used for wastes containing mixtures of contaminants and can economically treat
large waste volumes.
252
7.5.3 Physical & Chemical Treatment Plant
Physical & Chemical Treatment Plant (PCT) is capable of handling all types of inorganic liquid
waste such as acid, alkaline, oxidizer, chromate, cyanide and others. The PCT is also able to
handle wastes with high total dissolved solid content through the use of a proprietary treatment
process. These wastes are treated through various chemical processes including neutralization,
oxidation and reduction.
The PCT is operated with an intelligent monitoring control system to minimize the potential
hazards. This facility allows the treatment of contaminated acids and alkalines, various waste
waters and spent plating solutions. The slurry and filtered press sludges are tested periodically
to ensure all wastes are treated in a safe and cost-effective manner.
Physical treatment may be used alone or with the other types of treatment and their function is
to concentrate waste, reduce waste volume and separate different waste components for
continued treatment or disposal.
While for the Chemical Treatment, natural watercourses contain many dissolved minerals and
gases that interact chemically with one another in complex and varied ways. Therefore, this
treatment is used to convert hazardous waste into other less hazardous forms and generally
used on one substance or similar substance because the reactions involved are specific.
7.5.4 Vertical Secured Landfill

In 2015, the existing secured landfill at the WMC was close to full capacity. Over the next four
years, a 24m high geogrid wall will be built along the 1.7km parameter of our existing secured
landfill. This first phase (Phase 1) will provide additional capacity of 1.5 million MT and
increase the lifespan initial by 15 years without using new land.
7.5.5 Clinical Waste Treatment Care

Kualiti Alam offers the most innovative technology in medical waste disposal, AMS-serial
250-Ecosteryl. It is a zero-emission technology, no harmful effects, no water, no steam, no
odour, no burning or smoke, and is capable to process up to 300 kilogramme per hour. The
residue from the process is inert and landfill ready.
The Microwave Ecosteryl is manufactured by AMB-Ecosteryl, a specialist in the commercial

treatment of medical waste without combustion. Kualiti Alam is also the distributor for this
revolutionary technology to the region, including Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Turkey and
Brunei.
253
7.5.6 Effluent Treatment Plant
Kualiti Alam Waste Management Centre (KAWMC) has two facilities to treat wastewater
generated in daily operation of treatment and disposal of Scheduled Waste. Effluent Treatment
Plant (ETP) is built to treat contaminated surface runoff from operation area and effluent from
scheduled waste treatment process. The process is combination of physical-chemical treatment,
biological treatment and has capacity of 300m3/day. The ETP plant is also equipped with
Ultrafiltration/Reverse Osmosis polishing system to ensure treated effluent consistently meet
Standard A limit as stipulated in Industrial effluent Regulation 2009.
7.5.7 Leachate Treatment Plant

Leachate from Vertical Secured Landfill is treated by other dedicated plant called Leachate
Treatment Plant (LTP). This plant has treatment capacity of 400m3/day and run more complex
process than ETP plant. LTP has two stage of biological treatment to remove ammonia and
organic contents. Advanced Oxidation and Carbon Adsorption process to further reduce
organic contents and finally Ultrafiltration/Reverse Osmosis polishing system to achieve
Standard A. Treated effluent and treated leachate from both plants will be reuse as quench
water in Incineration Plants.
Table 7.5: Summary of End-to-end Facilities.
Capacity: 55 000 metric tonne per year

Incineration Plant
24 hours operation, 330 days per year
Capacity: 23 000 metric tonne per year
Solidification Treatment Plant
8 hours operation, 5 days per week
Physical & Chemical Treatment Capacity: 5 000 metric tonne per year
System 8 hours operation, 5 days per week
Capacity: Minimum 1.5 million tonnes over an area of
approximate 45 acres
Secured Landfill
Final disposal of residues and other solid hazardous
waste
Capacity: 300 kilogramme per hour
3 units × 300 kilogramme per hour
Clinical Waste Treatment Centre Zero emission technology, no harmful effect, no water,
steam odor, burning or smoke
Residue: Inert and landfill ready
254
CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
It is important to estimate the capital and operating costs before building and constructing a
chemical plant. The estimations are presented along with the basic relationships for scaling
costs with the equipment size. According to the estimations, an economic evaluation is done to
determine the economic and financial feasibility for the specific plant. The capital cost,
manufacturing cost, engineering economy analysis and profitability are basically included in the
economic analysis. Furthermore, fixed and total capital investment cost and cash flow analysis are
also performed. In the process, the basic components of the manufacturing costs of a process cover
fixed capital investment, cost of operating labour, cost of raw materials, cost of utilities and cost of
waste treatment. For engineering economic analysis, the things that will be covered are interest,
annuities and discount factors. Lastly, to evaluate the profitability of chemical processes is by
extending the part of profitability analysis. Profitability criteria using non-discounted is presented.
8.2 Grass-Root Capital

The term grass-root refers to a completely new facility in which the construction is started on
essentially undeveloped land, a grass field. The grass-root capital equation is as shown:
o
CGR = CTM + 0.5 ∑ CBM,i
The estimation of grass-roots capital cost of a new chemical plant is calculated by using the
o
module cost technique. where CBM is the base bare module cost at the base condition, which is
the equipment made of the most common material, usually carbon steel and operate at near
ambient pressure, with FP = 1.0 and FM = 1.0. The bare module cost is calculated based on the
equipment size. It is also the sum of the direct and indirect cost for each unit equipment. CTM
is total module cost referring to the cost of making small-to-moderate expansions or alterations
o
to an existing facility. The equations for (CBM ) and (CTM ) are listed as:
o
CBM = CP × FBM
o
CTM = 1.18 ∑ CBM,i
255
Table 8.1: Bare Module Cost for all Equipment.
Equipment Tag No. CBM (RM)

Reactor R-101 700,045.24
T-101 4,094,546.73
Distillation Column T-102 3,201,539.89
T-103 2,718,350.41
E-101 217,714.32
E-102 441,442.32
E-103 639,188.55
E-104 639,188.55
E-105 276,321.50
Heat Exchanger E-106 379,532.61
E-107 608,265.08
E-108 359,660.14
E-109 974,409.95
E-110 674,077.30
E-111 526,100.33
TK-101 7,666,582.10
TK-102 4,504,803.18
Storage Tank TK-103 5,869,272.62
TK-104 3,542,987.89
TK-105 3,542,987.89
P-101 A/B 296,827.70
P-102 A/B 322,226.00
P-103 A/B 296,827.70
P-104 A/B 79,151.50
Pump
P-105 A/B 79,151.50
P-106 A/B 79,904.87
P-107 A/B 79,904.87
P-108 A/B 83,121.21
Valve VLV-101 20,700.00
Cooling Tower T-104 992,638.19
Total (RM) 43,907,470.14
Table 8.2: Grass Roots Capital Cost.
Item Cost (RM)

Total bare module cost (CBM) 43,907,470.14
Total module cost (CTM) 51,810,814.77
Grass roots capital cost (CGR) 73,764,549.84
256
8.3 Fixed & Total Capital Investment
Fixed capital investment (FCI) is the total capital cost of the installed process equipment with
auxiliaries. It includes direct and indirect cost without land. Direct cost represents the
manufacturing fixed capital investment whereas indirect cost represents the non-manufacturing
fixed capital investment. Direct cost is the capital necessary for the installed process equipment
such as piping, instruments, foundations and auxiliary facilities. For indirect cost, it is the cost
of land and construction overhead. Total capital investment (TCI) is the total project expenses,
indirect expenses, contingency and fee, and auxiliary facilities. Since this project is built on
new undeveloped land, the fixed capital investment (FCI) is assumed to be CGR and the
working capital is 15 % of FCI.
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) + Working Capital
TCI = CGR + 0.15(CGR )
TCI = RM 73,764,549.84 + 0.15(RM 73,764,549.84) = RM 84,829,232.32
8.4 Manufacturing Cost & Total Cost Production

Manufacturing cost refers to all expenses directly connected with the manufacturing operation
or the physical equipment of a process plant itself. The economic analysis includes the
operation of plant, products sale, capital investment recovery, corporate contribution as well as
research and development. There are three elements to be considered in calculating the
manufacturing cost.
i. Direct manufacturing cost

These costs represent operating expenses that vary with production rate. When product
demand drops, production rate is reduced to less than the design capacity. At this lower
rate, a reduction in the factors making up the direct manufacturing costs would be
expected. These reductions may be directly proportional to the production rate, as for
raw materials or might be reduced slightly, for example, maintenance costs or operating
labour.
ii. Fixed manufacturing cost
These costs are independent of changes in production rate. They include property taxes,
insurance and depreciation, which are charged at constant rates even when the plant is
not in operation.
257
iii. General expenses
These costs represent an overhead burden that is necessary to carry out business
functions. They include management, sales, financing, and research functions. General
expenses seldom vary with production level. However, items such as research and
development and distribution and costs may decrease if extended period of low
production level occurs.
The factors that influence the manufacturing costs are listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Factors Influence on Manufacturing Cost

Factor Description
Direct Costs: Factors that vary with the rate of production.
Raw Materials Cost of chemical feedstock required by the
process.
Waste Material Cost of waste treatment to protect environment
Utilities Cost of utility streams required by the process
Operating Labour Cost of personnel required for plant operations.
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour Cost of administrative, engineering and support
personnel.
Maintenance and Repairs Cost of labour and materials associated with
maintenance.
Operating Supplies Cost of miscellaneous supplies that support daily
operation not considered to be raw materials.
Laboratory Charges Cost of routine and special laboratory tests
required for the product quality control and
troubleshooting.
Patent and Loyalties Costs of using patented or licensed technology.
Fixed Costs: Factors not affected by the level of production.
Depreciation Costs associated with the physical plant, legal
operating expenses for tax purpose.
Local taxes and insurance Costs associated with property taxes and liability
insurance based on the plant location and severity
of the process.
Plant overhead costs Catch all costs associated with the operations of
auxiliary facilities supporting the manufacturing
process
General Expenses: Costs associated with management level and administrative
activities not directly related to the manufacturing process.
Administration costs Cost for administration
Distribution and selling costs Costs of sales and marketing required to sell
chemical products
Research and development Costs of research activities related to process and
product,
258
The cost of manufacturing is calculated as below:
Cost of Manufacture (COM) = Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) + Fixed Manufacturing

Cost (FMC) + General Expenses (GE)
8.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC)

8.4.1.1 Raw Materials (CRM)
Raw material is important in a chemical process plant. The raw materials used in
monopropylene glycol production plant are propylene oxide and water. The cost of raw
material is calculated and shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Raw Material Cost.
Raw Material Cost per unit Cost per annum (RM/yr)

Propylene oxide RM 4.26/kg 542,814,213.17
Water RM 0.84/m3 31,873.35
Total 542,846,086.51
8.4.1.2 Utilities Cost (CUT)

The cost of utilities is discussed in Chapter 4 is shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Utilities Cost.
Utilities Cost (RM/yr)

Steam Energy 73,535,737.57
Cooling Water 3,993,208.86
Electrical/Power Energy 118,299.50
Total 77,647,245.93
8.4.1.3 Waste Treatments Cost (CWT)

The cost of wastewater treatment plant is discussed in Chapter 7 which is RM 46,686.30/yr.
8.4.1.4 Operating Labor Cost (COL)

The cost of operating labor is estimated based on equipment and auxiliary facilities as shown
in Table 8.6.
259
Table 8.6: Labor Requirement Based on Equipment and Auxiliary Facilities.
Equipment Quantity Operator/Equipment Shift Operator

Reactor 1 0.5 0.5
Tower/Column 4 0.35 1.4
Heat Exchangers 11 0.1 1.1
Storage Tank 5 0 0
Pump 8 0 0
Valve 1 0 0
Cooling Tower 1 1 1
Total 4
The working duration for each of the operators are 49 weeks per year and 8 hours shifts a week.
The average salary for each operator is assumed to be RM 1,800 per month. Thus, the annual
operating labor cost is estimated as shown in below.
Operating Labor = 4 × 4.5 = 18 operators
RM 1,800 12 months
Annual Operating Labor Cost = 18 × × = 𝐑𝐌 𝟑𝟖𝟖, 𝟖𝟎𝟎/𝐲𝐫
month year
8.4.1.5 Summary of Direct Manufacturing Cost
The total manufacturing cost (COM) can be estimated by using equation as below.
COM = 0.304FCI + 2.73COL + 1.23(CUT + CWT + CRM )
COM = 0.304(RM 73,764,549.84) + 2.73(RM 388,800) + 1.23(RM 77,647,245.93
+RM 46,686.30 + RM 542,846,086.51 = RM 786,750,070.20
The direct manufacturing cost is shown in Table 8.7.
Table 8.7: Direct Manufacturing Cost.
Direct Manufacturing Cost

Component Multiplying Factor Cost (RM/yr)
Raw Material Cost, CRM 542,846,086.51
Utilities Cost, CUT 77,647,245.93
Operating Labor Cost, COL 388,800
Direct Supervision & Clerical Labor 0.18COL 69,984
Maintenance and Repairs 0.06FCI 4425872.99
Operating Supplies 0.009FCI 663,880.95
Laboratory charges 0.15COL 58,320
Patents and Loyalties 0.03COM 23,602,502.11
Total Direct Manufacturing Cost 649,702,692.49
260
8.4.2 Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)
The fixed manufacturing cost involved for the production plant is shown in Table 8.8.
Table 8.8: Fixed Manufacturing Cost.
Fixed Manufacturing Cost

Depreciation 0.1FCI 7,376,454.98
Local Taxes and Iinsurances 0.032FCI 2,360,465.59
Plant Overhead 0.708COL+0.032FCI 2,635,735.99
Total 12,372,656.57
8.4.3 General Expenses (GE)

The general manufacturing expenses is shown in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9: General Expenses.

Administration Costs 0.177COL+0.009FCI 732,698.55
Distribution and Selling Costs 0.11COM 86,542,507.72
Research and Development 0.05COM 39,337,503.51
Total 126,612,709.78
8.4.4 Total Manufacturing Cost

The total manufacturing costs are listed as below.
Table 8.10: Total Manufacturing Costs.
Component Cost (RM/yr)

Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) 649,702,692.49
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 12,372,656.57
General Expenses (GE) 126,612,709.78
Total 788,688,058.84
The sales revenue from the production of monopropylene glycol is shown as below.
Table 8.11: Sales Revenue.
Cost per Unit Revenue per Annum

Products Amount (kg/hr)
(RM/kg) (RM/yr)
Monopropylene Glycol 6.44 18,811.78 969,182,648.00
Dipropylene Glycol 2.24 1,650.85 29,583,147.78
Tripropylene Glycol 3.17 206.21 5,229,452.63
Total 1,003,995,248.41
261
8.5 Cash Flow Analysis
Cash flow analysis is an economic evaluation which is carried out to determine whether the process
can generate money and whether the process is attractive compared with other processes.
Cash flow analysis is an effective way to track the transactions involved several investments and
payment made at different time. It provides a clear, unambiguous record of the value, type and
timing of each transaction occurring during the life of the plant. In economic analysis, the following
assumptions have been made:
1. The new land purchases required are done at the start of the project. The purchase cost of land
is estimated to be RM 15 million.
2. The plant lifetime has been chosen as 20 years including 2 years of start-up.
3. Two years for the time from project initiation to the start-up of the plant.
4. At the end of second year, construction is finished and additional expenditure for working
capital is required to float the first few months of operation.
5. The revenue for the first year after start-up is around 50% of the subsequent year due to teething
problem in the plant.
6. The income tax imposed on this project is 20% of the net profit for the first 5 years and 30%
for the following years (Lembaga Hasil Dalam Negeri, 2019).
7. The depreciation value is modeled as straight-line depreciation for 10 years after the
commissioning of the plant.
The manufacturing cost without depreciation (COMd) can be obtained as shown:
COMd = 0.18FCI + 2.73COL + 1.23(CUT + CWT + CRM ) = 𝐑𝐌 𝟕𝟕𝟕, 𝟔𝟎𝟑, 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟑
Table 8.12: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits.
Item Description Formula

Expenses Manufacturing cost + Depreciation COMd + d
Income tax (Revenue – Expenses) (Tax rate) (R – COMd – d) (t)
After-tax net profit Revenue – Expenses – Income tax (R – COMd – d) (1 – t)
After-tax cash flow Net profit + Depreciation (R – COMd – d) (1 – t) + d
Where t = tax rate; R = revenue from sales; d = depreciation.
8.5.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis

The cumulative non-discounted cash flow for 20 years of project life is shown in Table 8.13
and Figure 8.1. From Figure 8.1, the non-discounted payback period is estimated to be 6 years
after commissioning of plant.
262
Table 8.13: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
Net Income
Capital Depreciation Fixed Capital Cumulative Cash
Year Revenue (R) COMd (R-COMd-d) × Cash Flow
Investment (d) Investment - d Flow
(1-t)
0 -15,000,000.00 0.00 73,764,549.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 -15,000,000.00 -15,000,000.00
1 -73,764,549.84 0.00 73,764,549.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 -73,764,549.84 -88,764,549.84
2 -77,647,245.93 0.00 73,764,549.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 -77,647,245.93 -166,411,795.77
3 0.00 7,376,454.98 66,388,094.86 501,997,624.20 777,603,266.03 -226,385,677.44 -226,385,677.44 -392,797,473.21
4 0.00 7,376,454.98 59,011,639.87 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 175,212,421.92 175,212,421.92 -217,585,051.30
5 0.00 7,376,454.98 51,635,184.89 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 175,212,421.92 175,212,421.92 -42,372,629.38
6 0.00 7,376,454.98 44,258,729.90 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 175,212,421.92 175,212,421.92 132,839,792.54
7 0.00 7,376,454.98 36,882,274.92 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 175,212,421.92 175,212,421.92 308,052,214.46
8 0.00 7,376,454.98 29,505,819.94 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 153,310,869.18 153,310,869.18 461,363,083.64
9 0.00 7,376,454.98 22,129,364.95 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 153,310,869.18 153,310,869.18 614,673,952.82
10 0.00 7,376,454.98 14,752,909.97 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 153,310,869.18 153,310,869.18 767,984,821.99
11 0.00 7,376,454.98 7,376,454.98 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 153,310,869.18 153,310,869.18 921,295,691.17
12 0.00 7,376,454.98 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 153,310,869.18 153,310,869.18 1,074,606,560.35
13 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 1,233,080,948.02
14 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 1,391,555,335.69
15 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 1,550,029,723.35
16 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 1,708,504,111.02
17 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 1,866,978,498.69
18 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 2,025,452,886.36
19 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 2,183,927,274.02
20 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,003,995,248.41 777,603,266.03 158,474,387.67 158,474,387.67 2,342,401,661.69
263
Graph of Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow vs Year
2,500,000,000
Non-Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
2,000,000,000
1,500,000,000
1,000,000,000 Payback
period: 5 years
500,000,000
6 years
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-500,000,000
-1,000,000,000
Year
Figure 8.1: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow along the Project Life.
8.5.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis

Discounted cash flow is the cash flow analysis which the yearly cash flow is discounted back
to time zero. This is done by multiplying each cash flow by the discount factor (P/F, i, n) where
n is the number of years after the start of the project and i is the discount rate (Turton, 2009).
The resulting discounted cumulative cash flow is then used to evaluate profitability. The
cumulative cash flow discounted (CDCF) at discount rate of 30%, 32.86% and 40% are
tabulated at Table 8.13. The CDCF are plotted in Figure 8.2 and the Net Present Value (NPV)
at different discount rate is shown in Figure 8.3. From Figure 8.3, the rate of return is
determined at 32.86%.
264
Table 8.14: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow at Different Discount Rate.
Interest = 30 % Interest = 32.87 % Interest = 40 %

Non-
Discounted Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Year Discounted Discounted Discounted
Cash Flow Discount Discounted Discount Discounted Discount Discounted
(RM) Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow
Factor Cash Flow Factor Cash Flow Factor Cash Flow
(RM) (RM) (RM)
(RM) (RM) (RM)
0 -15,000,000 1.00 -15,000,000 -15,000,000 1.00 -15,000,000 -15,000,000 1.00 -15,000,000 -15,000,000
1 -88,764,550 0.77 -68,280,423 -83,280,423 0.75 -66,805,187 -81,805,187 0.71 -63,403,250 -78,403,250
2 -166,411,796 0.59 -98,468,518 -181,748,941 0.57 -94,259,551 -176,064,738 0.51 -84,903,977 -163,307,227
3 -392,797,473 0.46 -178,788,108 -360,537,049 0.43 -167,448,236 -343,512,974 0.36 -143,147,767 -306,454,995
4 -217,585,051 0.35 -76,182,575 -436,719,624 0.32 -69,809,026 -413,322,000 0.26 -56,639,174 -363,094,169
5 -42,372,629 0.27 -11,412,181 -448,131,805 0.24 -10,231,483 -423,553,482 0.19 -7,878,531 -370,972,699
6 132,839,793 0.21 27,521,245 -420,610,560 0.18 24,140,817 -399,412,665 0.13 17,642,494 -353,330,206
7 308,052,214 0.16 49,093,147 -371,517,413 0.14 42,132,647 -357,280,018 0.09 29,223,221 -324,106,984
8 461,363,084 0.12 56,558,258 -314,959,156 0.10 47,490,625 -309,789,393 0.07 31,262,129 -292,844,855
9 614,673,953 0.09 57,963,505 -256,995,650 0.08 47,619,023 -262,170,370 0.05 29,750,378 -263,094,477
10 767,984,822 0.07 55,708,198 -201,287,452 0.06 44,777,407 -217,392,963 0.03 26,550,474 -236,544,003
11 921,295,691 0.06 51,406,989 -149,880,463 0.04 40,427,415 -176,965,548 0.02 22,750,484 -213,793,519
12 1,074,606,560 0.04 46,124,244 -103,756,219 0.03 35,489,269 -141,476,279 0.02 18,954,532 -194,838,987
13 1,233,080,948 0.03 40,712,522 -63,043,697 0.02 30,648,539 -110,827,739 0.01 15,535,568 -179,303,419
14 1,391,555,336 0.03 35,342,197 -27,701,500 0.02 26,030,907 -84,796,832 0.01 12,522,988 -166,780,431
15 1,550,029,723 0.02 30,282,362 2,580,862 0.01 21,822,248 -62,974,584 0.01 9,963,674 -156,816,757
16 1,708,504,111 0.02 25,675,706 28,256,568 0.01 18,102,815 -44,871,769 0.00 7,844,540 -148,972,218
17 1,866,978,499 0.01 21,582,529 49,839,096 0.01 14,888,126 -29,983,643 0.00 6,122,978 -142,849,239
18 2,025,452,886 0.01 18,011,165 67,850,261 0.01 12,156,078 -17,827,565 0.00 4,744,796 -138,104,444
19 2,183,927,274 0.01 14,938,758 82,789,019 0.00 9,864,615 -7,962,950 0.00 3,654,311 -134,450,133
20 2,342,401,662 0.01 12,325,210 95,114,229 0.00 7,962,950 0 0.00 2,799,630 -131,650,503
265
Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow vs Year
200,000,000
Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
100,000,000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-100,000,000
30%
32.87%
-200,000,000
40%
-300,000,000
-400,000,000
-500,000,000
Year
Figure 8.2: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow for Different Discount Rate.
Table 8.15: Net Present Value at Different Discount Rate.
Interest (%) Net Present Value (RM)

0.00 2,337,238,143.20
30.00 12,298,040.51
32.86 0.00
40.00 -131,862,767.18
Graph of Net Present Value vs Interest Rate

2,500,000,000
2,000,000,000
Net Present Value (RM)
1,500,000,000
1,000,000,000
500,000,000
0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
-500,000,000
Interest Rate (%)
Figure 8.3: Net Present Value at Different Interest Rate.
266
Table 8.16 shows the summary of economic analysis.
Table 8.16: Summary of Economic Analysis.
Economic Parameter Value

Grass root costs RM 73,764,549.84
Plant lifetime 20 years
Start-up operations 2 years
Total capital investment RM 84,829,232.32
Total manufacturing cost RM 786,750,070.20
Annual sales income after tax RM 158,474,387.67
Payback period 5 years
Rate of return 32.87%
The payback period is the time required to recover the fixed capital investment for the project
which is determined to be 5 years. The discounted cash flow rate of return which is the interest or
discount rate for which the net present value of the project is equal to zero is estimated to be 32.87%.
It represents the highest after-tax interest at which the project can just break even. It can be expected
that this project will have a relatively good payback period with high rate of return after considering
approximately 3% interest rate of bank and 3% of annual inflation in the future. It is expected an
annual sales income after taxes will be RM 158 million and it is also expected about RM 2.34
billion of cumulative net income in the end of the project.
8.6 Financial Ratios (Profitability Analysis)

Financial ratio is an indicator of a firm’s performance and financial situation. The ratio can be
calculated from the information provided by the financial statement. The financial ratios can
be classified according to the information provided. The following types of ratios frequently
are used:
• Liquidity ratios
• Asset turnover ratios
• Financial leverage ratios
• Profitability ratios
• Dividend policy ratios
In the current financial situation, operating margin ratio, gross profit margin and net profit
margin are calculated.
267
8.6.1 Operating Margin Ratio
Operating Margin is the proportion of revenue remaining after paying the costs of operating
the business. It is also known as operating income margin, operating profit margin, return on
sales (ROS) and EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes). The operating margin ratio is
shown in equation below.
Revenue − DMC
Operating Margin Ratio = × 100 = 35.29 %
Revenue
8.6.2 Gross Profit Margin

The gross profit margin is a measure of the gross profit earned on sales. The gross profit margin
considers the firm’s cost of goods sold but does not include other costs. The gross profit margin
is shown in equation below.
Revenue − DMC − FMC

Gross Profit Margin = × 100 = 34.06 %
Revenue
8.6.3 Net Profit Margin

Net profit margin measures how much of each dollar earned by the company is translated into
profits. Low profit margin indicates a low margin of safety. The higher the margin is, the more
effectively the company is converting revenue into actual profit. The net profit margin is shown
in equation below.
Net Profit After Tax

Net Profit Margin = × 100 = 15.78 %
Revenue
8.6.4 Return of Investment (ROI)

A commonly used profitability standard is the minimum acceptable rate of return (also known
as the minimum attractive rate of return or MARR). The minimum acceptable rate of return is
a rate of earning that must achieved by an investment in order for it to be acceptable by investor.
There are many methods of calculating rate of return. The most common method is return on
investment (ROI). This profitability measure is defined as the ratio of profit to investment cost.
This can be expressed as
Net Profit After Tax Net Profit After Tax

ROI = × 100 = × 100 = 16.76 %
Total Investment Cost TCI + COM + CGR
268
8.7 Feasibility
In conclusion, grass root cost of RM 73,764,549.84 is needed for the monopropylene glycol
production plant. It is expected that there is as much as 32.86 % of rate of return with 5 years of
payback period. The project life is assumed to be 20 years with 2 years of start-up duration with
feasible yearly revenue of RM 158,474,387.67.
269
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
The production of 150,000 MTA of monopropylene glycol from propylene oxide and water is
a visible and feasible plan since the propylene oxide with purity of 99% is consistent supplied
by Huntsman (Singapore) Pte. Ltd and the water is supplied from Jabatan Bekalan Air Pahang.
In this process, propylene oxide and water will undergo the hydrolysis catalytic reaction
process with the molar ratio of feed 1:11.8 with the presence of Lewatit Monoplus M500/HC03-
as a catalyst in a continuous-stirred tank reactor with fluidize bed model to produce
monopropylene glycol, dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol and some unreacted
propylene oxide and water. The unreacted reactants will be separated by first distillation
column and recycle back to the reactor. The bottom products, which is mono, di-, and
tripropylene glycol then will enter the second distillation column for purification. The top
product from the second distillation column is the main product which is monopropylene glycol
with the purity of 99.5%. Then the bottom product which are di- and tripropylene glycol will
enter the third distillation column for further separation process. This synthesis route is selected
among the available process technologies due to the low process condition, the simplicity of
the step process, very low environmental impact and the absence of inorganic coproduct. In
addition, the valuable byproducts such as dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol with high
purity can be sold due to high market value.
Extensive market survey was done and the demand of monopropylene glycol was estimated to
increase gradually along the years. Based on the market survey analysis, it is decided to have
production rate to be set at 150,000 metric tonnes per annum of monopropylene glycol with
purity of 99.5%. Catalytic hydrolysis of propylene oxide was selected as the best technology
to be used to produce monopropylene glycol with the presence of heteregenous catalyst because
of low operating pressure and temperature that will lower the risk, cost saving in terms of
energy consumption and cleaner process. After referring upon heuristics, the mode of operation
was decided to be continuous process. The profit margin was calculated to be RM 478.3 million
per annum. After thorough comparison procedures, the plant will be set up at Gebeng, Pahang.
This is due to the availability raw materials at close proximity, a well-established port,
transportation, road facilities, cheap land prices as well as reasonable incentives that are
provided by government under the East Coast Economic Region program. The major element
270
of the plant consists of admin building, production area, warehouses, storage area, loading bay,
laboratory and all these facilities were drafted.
Pre-treatment was unnecessary because the purity of propylene oxide was high (99%) from the
supplier and they are able to supply propylene oxide with minimum impurities concentration.
The reaction temperature and pressure in the continuous-stirred tank reactor with fluidize bed
is determined to be at 100 ℃ and 9 bar. Distillation was decided to be necessary as a final
purification to produce 99.5% purity of monopropylene glycol. Economic Potential 2 was
calculated to be RM 406.29 million per annum including the revenue from two valuable
byproducts such as di- and tripropylene glycol. Economic potential 3 is calculated to be RM
402.02 million per annum after considering the recycle stream and cost from reactors and
pumps as well as cost for catalyst.
The process flow diagram was drafted, and the selection of separation equipment is decided
upon based on heuristics and research on industrial applications. The finalized separation units
are three distillation columns. Its operating parameters are identified. To ensure that the
material and energy balances are accurate, simulations were run on Aspen Plus. Comparing
manual calculation with Aspen Plus simulation, the error for material balance is less than 5 %.
On the other hand, energy balance has high deviation with maximum 28 % error because ideal
gas law was performed on manual calculation and only heat aspect was considered while the
simulation was calculated based on the criteria of compressibility factor of real gas in different
temperature and pressure conditions. In addition, NRTL thermodynamic property package was
used in the Aspen Plus which mainly considered the light hydrocarbons thus having a higher
accuracy of energy balance.
Detailed equipment sizing was done for all the major and minor equipment involved in the
design project. Assumptions, theoretical framework were well discussed, and the mechanical
sizing and rough dimensions of equipment were obtained. Specification and design of the
equipment required to carry out the function of these process units (unit operations) are clearly
stated in this chapter along with detailed calculations attached as Appendix G. The major
equipment used in this plant are reactor, distillation columns and heat exchangers and while
the minor equipment used in this plant are pumps, storage tanks, pressure reducing valve and
cooling tower. Costing was done for each equipment. The Economic Potential 4 that only
considered cost of utilities is RM 324.37 million per annum.
271
Heat integration was done based on the pinch technology and more than 81 % savings are
achieved when the suggested Heat Exchanger Network is implemented with five integrated
heat exchangers. The electricity cost was determined to be RM 118 thousand per annum,
cooling water was calculated to cost RM 3.99 million per annum and steam at RM 73.54 million
per annum.
Based on the completed PFD, necessary equipment control was identified and placed into the
major and minor equipment. The resulting P&ID allows HAZOP studies to be carried out.
Possible deviations, causes and consequences were identified through HAZOP. Necessary
action or safeguard such as temperature indicator was recommended on necessary equipment.
The only source of waste for this monopropylene glycol production plant is solid waste.
Therefore, the solid management is considered and decided to sell the spent catalysts to Kualiti
Alam Waste Management Centre (KAWMC) for catalyst disposable by incineration. Based on
the thoroughly inspected economic analysis, the payback period was found to be 5 years with
32.86 % rate of return while the grass root cost needed for the monopropylene glycol
production plant is RM 73.76 million. The plant will generate yearly revenue of RM 158.47
million.
272
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281
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: POLYMATH REPORT
A.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 Polymath Simulation

Calculated values of NLE variables
Variable Value f(x) Initial Guess
1 FDPGo 161.664 1.11E-10 0
2 FH2Oo 5.559E+04 1.006E-08 5.999E+04
3 FMPGo 4216.193 -1.02E-08 0
4 FPOo 478.7919 9.212E-09 5083.93
5 FTPGo 21.87229 3.056E-10 0
Variable Value
1 CDPG 0.4505044
2 CH2O 154.9128
3 CMPG 11.74914
4 CPO 1.334236
5 CPO_in 14.16724
6 CTPG 0.0609507
7 FDPG 0
8 FH2O 5.999E+04
9 FMPG 0
10 FPO 5083.93
11 FTPG 0
12 k1 0.0009123
13 k2 0.0005018
14 k3 0.0015595
15 P 9.
16 rprime1 0.0001746
17 rprime2 7.283E-06
18 rprime3 8.679E-07
19 S 21.15981
20 T 383.15
21 W 2.52E+07
22 X 0.9058224
23 X1 0.865419
24 X2 0.0417153
25 X3 0.1191711
26 Yaxis 2.782E+07
27 YDPG 0.0351051
282
28 YMPG 0.9155411
29 YTPG 0.0047495
Nonlinear equations
1 f(FPOo) = FPO -FPOo -(rprime1 + rprime2 + rprime3)*W = 0
2 f(FH2Oo) = FH2O -FH2Oo -(rprime1)*W = 0
3 f(FMPGo) = 0 -FMPGo +((rprime1-rprime2)*W) = 0
4 f(FDPGo) = 0 -FDPGo+((rprime2-rprime3)*W) = 0
5 f(FTPGo) = 0 -FTPGo +(rprime3*W) = 0
Explicit equations
1 FPO = 5083.93
2 FH2O = 59990.375
3 FMPG = 0
4 FDPG = 0
5 FTPG = 0
6 T = 383.15
K
7 k1 = exp(15.72 -8705/T)
8 k2 = exp(20.53 -10777/T)
9 X1 = ((FH2O-FH2Oo)/FH2O)*11.8
10 X2 = (FPO*X1 -FMPGo)/(FPO*X1 +0.0000001)
11 X3 = (FPO*X1*X2 -FDPGo)/(FPO*X1*X2 +0.000001)
12 CPO_in = 0.99*830/58
13 CPO = CPO_in*(1 -(X1 +X1*X2 +X1*X2*X3))
14 CH2O = CPO_in*(11.8 -X1)
15 CMPG = CPO_in*X1*(1 -X2)
16 CDPG = CPO_in*X1*X2*(1 -X3)
17 CTPG = CPO_in*X1*X2*X3
18 X = X1+X1*X2+X1*X2*X3
19 k3 = exp(43.35 -19086/T)
20 rprime1 = (k1*CPO*CH2O)/1080
21 rprime2 = (k2*CPO*CMPG)/1080
22 rprime3 = (k3*CPO*CDPG)/1080
23 P = 9
bar
24 W = 25200000
g (Conversion = 90%)
25 S = rprime1/(rprime2 +rprime3 +0.0000001)

26 YMPG = FMPGo/(FPO -FPOo +0.0000001)
27 YDPG = FDPGo/(FPO -FPOo +0.0000001)
283
28 YTPG = FTPGo/(FPO -FPOo +0.0000001)
29 Yaxis = FPO/(rprime1 +rprime2 +rprime3)
General Settings
Total number of equations 34
Number of implicit equations 5
Number of explicit equations 29
Elapsed time 0.0000 sec
Solution method SAFENEWT
Max iterations 150
Tolerance F 0.0000001
Tolerance X 0.0000001
Tolerance min 0.0000001
284
APPENDIX B: MATERIAL BALANCE IN LEVEL 2 & LEVEL 3
B.1 Material Balance in Level 2
Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101
Additional Information:
Conversion of propylene oxide = 90%
Operating hours = 8000 hrs/yr
Molar ratio of feed: C3H6O: H2O = 1: 11.8
Product distribution (mol%): C3H8O2: C6H14O3: C9H20O4 = 94.86: 4.73: 0.41
Table B.1: Molecular weight of Components.
Components Formula Molecular Weight (kg/kmol)

Propylene Oxide C3H6O 58
Water H2O 18
Monopropylene Glycol C3H8O2 76
Dipropylene Glycol C6H14O3 134
Tripropylene Glycol C9H20O4 192
The production of monopropylene oxide, C3H8O2 is 150,000 metric tons per year and the molar
flow rate is:
metric tons 1000 kg 1 yr kmol kmol

FC3 H8O2 ,o = 150000 × × × = 246.7105
yr 1 metric tons 8000 hrs 76 kg hr
For the production of dipropylene glycol and tripropylene glycol:
0.0473 kmol kmol

FC6 H14 O3,o = × 246.7105 = 12.3011
0.9486 hr hr
0.0041 kmol kmol

FC9 H20 O4,o = × 246.7105 = 1.0731
0.9486 hr hr
By using extent of reaction,
FC3 H6O,o = FC3 H6 O,i − ξ1̇ − ξ2̇ − ξ3̇ -------------- (1)
FH2 O,o = FH2 O,i − ξ1̇ ------------------------------- (2)
FC3 H8O2 ,o = ξ1̇ − ξ2̇ -------------------------------- (3)
285
FC6 H14 O3,o = ξ2̇ − ξ3̇ ------------------------------- (4)
FC9 H20 O4,o = ξ3̇ ------------------------------------- (5)
To solve ξ1̇ , ξ2̇ , ξ3̇ ,
kmol
ξ3̇ = FC9 H20 O4,o = 1.0731
hr
kmol kmol kmol

ξ2̇ = FC6 H14 O3,o + ξ3̇ = 12.3011 + 1.0731 = 13.3748
hr hr hr
kmol kmol kmol

ξ1̇ = FC3 H8O2 ,o + ξ2̇ = 246.7105 + 13.3748 = 260.0848
hr hr hr
With conversion of 90% to solve FC3 H8O,i in Eqn (1),
FC3 H6O,o = 0.1FC3H6 O,i
0.1FC3 H8 O,i = FC3 H8O,i − ξ1̇ − ξ2̇ − ξ3̇
kmol kmol kmol

260.0848 + 13.3748 + 1.0731
FC3 H8O,i = hr hr hr = 305.0358 kmol
0.9 hr
kmol kmol
FC3 H6O,o = 0.1 (305.0358 ) = 30.5036
hr hr
To solve FH2 O,i and FH2 O,o ,
kmol kmol
FH2 O,i = 11.8FC3 H6 O,i = 11.8 (305.0358 ) = 3599.4225
hr hr
kmol kmol kmol

FH2 O,o = FH2 O,i − ξ1̇ = 3599.4225 − 260.0848 = 3339.337
hr hr hr
B.2 Material Balance in Level 3
Liquid Phase Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101
Additional Information:
100% separation efficiency in recycle stream.
The required molar flow rate of C3H6O and H2O for reaction to occur are 305.0358 kmol/hr
and 3599.4225 kmol/hr.
286
kmol kmol kmol kmol
FPO,i = 305.0358 − FPO,R = 305.0358 − 30.5036 = 274.5322
hr hr hr hr
kmol kmol kmol

FH2 O,i = 3599.4225 − FH2 O,R = 3599.4225 − 3337.3377
hr hr hr
kmol
= 260.0848
hr
APPENDIX C: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATION STEPS

C.1 Pump (P-102 A/B to P-108 A/B)
For pump, P-102,
kg
Qin = 4681.5265
hr
Ibf
ft 2
kg
ρH2 O = 1000
m3
Power of pump, W
kg Ibf
(4681.5265 )(14619.7963 2 ) 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W
hr ft ×
= × ×
kg 1m 3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
1000 3 s
m
= 913.1050 W = 0.9131 kW
0.9131 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (1.1414) + 0.1538[log10 (1.1414)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.3928
CPo = $2,470.50
log10 FP = −0.3935 + 0.3957 log10 (7) − 0.00226[log10 (7)] 2
FP = 0.8695
287
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $2,470.50 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(0.8695)] = $11,049.10

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $11,049.10 × ( ) = $17,236.37
394.3
For pump, P-103,
Table C.1: Mass Flow Rate and Density of Components in Recycling Stream.
Component 𝐐𝐢𝐧 , 𝐤𝐠/𝐡𝐫 𝛒, 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑

Propylene oxide 1769.2011 830
Water 60108.0790 1000
Ibf
ft 2
Qin Q C3 H6O Q H2 O 1769.2011 60108.0790 m3

Total = + = + = 62.2396
ρ ρC3 H6 O ρH2 O 830 1000 hr
Power of pump, W
m3 Ibf 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W

= 62.2396 × 14619.7963 2 × × ×
hr ft 1m 3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
s
= 12139.4789 W = 12.1395 kW
12.1395 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (15.1744) + 0.1538[log10 (15.1744)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.6671
CPo = $4,645.81
log10 FP = −0.3935 + 0.3957 log10 (7) − 0.00226[log10 (7)] 2
288
FP = 0.8695
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $4,645.81 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(0.8695)] = $20,777.99

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $20,777.99 × ( ) = $32,413.24
394.3
For pump, P-104,
Table C.2: Mass Flow Rate and Density of Components in Stream 12.

Monopropylene glycol 18750 1040
Dipropylene glycol 1648.3516 1020
Tripropylene glycol 206.0440 1019
Ibf
Pressure difference, P = (1.2 − 1)bar = 0.2bar = 417.7084
ft 2
Qin Q C3 H8O2 Q 𝐶6 H14 O3 Q C9 H20O4

Total = + +
ρ ρC3 H8 O2 ρC6 H14 O3 ρC9 H20 O4
18750 1648.3516 206.0440 m3

= + + = 19.8471
1040 1020 1019 hr
Power of pump, W
m3 Ibf 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W

= 19.8471 × 417.7084 2 × × ×
s
= 110.602W = 0.1106 kW
0.1106 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.1383) + 0.1538[log10 (0.1383)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.4567

289
CPo = $2,862.29
FP = 1 since pressure range is less than 10 bar (Turton, 2009).
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $2,862.29 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1)] = $13,910.70

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $13,910.70 × ( ) = $21,700.42
394.3
For pump, P-105,
kg
Qin = 18750
hr
Ibf
ft 2
kg
ρC3 H8 O2 = 1040
m3
Power of pump, W
kg Ibf
(18750 )(417.7084 2 ) 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W
hr ft ×
= × ×
kg 1 m3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
1040 3 s
m
= 100.469W = 0.1005 kW
0.1005 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.1256) + 0.1538[log10 (0.1256)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.4658
CPo = $2,922.63

290
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $2,922.63 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1)] = $14,203.99

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $14,203.99 × ( ) = $22,157.94
394.3
For pump, P-106,
Table C.3: Mass Flow Rate and Density of Components in Stream 17.

Dipropylene glycol 1648.3516 1020
Tripropylene glycol 206.0440 1019
Ibf
ft 2
Qin Q 𝐶6 H14O3 QC9 H20 O4

Total = +
ρ ρC6 H14 O3 ρC9 H20 O4
1648.3516 206.0440 m3
= + = 1.8182
1020 1019 hr
Power of pump, W
m3 Ibf 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W

= 1.8182 × 417.7084 2 × × ×
s
= 10.132W = 0.0101 kW
0.0101 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0127) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0127)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.8412
CPo = $6,937.23
291
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $6,937.23 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1)] = $33,714.91

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $33,714.91 × ( ) = $52,594.58
394.3
For pump, P-107,
kg
Qin = 1648.3516
hr
Ibf
ft 2
kg
ρC6 H14 O3 = 1020
m3
Power of pump, W
kg Ibf
(1648.3516 )(417.7084 2 ) 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W
hr ft ×
= × ×
kg 1m 3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
1020 3 s
m
= 9.006W = 0.0090 kW
0.0090 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0113) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0113)] 2
log10 CPo = 3.8687
CPo = $7,391.40
292
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
CBM = $7,391.40 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1)] = $35,922.19

I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $35,922.19 × ( ) = $56,037.89
394.3
For pump, P-108,
kg
Qin = 206.0440
hr
Ibf
ft 2
kg
ρC9 H20 O4 = 1019
m3
Power of pump, W
kg Ibf
(206.0440 )(417.7084 2 ) 35.3147 ft 3 1 hr 1.36 W
hr ft ×
= × ×
kg 1m 3 3600 s 1 Ibf⸳ft
1019 3 s
m
= 1.127W = 0.0011 kW
0.0011 kW
0.8
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0014) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0014)] 2
log10 CPo = 4.4867
CPo = $30,669.07
2.20 (Turton, 2009).
293
CBM = $30,669.07 × [1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1)] = $149,051.70
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $149,051.70 × ( ) = $232,517.60
394.3
APPENDIX D: ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION

D.1 Propylene Oxide Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101
298.15K
∆HR = ṅ ∫383.15K CpC3 H6 O + CpH2O dT
298.15K
∆HR = 302.0230 ∫383.15K 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
298.15K
+3586.6655 ∫383.15K 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.01412T 3 dT
J kJ
= −26618776356.8 = −26618776.3568
h h
383.15K
∆HP = ṅ ∫298.15K CpC3 H6 O + CpH2O + CpC3 H8 O2 + CpC6 H14 O3 + CpC9 H20 O4 dT
383.15K
∆HP = 27.4549 ∫298.15K 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
383.15K
+3327.9029 ∫298.15K 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.01412T 3 dT
383.15K 358K
+246.4672 ∫298.15K 58080 − 445.2T dT + 12.3048 ∫298.15K 282702.511 dT
383.15K J kJ
+1.0722 ∫298.15K 440600 dT = 26422686707.4 h = 26422686.7074 h
Table D.1: Molar Flow Rate of Raw Materials Consumed and Formation of Products

Species
C3H6O 259.8319 13.3647 1.0722
H2 O 259.8319 - -
C3H8O2 259.8319 13.3647 -
C6H14O3 - 13.3647 1.0722
C9H20O4 - - 1.0722
294
o o o
o
∆Hf298,R1 = −421500(259.8319) − [−93700(259.8319) − 241818(259.8319)]
kJ
= −22340862.6771 h
o
∆Hf298,R2 = −628000(13.3647) − [−93700(13.3647) − 421500(13.3647)]
kJ
= −1507533.8267 h
o
∆Hf298,R3 = −829700(1.0722) − [−93700(1.0722) − 628000(1.0722)]
kJ
= −115798.0878
h
o
∆H = ∆Hr + ∆Hp + ∆Hf298 = −26618776.3568 + 26422686.7074 − 22340862.6771
kJ
−1507533.8267 − 115798.0878 = −24160284.2410 = −𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟏 𝐤𝐖
h
D.2 Distillation Columns (T-101 to T-103)

Distillation Column, T-101

k
Where R = reflux ratio

Dk = molar flow rate of component k as distillate product D
Heat of vaporization of component k,

0.38
Tc k (T) − T
△ Hvap k (T) = △ Hvap k (Tb ) [ k ]
Tc (T) − Tb
482.25 − 357.19 0.38
DC3 H6 O △ Hvap C3 H6O (T) = 27.4549 × 27210.6 × [ ]
482.25 − 307.65
kJ
= 658100. 7990
hr
H2 O 647.10 − 357.19 0.38
DH2 O △ Hvap (T) = 3324.5750 × 40693.7 × [ ]
647.10 − 373.15
kJ
= 138232690.0170
hr
626.00 − 357.19 0.38
DC3 H8 O2 △ Hvap C3 H8 O2 (T) = 0.0246 × 52147.3 × [ ]
626.00 − 460.75
kJ
= 1546.2830
hr
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 357.19 0.38
DC6 H14O3 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0000 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
295
kJ
= 0.7046
hr
C9 H20 O4 677.00 − 357.19 0.38 kJ
DC9 H20 O4 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0000 × 62251 × [ ] = 0.0013
677.00 − 540.35 hr
kJ
Qcond = −(0.7318 + 1) (138892337.8049 )
hr
kJ
= − 240539429.2238 = −𝟔𝟔𝟖𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝐤𝐖
hr
Qreb = V ∑ XB △ Hvap k
k
Where V = reflux flow rate L + flowrate of distillate product D

XB = mole fraction of bottom product
H2O 647.10 − 456.47 0.38 kJ

XB,H20 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0126 × 40693.7 × [ ] = 448.4085
647.10 − 373.15 kmol
0.38
626.00 − 456.47
XB,C3 H8O2 △ Hvap C3 H8 O2 (T) = 0.9366 × 52147.3 × [ ]
626.00 − 460.75
kJ
= 49315.8721
kmol
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 456.47 0.38
XB,C6 H14O3 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0467 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
kJ
= 3161.6238
kmol
677.00 − 456.47 0.38
XB,C9 H20O4 △ Hvap C9 H20 O4 (T) = 0.0041 × 62251 × [ ]
677.00 − 540.35
kJ
= 304.2494
kmol
k
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap
k
kmol kJ
= (0.7318 + 1) (3352.05463 ) (53230.1538 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 309013033.1937 = 𝟖𝟓𝟖𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 𝐤𝐖
hr
H2 O 647.10 − 454.97 0.38

DH2 O △ Hvap (T) = 3.3279 × 40693.7 × [ ]
647.10 − 373.15
kJ
= 118344.2080
hr
C 3 H8 O 2 626.00 − 454.97 0.38
DC3 H8 O2 △ Hvap (T) = 246.4015 × 52147.3 × [ ]
626.00 − 460.75
kJ
= 13018108.9145
hr
296
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 454.97 0.38
DC6 H14O3 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0123 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
kJ
= 834.3471
hr
677.00 − 454.97 0.38 kJ
DC9 H20O4 △ Hvap C9 H20O4 (T) = 0.0000 × 62251 × [ ] = 0.0005
677.00 − 540.35 hr
k
Qcond = −(R + 1) ∑ Dk △ Hvap
k
kJ kJ
Qcond = −(0.5889 + 1) (13137287.4701 ) = −20874014.0847
hr hr
= −𝟓𝟕𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟐 𝐤𝐖
626.00 − 506.46 0.38
XB,C3 H8O2 △ Hvap C3 H8 O2 (T) = 0.0031 × 52147.3 × [ ]
626.00 − 460.75
kJ
= 141.3642
kmol
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 506.46 0.38
XB,C6 H14O3 △ Hvap (T) = 0.9169 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
kJ
= 55540.9255
kmol
0.38
677.00 − 506.46
XB,C9 H20O4 △ Hvap C9 H20 O4 (T) = 0.0801 × 62251 × [ ]
677.00 − 540.35
kJ
= 5421.2276
kmol
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap k
k
kmol kJ
= (0.5889 + 1) (249.7417 ) (61103.5173 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 24246972.0480 = 𝟔𝟕𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐖
hr
C 3 H8 O 2 626.00 − 504.66 0.38

DC3 H8 O2 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0411 × 52147.3 × [ ]
626.00 − 460.75
kJ
= 1904.1332
hr
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 504.66 0.38
D C6 H14 O3 △ Hvap (T) = 12.2752 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
kJ
= 747019.4997
hr
677.00 − 504.66 0.38 kJ
DC9 H20O4 △ Hvap C9 H20O4 (T) = 0.0002 × 62251 × [ ] = 15.0870
677.00 − 540.35 hr
k
Qcond = −(R + 1) ∑ Dk △ Hvap
k
kJ kJ
Qcond = −(1.8669 + 1) (748938.7199 ) = −2147162.3737 = −𝟓𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐖
hr hr
297
C6 H14 O3 654.00 − 539.6 0.38
D C6 H14 O3 △ Hvap (T) = 0.0046 × 60810.4 × [ ]
654.00 − 504.95
kJ
= 251.0347
kmol
677.00 − 539.6 0.38 kJ
DTPG △ Hvap TPG (T) = 0.9954 × 62251 × [ ] = 62095.8577
677.00 − 540.35 kmol
k
Qreb = (R + 1) × D ∑ X B △ Hvap
k
kmol kJ
= (1.86694 + 1) (12.31652 ) (62346.8924 )
hr kmol
kJ
= 2201514.4195 = 𝟔𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝐖
hr
D.3 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B)

P2 T2
W = ∆H = ∫ PdV + ṅ ∫ Cp dT
P1 T1
T2
∆H = V∆P + ∫ Cp dT
T1
Pump, P-101
m3 100 kPa 1 hr kmol 1 hr
∆H = (19.2132 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( ) + 74.5681 ( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s hr 3600 s
299.15K
×∫ 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2
298.15K
= 4.2696 kW
Total ∆H = ∆H ÷ Pump Effiency
= 4.2696 kW ÷ 0.5147
= 𝟖. 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝐤𝐖
Pump, P-102
m3 100 kPa 1 hr kmol 1 hr

∆H = (4.7216 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( ) + 262.0905 ( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s hr 3600 s
299.15K
×∫ 276370 − 290.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.015116T 3 + (9.3701 x 10−6 )T 4
298.15K
= 1.0493 kW
Total ∆H = 1.0493 kW ÷ 0.3032
= 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐖
298
Pump, P-103
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (1.9212 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (59.8931 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (0.0018 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
= 13.7369 kW
Total ∆H = 13.7369 kW ÷ 0.6603
= 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐖
Pump, P-104
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (0.06 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (18.0319 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (1.617 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (0.2019 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
= 0.1106 kW
Total ∆H = 0.1106 kW ÷ 0.5442
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐖
Pump, P-105
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (0.0600 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (18.0288 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (1.6494 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( ) (3600 s) = 0.1005 kW
hr 1 bar
Total ∆H = 0.1005 kW ÷ 0.5067

= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟒 𝐤𝐖
299
Pump, P-106
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (0.0030 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (1.6154 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (0.2019 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( ) = 0.0101 kW
hr 1 bar 3600 s
Total ∆H = 0.0101 kW ÷ 0.2957
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟐 𝐤𝐖
Pump, P-107
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (0.0030 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (1.6147 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
−5
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (4.1784 x 10 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
= 0.0090 kW
Total ∆H = 0.0090 kW ÷ 0.2957
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟒 𝐤𝐖
Pump, P-108
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
∆H = (0.0006 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
m3 100 kPa 1 hr
+ (0.2019 ) (9 bar − 1 bar) ( )( )
hr 1 bar 3600 s
= 0.0011 kW
Total ∆H = 0.0011 kW ÷ 0.2957
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟖 𝐤𝐖
300
D.3 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-106)
Heat Exchanger, E-101
383.15K
ΔH = ṅ ∫ CpC3 H6O dT
299K
383.15K
kmol
= 274.5681 ×∫ 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
hr 299K
kmol J
= 274.5681 × 11778674.0167
hr kmol
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= 3234048145 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= 𝟖𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟕 𝐤𝐖
383.15K
ΔH = ṅ ∫ CpH2 O dT
298.79K
383.15K
kmol
= 262.0904 ×∫ 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.0141T 3
hr 299K
kmol J
+ 9.3701 × 10−6 T 4 = 262.0904× 6371953.5601
hr kmol
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= 1670027857 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= 𝟒𝟔𝟑. 𝟖𝟗𝟔𝟕 𝐤𝐖
383.15K 383.15K 383.15K

ΔH = ṅ ∫357.19K CpC3 H6 O dT + ṅ ∫298.79K CpH2 O dT + ṅ ∫298.79K CpC3 H8O2 dT
383.15K
kmol
= 27.4549 ×∫ 113080 − 150.85T + 0.67T 2 dT
hr 357.19K
383.15K
kmol
+3324.5750 ×∫ 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.0141T 3
hr 357.19K
383.15K
−6 4
kmol
+ 9.3701 × 10 T dT + 0.0246 ×∫ 58080 + 445.2T dT
hr 357.19K
kmol J kmol J
= 27.4549 × 3870848.7520 + 3324.5750 × 1972009.2028
hr kmol hr kmol
kmol J
+ 0.0246 × 5786868.4169
hr kmol
301
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= 6650896072 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟕𝟎 𝐤𝐖
308.15K 308.15K 308.15K

ΔH = ṅ ∫459.97K CpH2 O dT + ṅ ∫459.97K CpC3 H8O2 dT + ṅ ∫459.97K CpC6 H14 O3 dT
305.15K
kmol
= 3.327 × ∫ 276370 − 2090.1T + 8.125T 2 − 0.0141T 3
hr 459.97K
305.15K
−6 4
kmol
+ 9.3701 × 10 T dT + 246.4015 ×∫ 58080 + 445.2T dT
hr 459.97K
305.15K
kmol
+ 0.0123 ×∫ 282702.511 dT
hr 459.97K
kmol J kmol J
= 3.327 × −11993343.8120 + 246.4015 × −35398378.6047
hr kmol hr kmol
kmol J
+ 0.0123 × −44333690.4775
hr kmol
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= −8762660745 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= −𝟐𝟒𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐 𝐤𝐖
308.15K 308.15K 308.15K

ΔH = ṅ ∫504.66K CpC3 H8 O2 dT + ṅ ∫504.66K CpC6 H14 O3 dT + ṅ ∫504.66K CpC9 H20O4 dT
308.15K
kmol
= 0.0411 × ∫ 58080 + 445.2T dT
hr 504.66K
308.15K
kmol
+ 12.2752 ×∫ 282702.511 dT
hr 504.66K
308.15K
kmol
+ 0.0002 ×∫ 440600 dT
hr 504.66K
kmol J kmol J
= 0.0411 × −48897726.5822 + 12.2752 × −58380047.4391
hr kmol hr kmol
kmol J
+ 0.0002 × −90986984.20
hr kmol
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= −718654652.30 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= −𝟏𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐤𝐖
302
308.15K 308.15K
ΔH = ṅ ∫539.60K CpC6 H16 O3 dT + ṅ ∫539.60K CpC9 H20O4 dT
308.15K 308.15K
kmol kmol
= 0.0049 × ∫ 282702.511 dT + 1.0720 ×∫ 440600 dT
hr 539.60K hr 539.60K
kmol J kmol J
= 0.0049 × −68258521.2810 + 1.0720 × −106382870.0000
hr kmol hr kmol
J 1 hr 1 kJ
= −114376903.40 × ×
hr 3600 s 1000 J
= −𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝐤𝐖
303
APPENDIX E: SIMULATION REPORT
1.0 Introduction
Process modelling is done by using process simulators. Process simulators are used to mimic
real processes although it far from reality. Nowadays, process simulators provide reliable
information of process design an operation as it equipped with advanced computation
techniques, comprehensive thermodynamic packages and large component libraries. In this
work, this production is modelled by using Aspen Plus.
In the process simulation, mathematical model is used to represent the whole chemical process.
Process flow sheeting by using computer is simulated aids to perform steady-state heat and
mass balancing, sizing and costing calculations for a chemical process. The basic steps to
process modelling and simulation using process simulators included defining chemical
components, selecting thermodynamics model and method, designing process flow diagram
sheet by choosing proper operating units, determining plant capacity and setting up input
parameters. Detailed descriptions of each step will be discussed in the preceding chapter.
1.1 Background of Propylene Glycol
Propylene glycol (PG) with the IUPAC name propane-1,2-diol is a viscous and colourless
liquid. It possesses a faintly sweet taste and nearly odourless. As a hygroscopic liquid, this
synthetic organic compound with the chemical formula C3H8O2 can absorb the water from
surrounding air and have a good miscibility at any temperature with a broad range of solvents
including water, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone as well as chloroform.
Figure 1.1: Chemical Structure of Monopropylene Glycol.
Propylene glycol can exist in two enantiomers due to it contain a symmetrical carbon atom. It
has molecular weight of 76.10 g/mol with the density of 1.036 g/cm3. The melting point of
propylene glycol falls to -59 ℃ while the boiling point is about 188.2 ℃. Since it is mostly
prepared by hydrolysis of propylene oxide, it also has the by-product which is di-propylene
glycol and tri-propylene glycol.
304
Figure 1.2: Chemical Structure of Di-propylene Glycol and Tripropylene Glycol.
1.2 Physical & Chemical Properties
Physical and chemical properties of main product (monopropylene glycol) and side products
(di- and tri-propylene glycol) are discussed in the following section.
1.2.1 Physical & Chemical Properties of Monoropylene Glycol
Table 1.1 shows the physical and chemical properties of the main product from hydrolysis of
propylene oxide which is monopropylene glycol.
Table 1.1: Physical and Chemical Properties of Monopropylene Glycol (ATSDR, 2018) and
(DOW Chemical, 2017)
Properties Value
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name 1,2-Dihydroxypropane; 1,2-Propanediol; 1,2-
Propylene Glycol; 2,3-Propanediol; Hydroxy-
propanol; α-Propylene Glycol; Methyl Glycol;
Methylethyl Glycol; Monopropylene Glycol;
Trimethyl Glycol
Registered Trade Name PG-12; Sirlene
Colour Colourless
Door Odourless
Vapor Pressure 0.88 mmHg at 20 ℃
0.13 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 188.2 ℃ (370.8 ℉; 461.3 K)
Melting Point -59 ˚C (-74 ℉; 215 K)
305
Flash Point 99 ℃ (210 ℉)
Auto ignition Temperature 700 ℃ (1292 ℉)
0.34 W/mK (50% H2O at 90 ℃)
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Conversion factor 1 ppm = 3.11 mg/m3
1mg/L = 321.6 ppm
Log 306now -0.92
Log Koc 0.88; 0.76
Henry’s Law Constant At 25 ℃:
1.2.2 Physical & Chemical Properties of Di-propylene Glycol
Table 1.2 displays the physical and chemical properties of di-propylene glycol which is the
side product form the hydrolysis reaction.
Table 1.2: Physical and Chemical Properties of Di-propylene Glycol (CISCO, 2018).
Properties Value
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name DPG; 1,1-Oxybis (1-propanol); 1,1-Oxybis (2-
propanol); Di-1,2-propyleneglycol
Colour Colourless
Odour Odourless
306
Vapor Pressure 0.01 hPa at 20 ℃
0.05 hPa at 21 ℃
0.016 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 230.5 ℃ (446.9 ℉; 503.6 K)
Melting Point -39 ℃ (-38.2 ℉; 234 K)
Flash Point 121 ℃ (250 ℉; 394 K)
Auto ignition Temperature 310 ℃ (590 ℉; 583 K)
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Ester Miscible
Log Kow -1.486
1.2.3 Physical & Chemical Properties of Tri-propylene Glycol
The physical and chemical properties of tri-propylene glycol which is the side product form
the hydrolysis reaction is indicated in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Physical and Chemical Properties of Tri-propylene Glycol (DOW Chemical, 2017).
Properties Value
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name [(1-methyl-1,2-ethanediyl)bis(oxy)]bispropanol
Color Colorless
Odor Odorless
307
Vapour Pressure 0.022 mmHg at 25 ℃
Boiling Point 271 ℃ (519.8 ˚F; 544 K)
Melting Point -49 ℃ (-56.2 ℉; 224 K)
Flash Point 141 ˚C (285.8 ℉)
Ethanol Miscible
Acetone Miscible
Chloroform Miscible
Ether Miscible
1.3 Application of Propylene Glycol
Application of main product (monopropylene glycol) and side products (di- and tri-propylene
glycol) are discussed in the following section.
1.3.1 Application of Monopropylene Glycol
Propylene glycol are widely used in various industries. There are five main industries that are
used propylene glycol in their application like have been shown in Figure 1.3. Based on this
pie chart in 2014, 35% of the production of propylene glycol is used in polyester resins
industrial followed by 21% of functional fluids industrial. This propylene oxide also has been
used in pharmaceuticals area especially in the production of food, drugs and cosmetic. Other
application of the propylene glycol is in liquid detergent production fields and the rest of 16%
is for others application (ICIS, 2018). Due to the high proportion of propylene glycol is being
produced polyester resins, thus the purity of 99.5% of propylene glycol needs to be fulfilled to
supply for the resins manufacturing customers.
308
Figure 1.3: Primary Application of Propylene Glycol (Air Liquide Engineering &
1.3.2 Applications of Di-propylene Glycol & Tri-propylene Glycol
There are two common by-products of propylene glycol production by hydration reaction of
propylene oxide which are di- and tri-propylene glycol. Generally, the production of di-
propylene glycol and tri-propylene glycol are about to 10 percent and 1 percent respectively to
propylene glycol output (ICIS, 2005). In this section, the applications of these two side products
were discussed and the production designed is decided to purify the side products until final
stages to sell and supply to other sectors to increase the profit of production.
Di-propylene glycol is a raw material to produce polymer for the usage of numerous
applications. For example, it usually used just as glycol component in unsaturated polyester
resins and alkyd resins or as benzoate ester plasticizer in other polymer like polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). Its application is mostly same as the application of propylene glycol as it will function
as a one of printing inks component, a part of cleaning agent or it also usually used as a carrier
in other formulations (Shell Global, 2017). It can be used in hydraulic brake fluid formation
along with castor oil and used in cutting oils, industrial soap and lubricants due to its affinity.
Furthermore, it can be used as reactive monomer in production of polyurethane, plasticizers
and polyester. In addition, di-propylene glycol also will act as a raw material for cosmetics and
other health care products since it has the characteristics of preserving skin moisture and
maintaining youthfulness. Therefore, di-propylene glycol is mainly used in texture modifiers.
309
Whereas tri-propylene glycol has ability to solubilize printing ink, so it is used in cream
formulation which removes inks stains from the hand. Moreover, it is in textile soap due to its
solubility power for water and organic compounds and as well low volatility. Besides, it also
can be used to produce acrylate resins and applied in production of adhesives, inks and radiation
cured coatings. It is widely used for the glycol component in ultraviolet (UV) and electron
beam (EB) cured resins as well as in other applications like propylene glycol. UV and EB
curing refer to a special method in which inks, adhesives, coatings, composites and other
materials be cured (dried) that use less energy and create less harmful emissions (RadTech
International, 2017).
1.4 Toxicity of Propylene Glycol
According to the Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry under Environmental
Health and Medicine Education, propylene glycol is a Generally Recognized as safe (GRAS)
chemical that is widely used in food and tobacco product, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and so on.
It is also a synthetic organic compound which is vicious, colourless liquid and nearly odourless
but possess a faintly sweet taste. Safety precautions are important to avoid any undesired
incident when handling with propylene glycol.
There are chances for propylene glycol to be exposed to those who are in the medical,
pharmaceuticals, textile industry and food industry, such as chemical process operator, quality
control officers, operating room nurses, and pharmacists.
Most of propylene glycol is assumed to be emitted to water and is very limited amount being
releases to soil and air. The chances for the propylene glycol to be released into the water is
very low and the chemical is a rarely causes toxic effects only under very unusual
circumstances that will cause fatal. Acute fatal doses for propylene glycol is when given
intramuscularly and intravenously injected (Weatherby, 2006).
Exposure of more than 10% propylene glycol may cause harm to human body. For example,
intramuscular fatal and intravenous fatal doses. An experiment was conducted on the lab rat
which being injected with more than 10% of propylene glycol and it only can survive for about
140 days. The summary of hazards on handling propylene glycol and its prevention methods
are tabulated in Table 1.4.
310
Table 1.4: Type of Hazard and Exposure to Propylene Glycol.
Type of
First Aid/Fire
Hazards/ Acute Hazards/Symptoms Prevention
Fighting
Exposure
Exposure
Inhalation Nasal haemorrhaging Ventilation, Fresh air, rest. Refer
decreased white blood cells, breathing for medical attention.
decreased kidney weight, protection
myocardial oedema
Skin Dehydration, Protective Remove contaminated
gloves, clothes. Rinse and then
protective wash skin with water
clothing and soap.
Ingestion Nausea, Vomiting Do not eat, Rinse mouth. Refer for
drink or smoke medical attention.
2.0 Literature Review
Propylene glycol is produced through the hydrolysis reaction of propylene oxide and water
with Lewatit Monoplus M500/HCO3 – catalyst. The reaction takes place in the liquid phase
under a temperature of 110 °C and a pressure of 9 bar, obtained a conversion of 90%. The
amount of water must be in excess as the boiling point of propylene oxide is quite low. The
molar ratio for propylene oxide: water is 1: 11.8 respectively and the selectivity of
monopropylene glycol is 91 wt. %. To purify propylene glycol, distillation process is carried
out in order to obtain products of propylene glycol with a purity of 99.5% (Anggraeni, 2016).
The chemical equation in this reaction is shown as below:
311
Propylene glycol production process by making a catalytic reaction between propylene oxide
and water in principle consists of some stages:
Raw materials preparation stage
In this process is done mixing the raw material propylene oxide and water. Mixer operating
temperature is 25 °C with a pressure of 1 bar. Raw materials obtained from the process water
utilities while propylene oxide stored in a liquid phase with a purity of 99.95% and stored in
tanks with a storage temperature of 25 °C and a pressure of 1 atm. A result of the mixer is put
into the reactor (R-101).
Reaction stage
In the reactor R-101 conversions generated by 90 % by adding Lewatit MonoPlus M500 with
0.15 mol HCO3-/L. Hydration reaction intended for reacting the raw material propylene oxide
with water in the reactor R-01 which react under operating conditions of 110 °C and a pressure
of 9 bar. The reaction is exothermic, so that the reactor needs to be given a cooling jacket to
maintain the temperature for stable operation.
Recycling stage
Product mix in reactor R-101 is then fed to the distillation column (T-101) and the raw materials
such as propylene oxide and water are recycled back to the reactor for production for cost
saving purpose. Thus, there are made-up streams introduced to top up insufficient amount of
reactants.
Purification products stage
In this stage aims to purify the main products and side products from the reaction for storage
and selling purposes. The bottom products from T-101 which consists of mono-, di- and tri-
propylene glycol then entered the distillation column (T-102 and T-103) for purification. From
the T-102, top product which is monopropylene oxide with the purity of 99.5% is stored into
storage tank at 1 bar and 25 ℃ while bottom products (di- and tri-propylene glycol) are entered
to the DT-103 for further separation process.
312
3.0 Chemical Components
The chemical components used in the simulation work is shown in Table 3.1. The feeds,
propylene oxide and water enter the reactor with a high purity, which is 99% and 99.99%
respectively with a small amount of impurities. The catalyst for the reaction process, Lewatit
MonoPlus M500/HCO3- catalyst is feed to the reactor directly. The products from this process
is monopropylene glycol which is the main product and di- and tri-propylene glycol as the side
products.
Table 3.1: Compound Defined in Aspen Plus.
Compound Component Name Component ID Formula

Propylene oxide Propylene-Oxide PO C3H6O-4
Water Water H2O H2O
Monopropylene glycol Propanediol-1,2 MPG C3H8O2-2
Dipropylene glycol Dipropylene-Glycol DPG C6H14O3-D2
Tripropylene glycol Tripropylene-Glycol TPG C9H20O4
4.0 Selection of Thermodynamic Models
Thermodynamic models are used to represent the phase equilibrium behaviour and energy level
of pure compound and mixture systems. In the production of propylene glycol, the main raw
material is propylene oxide with a large excess of water. The resulting mixture is a non-ideal
solution, which can be modelled adequately with the NRTL equation (Chan & Warren, 2004).
The thermodynamics package that chosen to be used in this process was NRTL by referring to
the recommendation of Eric Carlson showed in Figure 1.4. The main reason to choose this
thermodynamic package because of the polarity of the raw material. In the production
propylene glycol, the raw material involved are polar and electrolytes. Thus, it fulfils the need
to use the thermodynamic package which is NRTL.
313
Figure 4.1: Eric Carlson’s recommendation for polar and electrolyte components (ASPEN,
2018).
314
5.0 Plant Capacity Determination
With the fresh feed of 127575.4032 metric ton/year of propylene oxide and 37773.064 metric
ton/year of water act as make-up streams with the recycle streams with 12756.6744 metric
ton/year of propylene oxide and 479145.2 metric ton/year of water, the production rate of main
product, monopropylene glycol which is 150000 metric ton/year can be achieved. The recycle
stream helps to save cost of fresh feed of raw materials. Besides, side products such as di- and
tri-propylene glycol are produced from separation unit because there is a commercial value on
them since the production of di- and tri-propylene glycol are 13176.2776 metric ton/year and
1648.7552 metric ton/year respectively.
Figure 1.5: Plant Capacity Determination.
315
6.0 Process Flow Diagram
Figure 6.1: Process Flow Diagram in Aspen Plus.
316
Table 6.1: Summary of Equipment used for Production of 150,000 MTA of Propylene Glycol.
Type of equipment Quantity

Heater 3
Cooler 3
Pump 8
Valve 1
Mixer 1
Reactor (RCSTR) 1
Distillation Column (RadFrac) 3
TOTAL 20
Based on Table 6.1, the process includes 20 unit of operations which are Heater (E-101, E-102
and E-103), Cooler (E-104, E-105 and E-106), Pump (P-101, P-102, P-103, P-104, P-105, P-
106, P-107, P-108), Valve (VLV-101), Mixer (M-101), Reactor (R-101) and Distillation
Column (T-101, T-102 and T-103).
Before recycling, Stream 1 consists of pure propylene oxide (C2H6O) and stream 4 consists of
pure water (H2O). Pure propylene oxide and water enters the pump and heater to achieve
operating pressure and temperature of the reaction which is 9 bar and 110 ℃ respectively. After
fulfilling the operating condition, these two streams are then feed into the reactor (R-101). In
Stream 7 consists of unreacted raw material which are propylene oxide and water, main product
which monopropylene glycol and side products, bi- and tri-propylene glycol. The mixture
passes through a valve (VLV-101) to decrease the stream pressure before entering distillation
column (T-101). Stream 9 (RECYCLE STREAM) containing unreacted propylene oxide and
unreacted water enter the mixer (M-101) to reuse again. After recycling, Stream 4 will be used
as made-up stream to top-up additional water to achieve desired molar ratio of raw material for
the reaction to occur.
After that, the main product (monopropylene glycol) and side products (di- and tri-propylene
glycol) in Stream 12 will be pumped into the distillation columns (T-102 and T-103) for
separation and purification. At initial, DSTWU model of distillation column was used to obtain
the operating specification of the column. Then, DSTWU distillation column is substituted
with RadFrac model for the real simulation condition. The distillate product of T-102 is pure
monopropylene glycol at Stream 14 while the bottom product is di- and tri-propylene glycol in
317
Stream 17. Pure monopropylene glycol is passing through cooler (E-104) and pump (P-105) to
decrease the temperature to ambient condition and pumped into the storage tank. Besides, the
distillate product of T-103 is pure di-propylene glycol and bottom product is pure tri-propylene
glycol. Pure di- and tri-propylene glycol enter the cooler (E-105 and E-106 respectively) and
will be pumped into the storage tanks.
Figure 6.2: Results of DSTWU model for Distillation Column (T-101).
318
319
Table 6.2: Streams and Process Description.
Unit Operation Stream Process Description

Inlet Outlet
Mixer (M-101) S6 and S11 MIX S4 and S11 are combined and feed
into M-101 at T=25 ℃ and P=1 bar.
Pump (P-101) S1 S2 S1 is feed into P-101 to achieve
operating pressure of R-101 and for
liquid movement.
operating pressure of R-101 and for
liquid movement.
Heater (E-101) S2 S3 S2 is feed into E-101 from 26 ℃ to
110 ℃.
Heater (E-102) S5 S6 S5 is feed into E-102 from 25 ℃ to
110 ℃.
Reactor (R-101) S3 and S6 S7 S3 and S6 are feed into R-101 at
T=110 ℃ and P=9 bar.
Valve S7 S8 S7 is feed into VLV-101 from 9 bar
(VLV-101) to 1.2 bar.
Distillation S8 S9 and S12 The distillate product contains
Column (T-101) unreacted propylene oxide and water
(S9) and the bottom products
contain of mono-, di- and tri-
propylene glycol (S10).
operating pressure of R-101 and
produce liquid movement.
Heater (E-103) S10 S11 S10 is feed into E-103 from
84.04 ℃ to 110 ℃.
Pump (P-104) S12 S13 S12 is feed into P-104 to produce
liquid movement.
320
Distillation S13 S14 and S17 The distillate product contains
Column (T-102) monopropylene glycol (S4) and the
bottom products contain of di- and
tri-propylene glycol (S17).
Cooler (E-104) S14 S15 S14 is feed into E-104 from
181.82 ℃ to 35 ℃.
liquid movement.
liquid movement.
Distillation S18 S19 and S22 The distillate product contains di-
Column (T-103) propylene glycol (S19) and the
bottom products contain of tri-
propylene glycol (S22).
231.51 ℃ to 35 ℃.
liquid movement.
266.45 ℃ to 35 ℃.
liquid movement.
321
Table 6.3: Summary of main unit operation specification.
Reactor, R-101
Reactor Model RCSTR
Temperature, ℃ 110
Pressure, bar 9
Liquid fraction 1
Heat duty, kW -6519.97
Conversion, % 90
Column Model RadFrac
Reflux ratio, mole 0.7318
Number of stages 8
Distillate/bottom temperature, ℃ 84.04/183.32
Condenser/Reboiler pressure, bar 1
Condenser duty, kW -67365.3
Reboiler duty, kW 66704.8
Distillate flow rate, kmol/hr 3352.05
Bottom flow rate, kmol/hr 263.135
Number of stages 26
322
Number of stages 26
323
Table 6.4: Summary of Simulation Results.
Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 MIX S7 S8
Temperature, oC 25.00 25.85 110.00 25.00 25.64 110.00 110.00 110.00 110.00
Pressure, bar 1 9 9 1 9 9 9 9 1.2
Vapor Fraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
274.5681 274.5681 274.5681 262.0905 262.0905 262.0905 3614.8652 3615.1897 3615.1897
kmol/hr
Total mass flow rate, kg/hr 15946.9254 15946.9254 15946.9254 4721.6330 4721.6330 4721.6330 66211.2440 82158.1694 82158.1694
Molar Enthalpy, kJ/mol -121.4557 -121.3459 -109.2125 -285.8002 -285.7523 -279.1495 -277.8229 -292.5850 -292.5850
Propylene oxide 274.5681 274.5681 274.5681 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 27.1305 27.4549 27.4549
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 262.0905 262.0905 262.0905 3587.7097 3327.9029 3327.9029
Propylene oxide 15946.9254 15946.9254 15946.9254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1575.7378 1594.5843 1594.5843
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4721.6330 4721.6330 4721.6330 64633.5942 59953.1031 59953.1031
324
Stream S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16
Temperature, Co 84.04 84.33 110.00 183.32 183.34 181.82 35.00 35.02
Pressure, bar 1 9 9 1 1.2 1 1 1.2
3352.0546 3352.0546 3352.0546 263.1351 263.1351 249.7417 249.7417 249.7417
kmol/hr
Propylene oxide 27.4549 27.4549 27.4549 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 3324.5750 3324.5750 3324.5750 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279 3.3279
Propylene oxide 1594.5843 1594.5843 1594.5843 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 59893.1500 59893.1500 59893.1500 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531 59.9531
325
Stream S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S24
Temperature, Co 233.31 233.33 231.51 35.00 35.03 266.45 35.00 35.04
Pressure, bar 1 1.2 1 1 1.2 1 1 1.2
13.3934 13.3934 12.3165 12.3165 12.3165 1.0769 1.0769 1.0769
kmol/hr
Propylene oxide 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Propylene oxide 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
326
References
Air Liquide Engineering & Construction. (2018). Bio Propylene Glycol from Glycerin.
Retrieved from https://www.icis.com/pages/custom-publishing/air-liquide/
ASPEN. (2018). "ASPEN PLUS User Guide" Vol 1, Release 9. Cambridge, MA: Aspen
Technology, Inc.
ATSDR. (2018, September 21). Chemical & Physical Information of Propylene Glycol.
Retrieved from ATSDR: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry:
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp189-c3.pdf
Chan, A. & Warren, D. S. (2004). Batch Manufacture of Propylene Glycol. Philippines:
Department fo Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering.
CISCO. (2018). Safety Data Sheet: Dipropylene Glycol. Retrieved from CISCO: Carolina
International Sales Co., Inc: https://www.ciscochem.com/assets/dipropylene-glycol-sds.pdf
DOW Chemical. (2017, July 25). Describe the Physical properties of Propylene Glycol.
Retrieved from https://dowac.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/7213
ICIS. (2005, December 17). Chemical Profile: Dipropylene Glycol. Retrieved from
https://www.icis.com/resources/news/2005/12/17/2011665/chemical-profile-dipropylene-
glycol/
ICIS. (2018, July 9). Asia MPG under pressure as demand remains tepid. Retrieved from
https://www.icis.com/resources/news/2018/07/09/10239193/asia-mpg-under-pressure-as-
demand-remains-tepid/
INCHEM. (2001, May). Dipropylene Glycol (Mixed Isomers and Dominant Isomers).
Retrieved from INCHEM: Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental
Organizations: http://www.inchem.org/documents/sids/sids/25265-71-8.pdf
Ishihara, S., Yoshii, M., Shinohara, K.; Murata, M. & Ikeda, S. (2014). Development of New
Dipropylene Glycol / Tripropylene Glycol Process. Osaka: Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd.
RadTech International. (2017). Introduction to UV & EB Curing. Retrieved from
http://www.radtech.org/intro-to-uv-eb/introduction-to-uv-eb
Shell Global. (2017, December). Dipropylene Glycol(DPG) Product Stewardship Summary.
Retrieved from Shell Global: https://www.shell.com/business-customers/chemicals/safe-
product-handling-and-transportation/product-stewardship-
summaries/_jcr_content/par/expandablelist/expandablesection_1815106617.stream/15257096
11805/b4dcf4c2082ef866c40499d4e964ce2c382b7967a16f28b4ea3
327
APPENDIX F: UTILITIES COST
F.1 Cooling Water
Table F.1: Summary of Equipment involved Cooling Water.
Actual Power Mass flow rate Volumetric flow

No. Equipment
(kW) (kg/hr) rate (m3/hr)
1 Hydrolysis Reactor, R-101 6519.9749 373726.7676 373.7268
2 Heat Exchanger, E-104 202.3548 11599.0332 11.5990
3 Heat Exchanger, E-105 70.4323 4037.1989 4.0372
4 Heat Exchanger, E-106 9.5190 598.4122 0.5984
5 Distillation
Condenser 67365.3239 3861399.0294 3861.3990
Column, T-101
6 Distillation
Condenser 5868.6368 336391.8873 336.3919
Column, T-101
7 Distillation
Condenser 597.0457 34222.8249 34.2228
Column, T-101
Total: 80559.9987 4621922.3731 4621.9224
condensers in distillation columns (T-101, T-102 and T-103).
4621922.3731 kg 4180 J
Energy removal from cooling water = × × (45 − 30) ℃
hr kg⸳℃
J
= 2.8979 × 1011 hr
J
Heat load 2.8979×1011
hr
Amount of water evaporated from tower, Wtower = = J
ΔHvap 2417300.336
kg
kg
= 119883.5447
hr
kg
119883.5447
hr
Circulating water flow rate = kg × 100 = 2.5938 %
4621922.3731
hr
Assumed windage loss, Wwind = 0.3 %

Wtower 2.5938
Blowdown, WBD = − Wwind = − 0.3 = 0.3485 %
4 4
Water makeup, WMU = Wtower + Wwind + WBD = 2.5938 + 0.3 + 0.3485 = 3.2423 %
kg
= 149859.5891
h
∆Ploop = 15 psi (pipe loss) + 5 psi (exchange loss) + 10 psi (control valve loss) +
8.7 psi of static head
328
(water pumped to the top of the tower, estimated to be 20 ft above pump inlet)
= 38.7 psi = 266.7 kPa
Assuming an overall efficiency of 75 %,
1 1 4621922.3731
Pump power = ε V̇∆P = 0.75 × 1000×3600 × 266.7 = 456.5432 kW
Required surface area in the tower = 0.5 ft2/gpm and the fan horsepower per square foot of tower
area is 0.41 hp/ft2 (Perry’s Handbook, Figure 12.14 & Figure 12.15)
4621922.3731×2.2048
Power for fan = × 0.5 × 0.041 = 417.6232 kW
60×8.337
The cost of chemicals is RM 1.00/1000 kg of makeup water (Nanjing FNAT Chemical Co.,
Ltd, 2018).
Using an electricity cost of RM 0.427/kWh (Tenaga Nasional, 2018) and process water cost of
RM 0.84/1000 kg (Water Tariff, 2018).
Cost of cooling water
= cost of electricity + cost of chemicals for makeup water + cost of makeup water
RM 0.427 8000 h 149859.5891 kg RM 1 8000 hr
=[ × × (456.5432 + 417.6232)kW] + [ × 1000 kg × ]+
kWh yr hr yr
149859.5891 kg RM 0.84 8000 hr
[ × 1000 kg × ]
hr yr
= RM 5,192,085.57/yr
Figure F.1: Schematic Diagram of Cooling Water Loop.
329
APPENDIX G: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATION STEPS
G.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)
The process of propylene oxide hydrolysis is controlled by surface are reaction as it is
confirmed that the effects of the internal and external are negligible (Aakyalcin, 2017).
Products Out
Cooling Water In
Cooling Water Out
Reactants In
Minimum fluidizing velocity
Minimum fluidizing velocity (Umf) is defined as the fluid velocity at which the drag force of
the upward moving fluid becomes equal to the weight of the particles in the bed. It is one of
the most crucial parameters associated with the fluidized bed. It is calculated by using formula
as shown in below (Levenspiel, 1999):
2
150(1 − εmf )u∗mf + 1.75(u∗mf )2 d∗p = ε3mf (d∗p )
Where
εmf = Volume fraction of voids in the bed.
d∗p = Size of solids in a bed of cross-sectional area (dimensionless).
u∗mf = Minimum fluidizing velocity (dimensionless).
To define these two dimensionless quantities (Levenspiel, 1999):
1 1
ρ (ρ −ρ )g 3 ρ2l 3
d∗p = dp [ l sµ2 l ] ∗
and u = u [µ(ρ ]
s −ρg )g
Information of catalyst can be obtained from (MatWeb, 2018),
Diameter of particles, dp = 0.62 mm = 0.62 × 10−3 m
kg
Bulk density, ρb = 690
m3
330
kg
Catalyst density, ρc = 1080
m3
ρb = ρc (1 − ø)
690
Void fraction, ø = 1 − = 0.3611
1080
From simulation, dynamic viscosity (µ) and density (ρl )of inlet reactants are 2.4996 × 10-4
kg/m⸳s and 868.912 kg/m3 respectively.
1
868.912(1080 − 868.912) × 9.81 3
d∗p = 0.62 × 10−3 × [ ] = 19.0041
(2.4996 × 10−4 )2
150(1 − 0.3611)u∗mf + 1.75(u∗mf )2 (19.0041) = (0.3611)3 (19.0041)2
u∗mf = 0.1677
1
−
(868.912)2 3 m
umf = 0.1677 × [ ] = 1.4787 × 10−3
2.4996 × 10−4 (1080 − 868.912)(9.81) s
Volume of reactor
m3
̇Vin 0.0133 s
Ac = = = 8.9944 m2
umf 1.4787 × 10−3 m
s
πD2
Ac = = 8.9944 m2
4
D = 3.3841 m
For bed aspect ratio (height to diameter ratio), the minimum aspect ratio should be unity for
fluidized bed reactor for a safety purpose (Sahoo, 2012).
H = D = 3.3841 m
πD2 h π(3.3841 m)2 (3.3841 m)

V= = = 30.4382 m3
4 4
Thus, the volume of the reactor is 30.4382 m3 with same height and diameter which is 3.3841
m.
331
Weight of catalyst
kg
W = ρb V = 690 × 30.4382m3 = 21002.358 kg
m3
Residence time of reactor
V 30.4382 m3
τ= = = 2288.5865 s = 0.6357 h
V̇ m3
0.0133 s
Wall thickness of reactor
kg m
Static pressure, Ps = ρl gh = 868.912 (9.81 s2 ) (3.3841 m) = 28846.1588 Pa
m3
= 28.8461 kPa
Pressure in the reactor, P1 = 9 bar = 900 kPa
Total pressure, Pt = PS + P1 = 28.8461 kPa + 900 kPa = 928.8461 kPa
Maximum allowable internal pressure, P = 1.1Pt = 1.1 × 928.8461 kPa
= 1021.7307 kPa
3.3841 m
Inside radius of hell before corrosion allowance is added, ri = = 1.6921 m
2
Corrosion allowance, CC = 3 mm (Solken, 2019)
Efficiency of joints expressed as a friction, Ej = 0.85 (Rico et al., 2015)
Maximum allowable working stress, S = 76088.5716 kPa (James, 2019)
P×r
i 1021.7307×1.6921
For cylindrical shell thickness of wall, t = SE −0.6P + CC = 76088.5716(0.85)−0.6(928.8461) +
j
0.003 = 0.03 m
Outside diameter
Outside diameter, Do = D + 2t = 3.3841 m + 2(0.03 m) = 3.4441 m
332
Reactor head (Silla, 2003)
There are three types of head:
1. Ellipsoidal head
2. Torispherical head
3. Hemispherical head
Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150 psig and for less than that pressure,
torispherical head was selected.
1.104P ×D
D i 1.104(900−100) kPa×3.3841 m
t H = 2S(E )−0.2P + CC = 2(76088.5716 kPa)(0.85)−0.2(900−100)kPa + 0.003 m = 0.0261 m
j D
Heat transfer in reactor
πD2 π(3.4441)2
Cooling jacket area available, A = πDH + = π(3.4441)(3.3841) + =
4 4
45.9321m2
Cooling water inlet temperature = 30℃
Cooling water outlet temperature = 45℃
ΔT1 = 110 ℃ − 30 ℃ = 80 ℃
ΔT2 = 110 ℃ − 45 ℃ = 65 ℃
ΔT1 − ΔT2
LMTD = = 72.2406 ℃
ΔT1
ln (ΔT )
2
kW
Overall heat coefficient, U = 2.15 ⸳℃ (3D Labs, 2014)
m2
Heat removable by cooling jacket, Q = U × A × LMTD = 2.15 × 45.9321 × 72.2406
= 7134.0493 kW
From simulation, heat to be removed from reactor, Q = 6519.9749 kW, thus the cooling
jacket is able to remove the excess heat from the reactor.
Now cooling water flow rate can be calculated as:
kW
U⸳A 2.15 2 ×45.9321 m2 kg
m ⸳℃
ṁ = = kJ = 23.6081
CP 4.183 s
kg⸳K
333
Wire mesh for reactor
The width of opening should be smaller than the diameter of catalyst (0.62 mm) to ensure that
catalyst can always stay in the reactor.
Width of opening = 0.4318 mm
Wire diameter = 0.4064 mm
Construction material = Stainless steel 304
Construction type = Plain
Area of wire mesh screen = 8.9944 m2 = 13941.3479 in2
30×30
Total number of mesh = × 13941.3479 in2 = 12547213.11
1 in2
G.2 Distillation Column (T-101)

Top Column
Reflux ratio, R = 0.7318

Distillate rate, D = 17.0804 kg/s
MWD = 18.3439 kg/kmol
Liquid rate, Ln = 12.5002 kg/s
Vapor rate, Vn = 29.5806 kg/s
Liquid density, L = 930.0903 kg/m3
Vapor density, V = 0.9300 kg/m3
Surface tension,  = 0.06093 N/m
334
Top Column Diameter, Dc
From Equation 11.82 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition,
2005), Liquid-Vapor factor, FLV
Ln V
FLV = √
Vn L
12.5002 0.9300
= √
29.5806 930.0903
= 0.0134
Take tray spacing as = 0.60 m
From Figure 11.27 (Sinnot, 2005) , K1 = 0.15
The K1 value can only be applied when liquid surface tension is 0.02 N⁄m Otherwise it is
corrected by;
 0.2
K1,c = K1 ( )
0.02
0.06093 0.2
K1,c = 0.15 ( )
0.02
= 0.1874
Estimate the flooding velocity,
⁄2
V − L 1
Uf = K1,C [ ]
L
0.9300 − 930.0903 1⁄2

Uf = 0.1874 [ ]
930.0903
= 5.9243 m/s
Design for 85% flooding at maximum flowrates.
Therefore,
̂ v = 0.85 Uf
U
= 0.85 × 5.9243
= 5.0357 m/s
335
Maximum volumetric flowrate,
Vn
=
V
29.5806
=
0.9300
= 31.8040 m3 /s
Net area required

Maximum Volumetric Flowrate
=
̂v
U
31.8040
=
5.0357
= 6.3157 m2
As first trial, take downcomer area as 12% of total,
Cross sectional area
Net area required
A=
88%
6.3157
=
0.88
= 7.1770 m2
Column diameter
4A
Dc = √
π
4 × 7.1770
= √
π
= 3.0229 m = 3 m
Bottom Column
336
Bottom rate, B = 5.7413 kg/s
MWB = 78.5473 kg/kmol
Vapor rate, Vm = 7.8450 kg/s
Liquid rate, Lm = 13.5862 kg/s
Column diameter, Dc
From Equation 11.82, (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition,
2005), Liquid-Vapor factor, FLV
Lm V
FLV = √
Vm L
13.5862 0.8503
= √
7.8450 850.2960
= 0.0548
Take tray spacing as = 0.60 m
From Figure 11.27 ( (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition,
2005), K1 = 0.11
The K1 value can only be applied when liquid surface tension is 0.02 N⁄m Otherwise it is
corrected by;
 0.2
K1,c = K1 ( )
0.02
0.0196 0.2
= 0.11 ( )
0.02
= 0.1095
⁄2
V − L 1
Uf = K1,C [ ]
L
⁄2
0.8503 − 850.2960 1
= 0.1095 [ ]
850.2960
= 3.4610 m/s
337
Design for 85% flooding at maximum flowrates. Therefore,
̂ v = 0.85 Uf
U
= 0.85 × 3.4610
= 2.9419 m/s
Vm
=
V
7.8450
=
0.8503
= 9.2262 m3 /s
Net area required
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate
=
̂v
U
9.2262
=
2.9419
= 3.1361 m2
As first trial, take downcomer area as 12% of total,

Cross sectional area
Net area required
A=
88%
3.1361
=
0.88
= 3.5638 m2
Column diameter
4A
Dc = √
π
4 × 3.5638
= √
π
= 2.1300 m
Since top column diameter is bigger than bottom column diameter, therefore, Dc = 3 m is
chosen.
338
Liquid Flow Pattern
Maximum volumetric liquid rate,

Ln
Lmax =
ρL
12.5002
=
930.0903
= 0.0160 m3 /s
From Figure 11.28 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition, 2005)
the selected recommended liquid flow pattern is single pass tray.
Column diameter, Dc = 3m
π D2
Column area, Ac = 4
π ×32
= 4
= 9.3601 m2
Downcomer area, Ad = 12% Ac
= 0.12 × 9.3601
= 1.1232 m2
Net area, An = Ac − Ad
= 9.3601 − 1.1232
= 8.2368 m2
Active area, Aa = Ac − 2 Ad
= 9.3601 − 2 (1.1232)
= 7.1136 m2
Take 10% as first trial:
Hole area, Ah = 10% Aa

= 0.10 × 7.1136
= 0.7114 m2
At ratio
Ad 1.1232
= = 0.12 = 12%
Ac 9.3601
339
From Figure 11.31 (Sinnot, 2005),
Lw
= 0.76
Dc
Therefore, Lw = 0.76 × 3.4522 = 2.6237 m
Take the recommended value,
Weir height, hw = 50 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate,

Lmax = 12.5002 kg/s
Minimum liquid rate (at 70% turn down)
Lmin = Lmax × 70 %
= 12.5002 × 70 %
= 8.7501 kg/s
From Francis Weir formula (eq. 11.85), weir liquid crest,
2⁄
Lmax 3
Maximum, how = 750 × [ ]
ρL × Lw
2⁄
12.5002 3
= 750 × [ ]
930.0903 × 2.6237
= 22.2869 mm liquid
340
2⁄
Lmin 3
Minimum, how = 750 × [ ]
ρL × Lw
2⁄
8.7501 3
= 750 × [ ]
930.0903 × 2.6237
= 17.5704 mm liquid
At minimum rate, hw + how = 50 + 17.5704 = 67.5704 mm
From Figure 11.30 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition, 2005),
K2 = 30.5
From Equation 11.84, minimum vapor velocity through the holes is given by:
[K 2 − 0.9(25.4 − dh )]
̂h =
U 1⁄
(ρv ) 2
[30.5 − 0.9(25.4 − 0.005)]

= 1⁄
(19.853) 2
= 2.7246 m/s
Actual minimum velocity

0.7
= × Maximum volumetric flowrate
Ah
0.7
= × 0.0160
0.7114
= 9.0788 m/s
Height of Column
Number of trays, N = 9
Plate thickness = 0.005 m
Total thickness of plate, Hp = 0.45 m
Single placing spacing, 24’’ = 0.6 m
Number of spacing = 8
Tray stack = 4.8 m
Extra feed space = 1.8 m
Disengagement space = 3 m
Skirt height = 1.5 m
Total height of column, Ht = 10.845 m
341
Ht 10.845
Check: =
Dc 3.4522
Ht
= 3.1415 (satisfactory if < 20)
Dc
Plate Pressure Drop
Dry plate drop
Maximum vapor velocity through holes,
Maximum volumetric flowrate 0.0160
̂h =
U = = 12.9697 m/s
Ah 0.7114
For:
plate diameter
1) = 1.00
hole diameter
Ah Ah
2) ≈ = 0.1
Ap Aa
C0 = 0.841
From Equation 11.88;
̂ h ρv
U
Dry plate drop, hd = 51 × ( )
Co ρL
12.9697 0.9301
= 51 × ( )
0.841 930.0903
= 0.7865 mm liquid
1.25 × 104
Residual head, hr =
ρL
1.25 × 104
=
930.0903
= 13.4396 mm liquid
Total plate pressure drop, hr = hd + hw + how + hr
= 0.7865 + 50 + 17.5704 + 13.4396
= 81.7965 mm liquid
Downcomer Liquid Back-up
From Equation 11.92 and 11.93 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth
Edition, 2005)
Take Hap = 50 − 10 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
342
Area under apron
Aap = Hap × Lw
= 0.04 × 2.6237
= 0.1049 m2
As this is less than Ad = 1.1232, use Aap in Equation 11.92 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering
Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition, 2005)
Head loss in downcomer
Lmax 2
hdc = 166 ( )
ρL Am
2
12.5002
= 166 ( )
930. 0903 × 0.1049
= 2.7224 mm
Back-up downcomer
hb = hw + how + ht + hdc
= 50 + 17.5704+ 81.79765 + 2.7224
= 152.0893 mm
= 0.1521 m
Check residence time
Ad hb ρL
tr =
Lmax
1.1232 × 0.1521 × 930. 0903
=
12.5002
= 12.7106 (> 3s , satisfactory)
Check Entrainment
Actual percentage flooding for design area
Maximum volumetric flowrate
Uv =
An
9.2262
=
8.2368
= 1.1201 m/s
Uv
% Flooding = × 100
Uf
1.1201
= × 100
3.4610
= 32.3634%
343
At % flooding = 32.36%
FLV = 0.013363
Fractional entrainment
Ѱ = 0.0045
Trial Layout
Use cartridge-type construction. Allow 50mm unperforated strip round plate edge; 50 mm
wide calming zone
Perforated Area
Lw
At = 0.76
Dc
θc = 99°
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip
θ = 180 − θc
= 180 − 99
= 81°
= 1.4137 radian
Mean length, unperforated edge strips
Ac = (Dc − hw ) × θ
= (3 − 0.05) × 1.4137
= 4.8097m
Area of unperforated edge strips
Au = hw × Ac
= 0.05 × 4.8097
= 0.2405 m2
344
Area of calming zone
Az = 2hw (Lw − 2hw )
= 2 × 0.05 ( 2.6237 − 2 × 0.05)
= 0.2524 m2
Total area available for perforations
Ap = Aa − (Au − Az )
= 7.1136 − (0.2405 − 0.2524 )
= 6.6208 m2
Ah 0.7114
=
Ap 6.6208
= 0.1074
Lp
= 28 (satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0)
dh
Wall thickness
Design pressure:
Internal pressure = 1 bar
PI = Internal pressure + 10% margin = 0.11 N/mm2
Design temperature:
Internal temperature (consider average temperature) = 383.15 K
Internal temperature + 10% margin = 421.465 K = 148.315 °C
Material construction:
Stainless steel is chosen as material of construction since it is commonly used due to its high
tensile strength, stress and able in a high temperature of process.
345
Table G.1: Typical Design Stress and Tensile Strength of Material (Skinnet, 1993).
Typical design stress, f = 130 N/mm2
Tensile strength, TS = 510 N/mm2
Welded joint factor:
A double welded butt with joint efficiency, J of 0.85 is chosen to be used in distillation design
since it can save cost and relatively strong.
Table G.2: Degree of Radiography by Type of Joint (Skinnet, 1993).
DI = Column internal diameter = Dc = 3 m
There must be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure vessel is strong enough to
withstand its own weight, pressure and incidental loads. By using the following equation, the
minimum wall thickness, e is calculated.
Minimum wall thickness, e = PIDI = 0.2388 mm

2Jf – PI
346
For fabrication,
Thickness of wall, tw =0.2388 mm +2mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.2388 mm
The plate-steel thickness of 20 mm will be used to fabricate the distillation column.
Number of Holes
Area of one hole = 0.00001964 m2
Ah
Number of holes =
Area of one hole
0.7114
=
0.00001964
= 36220.16742 holes
≈ 36221 holes
Plate Specification
Plate no. = T101

Plate I.D = 3 m
Column height = 10.845 m
Number of trays = 9
Hole size = 5.00 mm
Hole pitch = 13.4396 mm
Active holes = 36221 holes
Turn-down = 70% max rate
Plate materials = Stainless steel
Downcomer material = Stainless steel
Plate spacing = 0.60 m
Plate thickness = 5.0 mm
Plate pressure drop = 81.7965 mm liquid
347
Top Column
Reflux ratio,R = 0.5889

Distillate rate, D = 1881.16 kg/hr
Liquid rate, Ln = 1107.841 kg/hr
Vapor rate,Vn = 2989.001 kg/hr
Top Column Diameter,DC
From Equation 11.82 (Sinnott.2005), Liquid-Vapor factor,FLV
Ln ρ 1107.841 0.9179
FLV = Vn √ρ V = √ = 0.0122
L 2989.001 852.598
Take tray spacing as 0.6 m.

From Figure 11.27(Sinnot,2005), K1 = 0.12. The K1 value can only be applied when surface
tension is 0.02 N/m. Otherwise, it is corrected by:
σ 0.2 0.0198 0.2
K1,C = K (0.02) = 0.12 ( ) = 0.1198
0.02
Estimate the flooding velocity

(ρL − ρV ) 1/2 (852.598−0.9179) 1/2
Uf = K1,C [ ] = 0.1198 [ ] = 3.6492
ρV 0.9179

̂ V = 0.85 Uf = 0.85 × 3.6492 = 3.1018
U
348
Maximum volumetric flowrate
V 2989.001 m3
= ρn = = 3256.35 = 0.9045 m3/s
V 0.9179 hr
Net area required

Maximum Volumetric Flowrate 0.9045 m3 /s
= ̂V
= = 0.2916 m2
U 3.1018 m/s
As first trial, take downcorner area as 12% of total net area required,
Column cross sectional area,
Net Rate Required 0.2916 m2
A= = =0.3314 m2
88% 88%
Column diameter,
4A 4(0.3314)
DC = √ π = √ = 0.6496 m
π
Bottom Column

Bottom rate. B = 1856.96 kg/hr
Vapor rate, Vm = 3153.27 kg/hr
Liquid rate, Lm = Vm + B
= 5010.23 kg/hr
Surface tension, = 0.0129 N/m
349
Bottom Column Diameter, Dc
From Equation 11.82 (Sinnot,2005), Liquid-Vapor factor, FLV
Lm ρv 5010.23 3.7062
FLV = Vm
√ρ = 3153.27 √794.909 = 0.1085
L
Take tray spacing as 0.6m.

From Figure 11.27 (Sinnot,2005), K1= 0.10. The K1 value can be only be applied when liquid
surface tension is 0.02 N/m. Otherwise, it is corrected by;
σ 0.2 0.0129 0.2
K1, C = K1 (0.02) = 0.10 ( ) = 0.0377
0.02

(ρL −ρV ) 1/2 (794.909−3.7062 ) 1/2
Uf = K1,C [ ] = 0.0377 [ ] = 0.5510 m/s
ρV 3.7062

̂ V = 0.85Uf = 0.85× 0.5510 = 0.4711 m/s
U
Vm 3153.27 m3
= = = 850.8095 hr = 0.2363 m3 /s
ρV 3.7062
Net area required

= ̂V
= = 6.2204 m2
U 0.4711 m/s
As first trial, take down corner area as 12% of total net area required,
A= = = 7.0686 m2
88% 0.88
Column diameter,
4A 4(7.0686)
DC = √ π = √ =3m
π
Since bottom column diameter is bigger than top column diameter, therefore DC = 3m.
Liquid Flow Pattern

L 5010.23 kg/hr
Lmax = ρn = = 6.3029 m3/hr = 0.00175 m3 /s
L 794.909 kg/m3
the selected recommended liquid flow pattern is single pass tray.
350
Column diameter, Dc =3m
π D2 π (3)2
Column area, Ac = = = 7.0686 m2
4 4
Down corner area, Ad = 12% Ac = 0.12 × 7.0686 = 0.8482 m2

Net area, An = Ac – Ad = 7.0686 −0.8482 = 6.2204 m2
Active area, As =Ac – 2Ad = 2.9273 – (2 × 0.8482) = 5.3722 m2
Hole area, Ah = 10%As = 0.10 × 5.3722 = 0.5372 m2
Ad 0.8482 l
at ratio = = 0.12 = 12% obtained Dw = 0.76
Ac 7.0686 c
Therefore, lw = 2.28 m.
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate, Lmax = 5010.23 kg/hr
Minimum liquid rate (at 70% turn down),
Lmin = Lmax × 70% = 3507.16 kg/hr
L 2/3 5010.23 2/3
Maximum, how = 750 [ ρmax ] = 750 [794.909 ×2.28 ] = 1.4773 mm liquid
l L w
L 2/3 3507.16 2/3

Minimum, how = 750 [ρmin ] = 750 [794.909 ×2.28] = 1.1647 mm liquid
l L w
351
From Figure 11.30 (Sinnot,2005), K2 = 30.2
From the Eq.11.84, minimum vapor velocity through the holes is given by:
[K2 −0.9(25.4− dh )] [30.2−0.9(25.4− 0.005)]
̂V =
U = = 3.8150 m/s
(ρv )1/2 (3.7062 )1/2
Actual minimum vapor velocity,

0.7 0.7
= maximum volumetric flowrate = × 0.2363 = 0.3079 m/s
Ah 0.5372
Height of Column
Number of trays, N =7
Plate thickness = 0.005 m
Total thickness of plate, HP = N × plate thickness = 7 × 0.005 = 0.035 m
Single plate spacing,24’’ = 0.6 m
Number of spacing =N - 1 =6
Tray stack = 0.6 × 6 = 3.6 m
Disengagement space = 3.00 m
Skirt height =1.50 m
Total height of column, Ht = 9.8430 m
H 9.8430 H
Check: D t = = 3.281 (satisfactory if D t < 20)
c 3.3325 C
Wall thickness
Design pressure:
Internal pressure = 1 bar
Design temperature:
Internal temperature + 10% margin = 502.14 K = 228.99°C
Material construction
352
Typical design stress, f = 110 N/mm2
PIDI
Minimum wall thickness, e = = 0.2075 mm
2Jf – PI
For fabrication,
353
Thickness of wall, tw =0.1336 mm+2mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.1336 mm
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry plate drop;
Maximum vapor velocity through holes,
̂ V = Maximum
U
volumetric flowrate
=
0.2363
= 0.4399 m/s
Ah 0.2225
Plate diameter Ah Ah
For, (i) = 1.00 and (ii) ≈ = 0.10
Hole diameter Ap Aa
Co = 0.8410
̂̂
U ρ 1.0620 2 3.7062
Dry plate drop, hd = 51( C h) ρv = 51(0.8410) = 0.3792 mm liquid
o l 794.909
1.25×104 1.25×104
Residual head, hr = = = 15.7251 mm liquid
ρL 794.909
Total plate pressure drops, ht

= hd + hW + how + hr
= 0.3792 + 50 + 1.1647 + 15.7251
= 67.2690 mm liquid
Downcorner Liquid Back-up

From Equation 11.92 and 11.93 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth
Edition, 2005)
Take Hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Area under apron, Aap = Hsp × lw = 0.04 × 2.28 = 0.0912 m2
As it is less than Ad = 0.3512 m2, use Aap = Am in Equation 11.92 (Sinnot,2005)
Head loss in downcorner,
L 2 0.2363 2
hdc = 166 (ρ max ) = 166 (794.909×0.0912) = 0.00106 mm
A L m
Back-up downcorner, hb
= hw + how + ht + hdc
=50 + 1.1647 + 67.2690 + 0.00106
=118.4348 mm = 0.118 m
Check residence time, tr
354
Ad hb ρL 0.8482×0.118×794.909
tr = = = 336.69 s (Satisfactory if > 3s)
Lmax 0.2363
Check Entrainment
Actual percentage flooding for design area,
Uv = = 2.5761 = 0.0917 m/s
An
Uv 0.0917
% flooding = × 100 = × 100 = 6.8541 %
Uf 1.3384
at % flooding = 6.8541%, FLV = 0.0300
Fractional entrainment, Ψ = 0.001
Trial Layout
Use cartridge-type construction. Allow 50mm unperforated strip round plate edge; 50 mm
wide calming zone.
Perforated Area
l
at Dw = 0.76, θc = 95°
c
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip,

θ = 180 - θc = 180 – 95 =85° = 1.4835 radian
Mean length, unperforated edge strips,
AC = (DC – hw) × θ = (3 – 0.05) × 1.4835 = 4.3763 radian
Area of unperforated edge strips,
Au = hw × Ac = 0.05 × 7.0686 = 0.3534 m2
Area of calming zone,
Az = 2hw (lw × 2hw) = 2 × 0.05(2.28× (2× 0.05)) = 0.0228 m2
Total area available for perforations,
AP =As – (Au + Az) = 5.3722 − ( 0.3534 + 0.0228) = 4.9960 m2
355
Ah 0.5372
= = 0.1075
Ap 4.9960
From Figure 11.33 (Sinnot,2005)

lp
= 2.89 (Satisfactory within 2.5 to 4.0)
dh
Number of holes
h A 0.5372
Number of holes = Area of one = = 27408.16 holes
hole 0.0000196
Plate Specification
Plate no. = T-102

Plate Int. Diameter =3m
Number of trays =7
Hole size = 5 mm
Hole pitch = 14 mm
Active holes = 27 408.16 holes = 27 408 holes
Turn-down = 70 % max rate
Plate material = Stainless Steel 304
Downcorner material = Stainless Steel 304
Plate spacing = 0.6 mm
Plate Pressure Drop = 67.2690 mm liquid
356
Top Column

Distillate rate, D = 1650.2 kg/hr
Liquid rate, Ln = 3080.76 kg/hr
Vapor rate,Vn = 4730.96 kg/hr
Top Column Diameter,DC

From Equation 11.82 (Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, Fourth Edition,
2005), Liquid-Vapor factor,FLV
Ln ρ 3080.76 0.0032
FLV = Vn √ρ V = √ = 0.0013
L 4730.96 796.481
Take tray spacing as 0.6 m.

From Figure 11.27(Sinnot,2005), K1 = 0.1. The K1 value can only be applied when surface
tension is 0.02 N/m. Otherwise, it is corrected by:
σ 0.2 0.0129 0.2
K1,C = K (0.02) = 0.1 ( ) = 0.0916
0.02
Estimate the flooding velocity

(ρL − ρV ) 1/2 (796.481−0.0032) 1/2
Uf = K1,C [ ] = 0.0916 [ ] = 45.6991
ρV 0.0032
357
̂ V = 0.85 Uf = 0.85 × 45.6991 = 38.8442
U

V 4730.96 m3
= ρn = = 1478425 = 410.6736 m3/s
V 0.0032 hr
Net area required

= ̂V
= = 10.5723 m2
U 38.8442 m/s
As first trial, take downcorner area as 12% of total net area required,
A= = =12.014 m2
88% 88%
Column diameter,
4A 4(12.014)
DC = √ π = √ =3m
π
Bottom Column

Bottom rate.B = 206.754 kg/hr
Vapor rate,Vm = 110.7472 kg/hr
Liquid rate,Lm = Vm + B
= 317.5012 kg/hr
Liquid density,L = 766.517 kg/m3
Vapor density,V = 0.0044 kg/m3
Surface tension, = 0.0118 N/m
358
Bottom Column Diameter,Dc
From Equation 11.82 (Sinnot,2005), Liquid-Vapor factor, FLV
Lm ρ
v 317.5012 0.0044
FLV = Vm
√ρ = 110.7472 √766.517 = 0.0069
L
Take tray spacing as 0.6m.

From Figure 11.27 (Sinnot,2005), K1= 0.10. The K1 value can be only be applied when liquid
surface tension is 0.02 N/m. Otherwise, it is corrected by;
σ 0.2 0.0118 0.2
K1, C = K1 (0.02) = 0.10 ( ) = 0.09
0.02

(ρL −ρV ) 1/2 (766.517−0.0044) 1/2
Uf = K1,C [ ] = 0.09 [ ] = 37.5643 m/s
ρV 0.0044

̂ V = 0.85Uf = 0.85× 37.5643 = 31.9297 m/s
U
Vm 110.7472 m3
= = = 25169.8182 = 6.9916 m3 /s
ρV 0.0044 hr
Net area required

= ̂v
= 31.9297 m/s = 0.2190 m2
U
As first trial, take down corner area as 12% of total net area required,
A= = = 0.2489 m2
88% 0.88
Column diameter,
4A 4(0.2489)
DC = √ π = √ = 0.5629 m
π
Since top column diameter is bigger than bottom column diameter, therefore DC = 3 m.
Liquid Flow Pattern

L 3080.76 kg/hr
Lmax = ρn = = 3.8680 m3/hr = 0.0011 m3 /s
L 796.481 kg/m3
From Figure 11.28(Sinnot,2005), the selected recommended liquid flow pattern is single pass
tray.
359
Column diameter, Dc =3m
π D2 π (3.9111)2
Column area, Ac = = = 12.0140 m2
4 4
Down corner area, Ad = 12% Ac = 0.12 × 12.0140 = 1.4417 m2

Net area, An = Ac – Ad = 12.0140 −1.4417= 10.5723 m2
Active area, As =Ac – 2Ad = 12.0140 – (2 × 1.4417) = 9.1306 m2
Hole area, Ah = 10%As = 0.10 × 9.1306 = 0.9131 m2
Ad 1.4417 l
From Figure 11.31(Sinnot,2005), at ratio = = 0.12 = 12% obtained Dw = 0.76
Ac 12.0140 c
Therefore, lw = 2.9724 m.
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate, Lmax = 3080.76 kg/hr
Minimum liquid rate (at 70% turn down),
Lmin = Lmax × 70% = 2156.532 kg/hr
L 2/3 3080.76 2/3
Maximum, how = 750 [ ρmax ] = 750 [796.481×2.9724] = 1.1919 mm liquid
l L w
L 2/3 2156.532 2/3

Minimum, how = 750 [ρmin ] = 750 [796.481 ×2.9724] = 0.9397 mm liquid
l L w

K2 = 30.2
360
From the Eq.11.84, minimum vapor velocity through the holes is given by:
[K2 −0.9(25.4− dh )] [30.2−0.9(25.4− 0.005)]
̂V =
U = = 129.8336 m/s
(ρv )1/2 (0.0032)1/2
Actual minimum vapor velocity,

0.7 0.7
= maximum volumetric flowrate = × 410.6736 = 314.8303 m/s
Ah 0.9131
Height of Column
Number of trays, N = 6
Plate thickness = 0.005
Total thickness of plate, Hp = 0.13
Single plate spacing, 24” = 0.6 m
Number of spacing =5
Tray stack =3
Disengagement space = 3.0 m
Skirt height = 1.5 m
Total height of column, Ht =9m
H 9 H
Check: D t = = 2.9889 (satisfactory for D t  20)
c 3.0111 c
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry plate drop:
Maximum vapour velocity through holes,
̂h =
U = = 449.7575 m/s
Ah 0.9131
Plate diameter A A
For, (i) Hole diameter = 1.00 and (ii) Ah  Ah = 0.10
p a
Co = 0.841
U 2ρ 449.7575 2 0.0032
v
Dry plate drop, hd = 51 [ C h] = 51 [ ] = 58.6016 mm liquid
o ρL 0.841 796.481
1.25 x 104 1.25 x 104

Residual head, hr = = = 15.6940 mm liquid
ρL 796.481
Total plate pressure drops, hr

= hd + hw + how + hr
361
= 58.6016 + 50 + 1.7741 + 15.6940
= 126.0697 mm liquid
Downcorner Liquid Back-up

From Equation 11.92 and 11.93 (Sinnott, 2005)
Take Hap = hw − 10 = 50 − 10 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Area under apron, Aap = Hap x lw = 0.04 x 2.9724 = 0.1189 m2
As it is less than Ad = 1.4417 m2 , use Aap = Am in equation 11.92 (Sinnott, 2005).
Head loss in downcorner,
2
Lmax 2 410.6736
hdc = 166 [ ] = 166 [ ] = 3344.5843 mm
ρL Am 769.481 x 0.1189
Back-up downcorner, hb
= hw +how + ht + hdc
= 50 + 1.7741 + 126.0697 + 3344.5843
= 3522.4281 mm = 3.5224 m
Check residence time, t r
Ad hb ρL 1.4471 x 3.5524 x 769.481
tr = = = 9.6321 s (Satisfactory if  3s)
Lmax 410.6736
Check Entrainment
Actual percentage flooding for design area,
Uv = = = 38.8443 m/s
An 10.5723
Uv 38.8443
% flooding = x 100 = x 100 = 103.4075 %
Uf 37.5643
From figure 11.29 (Sinnott, 2005), at % flooding = 103.4075 %, FLV = 0.026
Fractional entrainment,  = 0.103
Trial Layout
362
Use cartridge-type construction. Allow 50 mm unperforated strip round plate edge; 50 mm
wide calming zone.
Perforated Area
l
From figure 11.32 (Sinnott, 2005), at Dw = 0.76, c = 95
c
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip,

 = 180 - c = 180 − 95 = 85 = 1.4835 radian
Mean length, unperforated edge strips,
Ac = (Dc − hw )x  = (3 − 0.05) x 1.4835 = 5.7279 m
Area of unperforated edge strips,
Au = hw x Ac = 0.05 x 5.7279 = 0.2864 m2
Area of calming zones,
Az = 2hw (lw x 2hw ) = 2 x 0.05(2.9724 x 2 x 0.05) = 0.0297 m2
Total area available for perforations,
Ap = Aa − (Au + Az ) = 9.1306 − (0.2864 + 0,0297) = 8.8145m2
Ah 0.9131
= = 0.1036
Ap 8.8145
From Figure 11.33 (Sinnott, 2005),
Ip
= 2.58 (Satisfactory within 2.5 t0 4.0)
dh
Wall thickness
Design pressure:
Internal pressure = 1.2 bar
Design temperature:
Internal temperature + 10% margin = 557.132 K = 283.982 °C
363
Material construction:
Typical design stress, f = 106.62 N/mm2
PIDI
Minimum wall thickness, e = = 0.2591 mm
2Jf – PI
364
For fabrication,
Thickness of wall, tw =0.2591 mm+2mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.2591 mm
Number of holes
Ah 0.9131
Number of holes = Area of one = 0.0000196 = 4659 holes
hole
Plate Specification
Plate no. = T-103

Plate int. diameter =3m
Column height =9m
Number of trays =6
Hole size = 5 mm
Hole pitch = 14 mm
Active holes = 5271 holes
Turn-down = 70 % max rate
Plate material = Stainless Steel
Downcorner material = Stainless Steel
Plate spacing = 0.6 m
Plate pressure drop = 126.0697 mm liquid
365
G.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111)
The calculation steps for heat exchanger’s sizing were done as taking E-101 as an example.
The assumptions that involved:
1. Equal heat transfer area in each pass.

2. There is no leakage of fluid between shell passes.
3. Heat transfer is in steady state.
The calculations are the same for the rest of the heat exchangers (E-102 to E-111).
Table G.3: Specification of Fluid for Heat Transfer Process.
Type of Fluid Mass flow rate (kg/s) 𝐓𝐢𝐧 𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐭

Fluid A 0.0574317 266 104
Fluid B 4.4297 26 84.3
Table G.4: Physical Properties of Fluid A and Fluid B.
Physical properties Fluid A Fluid B

Inlet: 266 Inlet: 26
Temperature (℃)
Outlet: 104 Outlet: 84.3
Specific heat capacity, 𝐂𝐩 (J/kg⸳K) 3048.1744 2235.6000
Thermal conductivity, k (W/m⸳K) 0.10578 0.1690
Density, 𝛒 (kg/𝐦𝟑 ) 766.517 821.071
Viscosity, 𝛍 (kg/m⸳s) 0.0000086 0.00029
Calculate the heat load.

q = ṁCp ∆T
For fluid inside tube
q = 0.0574 × 3048.1744 × (266 − 104) = 28360. 02 W
For fluid inside shell
q = 4.4297 × 2235.6 × (84.3 − 26) = 577347.1W
Estimated overall heat transfer coefficient, UO,assumed .
From Table 12.1, UO,assumed = 50 W/m2 K
366
Calculate the log mean temperature difference, ∆Tlm .
(Thi − Tco ) − (Tho − Tci )
∆Tlm =
T −T
ln (Thi − Tco )
ho ci
(266 − 84.3) − (104 − 26)

∆Tlm = = 122.6278 K
(266 − 84.3)
ln ( 104 − 26 )
Assume 1-1 heat exchanger,

Thi − Tho 266 − 104
R= = = 2.7787
Tco − Tci 84.3 − 26
Tco − Tci 84.3 − 26
S= = = 0.2429
Thi − Tci 266 − 26
367
From the Figure 4.9-4 of Transport Process book (Geankoplis, 2014),
FT = 0.885
∆Tm = FT × ∆Tlm = 0.885 x 122.6278 = 108.5256 K
Calculate the heat transfer area, A0 ,

q 898346.7
A0 = = = 165.5548 m2
U0 × ∆Tm 50 × 108.5256
Calculate the shell side heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑠 .

hs De 0.33 [6]
NNu = = jh NRe NPr
k
From Appendix A5-1 of Transport Process book

DO = 0.03175m
Pt = 1.25DO =1.25 x 0.003175 m = 0.0397 m
1.1 1.1
De = (Pt 2 − 0.917D2O ) = (0.03972 − 0.917 x 0.031752 ) = 0.0225 m
DO 0.03175
By referring to Chemical Engineering Design Vol.6 R.K.Sinnot,

Assumption: Length of tube, L= 4.88m
Area of one tube = πDO L = π × 0.03175 x 4.88 = 0.4868 m2
Total Area 165.5548
Number of tubes, N=Area of tube = = 340.117 ≈ 341 tubes
0.4868
The tube arrangement is square pitch and the number of passes is 1.
368
From Table 12.4 (Sinnot, 2005),
K=0.215, n=2.207
N 1 341 1
Bundle diameter, Db = DO (K)n = 0.03175 (0.215)2.207 = 0.8939m
By referring to Figure 12.10 (Sinnot, 2005), assuming using split-ring floating head type,
Bundle diametrical clearance = 0.058m

Ds = Db + bundle diametrical clearance = 0.8939 + 0.058 = 0.9519m
369
Pt − DO D2s 0.0397 − 0.03175 0.95192
As = ( )( ) = ( )( ) = 0.0362m2
Pt 5 0.0397 5
ṁ2 4.4297
vs = = = 0.1488 m/s
ρAs 821.071 × 0.0362
De vs ρ 0.0225 × 0.1488 x 821.071
NRe = = = 9500
μ 0.00029
Cp μ 2235.6 × 0.00029
NPr = = = 3.8358
k 0.1690
By referring to Figure 12.29 (Sinnot, 2005),
Assumption: Baffle cuts percent = 25%, jh = 0.013
k 0.33
0.1690
hs = jh NRe NPr = 0.013 x 9500 x 3.83580.33 = 1442.9341 W/m2 K
De 0.0225
Calculate the tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi .
hi Di 0.33
NNu = = jh NRe NPr
k
370
From Appendix A5-1 of Transport Process book (Geankoplis, 2014)
Di = 0.02753 m
πD2i π × 0.02753 2
Total cross-sectional area, A= N= x 341 = 0.2025 m2
4 4
ṁ1 0.0574
vi = = = 0.0021m/s
ρAs 766.517 × 0.0362
Di vi ρ 0.02753 × 0.0021 × 766.517
NRe = = = 5072.0062
μ 0.0000086
Cp μ 3048.1744 × 0.0000086
NPr = = = 0.2478
k 0.1058
L 4.88
= = 177.2612
Di 0.02753
By referring to Figure 12.23 (Sinnot, 2005),
L
= 301, jh = 0.0062
Di
k 0.33
0.1058
hi = jh NRe NPr = 0.0062 x 5072.0062 x 0.24780.33 = 76.2551W/m2 K
Di 0.02753
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, UO,cal
D
1 1 1 DO 1 DO 1 DO ln DO
i
= + +( × )+( × )+
UO,cal hs hdo Di hdi Di hi 2 × k steel
371
By referring to Table 12.2 (Sinnot, 2005),
Fouling factors, hdo = 5000W/m2 K, hdi = 5000 W/m2 K,
k steel = 45 W/m2 K
1 1 1 0.03175 1 0.03175 1
= + +( × )+( × )
UO,cal 1442.9341 5000 0.02753 5000 0.02753 76.2551
0.03175
0.03175 ln
+ 0.02753 = 0.0163 m2 K/W
2 × 45
1
UO,cal = = 61.3600 W/m2 K
0.0163 m2 K/W
Calculate the new heat transfer area, Anew .
q 28360
Anew = = = 4.2590 m2
UO,cal ∆Tm 61.3600 x 108.5256
Designed heat transfer area

Adesign = 145.319 m2
The design area is larger than contact area, thus the design area is adequate for heat transfer to
occur and hence the design is valid.
Calculate the error between UO,assumed and UO,cal.
61.3600−50
Error % = × 100 = 18.51% (Acceptable if range between 0 < % < 30)
61.3600
372
G.6 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105)
Propylene Oxide Storage Tank (TK-101)
Molar Molecular Volumetric

Density Pressure
Component Flowrate Weight Flowrate
(kg/m3) (bar)
(kmol/hr) (kg/kmol) (m3/hr)
C3H6O 274.5681 58.08 822.212 1 19.3952
Vessel condition:
Type of storage vessel : Floating roof
Temperature : 25 °C
Stored materials : Liquid propylene oxide
Materia of construction : Stainless Steel
Tank capacity:
Assuming that the storage tank is required to store one-week (7 days) propylene oxide.
Sizing:
1. Diameter of storage tank:
Mass of propylene oxide required for 7 days production operation,
W= Molar Flowrate × Molecular Weight × 24 hours / day × 7 days
W= 2,679,081.76 kg
Volume occupied by 2,679,081.76 kg of propylene oxide.
W
VI = = 3,258.38 m3
ρ
Vstorage = VI + Vv (Assuming 10% volume added for vapor flow)

Vstorage = 1.10 × VI = 3584.22 m3
The height of storage tank should be standardised to 9.5 m.
πD2 h
Vtank = 4
D = 22.51 m
H = 9.5 m
373
2. Liquid height determination:
πD2 1
Vv = (Hs – HI + 3 HR)
4
Since HR = (D/2) tan θ, hence:

πD2 D
Vv = (Hs – HI + tan θ)
4 6
Normally the angle is assumed to be θ = 10°,

πD2 D
0.1Vstorage = (HS – HI + tan 10°)
4 6
HI = 8.76 m
HR= 0.66 m
Water Storage Tank (TK-102)

Density Pressure
(kg/m3) (bar)
H2O 262.0905 18.0153 1000 1 4.75034
Vessel condition:
Temperature : 25 °C
Stored materials : Liquid propylene oxide
Tank capacity:
Assuming that the storage tank is required to store one-week (7 days) water.
Sizing:
Mass of water required for 7 days production operation,
374
W= 793,235.35 kg
Volume occupied by 793,235.35 kg of water.
W
VI = = 793.2354 m3
ρ

Vstorage = 1.10 × VI = 877.87 m3
πD2 h
Vtank =
4
D = 11.14 m
H = 9.5 m
πD2 1
Vv = (Hs – HI + 3 HR)
4

πD2 D
4 6

πD2 D
4 6
HI = 8.76 m
HR= 0.54 m
375
Monopropylene Glycol Storage Tank (TK-103)

Density Pressure
(kg/m3) (bar)
C3H8O2 249.7417 76.0953 1029.58 1 18.2712
Vessel condition:
Temperature : 25.02 °C
Stored materials : Liquid monopropylene glycol
Tank capacity:
Assuming that the storage tank is required to store 4 days production of monopropylene glycol.
Sizing:
Mass of monopropylene glycol required for 4 days production operation,
W= 1,824,400.28 kg
Volume occupied by W= 1,824,400.28 kg of monopropylene glycol.
W
VI = = 1771.98 m3
ρ

Vstorage = 1.10 × VI = 1949.18 m3
πD2 h
Vtank = 4
D = 16.61 m
H = 9.5 m
376
πD2 1
Vv = (Hs – HI + HR)
4 3

πD2 D
4 6

πD2 D
4 6
HI = 7.16 m
HR= 0.54 m
Dipropylene Glycol Storage Tank (TK-104)

Density Pressure
(kg/m3) (bar)
C6H14O3 12.3165 134.175 1017.88 1 1.6212
Vessel condition:
Stored materials : Liquid dipropylene glycol
Tank capacity:
Assuming that the storage tank is required to store 4 days production of dipropylene glycol.
Sizing:
Mass of dipropylene glycol required for 4 days production operation,
377
W= 158,646.37 kg
Volume occupied by 158,646.37 kg of dipropylene glycol.
W
VI = = 155.86 m3
ρ

Vstorage = 1.10 × VI = 171.45 m3
πD2 h
Vtank =
4
D = 4.92 m
H = 9.5 m
πD2 1
Vv = (Hs – HI + 3 HR)
4

πD2 D
4 6

πD2 D
4 6
HI = 3.18 m
HR= 0.25 m
378
Tripropylene Glycol Storage Tank (TK-105)

Density Pressure
(kg/m3) (bar)
C9H20O4 1.0769 192.255 1018.52 1 0.2030
Vessel condition:
Stored materials : Liquid tripropylene glycol
Tank capacity:
Assuming that the storage tank is required to store 4 days production of tripropylene glycol.
Sizing:
Mass of tripropylene glycol required for 4 days production operation,
W= 19,875.78 kg
Volume occupied by 19,875.78 kg of tripropylene glycol.
W
VI = = 19.51 m3
ρ

Vstorage = 1.10 × VI = 21.46 m3
πD2 h
Vtank = 4
D = 1.74 m
H = 9.5 m
379
πD2 1
Vv = (Hs – HI + HR)
4 3

πD2 D
4 6

πD2 D
4 6
HI = 1.60 m
HR= 0.12 m
380
G.7 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B)
Pump, P-101 A/B

References: Chemical Engineering volume 6 (Sinnott 2005), page 480.
Pump Shaft Power
The power required for pumping is given by:
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,
P = Pressure differential across the pump, N/m2 (Pa)
QP = Flow rate, m3 /s
P = Pump efficiency, %
Parameters for calculation:

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 900000 Pa = 130.534 psia
ṁ = 15946.9254 kg/hr
ρ = 822.212 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 15946.9254 × = 19.3952 m3 /hr
hr 822.212 kg
From Figure 10.62 (Chemical Engineering Vol. 6, pg 480)
For centrifugal pump at capacity, QP = 19.3952 m3 /hr. Pump efficiency,  = 80%
(900000 − 100000) × 19.3952
Pump shaft power = × 100 = 5.3875 kW
3600 × 1000 × 80
381
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(130.534 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
0.82
= 326.8656 ft = 99.6286 m
10% safety factor 99.6286 m × 10% = 9.9629 m
Required differential heal = 99.6286 m + 9.9629 m = 109.5915 m
Pump, P-102 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 900000 Pa = 130.534 psia
ṁ = 4721.633 kg/hr
ρ = 993.957 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 4721.633 × = 4.7503 m3 /hr
hr 993.957 kg
(900000 − 100000) × 4.7504
3600 × 1000 × 70
382
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(130.534 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
0.99
= 270.7371 ft = 82.5207 m
10% safety factor 82.5207 m × 10% = 8.2521 m
Pump, P-103 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 900000 Pa = 130.534 psia
ṁ = 61489.6109 kg/hr
ρ = 930.09 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 61489.6109 × = 66.1115 m3 /hr
hr 930.09 kg
(900000 − 100000) × 66.1115
3600 × 1000 × 80
383
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(130.534 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
0.93
= 285.7202 ft = 87.0875 m
10% safety factor 87.0875 m × 10% = 8.7088 m
Pump, P-104 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 140000 Pa = 20.3053 psia
ṁ = 20668.5584 kg/hr
ρ = 850.296 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 20668.5584 × = 24.3075 m3 /hr
hr 850.296 kg
(140000 − 100000) × 24.3075
3600 × 1000 × 72
384
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(20.3053 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
0.85
= 15.7664 ft = 4.8056 m
10% safety factor 4.8056 m × 10% = 0.4806 m
Pump, P-105 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 200000 Pa = 29.0075 psia
ṁ = 18811.6025 kg/hr
ρ = 1029.59 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 18811.6025 × = 18.2710 m3 /hr
hr 1029.59 kg
(200000 − 100000) × 66.1115
3600 × 1000 × 70
385
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(29.0075 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
1.03
= 32.5277 ft = 9.9144 m
10% safety factor 9.9144 m × 10% = 0.9914 m
Pump, P-106 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 140000 Pa = 20.3053 psia
ṁ = 1856.956 kg/hr
ρ = 794.909 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 1856.956 × = 2.3361 m3 /hr
hr 794.909 kg
(140000 − 100000) × 2.3361
3600 × 1000 × 65
386
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(20.3053 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
0.79
= 16.9639 ft = 5.1706 m
10% safety factor 5.1706 m × 10% = 0.5171 m
Pump, P-107 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 200000 Pa = 29.0075 psia
ṁ = 1650.2019 kg/hr
ρ = 1017.9 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 1650.2019 × = 1.6212 m3 /hr
hr 1017.9 kg
(200000 − 100000) × 1.6212
3600 × 1000 × 65
387
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(29.0075 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
1.02
= 32.8466 ft = 10.0116 m
10% safety factor 10.0116 m × 10% = 1.0112 m
Pump, P-108 A/B

Pump Shaft Power
PQP
P= × 100
P
Where,

P1 = 100000 Pa = 14.5038 psia
P2 = 200000 Pa = 29.0075 psia
ṁ = 206.754 kg/hr
ρ = 1018.55 kg/m3
kg m3
Flow rate, QP = 206.754 × = 0.2029 m3 /hr
hr 1018.55 kg
(200000 − 100000) × 0.2029
3600 × 1000 × 50
388
Differential head,
∆P(2.31)
h =
SG
(29.0075 − 14.5038)(2.31)
=
1.02
= 32.8466 ft = 10.0116 m
10% safety factor 10.0116 m × 10% = 1.0112 m
389
G.8 Cooling Tower (T-104)
condensers in distillation columns (T-101, T-102 and T-103).
4621922.3731 kg 4180 J
Energy removal from cooling water = × × (45 − 30) ℃
hr kg⸳℃
J
= 2.8979 × 1011
hr
J
Heat load 2.8979×1011
hr
Amount of water evaporated from tower, Wtower = = J
ΔHvap 2417300.336
kg
kg
= 119883.5447
hr
kg
119883.5447
hr
Circulating water flow rate = kg × 100 = 2.5938 %
4621922.3731
hr
Assumed windage loss, Wwind = 0.3 %

Wtower 2.5938
Blowdown, WBD = − Wwind = − 0.3 = 0.3485 %
4 4
Water makeup, WMU = Wtower + Wwind + WBD = 2.5938 + 0.3 + 0.3485 = 3.2423 %
kg
= 149859.5891
h
∆Ploop = 15 psi (pipi loss) + 5 psi (exchange loss) + 10 psi (control valve loss) + 8.7 psi
of static head (water pumped to the top of the tower, estimated to be 20 ft above pump inlet)
= 38.7 psi = 266.7 kPa
Assuming an overall efficiency of 75 %,
1 1 4621922.3731
Pump power = ε V̇∆P = 0.75 × 1000×3600 × 266.7 = 456.5432 kW
Required surface area in the tower = 0.5 ft2/gpm and the fan horsepower per square foot of tower
area is 0.41 hp/ft2 (Perry’s Handbook, Figure 12.14 & Figure 12.15)
4621922.3731×2.2048
Power for fan = × 0.5 × 0.041 = 417.6232 kW
60×8.337
The cost of chemicals is RM 1.00/1000 kg of makeup water (Nanjing FNAT Chemical Co.,
Ltd, 2018).
Using an electricity cost of RM 0.427/kWh (Tenaga Nasional, 2018) and process water cost of
RM 0.84/1000 kg (Water Tariff, 2018).
390
Cost of cooling water
= cost of electricity + cost of chemicals for makeup water + cost of makeup water
RM 0.427 8000 h 149859.5891 kg RM 1 8000 hr
=[ × × (456.5432 + 417.6232)kW] + [ × 1000 kg × ]+
kWh yr hr yr
149859.5891 kg RM 0.84 8000 hr
[ × 1000 kg × ]
hr yr
= RM5,192,085.57/yr
391
APPENDIX H: EQUIPMENT COSTING CALCULATION STEPS
H.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)
Cost of hydrolysis reactor
According to Turton (2009), the cost of reactor can be calculated using the formula as shown
in Table H.1.
Table H.1: Equipment Cost Data for Hydrolysis Reactor based on year 2001 (Turton, 2009).
Reactor Jacketed agitated 3.35 0.7235 0.0025
where A is the volume of the reactor (m3).
For the hydrolysis reactor, the operating pressure is at 9 bar with the diameter of 3.3841 m from
the above calculation.
A = 30.4382 m3
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 3.35 + 0.7235 log10 (30.4382) + 0.0025[log10 (30.4382)]2
log10 CPo = 4.4288
CPo = $ 26,838.30
Bare module factor, FBM of jacketed agitated reactor is 4.0, regardless of pressure factor of the
reactor (Turton, 2009).
CBM = CPo FBM
CBM = $ 26,838.30 × 4.0 = $ 107,353.19
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3. By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.16,
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
392
615.10
CBM = $ 107,353.19 × ( ) = $ 167,468.80
394.3
Therefore, the cost for hydrolysis reactor, R-101 is RM 696,670.20.
Cost of wire mesh
Cost of wire mesh = $ 4.19/ft2 (TWP, 2019)
Surface area of mesh = 8.9944 m2 = 96.8149 ft2
Number of wire mesh required for a reactor = 2
$ 4.19 RM 4.16
Cost of wire mesh for reactor = 2 × × × 96.8149 ft 2 = RM 3,375.04.
ft2 $1
Equipment estimated cost = RM 696,670.20 + RM 3,375.04 = RM 700,045.24
Cost of catalyst
RM 10.89
Cost of catalyst = × 21002.358 kg = RM228,715.68
kg
The catalyst needs to be replaced for every 2 years (MatWeb, 2018), therefore the annum cost
is as followed:
RM228,715.68
Cost of catalyst = = RM114,357.84/yr
2 years
Cost of cooling utility
Total cooling water consumed in reactor = 23.6081 kg/s
Cost of cooling water = RM 0.84/1000kg (Water Tariff, 2018)
Total cooling cost required = RM 571,127.16/yr
Equipment utility cost = RM114,357.84/yr + RM571,127.16/yr = RM685485/yr
393
H.2 Distillation Column (T-101)
From sizing result:
Pressure vessel = 1.2 barg
Inside diameter = 3.4522 m
Number of trays =7
Sizing orientation = Vertically oriented
Material of construction = Stainless Steel
According to Turton (2009), the cost of distillation column, T-101 can be calculated using the
value as shown in Table A.1
Table H.2: Equipment cost for Vessel of Distillation Column.
Distillation column (T-101) Vertical vessel 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
Where A is the capacity or size parameter for the equipment.
Where B1 and B2 are bare module constant.
πD2 H π(3.4522)2 (10.845)

Volume of vessel, V = = = 101.3812 m3
4 4
For the distillation column T-101, the operating pressure is at 1 bar (0 barg) with the diameter
of 3.4522 m and volume of 101.3812 m3 from the above calculation.
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 3.4974 + 0.4485 log10 (101.3812 ) + 0.1074[log10 (101.3812)]2
log10 CPo = 4.8292
CPo = $ 67, 489.33
FP = 1
394
By using stainless steel as the material for process vessel, B1 = 2.25; B2=1.82; FM=3.1
Cost of Vessel
CBM = CPo FBM = 67489.33 [(2.25) + (1.82)(3.1)(1)]
CBM = $ 532,625.79
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 615.10 (Chemical Engineering, 2018)
and CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3. By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to
RM4.16,
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001

615.10
CBM = $ 532,625.79 × ( ) = $ 830,885.43
394.3
Table H.3: Equipment cost for Sieve Tray of Distillation Column.
Distillation column (T-101) Sieve Tray 2.9949 0.4465 0.3961

For the distillation column T-101, the diameter of stainless steel sieve tray is 3.4522 m with
area of 9.3601 m2.
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 2.9949 + 0.4465 log10 (9.3601 ) + 0.3961[log10 (9.3601 )]2
log10 CPo = 3.8023
CPo = $ 6343.08
Material factor, FBM = 1.00
log10 Fq = 0.4771 + 0.08516 log10 (N) − 0.3473 [log10 N]2
log10 Fq = 0.4771 + 0.08516 log10 (9) − 0.3473 [log10 (9)]2
395
Fq = 1.7223
Cost Sieve Tray
CBM = CPo NFBM 𝐹𝑞
CBM = 6343.08 × 9 × 1 × 1.7223
= $ 98,322.18
615.10
CBM = $ 98,322.18 × ( ) = $ 153,380.61
394.3
Total Bare Module Cost of Distillation Column T-101
= Cost of vessel + cost of sieve trays
= $ 830,885.43 + $ 153,380.61
= $ 984,266.04
= RM 4,094,546.73

From sizing result:
Pressure vessel = 1.2 barg
Number of trays =7
Sizing orientation = Vertically oriented
Material of construction = Stainless Steel
According to (Turton, 2009), the cost of distillation column T102 can be calculated using the
value as shown in below.
Distillation column (T-102) Vertical vessel 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
log10 CPo = 𝐾1+𝐾2log10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [log10 (𝐴)]2

πD2 H π(3.3325)2 (9.8430)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙, 𝑉= = = 85.8534 m3
4 4
396
For distillation column T-102, the operating pressure is at 1.2 bar with the diameter of 3.3325
m and volume of 85.8534 m3.
log10 CPo = 3.4974+ 0.4485 log10 (85.8534) + 0.1074 [log10 (85.8534)]2
CPo = $ 58,385.33
Cost of vessel
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = CPo (𝐵1+𝐵2𝐹𝑀𝐹𝑃)
FP = 1
By using stainless steel as the material for process vessel, B1 = 2.25, B2 = 1.82, FM =3.10
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 58,385.33 [2.25+1.82(3.10) (1)]
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 460,777.02
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 615.10. As for the CEPCI for the base
year 2001 is 394.3
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
Where C = CBM and I represent cost index.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 718,802.81
= RM 2,990219.69
Sieve trays calculation

According to (Turton, 2009), the cost of sieve trays for distillation column can be calculated
using the values as shown in below.
Distillation column (T-101) Sieve Tray 2.9949 0.4465 0.3961
log10 CPo = 𝐾1+𝐾2log10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [log10 (𝐴)]2

πD2 π(3.3325)2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙, 𝐴 = = = 8.7223 m2
4 4
For distillation column T-102, the diameter of stainless steel sieve tray is 3.3325 m with area
of 8.7223 m2.
397
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 2.9949 + 0.4465 log10 (8.7223) + 0.3961 [log10 (8.7223)]2
CPo = $ 5,825.80
Material factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1.00
log10 𝐹𝑞= 0.4771 + 0.08516 log10 (7) − 0.3473[ log10 (7)]2
𝐹𝑞 = 0.7985
Cost of sieve trays
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶°P 𝑁𝐹𝐵𝑀𝐹𝑞
= $ 32,563.32
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 50,798.12
= Cost of vessel + Cost of sieve trays
= $ 718,802.81+ $ 50,798.12
= $ 769,600.93
= RM 3,201,539.89

From sizing result:
Pressure vessel = 1 bar
Column height = 9m
Number of trays = 6
Sizing orientation = Vertical oriented
Material construction = Stainless steel
According to Turton (2009), the cost of distillation column T103 can be calculated using the
value as shown in below.
398
Distillation
Vertical vessel 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074
column (T-103)


πD2 H π(3.0111)2 (9)
Volume of vessel, V = = = 64.0889 m3
4 4
For the distillation column T-103, the operating pressure is at 1 bar (0 barg) with the diameter
of 3.0111 m and volume of 64.08889 m3 from the above calculation.
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 3.4974 + 0.4485 log10 (64.0889) + 0.1074[log10 (64.0889)]2
CPo = $ 45,535.02
FP = 1
By using stainless steel as the material for process vessel, B1 = 2.25; B2 =1.82; FM =3.1
Cost of Vessel
CBM = CPo FBM = 45,535.02[(2.25) + (1.82)(3.1)(1)]
CBM = $ 359,362.38
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001

615.10
CBM = $ 359,362.38 × ( ) = $ 560,598.02
394.3
399
Distillation
Sieve Tray 2.9949 0.4465 0.3961
column (T-103)

For the distillation column T-103, the diameter of stainless steel sieve tray is 3.0111 m with
area of 7.1210 m2.
Therefore,
log10 CPo = 2.9949 + 0.4465 log10 (7.1210 ) + 0.3961[log10 (7.1210)]2
CPo = $ 4607.39
Material factor, FBM = 1.00
log10 Fq = 0.4771 + 0.08516 log10 (N) − 0.3473 [log10 N]2
log10 Fq = 0.4771 + 0.08516 log10 (6) − 0.3473 [log10 (6)]2
Fq = 2.1531
Cost Sieve Tray

CBM = CPo NFBM Fq
CBM = 4607.39 × 6 × 1 × 2.1531
= $ 59,521.03
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 92,851.60

= Cost of vessel + cost of sieve trays
= $ 560,598.02 + $ 92,851.60
= $ 653,449.62
= RM 2,718,350.41
400
H.5 Heat Exchangers (E-101 to E-111)
The calculation steps for heat exchanger’s sizing were done as taking E-101 as an example.
The calculations are the same for the rest of the heat exchangers (E-102 to E-111).
Type of heat exchanger: floating head

Construction material: Stainless steel
FM = 1.00 Fp = 1.6112
Table H.4: Equipment cost for Heat Exchangers.
Heat Exchanger (E-101) Floating Head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
For the heat exchanger E-101, the area of 145 .319 m2

log10 CPo = 4.8306 + (−0.8509) log10 (145 .319 ) + 0.3187 [log10 (145 .319 )]2
CPo = $ 21018.87
Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Heat Exchanger (E-101) Floating Head 0.03881 -0.11272 0.08183
log10 Fp = C1 + C2 log10 (P) + C3 [log10 (P)] 2

Where P is the operating pressure. The P of this heat exchanger is 9 bar (8 barg)
log10 Fp = 0.03881 + (−0.11272) log10 (8 ) + 0.08183 [log10 (8)]2
log10 Fp = 0.2073
Fp = 1.6112
Where B1 =1.63 and B2 = 1.66
CBM = CPo FBM = 21018.87 [ (1.63) + (1.66)(1.00)(1.6112)]
CBM = $ 34263.43
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 34263.43 × ( ) = $ 53450.86
394.3
Cost of heat exchanger = RM 217,714. 32
401
H.6 Storage Tanks (TK-101 to TK-105)
Propylene Oxide Storage Tank, TK-101
Volume of storage tank : 3584.22 m3
Temperature : 25°C
Pressure : 1 atm
Material of construction : Stainless steel
Table H.5: Equipment cost for Storage Tanks.
Tanks API-floating roof 5.9567 -0.7585 0.1749
log10 Cp° = K1 + K 2 log10 (A) + K 3 [log10 (A)]2

Where A is the volume of the storage tank (m3), and A fall in the range of 1000m3 to 4000m3,
where A for the calculation is 3584.22 m3.
Cp° = $ 295,344.93
Pressure factor, Fp= 1.0
Material factor, Fm = 4.0
According to (Turton, 2009), the bare module factor,
CBM = CP° FBM
CBM = CP° FB FP
CBM = $ 1,181,379.72
The formula below is to calculate the purchased equipment cost in year 2017.The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 615.10 and CEPCI for the base year is
394.30.
I
C2019 =C2001 (I2019 )
2001
C= CBM and I represent cost index

° 615.10
CBM =$1,181,379.72 ( ) = $ 1,842,928.39
394.30
Using current exchange of $ 1 equivalent to RM 4.16

CBM = RM 7,666,582.10
Cost of propylene oxide storage tank = RM 7,666,582.10
Water Storage Tank, TK-102
402
Temperature : 25°C
Pressure : 1 atm

Cp° = $ 173,541.58
CBM = CP° FBM
CBM = CP° FB FP
CBM = $ 694,166.32
394.30.
I
C2019 =C2001 (I2019 )
2001

° 615.10
CBM =$694,166.32 ( ) = $ 1,082,885.38
394.30

CBM = RM 4,504,803.18
Cost of water storage tank = RM 4,504,803.18
403
Monopropylene Glycol Storage Tank, TK-103
Temperature : 25°C
Pressure : 1 atm

Cp° = $ 226,105.96
CBM = CP° FBM
CBM = CP° FB FP
CBM = $ 904,423.84
394.30.
I
C2019 =C2001 (I2019 )
2001

° 615.10
CBM =$ 14577.72 ( ) = $ 1,410,882.84
394.30

CBM = RM 5,869,272.62
Cost of monopropylene glycol storage tank = RM 5,869,272.62
404
Dipropylene Glycol Storage Tank, TK-104
Temperature : 25°C
Pressure : 1 atm

Cp° = $ 136,488.92
CBM = CP° FBM
CBM = CP° FB FP
CBM = $ 545,955.68
394.30.
I
C2019 =C2001 (I2019 )
2001

° 615.10
CBM =$ 545,955.68 ( ) = $ 851,679.78
394.30

CBM = RM 3,542,987.89
Cost of dipropylene glycol storage tank = RM 3,542,987.89
405
Tripropylene Glycol Storage Tank, TK-105
Temperature : 25°C
Pressure : 1 atm

Cp° = $ 180,633.43
CBM = CP° FBM
CBM = CP° FB FP
CBM = $ 722,533.72
394.30.
I
C2019 =C2001 (I2019 )
2001
° 615.10
CBM =$ 722,533.72 ( ) = $ 1,127,137.94
394.30

CBM = RM 4,688,893.83
Cost of tripropylene glycol storage tank = RM 3,542,987.89
406
H.7 Pumps (P-101 A/B to P-108 A/B)
Centrifugal Pump (P-101 A/B)
There is a turbine pump (centrifugal pump) needed to pump the condensed gas-liquid mixture
products from the reactor in order to achieve high separation efficiency. According to Turton
(2009), the cost of centrifugal pump can be calculated by using the formula as shown below:
Table H.6: Equipment Cost Data for Pumps.
Pump (P-101) Centrifugal Pump 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538

log10 FP = C1 + C2 Log P + C3 (logP) 2
CBM = CP (B1 + B2 FM FP )
Where A is the power of the pump and P is the pressure difference in terms of barg.
Qin = 15946.9 kg/hr
ρ = 822.212 kg/m3
W = 5.3875 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (5.3875) + 0.1538[log10 (5.3875)] 2
CPo = 9619.552
FP = 1
By using stainless steel as the material for pump, B1 = 1.89, B2 = 1.35, FM = 2.20
CBM = 9619.552 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 46751.02
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 46751.02 × ( ) = $ 72,930.64
394.3
CBM = RM 296,827.70
407

Qin = 4721.63 kg/hr
ρ = 993.957 kg/m3
W = 1.5080 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (1.5080) + 0.1538[log10 (1.5080)] 2
CPo = 10443.95
FP = 1
CBM = 10443.95 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 50757.6
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 50757.60 × ( ) = $ 79,180.83
394.3
CBM = RM 322,226.00
408

Qin = 61489.6 kg/hr
ρ = 930.09 kg/m3
W = 18.3643 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (18.3643) + 0.1538[log10 (18.3643)] 2
CPo = 9619.552
FP = 1
CBM = 9619.552 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 46751.02
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 46751.02 × ( ) = $ 72.930.64
394.3
CBM = RM 296,827.70
409
Qin = 20668.6 kg/hr
ρ = 850.296 kg/m3
W = 0.3751 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.3751) + 0.1538[log10 (0.3751)] 2
CPo = 2565.131
FP = 1
CBM = 2565.131 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))

CBM = 12466.54
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 12466.54 × ( ) = $ 19,447.54
394.3
CBM = RM 79,151.50
410

Qin = 18811.6 kg/hr
ρ = 1029.59 kg/m3
W = 0.7250 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.7250) + 0.1538[log10 (0.7250)] 2
CPo = 2565.131
FP = 1
CBM = 2565.131(1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 112466.54
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 112466.54 × ( ) = $ 19,447.54
394.3
CBM = RM 79,151.50
411

Q in = 1856.96kg/hr
ρ = 794.909 kg/m3
W = 0.0399 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0399) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0399)] 2
CPo = 2589.546
FP = 1
CBM = 2589.546 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 12585.19
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3. By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 12585.19 × ( ) = $ 19,632.65
394.3
CBM = RM 79,904.87
412

Qin = 1650.2 kg/hr
ρ = 1017.9 kg/m3
W = 0.0693 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0693) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0693)] 2
CPo = 2589.546
FP = 1
CBM = 2589.546(1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 12585.19
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 12585.19 × ( ) = $19,632.65
394.3
CBM = RM 79,904.87
413

Qin = 206.754 kg/hr
ρ = 1018.55 kg/m3
W = 0.0113 kW
log10 CPo = 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.0113) + 0.1538[log10 (0.0113)] 2
CPo = 2693.781
FP = 1
CBM = 2693.781 (1.89 + 1.35(2.20)(1))
CBM = 13091.77
RM4.07.
I2019
C2019 = C2001 ( )
I2001
615.10
CBM = $ 13091.77 × ( ) = $ 20,422.90
394.3
CBM = RM 83,121.21
414
H.8 Cooling Tower (T-104)
A circulating cooling water stream is produced using a mechanical draft cooling tower. Flow of
cooling water required in the plant is 4627029.7874 kg/hr used in cooling process in the heat
exchangers (E-109, E-110 and E-111), reactor (R-101) and the condensers in the distillation column
(T-101, T-102, T-103).
Zanker has derived an equation for the estimation of cooling tower capital cost ($) where Q =
Total Heat Load (Btu/hr), R = Range (℉), A = Approach (℉), twb = Design wet-bulb
temperature (℉).
2.7×1.0813 ×Q 2.7×1.0813 ×274882155.08
CP@1980 = 279 A = 279 (86) = $101,249.39
1.143 +39.2R−586 1+0.0335 (85−80)1.143
+39.2(18)−586
1+0.0335 (85−twb )
The formula below is to calculate for utility cost in year 2019. The Chemical Engineering Plant
Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 615.10 (Chemical Engineering, 2018) and CEPCI for the base
year 1980 is 261. By using current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.16,
RM 4.16
CBM = $101,249.39 × = RM 421,197.48
$1
I
C2019 = C2001 (I2019)
1980
615.10
CBM = RM 421,197.48 × ( ) = RM 992,638.19
261
Therefore, the cost for cooling tower is RM 992,638.19.
415
APPENDIX I: MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)
I.1 Propylene Oxide MSDS
Table I.1: Propylene Oxide MSDS (Balchem, 2016).
Items Specifications
Chemical Products Name: Propylene Oxide
C.A.S #: 75-56-9
Synonyms: Propane, 1,2-Epoxy-; 1,2-Ethoxypropane; 1,2-Propylene
Oxide; Methyl Ethylene Oxide; Methyloxirane; 1,2-Epoxypropane.
Hazards Identification Appearance: colorless liquid
Flash Point: -37 °C
Extremely flammable liquid. May cause reproductive and fetal effects.
Potential cancer hazard. Causes severe eye and skin irritation with
possible burns. Harmful if swallowed. May be harmful if absorbed
through the skin. May cause allergic skin reaction. Causes respiratory
tract irritation.
Target Organs: Central nervous system, respiratory system, eyes,
skin.
Potential Health Effects
Eye: Produces irritation, characterized by a burning sensation,
redness, tearing, inflammation, and possible corneal injury.
Skin: May cause skin sensitization, an allergic reaction, which
becomes evident upon re-exposure to this material. Causes severe skin
irritation and possible burns. May lead to the formation of blisters.
Ingestion: Harmful if swallowed. Causes gastrointestinal irritation
with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. May cause central nervous system
depression, characterized by excitement, followed by headache,
dizziness, drowsiness, and nausea. Advanced stages may cause
collapse, unconsciousness, coma and possible death due to respiratory
failure. Aspiration of material into the lungs may cause chemical
pneumonitis, which may be fatal.
Inhalation: Inhalation of high concentrations may cause central
nervous system effects characterized by nausea, headache, dizziness,
unconsciousness and coma. Causes respiratory tract irritation.
Aspiration may cause respiratory swelling and pneumonitis. Vapors
may cause dizziness or suffocation.
Chronic: Prolonged inhalation may cause respiratory tract
inflammation and lung damage. Prolonged or repeated skin contact
may cause dermatitis. May cause cancer according to animal studies.
May cause reproductive and fetal effects. Laboratory experiments
have resulted in mutagenic effects. May cause heritable genetic
damage.
416
First Aid Measures Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids. Get medical
aid immediately.
Skin: Get medical aid immediately. Immediately flush skin with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated
clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert,
give 2-4 cupfuls of milk or water. Never give anything by mouth to an
unconscious person. Possible aspiration hazard. Get medical aid
immediately.
Inhalation: Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure and
move to fresh air immediately. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.
Do NOT use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If breathing has ceased
apply artificial respiration using oxygen and a suitable mechanical
device such as a bag and a mask.
Notes to Physician: Persons with kidney disease, chronic respiratory
disease, liver disease, or skin disease may be at increased risk from
exposure to this substance. Treat symptomatically and supportively.
Fire Fighting General Information: Containers can build up pressure if exposed to

Measures heat and/or fire. As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing
apparatus in pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or
equivalent), and full protective gear. Vapors may form an explosive
mixture with air. Vapors can travel to a source of ignition and flash
back. Extremely flammable. Material will readily ignite at room
temperature. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool.
Containers may explode in the heat of a fire. Liquid will float and may
reignite on the surface of water. May polymerize explosively when
involved in a fire.
Extinguishing Media: For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon
dioxide, water spray or alcohol-resistant foam. For large fires, use
water spray, fog, or alcohol-resistant foam. Use water spray to cool
fire-exposed containers. Water may be ineffective. Do NOT use
straight streams of water.
Flash Point: -37 °C ( -34.60 °F)
Autoignition Temperature: 449 °C ( 840.20 °F)
Explosion Limits, Lower:2.3 vol % ,Upper: 36.0 vol %
NFPA Rating: (estimated) Health: 3; Flammability: 4; Instability: 2
Accidental Release General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment
Measures Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g. vermiculite, sand
or earth), then place in suitable container. Avoid runoff into storm
sewers and ditches which lead to waterways. Clean up spills
immediately, observing precautions in the Protective Equipment
417
section. Remove all sources of ignition. Use a spark-proof tool.
Provide ventilation. A vapor suppressing foam may be used to reduce
vapors.
Handling and Storage Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated
clothing and wash before reuse. Use only in a well-ventilated area.
Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Empty
containers retain product residue, (liquid and/or vapor), and can be
dangerous. Avoid contact with heat, sparks and flame. Do not get on
skin or in eyes. Do not ingest or inhale. Prevent buildup of vapors to
explosive concentration. This product may be under pressure; cool
before opening. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill,
grind, or expose empty containers to heat, sparks or open flames.
Storage: Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame. Keep away from
sources of ignition. Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool,
dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances.
Flammables-area.
Exposure Controls/ Engineering Controls: Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment.
Personal Protection Facilities storing or utilizing this material should be equipped with an
eyewash facility and a safety shower. Use adequate general or local
exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the
permissible exposure limits.
OSHA Vacated PELs: Propylene oxide: 20 ppm TWA; 50 mg/m3
TWA
Personal Protective Equipment
Eyes: Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical safety
goggles as described by OSHA's eye and face protection regulations in
29 CFR 1910.133 or European Standard EN166.
Skin: Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin exposure.
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin
exposure.
Respirators: A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA's 29
CFR 1910.134 and ANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard
EN 149 must be followed whenever workplace conditions warrant a
respirator's use.
418
Physical and Chemical Physical State: Liquid
Properties Appearance: colorless
Odor: alcohol-like - ethereal odor
pH: 7
Vapor Pressure: 400 mm Hg @ 17.8 °C
Vapor Density: 2.0 (Air=1)
Evaporation Rate:Not available.
Viscosity: 0.28 cP @ 25 °C
Boiling Point: 35 °C
Freezing/Melting Point:-112 °C
Decomposition Temperature: Not available.
Solubility: Soluble.
Specific Gravity/Density:0.8304 @ 20/20°C
Molecular Formula: C3H6O
Molecular Weight: 58.0414
Stability and Chemical Stability: Stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Reactivity May polymerize.
Conditions to Avoid: High temperatures, incompatible materials,
ignition sources, excess heat.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Oxidizing agents, strong
acids, copper, copper alloys, iron, nitric acid, peroxides, sodium
hydroxide, sulfuric acid, oxygen, caustics (e.g. ammonia, ammonium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium
hydroxide), chlorosulfonic acid, oleum, hydrochloric acid,
hydrofluoric acid, alkalis, ammonium hydroxide, aluminum chloride,
epoxy resin, ethylene oxide + polyhydric alcohol, anhydrous metal
chloride.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon monoxide, irritating
and toxic fumes and gases, carbon dioxide.
Hazardous Polymerization: Will occur.
Toxicological Toxicological – Eye: Standard Draize test, rabbit – 20 mg – severe
Information irritation.
Toxicological – Acute Dermal: Standard Draize test, rabbit – 50 mg/6
minutes – severe irritation. The acute dermal rabbit LD50 for this
product is 1245 mg/kg.
Toxicological – Acute Ingestion: The acute oral rat LD50 for this
product is 380 mg/kg.
Toxicological – Acute Inhalation: The acute inhalation rat LC50 for
this product is: 4000 ppm/4 hours. Various mammalian species exposed
to lethal concentrations of propylene oxide had symptoms of mucous
membrane irritation, central nervous system depression, lacrimation,
dypsnea, changes in salivary glands, nausea, vomiting, iritis and muscle
weakness.
419
Toxicological – Chronic Inhalation: Symptoms of chronic exposure
are similar to those observed in acute studies, including dypsnea,
pulmonary effects, diarrhea, weight loss and nervous system
depression.
Toxicological – Chronic Dermal: No chronic dermal toxicity datum
is available on this product.
Toxicological –Chronic Ingestion: A single oral study in rats showed
changes in the brain, liver and lung.
CARCINOGENICITY; Propylene oxide appears to induce cancers at
the site of exposure in experimental animals. Sarcomas occurred at
injection sites, and nasal and GI cancers occurred with chronic
exposure.
Mutagenicity: Propylene oxide has been found to be mutagenic in
experimental animals including salmonella typhimurium, escherichia
coli, drosophila spermatozoa and spermatids, and neurospora crassa
assays. Human data on mutagenicity is inconclusive although
propylene oxide causes DNA strand breaks in human diploid fibroblasts
in vitro. The mean chromosome aberration rate in workers with more
than 20 years exposure to propylene oxides was significantly increased
compared to controls.
Neurotoxicity: In high concentrations propylene oxide has caused CNS
effects, including CNS depression, headache, motor weakness,
incoordination, ataxia, coma, and neuropathy in experimental animal
studies. Peripheral neuropathy has been reported in chronic studies with
experimental animals.
Reproductive Effects: Effects on fertility and paternal effects have
been noted in experimental animals.
TERATOLOGY: Inhalation development toxicity studies with rats
exposed to propylene oxide vapor at concentrations of 500 ppm showed
fetotoxicity and developmental abnormalities.
Target Organs: Overexposure to this product may affect the skin, eyes,
respiratory system, reproductive system and central nervous system.
Ecological Ecotoxicity: Fish: Goldfish: LC50 = 170 mg/L; 24 Hr; Unspecified
Information Bluegill/Sunfish: TLm = 215 mg/L; 96 Hr; Static bioassay @ 24°C If
released to soil, propylene oxide is expected to be susceptible to
leaching and chemical hydrolysis in moist soils. It is expected to
evaporate relatively rapidly from dry soil surfaces; evaporation from
wet soils may also occur, but at a rate diminished by leaching. If
released to water, propylene oxide will hydrolyze. Volatilization of
propylene oxide from the aquatic environment may be an important
transport mechanism.
Environmental: If released to the atmosphere, propylene oxide will
react in the vapor phase with photochemical produced hydroxyl
420
radicals with an estimated half-life of approximately 30 days.
Atmospheric removal by rainfall may occur. Adsorption to sediment,
bio concentration in aquatic organisms and reaction with
photochemical produced hydroxyl radicals in water are not expected
to be environmentally important fate processes.
Physical: No information available.
Other: No information available.
Disposal Chemical waste generators must determine whether a discarded
Considerations chemical is classified as a hazardous waste. US EPA guidelines for the
classification determination are listed in 40 CFR Parts 261.3.
Additionally, waste generators must consult state and local hazardous
waste regulations to ensure complete and accurate classification.
RCRA P-Series: None listed.
RCRA U-Series: None listed
Transport Information UN Number:1280
Transport hazard class(es)
Class: 3
Classification Code: F1
Labels: 3
Hazard number: 33
Tunnel restriction code: (D/E)
Emergency Action Code: 3YE
421
I.2 Water MSDS
Table I.2: Water MSDS.
Chemical Products Name: Water
CAS#: 7732-18-5 1.2
Hazards Identification Classification of the substance or mixture This substance is not
classified as dangerous according to European Union legislation.
2.2 Label elements Labelling according to CLASS regulations
2013 Not a hazardous substance or mixture according to
Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008. 2.3 Other hazards None known.
First Aid Measures General advice: No hazards which require special first aid
measures
Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and
delayed: have no description of any symptoms of toxicity.
Indication of any immediate medical attention and special
treatment needed: No information available.
Fire Fighting Extinguishing media
Measures Suitable extinguishing media: Use extinguishing measures that
are appropriate to local circumstances and the surrounding
environment. Unsuitable extinguishing media: For this
substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents are
given.
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture: Not
combustible.
Advice for fire fighters Special protective equipment for
firefighters: None
Further information: None
Accidental Release Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures: None
Environmental precautions: No special precautionary measures
necessary.
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Observe possible material restrictions. Pour into drain.
Handling and Storage Precautions for safe handling
Advice on safe handling: Observe label precautions. Hygiene
measures not required
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
Storage conditions Tightly closed. Recommended storage
temperature see product label.
Exposure Controls/ Control parameters: Contains no substances with occupational
Personal Protection exposure limit values.
422
Exposure controls
Engineering measures: Technical measures and appropriate
working operations should be given priority over the use of
personal protective equipment.
Individual protection measures: Protective clothing needs to be
selected specifically for the workplace, depending on
concentrations and quantities of the hazardous substances handled.
The chemical resistance of the protective equipment should be
enquired at the respective supplier. Eye/face protection not
required Hand protection not required Respiratory protection not
required
Environmental exposure controls: No special precautionary
measures necessary.
Physical and Physical state and appearance: Liquid
Chemical Properties Odor: Odorless
Taste: Not available
Molecular Weight: 18.02 g/mole
Color: Colorless
pH (1% soln/water): 7 [Neutral.]
Boiling Point: 100°C (212°F)
Melting Point: Not available.
Critical Temperature: Not available
Specific Gravity: 1 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: 2.3 kPa (@ 20°C)
Vapor Density: 0.62 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available
Odor Threshold: Not available
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available
Ionicity (in Water): Not available
Dispersion Properties: Not applicable
Solubility: Not Applicable.
Stability and Stability: The product is stable
Reactivity Instability Temperature: Not available
Conditions of Instability: Not available
Incompatibility with various substances: Not available
Corrosivity: Not available
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Not available
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available
Polymerization: Will not occur.
Toxicology Toxicity to Animals: LD50: [Rat] - Route: oral; Dose: > 90 ml/kg
Information LC50: Not available.
Chronic Effects on Humans: Not available.
423
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Non-corrosive for skin. Non-
irritant for skin. Non-sensitizer for skin. Non-permeator by skin.
Non-hazardous in case of ingestion. Non-hazardous in case of
inhalation. Non-irritant for lungs. Non-sensitizer for lungs. Non-
corrosive to the eyes. Noncorrosive for lungs.
Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: Not
available.
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans: Not
available
Ecological Ecotoxicity: Not available.
Information BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short-term
degradation products are not likely. However, long term
degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The product itself
and its products of degradation are not toxic.
Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not
available.
Disposal Waste treatment methods Waste material must be disposed of in
Considerations accordance with the national and local regulations. Leave
chemicals in original containers. No mixing with other waste.
Handle uncleaned containers like the product itself. See
www.retrologistik.com for processes regarding the return of
chemicals and containers, or contact us there if you have further
questions. According to Quality Environment Regulation
(Scheduled Waste) 2005, waste need to be sent to designated
premise for recycle, treatment or disposal. Please contact Kualiti
Alam for waste classification and correct disposal method.
Transport Information Land transport (ADR/RID): Not classified as dangerous in the
meaning of transport regulations. Inland waterway transport
(ADN) Not relevant Air transport (IATA): Not classified as
dangerous in the meaning of transport regulations.
424
I.3 Monopropylene Glycol MSDS
Table I.3: Monopropylene Glycol MSDS (Pure Chem, 2018).
Chemical Products Name: Monopropylene Glycol
Synonyms: 1,2-propanediol; 1,2-dihdroxypropane; methyl glycol;
methyl ethylene glycol CAS No.: 57-55-6 Molecular Weight:
76.09 Chemical Formula: CH3CHOHCH2OH
Hazards Identification Potential Health Effects
Inhalation: No adverse health effects via inhalation
Ingestion: Relatively non-toxic. Ingestion of sizable amount (over
100ml) may cause some gastrointestinal upset and temporary
central nervous system depression. Effects appear more severe in
individuals with kidney problems.
Skin Contact: Mild irritant and defatting agent, especially on
prolonged contact
Eye Contact: May cause transitory stinging and tearing
Chronic Exposure: Lactic acidosis, stupor and seizures have
been reported following chronic ingestion
Aggravation of Pre-existing Conditions: Kidney disorders.
First Aid Measures Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. Not expected to require first aid
measures
Ingestion: Not expected to require first aid measures. Give
several glasses of water to drink to dilute. If large amounts were
swallowed, get medical advice
Skin Contact: Remove any contaminated clothing. Wash skin
with soap and water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention
if irritation develops or persists
Eye Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting upper and lower
eyelids occasionally. Call a physician if irritation persists.
Note to Physician: In case of ingestion, monitor for acidosis and
central nervous system changes. Exposed persons with previous
kidney dysfunction may require special treatment.
Fire Fighting Fire
Measures Flash point: 99 ℃ (210 ℉)
Autoignition temperature: 371 ℃ (700 ℉)
Flammable limits in air % by volume: lel: 2.6; uel: 12.5
Material can support combustion
Explosion: Containers may explode in heat or fire
Fire Extinguishing Media: Dry chemical, foam, water or carbon
dioxide
425
Special Information: In the event of a fire, wear full protective
clothing and NIOSH-approved self-contained breathing apparatus
with full face piece operated in the pressure demand or other
positive pressure mode. Move exposed containers from fire area,
if it can be done without risk. Use water to keep fire-exposed
containers cool.
Accidental Release Ventilate area of leak or spill. Remove all sources of ignition.
Measures Wear appropriate personal protective equipment as specified in
Section 8. Isolate hazard area. Keep unnecessary and unprotected
personnel from entering. Contain and recover liquid when
possible. Use non-sparking tools and equipment. Collect liquid in
an appropriate container or absorb with an inert material (e. g.,
vermiculite, dry sand, earth), and place in a chemical waste
container. Do not use combustible materials, such as saw dust. Do
not flush to sewer!
Handling and Storage Protect container from physical damage. Store in a cool, dry,
ventilated area away from sources of heat, moisture, and
incompatible substances. Containers of this material may be
hazardous when empty since they retain product residues (vapors,
liquid); observe all warnings and precautions listed for the
product.
Exposure Controls/ Airborne Exposure Limits: AIHA Workplace Environmental
Personal Protection Exposure Level (WEEL): TWA = 10mg/m3
Ventilation System: A system of local and/or general exhaust is
recommended to keep employee exposures below the Airborne
Exposure Limits. Local exhaust ventilation is generally preferred
because it can control the emissions of the contaminant at its
source, preventing dispersion of it into the general work area.
Please refer to the ACGIH document, Industrial Ventilation, A
Manual of Recommended Practices, most recent edition, for
details.
Personal Respirators (NIOSH Approved): If the exposure limit is
exceeded, a half-face respirator with an organic vapor cartridge
and particulate filter (NIOSH type P95 or R95 filter) may be worn
for up to ten times the exposure limit or the maximum use
concentration specified by the appropriate regulatory agency or
respirator supplier, whichever is lowest. A full-face piece
respirator with an organic vapor cartridge and particulate filter
(NIOSH P100 or R100 filter) may be worn up to 50 times the
exposure limit, or the maximum use concentration specified by the
appropriate regulatory agency or respirator supplier, whichever is
lowest. Please note that N series filters are not recommended for
this material. For emergencies or instances where the exposure
426
levels are not known, use a full-face piece positive-pressure,
airsupplied respirator.
WARNING: Air-purifying respirators do not protect workers in
oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
Skin Protection: Wear protective gloves and clean body-covering
clothing. Eye Protection: Use chemical safety goggles. Maintain
eye wash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work area.
Physical and Appearance: Clear oily liquid
Solubility: Miscible in water
Specific Gravity: 1.0361 @ 20C/4C
pH: No information found
% Volatiles by volume @ 21C (70F): No information found
Boiling Point: 188.2C (370F)
Melting Point: -59C (-74F)
Vapor Density (Air=1): 2.6
Vapor Pressure (mm Hg): 0.129 @ 25C (77F)
Evaporation Rate (BuAc=1): 0.01
Stability and Stability: Stable under ordinary conditions of use and storage.
Reactivity Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide may form when heated to decomposition.
Aldehydes or lactic, pyruvic or acetic acids may also be formed.
Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur
Incompatibilities: Strong oxidizing agents.
Conditions to Avoid: Heat, flames, ignition sources and
incompatibles.
Toxicological Oral rat LD50: 20g/kg. Skin rabbit LD50: 20.8g/kg
Information Irritation: Eye rabbit/Draize, 500 mg/24H mild. Investigated as a
mutagen and reproductive effector
Ecological Environmental Fate: When released into the soil, this material is
Information expected to readily biodegrade. When released into the soil, this
material is expected to leach into groundwater. When released into
water, this material is expected to readily biodegrade. When
released into the air, this material is expected to be readily
degraded by reaction with photo chemically produced hydroxyl
radicals. When released into the air, this material is expected to
have a half-life between 1 and 10 days.
Environmental Toxicity: No information found.
Disposal Whatever cannot be saved for recovery or recycling should be
Considerations managed in an appropriate and approved waste disposal facility.
Processing, use or contamination of this product may change the
waste management options. State and local disposal regulations
may differ from federal disposal regulations. Dispose of container
427
and unused contents in accordance with federal, state and local
requirements.
Transport Information UN Number: Not transport to subject regulation
I.4 Dipropylene Glycol MSDS

Table I.4: Dipropylene Glycol MSDS (CISCO, 2018).
Chemical Products Name: Dipropylene Glycol
CAS#: 25265-71-8
Synonym: Oxybispropanol
Hazards Identification Color: Colorless
Physical State: Liquid
Odor: Odorless
Hazards of product: No significant immediate hazards for
emergency response are known
Potential Health Effects

Eye Contact: May cause slight temporary eye irritation. Mist may
cause eye irritation.
Skin Contact: Prolonged exposure not likely to cause significant
skin irritation.
Skin Absorption: Prolonged skin contact is unlikely to result in
absorption of harmful amounts.
Inhalation: Vapors are unlikely due to physical properties.
Ingestion: Very low toxicity if swallowed. Harmful effects not
anticipated from swallowing small amounts.
Effects of Repeated Exposure: Dose levels producing these effects
were many times higher than any dose levels expected from
exposure due to use.
In animals, effects have been reported on the following organs
after ingestion: Kidney. Liver. Nasal tissue.
First Aid Measures Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of
contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention if
irritation occurs.
Skin Contact: Wash with soap and water. Cover the irritated skin
with an emollient. Get medical attention if irritation develops.
Cold water may be used.
Serious Skin Contact: Not available.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give
artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get
medical attention.
428
Serious Inhalation: Not available.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by
medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an
unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt
or waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Serious Ingestion: Not available
Fire Fighting Flammability: May be combustible at high temperature.
Measures Auto-Ignition Temperature: 310°C (590°F)
Flash Points: OPEN CUP: 121.11°C (250°F) - 137.78 deg. C
(280 deg. F).
Flammable Limits: Not available.
Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO,
CO2).
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Slightly
flammable to flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of
heat.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances

Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical
impact: Not available.
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static
discharge: Not available.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions

SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use water spray, fog or foam. Do not use water
jet. Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Not available.
Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards: Not available
Accidental Release Steps to be Taken if Material is Released or Spilled
Measures Small spills: Absorb with materials such as: Any absorbent
material. Large spills: Contain spilled material if possible. Collect
in suitable and properly labeled containers.
Personal Precautions: Use appropriate safety equipment.
Environmental Precautions: Prevent from entering into soil,
ditches, sewers, waterways and/or groundwater.
Handling and Storage Handling General Handling: Product handled hot may require
additional ventilation or local exhaust. Spills of these organic
materials on hot fibrous insulations may lead to lowering of the
autoignition temperatures possibly resulting in spontaneous
combustion.
Storage
429
Store away from direct sunlight or ultraviolet light. Keep container
tightly closed when not in use. Store in a dry place. Protect from
atmospheric moisture.
Store in the following material(s): Stainless steel. Aluminum.
Plasite 3066 lined container. 316 stainless steel. Opaque HDPE
plastic container.
Shelf life: Use within 12 Months
Exposure Controls/ Exposure Limits: None established
Personal Protection
Personal Protection
Eye/Face Protection: Use safety glasses (with side shields). If
there is a potential for exposure to particles which could cause eye
discomfort, wear chemical goggles.
Skin Protection: No precautions other than clean body-covering
clothing should be needed.
Hand protection: Chemical protective gloves should not be
needed when handling this material. Consistent with general
hygienic practice for any material, skin contact should be
minimized. Respiratory Protection: Respiratory protection
should be worn when there is a potential to exceed the exposure
limit requirements or guidelines. If there are no applicable
exposure limit requirements or guidelines, wear respiratory
protection when adverse effects, such as respiratory irritation or
discomfort have been experienced, or where indicated by your risk
assessment process. For most conditions, no respiratory protection
should be needed; however, if material is heated or sprayed, use an
approved air-purifying respirator. The following should be
effective types of air-purifying respirators: Organic vapor
cartridge with a particulate pre-filter.
Ingestion: Use good personal hygiene. Do not consume or store
food in the work area. Wash hands before smoking or eating.
Engineering Controls Ventilation: Use local exhaust ventilation,
or other engineering controls to maintain airborne levels below
exposure limit requirements or guidelines. If there are no
applicable exposure limit requirements or guidelines, general
ventilation should be sufficient for most operations.
430
Physical and Physical state and appearance: Liquid. (Slightly Viscous liquid.)
Taste: Not available
Molecular Weight: 134.18 g/mole
Color: Colorless
pH (1% soln/water): Not available
Boiling Point: 231.9°C (449.4°F)
Melting Point: Not available
Autoignition Temperature: 331˚C (628˚F)
Specific Gravity: 1.0252 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: >0 kPa (@ 20°C)
Vapor Density: 4.63 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available
Odor Threshold: Not available
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available.
Ionicity (in Water): Not available
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, methanol, diethyl
ether
Solubility: Miscible in cold water, hot water, methanol, diethyl
ether.
Stability and Stability/Instability: Stable under recommended storage
Reactivity conditions.Hygroscopic.
Conditions to Avoid: Exposure to elevated temperatures can
cause product to decompose. Generation of gas during
decomposition can cause pressure in closed systems. Avoid
moisture. Avoid direct sunlight or ultraviolet sources.
Incompatible Materials: Avoid contact with: Strong acids.
Strong bases. Strong oxidizers
Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.
Thermal Decomposition: Decomposition products depend upon
temperature, air supply and the presence of other materials.
Decomposition products can include and are not limited to:
Aldehydes. Alcohols. Ethers. Organic acids.
Toxicological Acute Toxicity Ingestion LD50, Rat 13,300 mg/kg Skin
Information Absorption LD50, Rabbit > 5,000 mg/kg Inhalation As product.
The LC50 has not been determined.
Sensitization Skin: No relevant information found
Respiratory: No relevant information found
Repeated Dose Toxicity: Dose levels producing these effects
were many times higher than any dose levels expected from
exposure due to use.
431
In animals, effects have been reported on the following organs
after ingestion: Kidney. Liver. Nasal tissue. Chronic Toxicity and
Carcinogenicity Did not cause cancer in laboratory animals.
Developmental Toxicity Did not cause birth defects or other
effects in the fetus even at doses which caused toxic effects in the
mother. Reproductive Toxicity In animal studies, repeated
exposures did not have any effects on reproductive organs.
Genetic Toxicology In vitro genetic toxicity studies were negative.
Animal genetic toxicity studies were negative
Ecological Bio concentration potential is low (BCF less than 100 or log Pow
Information less than 3). Potential for mobility in soil is very high (Koc
between 0 and 50). Given its very low Henry's constant,
volatilization from natural bodies of water or moist soil is not
expected to be an important fate process. Henry's Law Constant
(H): 5.63E-09 atm*m3/mole; 25 °C Estimated. Partition
coefficient, n-octanol/water (log Pow): -0.67 Measured
Persistence and Degradability Material is readily biodegradable.
Passes OECD test(s) for ready biodegradability.
ECOTOXICITY Material is practically non-toxic to aquatic
organisms on an acute basis (LC50/EC50/EL50/LL50 >100 mg/L
in the most sensitive species tested). Fish Acute & Prolonged
Toxicity LC50, fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), static, 96
h: > 10,000 mg/l Aquatic Invertebrate Acute Toxicity LC50, water
flea Daphnia magna, static, 48 h, immobilization: > 10,000 mg/l
Toxicity to Micro-organisms EC50; bacteria, Growth inhibition,
16 h: > 5,000 mg/l
Disposal Do not pump into any sewer, on the ground, or into any body of
Considerations water
Transport Information DOT Non-Bulk: Not Regulated

DOT Bulk: Not Regulated
IMDG: Not Regulated
432
I.5 Tripropylene Glycol MSDS
Table I.5: Tripropylene Glycol MSDS (CISCO, 2015).
Chemical Products Name: Tripropylene Glycol
CAS#: 24800-44-0
Synonym: TPG,(1-Methyl-1,2-ethanediyl) Bis (Oxy) Bispropanol
Hazards Identification Combustible. Avoid sparks, heat, and open flame. Vapors can
travel to a source of ignition and flash back. It is not irritating to
the eyes or skin.
Viscousity: Slightly Viscous liquid
Color: clear, colorless
Odor: Little or no odor
Odor Threshold: No value available
Potential Health Effects Routes of Exposure: Eye. Skin.
No eye irritation hazard identified from data available. No skin
irritation hazard identified from data available. Ingestion of high
doses may cause discomfort and irritation of the gastrointestinal
tract and CNS depression (fatigue, dizziness and possibly loss of
concentration, with collapse, coma and death in cases of severe
over-exposure).
Skin: No significant signs or symptoms indicative of any adverse
health hazard are expected to occur as a result of skin exposure.
Inhalation: No significant signs or symptoms indicative of any
adverse health hazard are expected to occur as a result of
inhalation exposure.
Eye: Non-irritating to the eyes.
Ingestion: No significant signs or symptoms indicative of any
health hazard are expected to occur as a result of ingestion.
Chronic Health Effect: Exposure studies in animals indicate that
tripropylene glycol may cause changes in the liver and kidneys
during prolonged oral exposures.
Conditions Aggravated by Exposure: No additional information
is available on whether overexposure to this material would
aggravate other existing special medical conditions.
First Aid Measures Take proper precautions to ensure your own health and safety
before attempting rescue and providing first aid. For specific
information refer to the Emergency Overview in Section 2 of this
MSDS. After adequate first aid, no further treatment is required
unless symptoms reappear.
Skin: Not expected to present a significant skin hazard under
anticipated conditions of normal use. If skin contact occurs,
remove contaminated clothing and wash skin thoroughly. If
433
sticky, use waterless cleaner first. Seek medical attention if ill
effect or irritation develops. Wash clothing before wearing again.
Inhalation: Not expected to present a significant inhalation
hazard under anticipated conditions of normal use. If symptoms
are experienced, move victim to fresh air. Obtain medical
attention if breathing difficulty persists.
Eye: Not expected to present a significant eye contact hazard
under anticipated conditions of normal use. Flush with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and
lower eyelids. Ingestion: Not expected to present a significant
ingestion hazard under anticipated conditions of normal use.
However, if ingested, obtain emergency medical attention. Do not
induce vomiting.
Fire Fighting Flammable Properties
Measures Classification: OSHA/NFPA Class IIIB combustible liquid.
Flash Point: ~ 140 °C (284 °F) (Closed Cup)
Auto-Ignition Temperature: No Data Available.
Lower Flammable Limit: No Data Available.
Upper Flammable Limit: No Data Available.
Extinguishing Media Suitable: SMALL FIRE: Use dry chemicals,
CO2, or foam LARGE FIRES: water spray water fog or foam
Unsuitable: Do not use solid water stream/may spread fire.
Protection of Firefighters
Protective Equipment/Clothing: Wear positive pressure self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Structural firefighters
protective clothing will only provide limited protection.
Fire Fighting Guidance: When mixed with air and exposed to
ignition source, vapors can burn in open or explode if confined.
Fine sprays/mists may be combustible at temperatures below
normal flash point. Move containers from fire area if you can do it
without risk. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water
until well after fire is out. Withdraw immediately in case of rising
sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.
Always stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.
Hazardous Combustion Products: Thermal decomposition may
produce carbon monoxide and other toxic vapors. Acrid fumes of
acids and aldehydes may form in fire. Incomplete combustion may
produce carbon monoxide, aldehydes, acrid fumes of acids, and
other toxic gases.
Accidental Release Release Response
Measures Combustible liquid. Liquids/vapors may ignite. Evacuate/limit
access. Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Equip
434
responders with proper protection. Slippery walking/spread
granular cover or soak up. Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
Contain spill with dike to prevent entry into sewers or waterways.
Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
procedures Avoid breathing vapors, mist or gas.
Handling and Storage Handling
When normal handling requires heating, do not heat higher than
28°C/50°F below flash point temperature unless in air- free closed
system sealed off from the atmosphere. Empty containers should
be thoroughly rinsed with copious amounts of clean water. The
rinse water can be used for makeup water for any necessary
dilution of the concentrated product before use, or it can be
properly discarded. Handle empty containers with care - residue
can burn if heated.
Storage
Store in tightly closed containers. Store away from
heat/moisture/strong oxidizing agents. Material can attack some
forms of plastics.
Exposure Controls/ Engineering Controls
Personal Protection No special ventilation is recommended under anticipated
conditions of normal use beyond that needed for normal comfort
control
Personal Protection
Inhalation
A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA's 29 CFR
1910.134 or ANSI Z88.2 requirements must be followed
whenever workplace conditions warrant respirator use. No special
respiratory protection is recommended under anticipated
conditions of normal use with adequate ventilation.
Skin: Wear chemical resistant gloves such as: Neoprene.
Protective clothing such as long sleeves or a lab coat should be
worn. Where use can result in skin contact, practice good personal
hygiene. Wash hands and other exposed areas with mild soap and
water before eating, drinking, smoking, and when leaving work.
The equipment must be cleaned thoroughly after each use.
Eye: Safety glasses are required as minimum requirements. Use
splash goggles when eye contact due to splashing or spraying
liquid is possible.
435
Physical and Appearance: Slightly viscous liquid
Chemical Properties Color: colorless
Odor: Little or no odor
Odor Threshold: No value available
pH: Not applicable
Boiling Point/Boiling Range: ~ 268 °C (514.4 °F) @ 760 mm Hg
Freezing Point/Melting Point: ~ -45 °C (-49 °F)
Flash Point: ~ 140 °C (284 °F) (Closed Cup)
Auto-ignition: No Data Available
Flammability: OSHA/NFPA Class IIIB combustible liquid.
Lower Flammable Limit: No Data Available
Upper Flammable Limit: No Data Available
Explosive Properties: No Data Available
Oxidizing Properties: No Data Available
Vapor Pressure: < 0.1 mm Hg @ 21 °C (69.8 °F)
Evaporation Rate: No Data Available
Relative Density: ~ 1.02 @ 15.5 °C (59.9 °F) (Water = 1.0 at 4°C
(39.2°F))
Viscosity: No Data Available
Solubility (Water): Complete (In All Proportions).
Partition Coefficient (Kow): No Data Available
Stability and Chemical Stability: This material is stable when properly handled
Reactivity and stored.
Conditions to Avoid: High temperatures and severe oxidizing
conditions.
Substances to Avoid: Strong oxidizing agents.
Decomposition Products: Combustion may produce oxides of
carbon and other toxic gases.
Hazardous: Not expected to occur.
Reactions with Air and Water: Not expected to occur
Toxicological This product exhibits a low acute toxicity hazard after exposure
Information via ingestion, skin contact, or inhalation exposure. It is not
irritating to the eyes or skin. Repeat exposure studies in animals
indicate that tripropylene glycol may cause changes in the liver
and kidneys during prolonged oral exposures. This product is not a
reproductive toxicant and no embryo or fetal toxicity or
developmental effects were observed in rats following oral
exposure. This product is not genotoxic in standardized in vitro
mutagenicity tests and, based on long-term studies in animals with
the structural analogue dipropylene glycol, tripropylene glycol is
not expected to be carcinogenic.
Effects Inhalation
436
Rat inhalation: No deaths from exposure to saturated vapors for
8 hours. This substance is not expected to cause adverse effects by
the inhalation route.
Ingestion: This substance is considered nontoxic by the oral
route. Ingestion of high doses may cause discomfort and irritation
of the gastrointestinal tract and CNS depression (fatigue, dizziness
and possibly loss of concentration, with collapse, coma and death
in cases of severe over-exposure).
Skin Contact: This substance is considered nontoxic by the
dermal route of exposure. There is no data to indicate whether this
substance is absorbed through the skin. No adverse systemic
effects are anticipated following accidental or incidental skin
contact.
Ecological Ecotoxicity Acute toxicity to fish LC50 / 96 HOURS Oryzias
Information latipes > 1,000 mg/l Summary: Acute toxicity to fish is very low.
Acute toxicity to aquatic invertebrates EC50 / 24 HOURS
Daphnia magna. > 1,000 mg/l Summary: Low acute toxicity to
aquatic invertebrates. Toxicity to aquatic plants EC50 / 72
HOURS Selenastrum capricornutum > 1,000 mg/l Summary: Low
toxicity to algae
Toxicity to microorganisms EC50 / 24 HOURS Activated
sludge > 50,000 mg/l Summary: Low toxicity to bacteria. Chronic
toxicity to fish Summary: No measured data available. Chronic
toxicity to fish is expected to be low. Chronic toxicity to aquatic
invertebrates NOEC / 21 d Daphnia magna. 1,000
mg/l(reproduction test) Summary: Low chronic toxicity to aquatic
invertebrates. Environmental Fate and Pathway Mobility
Transport between environmental compartments: Volatilization
from water or soil surfaces is expected to be limited. Initially
partitioning mainly to water and air. Persistance and Degradability
Biodegradation: Biodegradable (Up to 92% degraded in 28 days).
Expected to be hydrolytically stable, but rapidly degraded
following atmospheric release. Bioaccumulation: Significant
bioaccumulation is not expected (BCF in 6-week carp test <6)
Disposal Disposal should be conducted through a facility equipped with and
Considerations operating an air emission control device in accordance with
requirements of applicable Clean Air Act regulations.
Transport Information DOT (US): Not dangerous goods
IMDG: Not dangerous goods
IATA: Not dangerous goods
Other Information HMIS Rating Health hazard: 0 Chronic Health Hazard:
Flammability: 1 Physical Hazard 0 NFPA Rating Health hazard: 0
Fire Hazard: 1 Reactivity Hazard: 0
437
APPENDIX J: DOW FIRE AND EXPLOSION INDEX (F&EI) AND TOXICITY
J.1 Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)
AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
SITE MANUFACTURING UNIT PROCESS UNIT
- Monopropylene Glycol Hydrolysis Reactor (R-101)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY:
BUILDING
Felicia Tan Heng Yee (Superintendent)
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology Centre) (Safety & Loss Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Propylene Oxide, Water
BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR MATERIAL
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
DESIGN STARTUP_X_NORMAL OPERATION_SHUTDOWN
Propylene Oxide
MATERIAL FACTOR 24
Penalty Factor Penalty Factor Used
1. General Process Hazards
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.20-0.50 0.30
B. Endothermic Process 0.50-1.00 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.80-1.00 0.85
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00-0.90 0.15
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00-0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 3.00
2. Special Process Hazards
A. Toxic Material (s) 0.00-0.80 0.60
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (<500 mmHg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation in or Near Flammable
1. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
2. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
3. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion (See Table 3) 0.00-2.00 0.00
E. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.35
F. Low Temperature 0.00-0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
1. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.15-3.00 0.28
2. Liquids or Gases in Storage 0.10-1.90 0.00
3. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in Process 0.00-0.75 0.00
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00-0.75 0.20
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00-1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.10-1.00 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00-1.15 0.00
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00-0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A or L) 3.83
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 × F2) = F3 11.49
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 × MF) = F&EI 333.21
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 3
Toxicity number (Th) 125
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 100
Penalty Factore (Ts) 50
Toxicity Index
5.17
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
438
J.2 Distillation Column (T-101)
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
- Monopropylene Glycol Distillation Column (T-101)
PREPARED BY:
APPROVED BY: (Superintendent) BUILDING
Felicia Tan Heng Yee
Propylene Oxide, Water, Monopropylene Glycol, Dipropylene Glycol, Tripropylene Glycol
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Monopropylene Glycol
MATERIAL FACTOR 24
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
E. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Toxicity Index
5.24
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
439
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
PREPARED BY:
Monopropylene Glycol, Dipropylene Glycol, Tripropylene Glycol
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Monopropylene glycol
MATERIAL FACTOR 4
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
E. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 0.05
Toxicity Index
7.10
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
440
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
PREPARED BY:
Dipropylene Glycol, Tripropylene Glycol
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Dipropylene Glycol
MATERIAL FACTOR 4
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
E. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Toxicity Index
6.04
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
441
J.5 Propylene Oxide Tank (TK-101)
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
- Monopropylene Glycol Propylene Oxide Tank (TK-101)
PREPARED BY:
Propylene Oxide
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Propylene Oxide
MATERIAL FACTOR 24
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
G. Toxic Material (s) 0.00-0.80 0.60
H. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (<500 mmHg) 0.50 0.00
I. Operation in or Near Flammable
J. Dust Explosion (See Table 3) 0.00-2.00 0.00
K. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.00
L. Low Temperature 0.00-0.30 0.00
M. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
N. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00-0.75 0.20
O. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00-1.50 0.10
P. Use of Fired Equipment 0.10-1.00 0.00
Q. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00-1.15 0.00
R. Rotating Equipment 0.00-0.50 0.00
Toxicity Index
5.13
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
442
J.6 Monopropylene Glycol Tank (TK-103)
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
- Monopropylene Glycol Monopropylene Glycol Tank (TK-103)
PREPARED BY:
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
MATERIAL FACTOR 4
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
K. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Toxicity Index
4.29
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
443
J.7 Dipropylene Glycol Tank (TK-104)
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
- Monopropylene Glycol Dipropylene Glycol Tank (TK-104)
PREPARED BY:
Dipropylene Glycol
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Dipropylene Glycol
MATERIAL FACTOR 4
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
K. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Toxicity Index
6.93
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
444
J.8 Tripropylene Glycol Tank (TK-105)
Malaysia - - 25/2/2019
- Monopropylene Glycol Tripropylene Glycol Tank (TK-105)
PREPARED BY:
Tripropylene Glycol
STATE OF OPERATION
FACTOR
Tripropylene Glycol
MATERIAL FACTOR 4
Range (1)
E. Access 0.00-0.35 0.20
K. Pressure 0.00-0.90 0.18
Toxicity Index
6.54
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)]/100
445

b07_production of 150,000 Mta of Monopropylene Glycol From Propylene Oxide and Water (2)

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PRODUCTION OF 150,000 METRIC TONNES PER

YEAR OF MONOPROPYLENE GLYCOL FROM

1. FELICIA TAN HENG YEE KA 15252

Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering

Faculty of Chemical and Natural Engineering

FELICIA TAN HENG YEE (KA 15252)

Date: 16th May 2019

Figure 1.1: Chemical Structure of Monopropylene Glycol. ..................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Study

This report includes all literature study as listed at below:

1. Project background: Overview of propylene glycol.

1.3 Background of Monopropylene Glycol

Figure 1.1: Chemical Structure of Monopropylene Glycol.

Figure 1.2: Chemical Structure of Dipropylene Glycol.

Figure 1.3: Chemical Structure of Tripropylene Glycol.

1.3.1 Application of Monopropylene Glycol

1.3.1.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR)

1.3.1.2 Coolant & Antifreeze

1.3.1.3 Paints & Coating

1.3.1.4 Pharmaceuticals Industry

Table 1.2: Common Industrial Application of Monopropylene Glycol (DOW Chemical,

1.3.2 Applications of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol

1.4 Physical & Chemical Properties

1.4.1 Physical & Chemical Properties of Monoropylene Glycol

1.5.2 Toxicity on Human Health

1.6 Market Survey

1.6.1 Overview of Propylene Glycol

1.6.2 Global Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol

Figure 1.6: World Capacity of Propylene Glycol Broken Down by Region.

1.6.3 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Asia Pacific

Figure 1.9: Import of Monoropylene Glycol in Indonesia from 2011 to 2015.

1.6.4 Demand and Supply of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia

Malaysia Monopropylene Glycol Supply and Demand

Figure 1.10: Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol in Malaysia.

1.6.5 Demand of Dipropylene Glycol & Tripropylene Glycol

1.6.6 Forecast Supply and Demand of Monopropylene Glycol

Global Consumption of Monopropylene Glycol from 2013 to

Figure 1.12: Global Consumption of Monporopylene Glycol from 2013 to 2023.

1.6.7 Competitors/Producers for Production of Propylene Glycol

No. Company Description

1.6.7.2 Asia Pacific Competitors

No. Company Description

1.6.7.3 Malaysia Competitors

No. Company Description

1.6.7.4 Specifications of Propylene Glycol

1.6.8 Potential Customers

Table 1.8: Summary of Potential Customers.

No. Company Company Background

1.6.9 History of Global Pricing

1.6.9.1 History of Global Price of Propylene Oxide

Figure 1.15: Price Trend of TDI in East China.

1.6.9.2 History of Global Price of Monopropylene Glycol

In China, turnarounds of monopropylene glycol production units have resulted in an overall

Plant: Oxidation of propylene with hydrogen peroxide

Plant: Propylene Hydroperoxide

• According to forecast, • From the market survey,

• Able to overcome the Opportunity Threat • Shrinking grounds for

Figure 1.19: SWOT Analysis for Production of Propylene Glycol.

1.6.12 Plant Capacity Decision

1.6.13 Calculation for Profit Margin

Table 1.9: Prices of Raw Materials and Products in 2018.

Chemical equation that involved for the propylene glycol production:

kmol 150,000 mtric tons 1000 kg 1 kmol

No. of moles of required for propylene oxide and water: