Final Report E08

SEMESTER 2 2021/2022
BKC4934 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II
FINAL REPORT
PRODUCTION OF 18 000 MTPA OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM D-SORBITOL
SUPERVISOR: AP. DR. AZILAH BINTI AJIT @ ABD AZIZ
GROUP: E08
NAME STUDENT ID
NURUL AKMAZATUL BINTI AHMAD KA18049

SITI HAJAR BINTI ABD RAHIM KA18082
NURUL SYUHADA BINTI BAHARIN KA18129
NOR ALIF AKMAL BIN AZMI KA18216
CHUA KUN LAI KA18268
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the College of Engineering for
acceptance, a design project entitled “Production of 18,000 Metric Tonnes Per Annum of
Ascorbic Acid from D-sorbitol”.
NURUL AKMAZATUL BINTI AHMAD KA18049

SITI HAJAR BINTI ABD RAHIM KA18082
NURUL SYUHADA BINTI BAHARIN KA18129
NOR ALIF AKMAL BIN AZMI KA18216
CHUA KUN LAI KA18268
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the B.Eng. (Hons) Chemical Engineering
A.P. DR. AZILAH BINTI AJIT @ ABD AZIZ
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For this project, our team put out the most effort possible. However, it would be in vain if it
weren't for the help of others, because no matter how committed we are to this cause, we
wouldn't be able to complete such a difficult and time-consuming job without their support. As
a result, we'd like to express our gratitude to each and every one of them individually.
First and foremost, we would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude and deepest
appreciation to AP. DR. Azilah Binti Ajit, who served as our plant design project supervisors.
Our supervisor was really helpful and eager to share their time and expertise with us without
hesitation. We sincerely appreciate all of their time spent gently leading us over the entire year
in completing this project by providing critical information and suggestions. We'd also like to
express our gratitude for providing us with sufficient freedom and flexibility while working on
this project. The respect and affection we have for supervisors is indescribable.
Second, we'd want to thank all of the plant design lecturers and panels for their
contributions. All of the advice, encouragement, suggestions, and suggestions for improvement
we received helped us learn a lot about real-world chemical engineering methods. We'd also
like to express our gratitude to our seniors for their support and kindness in sharing their
experiences and wisdom with us.
We would also like to convey our gratitude to our family and friends for their love and
support. Finally, a great thank you to our team members for being so supportive and united in
their efforts to overcome all of the problems that arose during the time we were all working
together. The study did definitely assist us in exploring more knowledgeable paths linked to
our topic, and we are confident that it will continue to assist us in the future. As a result, we'd
want to express our heartfelt gratitude to each and every one of you for your generous assistance
and participation to this initiative.
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The purpose of this project is to design an economically petrochemical plant to produce 18,000
MTPA of ascorbic acid or as known as vitamin C with a purity of 95% through fermentation
of sorbitol via two step fermentation with single culture process technology. This is because
high demand of ascorbic acid is found to be used as health supplement to increase immune
system and it is widely consumed to against with Covid-19 infection. Because of its antioxidant
characteristics, ascorbic acid is required by the agriculture, food, beverage, and pharmaceutical
industries. In order to fulfil 20% of Asia Pacific market demand, the production plant designed
to produce 18,000 Metric Tonnes of ascorbic acid annually and plant located at Kerteh,
Terengganu.
The material and energy balances, as well as a process flow diagram of the processing
plant and the plant-wide simulation flowsheet prepared by SuperPro Designer Simulation
software and manual calculation, are also shown. In this process, 70% of the sorbitol solution,
together with ammonia, water, and air, is delivered to the first fermenter for oxidative
fermentation at 30 °C. The sorbitol is converted to sorbose by Gluconobacter oxydans through
fermentation process. In short, sodium ascorbate is formed when methyl gluconate interacts
with sodium carbonate. To recover ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate is supplied to bipolar
membrane electrodialysis. In order to maximise the overall manufacturing profit, ascorbic acid
is a good-selling product and high purity were attained.
The factory was also built using heuristics and analysis, which included current process
technologies, raw material supply, synthesis routes, site selection, and separation technologies.
All areas were examined, and the process mass and energy balances were manually calculated
before being compared to the Aspen Plus model to ensure accuracy. Heat integration and
equipment sizing, and costing were also evaluated to reduce source waste and investment costs.
Then, to reduce any potential hazard or danger, attention was paid to the control system, safety,
and environmental aspects, as well as ensuring that the waste was non-hazardous before it was
disposed to the environment. Furthermore, the water (H2O) discharged from the process is
transferred to a wastewater treatment plant before being discharged, as required by the
Environmental Quality Act of 1974. Finally, the project's economic study was completed.
iv
Chapter 1: Introduction
The chemical properties, physical qualities, and applications of ascorbic acid are all discussed
in this chapter. In addition, a market assessment was conducted to determine the plant's
production capacity by analysing existing and future net demand on the global market. The
process technology was chosen after a comparison with a few existing technologies, and the
technological synthesis methods were then elaborated. Then, with a draught plant layout, a
suitable location was chosen to fabricate the proposed facility. All of the decisions were made
after much discussion, comparison, and proof of many factors, which were detailed in Chapter
1.
Chapter 2: Process screening and synthesis
This chapter goes through the synthesis pathways screening procedure in detail, as well as the
predicted net profit. Following the screening procedure in terms of conversion, catalyst type,
operating temperature, and other factors, one of the three synthesis pathways is chosen.
Furthermore, through hierarchical phases of judgments from Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3, to
conceptually build a feasible process flow sheet. The economic potential for Level 2 and Level
3 was calculated to optimize the process flow structures while taking into account the expenses
of pricey materials and significant operational units. At Level 1, the specifics of the process
route chosen were decided. Level 2 determined the structures of input and output flows, and
Level 3 determined the recycle structure based on the reactor scheme. Furthermore, the total
material balance, as well as engineering judgments based on heuristics, algorithms, and
assumptions, were calculated. The economic potential of the level decisions will be used to
provide a preliminary estimate of the plant's feasibility before advancing.
Chapter 3: Process flow diagram and material and energy balance
The process flow diagram was developed, and each equipment function was discussed in this
chapter. Manual mass and energy balance calculations have been done and compared to
simulation results. To ensure the accuracy of the outcome, the error variation between manual
and simulation was less than 5% for mass balance and 30% for energy balance. In addition, for
economic potential level 4, the estimated utilities required for process operation were
determined.
Chapter 4: Heat integration and utilities
v
The heat integration and the utilities chapter will be divided into two sections in this chapter.
The pinch technology will be used to integrate heat in the first part. Regarding heat integration
and pinch technology, all connected ideas, concepts, and guidelines will be covered. The Heat
Exchanger Network (HEN) was then designed, and the amount of energy consumed before and
after maximum energy recovery was calculated. The combined PFD will then be drawn.
Electricity, cooling water, and steam were examined and costed under the utilities section.
Chapter 5: Process equipment sizing and costing
This chapter will go over the sizing of the major and minor equipment used in the plant design
in detail. The reactors, separators, heat exchangers, and storage tanks all required detailed
sizing. All theoretical frameworks will be laid out in an understandable manner, as well as the
design approach. For each heat exchanger, fluid allocation for hot and cold fluid will be done,
and the types of trays for the columns will be determined. The price was estimated after the
calculated specifications, such as dimensions and mechanical data, for each major unit were
tallied. All design and mechanical calculations, as well as a full reference to journal data, are
included in the appendices for the reference.
Chapter 6: Process control and safety
Hazard identification, process control system, P&ID drawing, and HAZOP analysis were all
covered in this chapter. To begin, each chemical component's Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) will be listed in the appendix, and the toxicity of each of those substances will be
discussed. Furthermore, the process control system for the entire plant equipment is designed
to ensure that the process always adheres to the set point and that the process does not run
away. Following that, a HAZOP analysis for all of the equipment will be discussed in order to
determine the potential hazards and actions that must be taken. Finally, depending on the
addition control system and needs from the HAZOP analysis, the PFD diagram will be revised
to P&ID.
Chapter 7: Waste management and pollution control
This chapter focuses on all of the wastes that will be generated as a result of this design project.
The waste was described, and the environmental act that governs it was discussed. The
wastewater produced will next be subjected to a conceptual waste treatment plan. The waste
treatment plant or facility's design specifications will be tabulated, as well as the process
description. All calculations relating to the topic will be included in the appendix.
vi
Theoretically, the treatment of wastewater must also be addressed. Aside from that, solid waste
management issues such as waste or wasted catalyst will be examined in reference to the
relevant waste management laws and regulations. Where stack gas management was
theoretically studied, air waste control will also be discussed.
Chapter 8: Economic analysis
The economic analysis of the designed plant is the focus of this chapter. The overall capital
investment, fixed capital investment, and grass root capital cost of the plant are all calculated.
All raw materials, utilities, waste disposal, and operating labor expenses would be added
together to determine the direct manufacturing cost. The fixed manufacturing costs and general
expenses are calculated. Following that, a cash flow analysis will be undertaken, with complete
non-discounted cash flow analysis, cumulative discounted cash flow analysis, payback
duration, financial ratio, and operating margin ratio discussed and calculated. After calculating
the gross profit margin and net profit margin, the final feasibility of the projected plant will be
determined.
Chapter 9: Conclusion
This chapter summarizes the plant's feasibility from Level 1 to Level 5, as well as the financial
feasibility. A few suggestions will be made to make future feasibility studies easier to manage.
vii
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1: PROJECT BACKGROUND .............................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Ascorbic Acid ...................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ........................................................................ 2
1.1.3 Route of Synthesis ............................................................................................... 3
1.1.4 Toxicity of Ascorbic Acid ................................................................................... 4
1.2 Application of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ................................................................. 5
1.2.1 Food Industry ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Pharmaceutical Industry....................................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Health and Nutrition ............................................................................................ 7
1.2.4 Ascorbic acid Effects on COVID-19 ................................................................... 8
1.3 Market Survey ............................................................................................................ 9
1.3.1 Overview of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ............................................................... 9
1.3.2 Global Market of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ..................................................... 9
1.3.3 Global Demand of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ................................................. 11
1.3.4 Global Production of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ............................................. 13
1.3.5 Competitors/Producers of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ...................................... 14
1.3.6 Global Pricing of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ................................................... 16
1.3.7 Market Analysis for Sorbitol ............................................................................. 17
1.3.8 Plant Capacity .................................................................................................... 18
1.4 Process Technology................................................................................................... 19
1.4.1 Reichstein process .............................................................................................. 19
1.4.2 Two-step fermentation with a mixed culture ..................................................... 20
1.4.3 Two-step fermentation with a single culture ..................................................... 21
1.5 Site Selection and Plant Layout ..................................................................................... 28
1.5.1 Site Selection ........................................................................................................... 28
1.5.2 Plant Layout ........................................................................................................... 43
1.6 Project Objective ....................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 2: PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS ....................................................... 50
2.1 Level 1 Decision........................................................................................................ 50
2.1.1 Process Selection ............................................................................................... 50
2.1.2 Economic Potential 1, Profit Margin ................................................................. 50
viii
2.1.3 Decision Selection of Synthesis Route .............................................................. 55
2.1.4 Decision Mode of Operation .............................................................................. 57
2.2 Level 2 Decision........................................................................................................ 58
2.2.1 Raw material selection and impurities management ......................................... 58
2.2.2 Output materials determination and decision of destinations ............................ 58
2.2.3 Mole balance in terms of extent of reaction....................................................... 61
2.2.4 Degree of freedom ............................................................................................. 64
2.2.5 Stoichiometry ..................................................................................................... 67
2.2.6 Yield and Selectivity Parameters ....................................................................... 71
2.2.7 Material Balance ................................................................................................ 73
2.2.8 Economic potential at level 2 decision .............................................................. 78
2.3 Level 3 Decision........................................................................................................ 80
2.3.1 Block flow diagram............................................................................................ 80
2.3.2 Degree of Freedom ............................................................................................ 81
2.3.3 Reaction Kinetics ............................................................................................... 85
2.3.4 Reactor Design ................................................................................................... 86
2.3.5 Reactor Scheme ................................................................................................. 89
2.3.6 Heat Effect ......................................................................................................... 91
2.3.7 Equipment Costing........................................................................................... 103
2.3.9 Economic Potential level 3 .............................................................................. 108
CHAPTER 3: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM, MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE ...... 109
3.1 Modified Process Flow Diagram............................................................................. 109
3.1.1 Process Description .......................................................................................... 109
3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram of Ascorbic Acid Production ...................................... 112
3.1.3 Equipment Involved in Production of Ascorbic Acid...................................... 114
3.1.4 Description of Unit Operations ........................................................................ 115
3.1.5 Stream Operating Conditions ........................................................................... 118
3.2 Material and Energy Balance .................................................................................. 119
3.2.1 Material Balance Manual Calculation ............................................................. 119
3.2.2 Energy Balance Manual Calculation ............................................................... 140
3.3 Comparison of Simulation with Manual Calculation .............................................. 161
3.3.1 Mass Balance ................................................................................................... 161
3.3.2 Energy Balance ................................................................................................ 162
3.4 Estimated Utilities ................................................................................................... 163
3.4.1 Steam................................................................................................................ 163
ix
3.4.2 Cooling water ................................................................................................... 163
3.4.3 Chilled Water ................................................................................................... 164
3.4.4 Glycol ............................................................................................................... 164
3.4.5 Electricity......................................................................................................... 164
3.4.6 Summary of Estimated Utilities ....................................................................... 165
CHAPTER 4: UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION ......................................................... 166
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 166
4.2 Heat Exchange Network.......................................................................................... 166
4.2.1 Pinch Technology ............................................................................................ 166
4.2.2 Heat Integration Process Flow ......................................................................... 168
4.3 Process Utilities ....................................................................................................... 177
4.3.1 Steam Consumption ......................................................................................... 177
4.3.2 Cooling Consumption ...................................................................................... 178
4.3.2 Electricity Utilities Consumption .................................................................... 179
4.3.3 Summary of utilities cost ................................................................................. 180
4.4 Economic Potential 4 .............................................................................................. 180
4.5 Integrated Process Flow Design .............................................................................. 181
CHAPTER 5: PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING ..................................... 182
5.1 Reactor .................................................................................................................... 182
5.1.1 Fermentation Reactor 1 .................................................................................. 182
5.1.2 Fermentation Reactor 2 .................................................................................. 184
5.1.3 CSTR 1 ........................................................................................................... 185
5.1.4 CSTR 2 ........................................................................................................... 186
5.2 Heat Exchanger ....................................................................................................... 188
5.2.1 E-101 .............................................................................................................. 189
5.2.2 E-102 .............................................................................................................. 190
5.2.3 E-103 .............................................................................................................. 191
5.2.4 E-104 .............................................................................................................. 192
5.2.5 E-105 .............................................................................................................. 194
5.2.6 E-106 .............................................................................................................. 195
5.3 Separator.................................................................................................................. 197
5.3.1 Microfiltration ................................................................................................ 197
5.3.2 Bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1 ............................................................... 199
5.3.3 Bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 ............................................................... 201
5.3.4 Thin Film Evaporator 1 .................................................................................. 202
x
5.3.5 Thin Film Evaporator 2 ................................................................................... 203
5.3.6 Nutsche filter ................................................................................................... 204
5.3.7 Crystallizer....................................................................................................... 205
5.3.8 Freeze dryer ..................................................................................................... 206
5.4 Belt Conveyer ........................................................................................................ 207
5.5 Storage Tank ......................................................................................................... 208
5.5.1 Ascorbic Acid Storage Tank............................................................................ 208
CHAPTER 6: PROCESS CONTROL & SAFETY STUDIES ............................................. 209
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 209
6.2 Equipment Control ................................................................................................ 209
6.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 209
6.2.2 Objectives of Control System .......................................................................... 210
6.2.3 Control Variable .............................................................................................. 211
6.2.4 Classification of Control Strategies ................................................................. 212
6.2.5 Standard Symbol of P&ID ............................................................................... 214
6.2.6 Control system of Fermenter ........................................................................... 217
6.2.5 Control System of Reactor .............................................................................. 220
6.2.7 Control System of Heat Exchanger ................................................................. 223
6.2.8 Control System of Microfiltration ................................................................... 224
6.2.9 Control System of Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis .................................... 226
6.2.10 Control system of Thin Film Evaporator ......................................................... 228
6.2.11 Control System of Crystallizer ........................................................................ 230
6.2.12 Control System of Nutsche Filter .................................................................... 231
6.2.13 Control System of Freeze Dryer ...................................................................... 232
6.2.14 Control System of Belt Conveyor ................................................................... 233
6.2.15 Control System of Storage Tank ..................................................................... 234
6.2.16 Piping &Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) ..................................................... 235
6.3 Identification of Hazards ....................................................................................... 236
6.3.1 Flammability .................................................................................................... 236
6.3.2 Toxicity ............................................................................................................ 238
6.3.3 Safety Data Sheet............................................................................................. 239
6.4 Hazards and Operability Studies (HAZOP) ........................................................... 244
6.4.1 HAZOP for Fermenter ..................................................................................... 244
6.4.2 HAZOP for Reactor ......................................................................................... 247
6.4.3 HAZOP for Heat Exchanger............................................................................ 248
xi
6.4.4 HAZOP for of Microfiltration ......................................................................... 249
6.4.5 HAZOP for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis .............................................. 250
6.4.6 HAZOP for Thin Film Evaporator .................................................................. 251
6.4.7 HAZOP for Crystallizer................................................................................... 252
6.4.8 HAZOP for Nutsche Filter .............................................................................. 254
6.4.9 HAZOP for Freeze Dryer ................................................................................ 255
6.4.10 HAZOP for Belt Conveyor .............................................................................. 257
6.4.11 HAZOP for Storage Tank ................................................................................ 258
CHAPTER 7: WASTE MANAGEMENT & POLLUTION CONTROL ............................. 259
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 259
7.2 Sources of Waste ................................................................................................... 260
7.3 Related Environmental Act ................................................................................... 261
7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 ..................................................................... 261
7.3.2 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards ...................................................... 262
7.3.3 Water Quality Standards and Parameter Limit of Effluent of Standard A And B
........................................................................................................................................ 264
7.4 Waste Treatment System....................................................................................... 265
7.4.1 Waste Management Hierarchy ........................................................................ 265
7.4.2 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization ................................................ 266
7.4.3 Solid Waste Management ................................................................................ 267
7.4.4 Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................................... 269
7.4.5 Gaseous Waste Treatment ............................................................................... 272
CHAPTER 8: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS .............................................................................. 275
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 275
8.2 Costing .................................................................................................................. 275
8.2.1 Equipment Cost ............................................................................................... 275
8.2.2 Bare Module Cost ............................................................................................ 276
8.2.3 Grass Root Capital or Fixed Capital Investment ............................................. 277
8.2.4 Manufacturing and Operational Expenses ....................................................... 278
8.3 Proforma Financial Statement ......................................................................... 283
8.4 Cash Flow Analysis............................................................................................... 284
8.4.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis .......................................... 285
8.4.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis .................................................. 286
8.5 Financial Ratios ..................................................................................................... 288
8.5.1 Activity Ratio .................................................................................................. 288
xii
8.5.2 Profitability Ratio ............................................................................................ 289
8.5.3 Rate of Investment (ROI) ................................................................................ 290
8.6 Feasibility Analysis (Summary) ............................................................................ 291
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 292
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 295
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 298
Appendix A: Polymath Coding .......................................................................................... 298
Appendix B: Process Simulation Report............................................................................ 307
Appendix C: Lesson Learnt Report .................................................................................... 351
Appendix D: Energy Balance Manual Calculation ............................................................ 364
Appendix E: Sizing and Costing ........................................................................................ 377
Appendix F: Safety Data Sheet (SDS) ............................................................................... 470
Appendix G: Waste Management & Control ..................................................................... 503
Appendix F: Economic analysis......................................................................................... 533
xiii
List of Tables
Table 1.1: The four basic technologies developed for adding ascorbic acid to
foods……………...……………………………………………………………………….…...5
Table 1.2: Interaction of multivitamin or other ingredients with ascorbic acid………….……7
Table 1.3: Global Competitor of Ascorbic Acid…………………………………………….14
Table 1.4: Asia Pacific Competitor of Ascorbic Acid……………………………………….15
Table 1.5: Price of Ascorbic Acid…………………………………………………………...16
Table 1.6: Comparison for different process of technology available………………………26
Table 1.7: Companies that produce D-sorbitol with price range………………………….….28
Table 1.8: Distance of the raw material availability with the supplier…………………….…29
Table 1.9: Availability of the customer within the area………………………………….….30
Table 1.10: Labor supply within the area………………………………………………….…31
Table 1.11: Prices of land………………………………………………………………….…32
Table 1.12: Water supply and electricity supply within the area………………………….….33
Table 1.13: Incentives available within the area…………………………………………. ….34
Table 1.14: Airport availability………………………………………………………………35
Table 1.15: Road facilities within the area………………………………………………. ….36
Table 1.16: Seaport availability within the area…………………………………………. ….37
Table 1.17: Summary of site selection……………………………………………………….38
Table 1.18: Summary of total marks…………………………………………………………41
Table 1.19: Buildings in the plant layout………………………………………………….….44
Table 2.1: Price of raw materials and products for Reichstein process…………………….…50
Table 2.2: Price of raw materials and product for two-step fermentation single culture….….52
Table 2.3: Comparison of the different synthesis route……………………………………....55
Table 2.4: Guidelines in the selection of the mode of operation……………………………...57
Table 2.5: Purity and prices data for raw materials…………………………………………...58
Table 2.6: Output material destination and decision code for production of ascorbic acid…...59
Table 2.7: Purity and prices data for product………………………………………………....59
Table 2.8: Extent of reaction step 1……………………………………………………….….61
Table 2.9: Extent of reaction step 2……………………………………...….……………….62
Table 2.10: Extent of reaction step 3……………………………………………….………...62
xiv
Table 2.11: Extent of reaction step 4……….…………………………………………….….63
Table 2.12: Extent of reaction step 5…………………………………………………………63
Table 2.13: Extent of reaction step 6…………………………………………………………64
Table 2.14: Degree of Freedom (DOF) at step 1 reaction……………………………………64
Table 2.15: Degree of Freedom step 2 reaction………………………………………………65
Table 2.20: Stoichiometry Table for Step 1 reaction…………………………………………67
Table 2.21: Stoichiometry Table for Step 2 reaction………………………………………...68
Table 2.24: Stoichiometry Table for Step 5 reaction………………………………………...69
Table 2.26: Summary table of material balance for Fermenter 1…………………………….73
Table 2.27: Summary table of material balance for Fermenter 2……………………………74
Table 2.28: Summary table of material balance for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1…...75
Table 2.29: Summary Table of Material Balance for CSTR 1………………………………75
Table 2.30: Summary Table of Material Balance for CSTR 2………………………………76
Table 2.31: Summary Table of Material Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2...77
Table 2.32: Price and purity for raw material………………………………………………...78
Table 2.33: Tabulated data for EP2 vs Overall Conversion…………………………………79
Table 2.34: Degree of freedom in Fermenter 1………………………………………………81
Table 2.35: Degree of freedom in Fermenter 2………………………………………………82
Table 2.36: Degree of freedom of Reactor 1…………………………………………………83
Table 2.37: Degree of freedom of Reactor 2………………………………………………….84
Table 2.38: Heat formation of components for Fermenter 1………………………………….91
Table 2.39: Heat capacities of each component of Fermenter 1………………………………92
Table 2.40: Summary for heat capacities of each component Fermenter 1……………….......92
Table 2.41: Heat formation of each component in Fermenter 2………………………………94
Table 2.42: Heat capacities of each component in Fermenter 2………………………………95
xv
Table 2.43: Summary for heat capacities of each component in Fermenter 2………….…....95
Table 2.44: Heat formation of each component in CSTR 1………………………………......97
Table 2.45: Heat capacities of each component in CSTR 1………………………………......98
Table 2.46: Summary for heat capacities of each component in CSTR 1……………….……98
Table 2.47: Heat formation of each component in CSTR 2…………………………….…....99
Table 2.48: Heat capacities of each component in CSTR 2…………………………………100
Table 2.49: Summary for heat capacities of each component in CSTR 2……………….….101
Table 2.50: Summary for Reactor Cost……………………………………………………..108
Table 3.1: Major and minor equipment involved in Ascorbic Acid production………….…114
Table 3.2: Unit Operation Description of Ascorbic Acid Production from Sorbitol……….115
Table 3.3: Stream of Operating Condition……………...…………………………………..118
Table 3.4: Material balance for Fermenter 1 (R-101)…………………………..……….….120
Table 3.5: Material balance for Fermenter 2 (R-102)………...…………………………..…121
Table 3.6: Material balance for Microfilter (V-101)………...………………………….…..122
Table 3.7: Material balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)………….….123
Table 3.8: Material balance for Heat Exchanger (E-101)…………………………….……..124
Table 3.9: Material balance for Evaporator 1 (V-103)…………………………...……....…125
Table 3.10: Material balance for Heat Exchanger (E-102)…………………………………126
Table 3.11: Material balance for Reactor 1 (R-103)………………………………………..127
Table 3.12: Material Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-103)…………………………...……128
Table 3.13: Material Balance for Reactor 2 (R-104)……………….…………………..…..129
Table 3.14: Material Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-104)………………….…………..…130
Table 3.15: Material Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)…………...131
Table 3.16: Material Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-105)…………..…………………..…132
Table 3.17: Material Balance for Evaporator 2 (V-105)……...…………………………..…133
Table 3.18: Material Balance for Crystallizer (V-106)……………………………………..134
Table 3.19: Material Balance for Nutsche Filtration (V-107)………..……………………..135
Table 3.20: Material Balance for Belt Conveyer (BC-101)………..…………………..……136
Table 3.21: Material Balance for Freeze dryer (V-108)…………..……………………..….137
Table 3.22: Mass Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-106)………………..………………..….138
Table 3.23: Mass Balance for Storage (TK-101)………..……………………………..……139
Table 3.24: Heat of formation (J/gmol)…………………………………..……………..…..140
xvi
Table 3.25: Specific heat capacities constant for liquid and solid (J/gmol.K)……..……..…140
Table 3.26: Specific heat capacities for gaseous (J/gmol.K)….……………...……………..141
Table 3.27: Specific heat capacities for gaseous (J/gmol.K)……………………………….142
Table 3.28: Molecular weight for each species (kg/kmol)………………………………….142
Table 3.29: Energy Balance for Fermenter1 (R-101)……………………………………….143
Table 3.30: Energy Balance for Fermenter 2 (R-102)………………………………………144
Table 3.31: Energy Balance for Microfilter (V-101)………………………………………..145
Table 3.32: Energy Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (V-102)………………146
Table 3.33: Energy Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-101)…………………………………..147
Table 3.34: Energy Balance for Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)……………………………148
Table 3.36: Energy Balance for Reactor 1 (R-103)…………………………………………150
Table 3.38: Energy Balance for Reactor 2 (R-104)…………………………………………152
Table 3.40: Energy Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)…………….154
Table 3.41: Energy balance for Heat Exchanger (E-105)…………………………………...155
Table 3.42: Energy Balance for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)………………………….156
Table 3.43: Energy Balance for Crystallizer (V-106)……………………………………….157
Table 3.44: Energy balance for Nutsche Filtration (V-107)………………………………..158
Table 3.45: Energy Balance for Freeze Dryer (V-108)……………………………………..159
Table 3.47: Comparison manual calculation and simulation of mass balance……………...161
Table 3.48: Comparison of manual calculation and simulation of energy balance…………162
Table 3.49: Type of steam use in each equipment………………………………………….163
Table 3.50: Cooling water utilities………………………………………………………….163
Table 3.51: Chilled water…………………………………………………………………...164
Table 3.52: Glycol utilities………………………………………………………………….164
Table 3.53: Electricity consumption….…………………………………………………….164
Table 3.54: Cost estimation for utilities…………………………………………………….165
Table 4.1: Stream details and heat capacity…………………………………………………170
Table 4.2: Summary of shifted temperature………………………………………………...170
xvii
Table 4.3: Summary of heat duty of heat exchanger before and after HEN…………………175
Table 4.4: Summary of percentage of energy saving……………………………….……….176
Table 4.5: Cost of steam…………………………………………………………………….177
Table 4.6: Summary of steam consumption by equipment…………………………………177
Table 4.7: Summary of chilled water consumption by equipment………………………….178
Table 4.8: Summary of glycol consumption by equipment………………………….….….179
Table 4.10: Summary of utilities cost……………………………………………………….180
Table 5.1: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 1 (R-101)…………………………182
Table 5.2: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 2 (R-102)………………………….184

Table 5.3: Design Data Sheet of CSTR 1 (R-103)………………………………………….185
Table 5.4: Design Data Sheet of CSTR 2 (R-104)………………………………………….186
Table 5.5: Design Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger (E-101)…………………………………189
Table 5.11: Design Data Sheet of Microfiltration (V-101)…………………………………198
Table 5.12: Design Data Sheet for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)…………200
Table 5.13: Design Data Sheet for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)…………201
Table 5.14: Design specification sheet of Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)……………….202
Table 5.15: Design specification sheet of Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-103)……………….203
Table 5.16: Design specification sheet of Nutsche Filter (V-107)………………………….204
Table 5.17: Specification sheet of Crystallizer (V-106)…………………………………….205
Table 5.18: Specification sheet of Freeze Dryer (V-108)…………………………………..206
Table 5.19: Design specification sheet of Belt Conveyer (BC-101)………………………...207
Table 5.20: Design specification sheet of Storang Tank (TK-101)…………………………208
Table 6.1: Instrument Identification System………………………………………………..214
Table 6.2: Legend Used in P&ID…………………………………………………………...214
xviii
Table 6.3: Function of Control Element…………………………………………………….215
Table 6.4: Basic symbols used to show the valve, instruments, and control loops…………216
Table 6.5: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 1 (R-101)…………………………218
Table 6.6: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 2 (R-101)…………………………219
Table 6.7 Control and Feedback System of CSTR 1 (R-103)………………………………221
Table 6.8 Control and Feedback System of CSTR 2 (R-104)………………………………222
Table 6.9 Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger.………………………………224
Table 6.10: Control system for Microfilter (V-101)………………………………………..225
Table 6.11: Control system for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1 (V-102)………………226
Table 6.12: Control system for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (V-104)………………227
Table 6.13: Control system for Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)…………………………..228
Table 6.14: Control system for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)…………………………..229
Table 6.15: Control system for ascorbic acid Crystallizer (V-106)…………………………230
Table 6.16: Control system for Nutshce Filter (V-107)……………………………………..231
Table 6.17: Control system for Freeze Dryer (V-108)………………………….…………..232
Table 6.18: Control system for belt conveyor (BC-101)……………………………………233
Table 6.19: Control system for storage tank (TK-101)……………………………………..234
Table 6.20: Summary of physical properties in Safety Data Sheet…………………………241
Table 6.21: HAZOP Study of Fermentor (R-101 & R-102)……………………………….244
Table 6.22: HAZOP Study of CSTR Reactor (R-103 & R-104)…………………………....247
Table 6.23: HAZOP Study of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-106)…………………………..248
Table 6.24: HAZOP for Microfiltration (V-101)…………………………………………...249
Table 6.25: HAZOP for bipolar membrane electrodialysis (V-102 &V-104)………………250
Table 6.26: HAZOP for Thin Film Evaporator (V-103 &V-105)…………………………..251
Table 6.27: HAZOP for Crystallizer (V-106)……………………………………………….252
Table 6.28: HAZOP for Nutsche Filter (V-107)……………………………………………254
Table 6.29: HAZOP for Freeze Dryer (V-108)……………………………………………..255
Table 6.30: HAZOP for Belt Conveyor (BC-101)………………………………………….257
Table 6.31: HAZOP for Storage Tanks (TK-101)…………………………………………..258
Table 7.1: Sources and types of waste from process streams……………………………….260
Table 7.2: Stack Gas Emission Standards in Malaysia……………………………………...262
Table 7.3: Parameter Limit of Effluent of Standard A and B………………………………264
xix
Table 7.4: Design specification sheet of solid waste storage………………………………268
Table 7.5: Component in liquid waste………………………………………………………269
Table 7.6: Summary of wastewater treatment plant equipment design…………….……….271
Table 7.7: Summary cost of wastewater treatment plant equipment……………………….271
Table 7.8: Waste gas produced in ascorbic acid production plant………………………….272
Table 7.9: Equipment specification of absorption column………………………………….273
Table 8.1: Bare module cost for all equipment……………………………………………...276
Table 8.2: Total module cost of all equipment………………………………………………277
Table 8.3: Total module cost of all equipment…………………………………………...….277
Table 8.4: Total Capital Investment (TCI)………………………………………………….278
Table 8.5: Raw material cost…………………………………………………………….….279
Table 8.6: Utilities cost………………………………………………………………….….279
Table 8.7: Waste treatment cost…………………………………………………………….279
Table 8.8: Estimation of operating labour cost……………………………………………...280
Table 8.9: Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC)……………………………………………...281
Table 8.10: Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)……………………………………………...281
Table 8.11: General Manufacturing Costs (GMC)………………………………………….282
Table 8.12: Total manufacturing costs……………………………………………………...282
Table 8.13: Sales Revenue………………………………………………………………….282
Table 8.14: Proforma financial statement for production of ascorbic acid………………….283
Table 8.15: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits…………………………………………...284
Table 8.16: Table of Net Present Value (NPV)…………………………………………….287
xx
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Possible effects of vitamin C to COVID-19………………………………….…....8

Figure 1.2: Global Market Ascorbic Acid (2021-2026) ……………………………………....9
Figure 1.3: Type of Ascorbic Acid…………………………………………………….….….10
Figure 1.4: Global Consumer of Ascorbic Acid 2020 by region……………………….……11
Figure 1.5: Ascorbic Acid Demand by Application………………………………….………11
Figure 1.6: Global Market Vitamin C by Region (2018-2027) ……………………….. ….…12
Figure 1.7: Global Vitamin C Market 2017 until 2027………………………………………13
Figure 1.8: Global Pricing of Ascorbic Acid 2020/2021…………………………………….16
Figure 1.9: Global Sorbitol Market…………………………………………………….…….17
Figure 1.10: Reaction step of production of ascorbic acid in Reichstein Process……...….…19
Figure 1.11: Method of producing vitamin C by Reichstein Process……………………. ….20
Figure 1.12: Methods of producing ascorbic acid with two step fermentations………….….21
Figure 1.13: Methods of production of ascorbic acid with two step fermentations……….….22
Figure 1.14: Block flow diagram production of ascorbic acid with two step fermentations…22
Figure 1.15: Process flow diagram production of ascorbic acid from sorbitol………………23
Figure 1.16: Distance from Kerteh,Terengganu to Fujian,China…………………………….41
Figure 1.17: The designated plant layout…………………………………………………….48
Figure 2.1: Block Flow Diagram of Production of Ascorbic Acid………….……………….60
Figure 2.2: Graph yield vs volume for CSTR 1………………………………………………71
Figure 2.3: Graph yield vs volume for CSTR 2………………………………………………72
Figure 2.4: Block flow diagram for Fermenter 1………………………………………….….73
Figure 2.5: Block flow diagram for Fermenter 2…………………………...………….….….74
Figure 2.6: Block flow diagram for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1……………….….…74
Figure 2.7: Block flow diagram for CSTR 1…………………………………………………75
Figure 2.8: Block flow diagram for CSTR 2…………………………………………………76
Figure 2.9: Block flow diagram for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2…………………….77
Figure 2.10: Economic Potential – Level 2……………………………………………….….79
Figure 2.11.: Overall block flow diagram production of vitamin C…………………………80
Figure 2.12: Input-output block diagram of Fermenter 1……………………………………81
Figure 2.13: Input-output block diagram of Fermenter 2……………………………………82
xxi
Figure 2.14: Input-output block diagram of Reactor 1……………………………………….83
Figure 2.15: Input-output block diagram of Reactor 2……………………………….……...84
Figure 2.16: Levenspiel plot for Fermenter 1………………………………………………...86
Figure 2.17: Levenspiel plot for Fermenter 2………………………………………………...87
Figure 2.18: Levenspiel plot for CSTR 1……………………………………………….........87
Figure 2.19: Levenspiel plot for CSTR 2…………………………………………………….88
Figure 2.20: Scheme of Fermenter 1 and 2…………………………………………………...89
Figure 2.21: Scheme of CSTR 1 and 2………………………………………………….…....90
Figure 2.22: X-T plot for fermenter 1………………………………………………………...93
Figure 2.23: X-T plot for Fermenter 2…………………………………………………….….96
Figure 2.24: X-T plot for CSTR 1……………………………………………………….…...99
Figure 2.25: Heat formation of components in CSTR 2………………………………….…102
Figure 3.1: Simulation flowsheet in SuperPro Designer……………………………………113
Figure 3.2: Fermenter 1 (R-101)……………………………………………………………120
Figure 3.3: Fermenter 2 (R-102)……………………………………………………………121
Figure 3.4: Microfilter (V-101)……………………………………………………………..122
Figure 3.5: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)…………………………………..123
Figure 3.6: Heat Exchanger (E-101)………………………………………………………..124
Figure 3.7: Evaporator 1 (V-103)…...………………………………………………………125
Figure 3.8: Heat Exchanger (E -102)….……………………………………………………126
Figure 3.9: Reactor 1 (R -103)………………………………………………………………127
Figure 3.10: Heat Exchanger (E-103)…………………….……………………………...…128
Figure 3.11: Reactor 2 (R -104)…………………………………………………………….129
Figure 3.12: Heat Exchanger (E-104)…………………….………………………...………130
Figure 3.13: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)……………..………………..…131
Figure 3.14: Heater Exchanger (E-105)…………….…………………………………...….132
Figure 3.15: Evaporator 2 (V-105)…………….……………………………………...…….133
Figure 3.16: Crystallizer (V-106)…………….……………………………………...……..134
Figure 3.17: Nutsche Filtration (V-107)……….……………………………………...……135
Figure 3.18: Belt Conveyer (BC-101)……………..……………………………………..…136
Figure 3.19: Freeze Dryer (V-108)………..…………………………………………..…….137
Figure 3.20: Heat exchanger (E-106)…………………….…………………………………138
xxii
Figure 3.21: Storage (TK-101)……………….………………………………………...…..139
Figure 3.22: Fermenter 1 (R-101)………………….………………………………...…......143
Figure 3.23: Fermenter 2 (R-102)…………………………………………………………..144
Figure 3.24: Microfilter (V-101)……………………………………………………………145
Figure 3.25: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (V-102)…………………………………..146
Figure 3.26: Heat Exchanger (E-101)………………………………………………………147
Figure 3.27: Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)………………………………………………..148
Figure 3.29: Reactor 1 (R-103)……………………………………………………………..150
Figure 3.31: Reactor 2 (R-104)……………………………………………………………..152
Figure 3.33: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)…………………………………154
Figure 3.35: Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)………………………………………………156
Figure 3.36: Crystallizer (V-106)…………………………………………………………..157
Figure 3.37: Nutsche Filtration (V-107)……………………………………………………158
Figure 3.38: Freeze Dryer (V-108)……………………………………………...………….159
Figure 4.1: Flowchart for Heat Integration Process…………………………………………168
Figure 4.2: Temperature interval diagram…………………………………………………..172
Figure 4.3: Cascade diagram………………………………………………………………..173
Figure 4.4: Heat exchanger network design………………………………………………...174
Figure 4.5: Heat Integration Process Flow Diagram………………………………………..181
Figure 5.1: Working principle of microfiltration…………………………………………...197
Figure 5.2: The salt ion split is shown schematically as a process of applying bipolar
membranes to their corresponding acids and bases………………………………………….199
Figure 6.1: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 1 (R-101)…………………………217
Figure 6.2: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 2 (R-102)…………………………219
Figure 6.3: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 1 (R-103)…………………………….220
Figure 6.4: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 2 (R-104)…………………………….222
Figure 6.5: Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger (E101, E102, E103, E104, E105,
E106)………………………………………………………………………………………..223
xxiii
Figure 6.6: Control and Feedback System for Microfilter (V-101)………………………..224
Figure 6.7: Control and Feedback System for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-
102)………………………………………………………………………………………….226
Figure 6.8: Control and Feedback System For Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-
104)………………………………………………………………………………………….227
Figure 6.9: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)…………..228
Figure 6.10: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)………….229
Figure 6.11: Control and Feedback System for Ascorbic Acid Crystallizer (V-106)………230
Figure 6.12: Control and Feedback System for Nutshce Filter (V-107)……………………231
Figure 6.13: Control and Feedback System for Freeze Dryer (V-108)…………………….232
Figure 6.14: Control and Feedback System for belt conveyor (BC-101)…………………..233
Figure 6.15: Control and Feedback System for Storage Tank (TK-101)……………………234
Figure 7.1: Hierarchy of waste management…………………………………………….….266
Figure 7.2: Concrete tank of the solid waste storage…….…………………………………268
Figure 7.3: Wastewater treatment plant for the production of ascorbic acid……………….270
Figure 7.4: Flare system for gas waste treatment………………………………………. ….274
Figure 8.1: Cumulative of non-discounted cash flow analysis along the project life………285
Figure 8.2: Graph of cumulative discounted cash flow against years………………………286
Figure 8.3: Graph of net present value against interest…………………………………….287
xxiv
CHAPTER 1: PROJECT BACKGROUND
This chapter will describe the history and background, applications, and market survey of
ascorbic acid. Besides, the raw material availability, process technology as well as site selection
and plant layout will be also discussed in detail.
1.1 Introduction
The main purpose of this project is to produce 18,000 metric tons of ascorbic acid annually.
This report consists of the overall start up and fundamentals to make sure this project available
and completed without any delay.
This report includes all literature study as listed at below:
1. Project background: Overview of ascorbic acid.
2. Property: Chemical and physical properties of ascorbic acid.
3. Toxicity: Safety and health of the products involved.
4. Market survey: All the price of raw materials and products, demand and supply of
ascorbic acid in Malaysia, Asia Pacific and global.
5. Site location and plant layout: Site selection for the production for ascorbic acid
according to specific aspects.
6. Process technology: General view of all the technologies used for the synthesis routes
selection.
1
1.1.1 Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid (known as Vitamin C) is one of the most important natural water-soluble
antioxidants for human. The ascorbic acid can be found from various fruit and vegetable like
strawberry, pineapple, and cauliflower. It has high demand in agriculture, food & beverage,
and pharmaceutical industries for their antioxidant properties. It plays important role in
pharmaceutical industries which one-third of total production worldwide. In Asia Pacific
region, the market demand of ascorbic acid has grown steadily from years to years due to
increase of awareness on healthy and quality lifestyle. Based on recent years report, the global
revenue of ascorbic acid market are increased sharply from USD 1070M in 2014 to USD
1280M in 2017, with 6.16% of average annual growth rate. Lastly, it grew and reached USD
1770M by 2021.
1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

1.1.2.1 Ascorbic Acid
Properties
Chemical Formula HC6H7O6
State solid
Synonym and Trades Name
Color White to slightly yellow
Odor odorless
Molar Mass 176.12
Density 1.65 g/cu cm at 25 °C
Vapour Pressure 9.28X10-11 mm Hg at 25 °C (est)
Boiling Point 552.7±50.0 °C at 1 atm
Melting Point 191°C
Flash Point 238.2±23.6 °C
Flammability Flammable at high temperature
Viscosity 0.0±3.4 mmHg at 25°C
Solubility in water Miscible at 20°C
Solubility in Organic Solvent Miscible in Methanol
2
1.1.2.2 Methanol
Properties
Chemical Formula CH3OH
State Liquid
Synonym and Trades Name methyl alcohol
Color Colourless
Odor Alcoholic odor
Molar Mass 32.042
Density 0.7866 at 25 °C
Vapour Pressure 18.7 kPa at 27°C
Boiling Point 64.7 °C
Melting Point -97.8 °C
Flash Point 9.7 °C (49.5 °F) - closed cup
Flammability Highly flammable
Viscosity 0.544 mPa.s at 25 °C
Solubility in Water Miscible in water
Solubility in Organic Solvent Miscible with most organic solvent
1.1.3 Route of Synthesis

1.1.3.1 Reichstein Process
The chemical equation of this process can be seen as below:
1
C6 H14 O6 + O2 + NaHCO3 → C6 H8 O6 + NaOH + CO2 + 2H2 + H2 O
2
Sorbitol + Oxygen + Sodium bicarbonate → Ascorbic acid + Sodium hydroxide +
Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen + Water
3
1.1.3.2 Two-Step Fermentation Process
1.1.3.2.1 With Mixed Culture
3
C6 H14 O6 + O2 + Na2 CO3 + NaHCO3 → C6 H8 O6 + 3NaOH + 2CO2 + 2H2 O
2
Carbon dioxide + Water
1.1.3.2.2 With Single Culture
3
2
1.1.4 Toxicity of Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid is less flammable and high flash point substance while comparing to other
substance. However, ascorbic acid still imposed low hazardous effect for industrial handling.
For serious case, it will cause mutation on mammalian somatic cell.
Potential Health Effect Description

Eye May cause eye irritation
Skin May cause skin irritation
Indigestion Ingestion of large amounts may cause
gastrointestinal irritation.
Large doses may cause diarrhea and
acidification of the urine which may cause
stones in the urinary tract.
Inhalation May cause respiratory tract irritation.
Chronic None
4
1.2 Application of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is one of the most popular vitamins as it is an essential
nutrient to human body that forms into blood vessels, cartilage, muscle, and collagen in bones.
It can be found in various sources in citrus fruits and vegetables in which has many useful
applications including food industry, health & nutrition and pharmaceutical. Not only that, but
ascorbic acid that acts as antioxidants able to aid in the prevention of free radical damage,
which caused by stable molecules that can harm cells. Furthermore, effects of the recent
outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) applied the use of vitamin C in order to acts
support system to human body because of its ability to have immune response.
1.2.1 Food Industry

Ascorbic acid may be added to foods or food ingredients as a nutrient to fortify natural foods
that are deficient or lacking in vitamin C, to replenish losses, to standardize a given class of
food products to a pre-selected level of vitamin C, and to endow or enrich synthetic foods with
nutritional value. Also, ascorbic acid used as an antioxidant which can provide multiple
benefits to food products where slowing the oxidation preserves color and freshness. It can be
used as a preservative in a wide variety of foods, such as bread, cured meats, jams and jellies,
and other sauces and spreads. New technological advancements allow the food processing
industry to market far more food products than in previous decades. Aside from being a
preservative or oxygen acceptor, ascorbic acid is used in food as an acidulant, a stabilizer for
cured meat color, or a flour improver in a non-nutritive capacity.
Table 1.1: The four basic technologies developed for adding ascorbic acid to foods
(Bauernfeind, 1982).
Technologies
1. Tablets or wafers
• Liquid foods require a tablet to be placed to the container before filling and sealing,
however semisolid or dry meals can have the tablet dissolved and added at a later stage
of food preparation
5
2. Dry premixes
• A homogenous blend of ascorbic acid with a dry carrier, commonly a food component.
The premix combined with a specified amount of dry food ensures product quality
because pure vitamin may be low
3. Liquid sprays
• Liquid premix sprays of ascorbic acid solutions or suspensions. Sprays are used to avoid
tough or continuous processing conditions by injecting them into liquid food products
or onto the surface of food
4. Pure compound
• Added straight to food or in predefined proportions in the form of pre-weighed packages.
Crystalline ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate, or special coated product forms of ascorbic
acid is commonly used for convenience to ensure uniformity mixing
1.2.2 Pharmaceutical Industry

An alternative list of pharmaceutical dosage forms available in tablets with varying potencies,
drops (particularly for pediatric use), syrups and elixirs, capsules, injectables, and multivitamin
preparations. Vitamin C tablets was the major uses in pharmaceutical applications where it can
be coated or uncoated with different potencies and sizes, and swallowable or chewable. Tablets
are produced either by double compression or slugging, wet granulation, or by direct
compression. In the typical tablet preparation process, ascorbic acid in powder or fine granular
form is slugged and reduced to granules with suitable diluents of lactose, sucrose, or starch
with lubricant, then recompressed into tablets of the desired size (Bauernfeind, 1982). In facts,
to provide a more pleasant taste, chewable tablets contain sodium ascorbate in addition with
ascorbic acid and flavoring agents. Another type of solid dosage form is the effervescent tablet,
which is typically of higher potency of (0.5 to 2.0g) and is consumed when water is added to
convert the tablet to a liquid form.
6
1.2.3 Health and Nutrition
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a dietary supplement that is primarily used to prevent and treat
scurvy, a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C. Ascorbic acid, which is found in foods like
orange juice and broccoli and has the same bioavailability as naturally occurring ascorbic acid
is the common form of vitamin C in supplements. Higher intakes of vitamin C (from food or
supplements) may protect against cardiovascular disease and certain malignancies, according
to certain epidemiological studies that track large populations over time, although other studies
disagree. The prevalence of cardiovascular disease or cancer has not been reduced by vitamin
C supplementation in randomized to prescribe a higher dose of vitamin C than the
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for people with these disorders.
Apart from that, the interaction between certain of the vitamins or ingredients with
ascorbic acid have a potential to reduce health problem and many other conditions but it may
have a risk if overdose consumed for some condition.
Table 1.2: Interaction of multivitamin or other ingredients with ascorbic acid
Interaction with
Potential Interaction Source
ascorbic acid
Interaction of vitamin C and E as better cosmeceuticals for extra
Vitamin E Burke, 2007
protection of the skin
Warfarin Possible warfarin resistance due to interaction with ascorbic acid Sattar et al, 2013
Ascorbic acid works by keeping iron soluble and bioavailable as the

Iron Lynch, 1997
luminal pH rises after the gastric contents enter the duodenum
Combine vitamin C and E supplementation for the prevention of Basaran et al,
Vitamin E
preeclampsia 2010
Mixture of β-
carotene, reduced
glutathione, Shklar et al,
The mixture potentially very effective in preventing carcinogenesis
vitamin E, l- 1993
ascorbic acid
(vitamin C)
7
1.2.4 Ascorbic acid Effects on COVID-19
The outbreak of COVID-19 required immediate medical attention to treat the patients since it
has been spread to the entire world. Therefore, many approaches have been tried such as
vitamins and minerals supplements are becoming increasingly popular as part of COVID-19’s
support management before the existence of vaccines. Vitamin C has a variety of
pharmacological activities in the human body, including anti-vital activity, immune
modulation, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory activity, etc
(Asamovich et al, 2021). In SARS-CoV-2 infection, vitamin C lowers the release of
proinflammatory cytokines, which may play an important role in reducing the cytokine storm,
resulting in less tissue damage because of inflammation and may lead to Adult Respiratory
Distress Syndrome (ADRS) (Boretti & Banik, 2020). According to Boretti & Banik (2020), an
approach emerged as one alternative which is Intravenous (IV) Vitamin C (Vit-C) for
developing a greater immune response, lowering the cytokines storm, or enhancing antiviral
activity through recognized ways.
Figure 1.1: Possible effects of vitamin C to COVID-19 (Abobaker et al, 2020)
8
1.3 Market Survey
1.3.1 Overview of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Market survey entails the survey of existing production pathways, projection and trend
of demand versus the supply, identifying the potential consumers as well as competitors. If the
world consumption is more than the current production, it is feasible and reasonable to continue
the project. In short, market survey reflects as the backbone of gaining a successful business
venture.
Ascorbic acid is a white crystalline compound that is soluble in water. It is also

known as 3-oxo-L-gulofuranolactone (enol form), vitamin C, L-3-ketothreohexuronic acid
lactone, and antisorbutic vitamin. It is widely available in the solid state in powdered,
granulated, and slab form. Because ascorbic acid is a nutrient for living organisms, it finds a
wide variety of uses in the food and beverage, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries.
Numerous food additives, such as powdered and granular vitamin C, are used because they act
as antioxidants and acidity regulators. Additionally, it is utilised in the cosmetics,
pharmaceutical, and chemical industries, among others. Ascorbic acid is a naturally occurring
compound that can be synthesised synthetically using the Reichstein or two-stage fermentation
processes (persistencemarketresearch, 2021).
1.3.2 Global Market of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Figure 1.2: Global Market Ascorbic Acid (2021-2026) (Ltd, 2021)
Revenues from the global ascorbic acid market increased from USD 1070 million in 2014 to
USD 1280 million in 2017, growing at an average annual rate of 6.16 % (Lim, 2020). Vitamin
C Market size was USD 1.185.62 million in 2021 and is expected to grow at a 7.8 % compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) through 2026, reaching a market value of USD 1.725.28 million
(Ltd, 2021). Increased awareness of the health benefits of vitamin C consumption is expected
9
to open up new market opportunities. Vitamin C is one of the most effective nutrients for
protecting the body against a variety of cardiovascular diseases, prenatal health issues, eye
diseases, and others. Apart from that, the use of vitamin C ingredients as a natural food additive
is increasing, as it retards spoilage and preserves the freshness of food products such as cured
meats, jams, jellies, sauces, and spreads. They are widely used in a variety of industries,
including food and beverage, animal feed, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics. As a result,
significant growth in the vitamin C ingredients market is anticipated in the near future
(persistencemarketresearch, 2021).
Calcium Ascorbate, Sodium Ascorbate, Magnesium Ascorbate, Potassium Ascorbate,

and D-Isoascorbic Acid are the various forms of ascorbic acid available on the market.
According to figure 1.3, the Sodium Ascorbate segment held a market share of more than 30.0
% in 2019, with a forecasted growth rate of 5.2 %. The Sodium Ascorbate segment's dominance
is attributed to its potent antioxidant properties and ability to protect cells from damage, which
result in high demand from end users. It is a highly bioavailable form of Vitamin C that aids in
the body's immune system strengthening. Calcium Ascorbate is expected to grow at the fastest
rate during the forecast period. Calcium Ascorbate is a highly concentrated source of vitamin
C and calcium. As with Vitamin C, it has a variety of health benefits, including the ability to
repair damaged tissue cells, strengthen the immune system, and promote healthy skin and bone
health. It is a frequently prescribed medication for Scurvy treatment. It contributes to the
extension of the shelf life of beverages and food products by preserving their original flavour,
taste, colour, and quality (reportsanddata, 2020).
Figure 1.3: Type of Ascorbic Acid (reportsanddata, 2020).
10
Figure 1.4: Global Consumer of Ascorbic Acid 2020 by Region (IndustryARC, 2021).
The global consumer of ascorbic acid is being studied across key regional markets,
including Asia Pacific, North America, Europe, South America, and the rest of the world,
including Latin America and the Middle East and Africa. The Asia Pacific region held a sizable
market share of 38.3 % in 2020, followed by North America and Europe. The presence of
numerous pharmaceutical and cosmetics companies investing heavily in research and
development is expected to fuel the ascorbic acid market growth in APAC. Europe's Ascorbic
Acid Market is expected to mature due to rapid advancements in chemical research and an
increase in the number of geriatrics suffering from various diseases that can be prevented
through the use of ascorbic acid supplements (IndustryARC, 2021).
1.3.3 Global Demand of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

Among all vitamins, ascorbic acid has the highest industrial value. The global production of
ascorbic acid is approximately 140,000 to 150,000 metric tonnes per year. Ascorbic acid is a
nutrient for living organisms and thus has a broad range of applications in the food and
beverage, agricultural, pharmaceutical industries etc.
Figure 1.5: Ascorbic Acid Demand by Application (reportsanddata, 2020)
11
The market is segmented by application into pharmaceutical grade, food grade, and
others such as personal care products and agriculture. In 2020, the food grade segment held the
largest market share of 60%. The Food Grade segment's dominance can be attributed to the
food and beverage industry's rapid growth and the resulting increase in demand for Ascorbic
acid as a preservative due to the impact of covid-19. Pharmaceuticals held a 25% market share
in 2020, owing to the growing use of this grade of ascorbic acid in a variety of healthcare
applications, such as intravenous ascorbic acid in cancer patients to supplement nutritional
deficiencies and reduce inflammation.
Figure 1.6: Global Market Vitamin C by Region (2018-2027) (reportsanddata, 2020)

According to Figure 1.6, Asia pacific (APAC) accounted for the largest market share
of 41% in 2018 and is expected to grow at a significant rate of 5.5 percent during the forecast
period. The region's dominance is attributed to the pharmaceutical sector's continued
expansion, the presence of a large number of industry players, and growing awareness of
vitamin C's importance in treating various conditions. While Europe accounted for 24% of the
market in 2018, with a CAGR of 5.1 percent over the forecast period, North America accounted
for 29% of the market in 2018, with a CAGR of 5%, owing to a well-established personal care
sector and the pharmaceutical industry's continuous growth. It predicted a growing market in
2021 and beyond as a result of the effect of the Covid-19 pandemic.
12
Figure 1.7: Global Vitamin C Market 2017 until 2027 (New, 2021)
Vitamin C Market value was USD 1.1 billion in 2020 and is expected to grow at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.1 % through 2027, reaching USD 1.8 billion (New,
2021). Vitamin C demand is increasing as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. This is the primary
factor driving the market's growth. The spread of COVID-19 has had a significant effect on the
economy, with varying consequences for various industries. The dietary supplement market is
experiencing strong demand, as consumers are increasingly concerned with their health in order
to avoid illness. Consumers are increasingly turning to immune boosting supplements to help
reduce their risk of contracting COVID-19. As a result of this outbreak, vitamin C ingredients
are gaining popularity as dietary supplements and in the pharmaceutical industry. Customer
interest has also increased in functional foods and fortified foods that add value to health.
1.3.4 Global Production of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

In mid-2020 when covid-19 hit the world as there was a sudden need for immunity boosters,
vitamin tablets, dietery supplies, which all require vitamin C as a key ingredient. The current
global vitamin C market cover a supply of 140,000 to 150,000 tonnes per year. China is the
world's largest manufacturer of ascorbic acid since they accounting for over 95% of global
production. There are numerous vitamin C producers in China, which means that more than
80% of the world's current demand for vitamin C is met by Chinese suppliers. CSPC Weisheng,
Luwei Pharmaceutical, DSM Jiangshan, Northeast Pharmaceutical, Tianli Pharmaceutical,
Qiyuan Pharmaceutical, Zhengzhou Tuoyang, etc. are some of the major players in the
industry. CSPC is the world's largest producer of vitamin C with a production capacity of
approximately 40,000 tons/year, followed by Luwei Pharmaceutical and Northeast
Pharmaceutical, with production capacities of 30,000 tons/year and 25,000 tons/year.
13
Because China is a major producer of vitamin C, over 70% of its output is exported.
Customers from developed nations like the United States, Japan, and Germany are the primary
purchasers. The General Administration of Customs reports a steady increase in domestic
vitamin C exports in recent years (Zhang, 2020). The export quantity from China has increased
year by year, with 131,000 tons exported in 2016 and 148,000 tons exported in 2017. From
January to December of 2017, China exported 148,796 tons of vitamin c, which increased by
13.4% compared with that in 2016. From January to December of 2017, the number of China’s
exports was US$ 879,741,000, an increase of 14.1% than in 2016. In 2019, exports reached
155,200 tonnes. The increase in domestic vitamin C exports confirms the growing global
demand for vitamin C (Marketing, 2019).
1.3.5 Competitors/Producers of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

1.3.5.1 Global Competitor
Table 1.3: Global Competitor of Ascorbic Acid
⚫ DSM is a company that global purpose-led, science-based company

specializing in Nutrition, Health & Sustainable Living.
⚫ A leading provider of vitamin C in a variety of forms that located at
Dalry, Scotland, United Kingdom.
⚫ In 2005, the production of vitamin C in Belvidere, USA transfer to
Dalry, UK to optimize its vitamin C production, leading to important
cost reductions and improved supply chain flexibility .
⚫ Amway is located at near Ada, Michigan,United Stated.

⚫ Production of Nutrilite vitamins and dietary supplements.
⚫ Produce more than three billion tablets and 1.3 billion soft gel
capsules a year.
14
1.3.5.2 Asia Pacific Competitor
Table 1. 4: Asia Pacific Competitor of Ascorbic Acid
⚫ CSPC Weisheng Pharmaceutical Shijiazhuang Co. Ltd is a

company that produces, processes and sells Vitamin C and
other related products.
⚫ It located Huanghe Street Shijiazhuang, China.
⚫ CSPC is the world's largest producer of vitamin C with a
production capacity of approximately 40,000 tons/year.
⚫ Shandong Luwei Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd is a company that

produces, processes and sells Vitamin C and other related
products also operates power plants and sewage treatment
plants.
⚫ It located at Zibo City, Shandong, China.
⚫ 95% of the product are exported to the regions of North
America, the Europe and so on.
⚫ Production capacities of Ascorbic Acid is 30,000 tons/year.
15
1.3.6 Global Pricing of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Figure 1.8: Global Pricing of Ascorbic Acid 2020/2021 (dolchem.com, 2021)
After reaching a high of $9.5/KG in January, the Ascorbic Acid price has steadily
decreased and is now trading between $7-$8/KG, owing to the relatively stable corn price. The
recent increase in corn prices is likely to keep the ascorbic acid price in a state of rage rather
than allowing it to cool off slightly. The situation should improve by 2021 Q4, when corn prices
should begin to decline, but until then, there will be a continuing demand for Ascorbic Acid,
as it is the cheapest bulk health care product that is widely used, particularly during epidemic
situations. As a result, demand has risen significantly.
Table 1. 5: Price of Ascorbic Acid (alibaba, 2021)
Company Location Purity (%) Price ($/MT)

Hangzhou Xiaoyong Zhejiang, China 99 300-1000
Biotechnology Co.,
Ltd.
Avenue Trading Inc. Texas, United States 99.9 250-600
Xi'an Salus Nutra Bio- Shaanxi, China 99 700-800
Tech Inc.
Based on Table 1.5, the cheapest price for ascorbic acid is sell by Avenue Trading Inc
with $250to $600 per metric tonnes with 99.9% purity. Hangzhou Xiaoyong Biotechnology
Co., Ltd.sell 99% purity of n-butanol for $300 to $1000 per metric tonnes which is the
expensive price among the three company while Xian’an Salus Nutra Bio-Tech Inc sell at
moderate price which is $700 to $800 per metric tonnes with 99%.
16
1.3.7 Market Analysis for Sorbitol
Sorbitol can be synthesised from glucose derived from corn starch. Sorbitol is a natural sugar
alcohol, a polyol with the chemical formula C6H14O6. It is typically an odourless,
noncariogenic, white crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 182.17g/mol, a relative
sweetness of 60% when compared to sucrose, a solubility of 2350g/L, and a pH of
approximately 7.0. It has a wide range of applications in the food industry, including as a
sweetener, moisturiser, texturizer, and softener. It can also be used in diabetic dietetic foods
due to its non-insulin-dependent metabolic pathway (low energy and non-metabolizable).
Figure 1.9: Global Sorbitol Market (Marques et al., 2016)
The global Sorbitol Market accounted for USD 255.80 Billion with volume of 2.62
million tons in 2020 and is expected to reach a volume of 2.97 million tons by 2026 and USD
515 Billion by 2028, growing at a CAGR of 8.6% from 2021 to 2028. The regional
segmentation includes the current and forecast demand for North further bifurcation into
major countries including the U.S. UK, Germany, France, China, Japan, India, and Brazil. The
global sorbitol market was ruled by the Asia Pacific in 2018. Total global production capacity
approximately around 1.31 million tons per year. The price of 70% sorbitol solution of
pharmaceutical grade is approximately USD 500 per tonne. The major sorbitol producer
companies in the market are Archer Daniels Midland, Cargill, Ingredion, Roquette and Tereos
(Marques et al., 2016).
17
1.3.8 Plant Capacity
According to the market survey that have been done, the global production has a value of
140,000 MTPA of ascorbic acid. The CAGR for 2020 until 2027 is 7.1% which is quite high
due to Covid-19 pandemic. The calculation of our plant capacity is as below:
Global production = Vbegin = 140 000 MTPA
Time = 2020-2027 = 7 years
1
𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡
𝐶𝐴𝐺𝑅 = ( ) −1
𝑉𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛
1
7.1 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 7
=( ) −1
100 140 000
1
𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 7×7
(1.071)7 =( )
140 000
𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 226 284.25 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ≈ 230 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 230 000 − 140 000
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
We decide to produce 20% of the shortage value because this amount is sufficient to market
to consumers and make profit to our plant.
20
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 = × 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
100
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 = 18 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
Another reason for not meeting 100% of shortage value is to avoid affecting the global price
of ascorbic acid and to avoid overproduction in the future, which would result from a decrease
in demand and an increase in the number of competitors.
18
1.4 Process Technology
The major goal of this section is to determine the current technology that are used, as well as
the technical quality and economic analysis of the various ascorbic acid production methods.
There are three ways to produce the desired product. The primary priority in determining the
optimum manufacturing route is to select the most profitable way using safe technologies. The
production of ascorbic acid will be discussed in this section.
The three process technologies for producing ascorbic acid are:
1. Reichstein process
2. Two-step fermentation with a single culture
3. Two-step fermentation with a mixed culture
1.4.1 Reichstein process
In chemistry, the Reichstein process is a multi-step process that combines chemical and
microbiological stages to produce ascorbic acid from D-glucose. The first step that involved is
the hydrogenation of D-glucose to D-sorbitol which is an organic reaction that used nickel as
a catalyst. The operating temperature and pressure are high during this reaction. The second
step is the microbial oxidation or fermentation of sorbitol to L-sorbose with acetobacter. The
temperature is set at 30℃ and pH 4. The third step in this process is formation of acetal with
acetone and acid to Diacetone-L-sorbose in order to protect 4-hydroxyl groups in sorbose. Last
but not least, the organic oxidation with potassium permanganate to Diprogulic acid with
heating water resulting 2-Keto-L-gulonic acid. Lastly, ring closing step or as known as gamma
lactonization along with removal of water. The illustrations of the steps can be seen in the
figure below.
Figure 1.10: Reaction step of production of ascorbic acid in Reichstein Process
19
The atom economy values for the Reichstein process in terms of process technologies
economic is 0.6424 while two-step fermentation is 0.5383. The conversion efficiency of a
chemical process in terms of all atoms involved and the desired output is known as atom
economics. In comparison to the two-step fermentation process, the Reichstein method has a
better conversion efficiency of reactant to products. Two-step fermentation, on the other hand,
has substantially lower capital and operating costs than Reichstein fermentation. The cost of
waste disposal for the Reichstein method is also significantly higher than for the two-step
fermentation process, due to the significant quantity of waste produced.
The chemical equation of this process can be seen as below:
1
2
Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen + Water
Fermentation
Diacetone Raw Purified

Sorbitol Sorbose DAKS
sorbose vitamin C vitamin C
Figure 1.11: Method of producing vitamin C by Reichstein Process
1.4.2 Two-step fermentation with a mixed culture

The traditional two-step fermentation procedure is the most successful route for industrial
vitamin C production. The fermentation process includes a one-step conversion of D-sorbitol
to L-sorbose by Gluconobacter oxidants, followed by a mixed culture system comprising
Ketogulonicigenium vulgare and Bacillus megaterium converting L-sorbose to 2-keto-gulonic
acid (2-KLG), the precursor of vitamin C. Ketogulonicigenium vulgare is difficult to culture
on its own, and it has a production capacity of only 2-KLG.
The accompanying bacterium Bacillus megaterium does not create 2-KLG, but it can
help Ketogulonicigenium vulgare thrive and make 2-KLG. Ketogulonicigenium vulgare (the
acid-producing strain) and Bacillus megaterium work together to create mixed-culture
fermentation (companion strain, or co-culture helper)
The two-step fermentation, on the other hand, is more efficient and produces higher-
quality products than the Reichstein method. Two-step fermentation, on the other side, has
20
substantially lower capital and operating expenses than the Reichstein method, which
outweighs its lower atom economy and conversion efficiency. The two-step fermentation
technique has a production cost that is two-thirds that of the Reichstein process. In other words,
the two-step fermentation process generates more revenue overall. The two-step fermentation
process has fewer steps than the Reichstein process, which means it uses less energy and water.
Furthermore, the two-step fermentation method uses lower temperatures and pressures than the
Reichstein process, making it less expensive and safer.
3
𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻8 𝑂6 + 3𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
2
Fermentation Fermentation
Raw Purified
Sorbitol Sorbose KGA
vitamin C vitamin C
Figure 1.12: Methods of producing ascorbic acid with two step fermentations
1.4.3 Two-step fermentation with a single culture
The single culture in the second fermenter utilises only one bacterium, whereas the mixed
culture uses two distinct bacteria. The mixed culture, on the other hand, is difficult to detect
and regulate the contamination of the fermentation. Furthermore, achieving an optimal balance
among the microorganisms involved is difficult, and cultivating two different bacteria takes
more time and space. As a result, the two-step fermentation with a single culture is preferred
over the mixed culture because it has a lower production cost and higher efficiency, as well as
being easier to regulate and monitor the fermentation process.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2) are produced as by-products of
the chosen process' chemical reactions. In the meanwhile, the dangerous chemical used in this
operation is concentrated sulphuric acid. In addition, before being discharged, the water (𝐻2 𝑂)
released by the process is transferred to a wastewater treatment plant, as required by the
Environmental Quality Act of 1974. The chemical equation of this production can be seen as
below:
21
3
𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻8 𝑂6 + 3𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
2
Figure 1.13: Methods of production of ascorbic acid with two step fermentations
Figure 1.14: Block flow diagram production of ascorbic acid with two step fermentations
22
Figure 1.15: Process flow diagram production of ascorbic acid from sorbitol
23
First fermenter
The sorbitol solution, along with ammonia, water, and air, is introduced to the first fermenter
for oxidative fermentation at 30 oC and pH 6. Gluconobacter oxydans converts sorbitol to
sorbose in the first fermenter in 14 hours, resulting in a 98 percent conversion. Gluconobacter
oxydans is created by combining glassy carbon electrodes with molybdenum and manganese
oxides. Platinum (Pt) works as an immobilisation matrix for these bacterial strains
(GCE/MnOx-MoOx/Pt), where GCE stands for Glassy carbon electrode and MnOx-MoOx
stands for manganese and molybdenum mixed oxides. By passing the fermentation broth
through a microfilter before entering the second fermenter, the biomass created in the first
fermenter is eliminated.
Second fermenter
The fermented broth from first fermenter then fed to the second fermenter to ferment by
Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes for 72 h to produce sodium keto-gluconic acid.
During the fermentation, the conversion of sorbose to sodium keto-gluconic acid achieve 76%.
Microfiber
The fermenter's slurry is subsequently passed through a microfilter (MF-101) to separate the
bacteria's biomass. The removal of biomass using a microfilter results in a loss of
approximately 1% of the liquid solution. Primary and secondary alcohols, aldehydes, and
polysaccharides can all be oxidised by Pseudoglyconobacter saccharoketogenes.
Bipolar membrane electrodialysis
A bipolar membrane electrodialysis (GBX-101) is used to recover 2-keto-gulonic acid (KLG)

from sodium keto-gluconic acid by exchanging cation and anion with water molecules.
Evaporator
Before entering a continuous stirred tank reactor, CSTR, the recovered 2-keto-gulonic acid is
supplied through an evaporator to remove the water. Because water is a product in the reaction,
eliminating water increases forward reaction in first CSTR.
First CSTR
At 64 °C, 2-keto-gulonic acid is esterified with methanol to generate methyl gluconate in the
CSTR.
24
Second CSTR
2-ketogulonic acid is cooled to 30 °C by a cooler before reacting methyl gluconate with sodium
carbonate in second CSTR. In this CSTR, Sodium ascorbate is formed when methyl gluconate
interacts with sodium carbonate.
Bipolar membrane dialysis
Sodium ascorbate then supplied to another bipolar membrane dialysis in order to recover
ascorbic acid. The by products which are sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide are discharge.
Vacuum evaporator
Before feeding the ascorbic acid to the crystallisation process for 54 hours at 4 oC, the water
produced in the reactor is evaporated in a vacuum evaporator.
Crystallizer
The ascorbic acid that recovered from vacuum evaporator then is fed into this crystallizer to
convert ascorbic acid in liquid form into solid phase.
Filter
Then, ascorbic acid in liquid phase is being filtered to remove undesired substances.
Freeze dryer
Due to the heat sensitivity features of solid ascorbic acid, it is then freeze-dried to 35 °C in a
freeze dryer after the filtration process. Pure ascorbic acid then is heated before being fed into
a storage tank since its optimum storage temperature is 4 °C.
25
Table 1.6: Comparison for different process of technology available (Lim et al,2020)
Two-step Two-step
Reichstein
Type of process fermentation with fermentation with
process
technology single culture mixed culture
Operating
temperature High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
Operating
pressure High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
Energy
consumption High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
Operating cost High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
-Easier to regulate
and monitor the
fermentation
process.
-Replace the -Replace the
chemical reaction by chemical reaction by
having second having second
fermentation to fermentation to
-Higher
produce keto gluonic produce keto gluonic
conversion
acid acid
Advantages efficiency of
-Less toxic solvents -Less toxic solvents
reactant to
and reagents and reagents
product
- Reduction in waste - Reduction in waste
disposal cost disposal cost
-Lower investment -Process not
cost complicated
-Lower chemical
consumption
-Process not
complicated
Score 1 3 2
26
-Difficult to detect
-Not eco-
and regulate the
friendly
contamination of the
-Explosive gas
fermentation.
is used
-Achieving an
(hydrogen)
optimal balance
-High pressure
among the
and temperature
microorganisms
will result - Growth rate of
involved is difficult
Disadvantages higher in bacteria lower than
-Cultivating two
energy mixed culture
different bacteria
consumption
takes more time and
-Acetone and
space
KMnO4 are
-Difficult to obtain
toxic to
an optimum balance
environment
among the
-Higher fixed
microorganisms
and capital cost
involved
Score 1 3 2
Cost of waste
disposal High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
Quantity of waste
produced High Low Low
Score 1 2 2
Quality of product Lower Higher Higher
Score 1 2 2
Total Score 8 20 18
27
1.5 Site Selection and Plant Layout
1.5.1 Site Selection
To design ascorbic acid production plant, the location of the plant plays an important
role to ensure the process and marketing undergoes well. Thus, it must undergo site selection
and carefully decided before constructing the plant. There are few factors needed to compare
that are raw material availability, market potential, labor supply, reasonable land price,
regulations and policy, transport facilities, and utilities. The raw material use in this ascorbic
acid production is D-sorbitol. Next, D-sorbitol is highly produced in China as it is the largest
world consumption and production of ascorbic acid. Thus, China is selected as the raw material
supplier. In order to select the site location, the location of the raw material supplier that
produces D-sorbitol is crucial to compare the compatibility of selected location.
Table 1.7: Companies that produce D-sorbitol with price range.
State Company Price (RM / kg)

Fujian Xiamen Chengbang Kaixuan 10-49 kg
Biotechnology Co., Ltd Price: RM 8.33/kg
50-999 kg
Price: RM 5.00/kg
>= 1000 kg
Price: RM 3.33/kg
Xian Xi’an International Healthcare
Factory Co., Ltd Price: RM 83. 32/kg
Zhejiang Jiaxing Renze Import & Export Price: RM 6.25 – RM
Co., Ltd 12.50/kg
From the Table 1.7, it shows that there are enough supplies of raw material needed to meet the
production capacity of the design production plant. From the company listed, Xiamen
Chengbang Kaixuan Biotechnology Co., Ltd is selected as the raw material supplier as it offers
cheapest price. To select the most compatible location, there are several factors to be
considerate which are:
28
Table 1.8: Distance of the raw material availability with the supplier
Industrial area Distance from supplier (km)
Kerteh Industrial Park, Terengganu 4492
Staphonal Industrial Park, Kelantan 4280
Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park, 4431

Pahang
i. Raw material availability
Raw material avaibility is the most crucial criteria in order to select a suitable
location for the plant. Next, it is important to locate the plant near the source of raw material
as it can save time, reduce the transportation and storage cost. To design the plant, the
distance between the industrial area and the company that supply raw material is selected
to make the comparison.
Based on the Table 1.8 above, it can be concluded that staphonal industrial park
has the least distance with the raw material supplier which is 4280 km while kerteh
industrial park has the longest distance from the raw material availability which is 4492 km
and kechau tui lipis industrial park has 4431 km from the raw material supplier. By looking
this result, staphonal industrial park has big chances from the other two options.
ii. Market potential
The location of the production plays an important role as it contributes to the

production cost. The marketing and production distribution places also affect the cost
such as the shipping cost and time consume to distribute the product. More cost is
needed if the distance is too far. Thus, it is important to choose a site location with high
markets.
29
Table 1.9: Availability of the customer within the area
Industrial area Availability of the customers within the

industrial area
Kerteh Industrial Park, Terengganu Alpro Pharmacy

Alamanda Pharmacy
Staphonal Industrial Park, Kelantan Medichemie Pharmacy (M) Sdn Bhd
Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park, Pahang Pharmacy

Pahang
Based on the Table 1.9 above, the industrial area with high markets is kerteh
industrial park while staphonal industrial park and Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park has
the least customers’ availability. Location with high market demand can generate high
profit from the production of ascorbic acid.
iii. Labor supply
The labor supply is according to the existing population around the industrial
area. The higher the population in the industrial area, the higher the labor supply
number of employees. In industry, both skilled and unskilled employees are needed to
maintain the production. Every skilled and unskilled employee has their own job scopes
in order to successfully maintain the operation in the production plant. Skilled employee
may be contributed to various departments such as engineering, finance, technologist,
human resource and many others. For unskilled employee usually are responsible to
handle the operation in the production plant. The employee can be local or foreigner.
30
Table 1.10: Labor supply within the area
Industrial area Labor supply within the area
Kerteh Industrial Park, Terengganu Mara University of Technology
Staphonal Industrial Park, Kelantan Risda College

Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park, Community College

Pahang Educational institute of teacher’s
campus Tengku Ampuan Afzan
According to Table 1.10, Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park has the most
chances of the labor supply than kerteh industrial park and staphonal industrial park. At
the three nominated sites, the most probably labor supply is from higher educational
center such as public university and colleges.
iv. Reasonable land price
Before selecting a land to build a plant, it is crucial to survey the prices of land
in the selected places because the investment requires a significant quantity of funds.
Furthermore, the property and land are set up as permanent operations base. If the
property is leasehold, it is also critical to ascertain the expiry year in addition to the
price.
31
Table 1.11: Prices of land
Industrial area Area (Acres) Selling price Lease period

(RM/ square (years)
feet)
Kerteh Industrial
Park, 21 6.51 60
Terengganu
Staphonal
Industrial Park, 843 3.72 66
Kelantan
Kechau Tui Lipis

Industrial Park, 211 6 99
Pahang
Based on Table 1.11, the price at kerteh industrial park is a bit higher than the
other two options which is RM 6.51/square feet. From all 3 options, the staphonal
industrial park has the cheapest price of land which is RM 3.72/ square feet followed
by kechau tui lipis industrial park with RM 6/square feet.
v. Utilities
In a production plant, electricity and water are the most needed element.
Without electricity, all the equipment that needs electricity fails to function such as
evaporator, reactor, fermenter and others. Electricity also can be generating from
renewable energy such as solar, winds and biomass waste. Other than that, it also can
be generating from coal and fossil fuels. Apart from water companies such as Syarikat
Air Selangor, water supply can also be from seas and nearby rivers.
32
Table 1.12: Water supply and electricity supply within the area
Industrial area Water supply Electricity supply
Kerteh Industrial Syarikat Air Tenaga Nasional

Park, Terengganu Terengganu Berhad (TNB)
(SATU) Tariff D
Price: RM 0.38 sen/
Price: RM 1.15 kWh
Staphonal Air Kelantan Sdn Tenaga Nasional

Industrial Park, Bhd Berhad
Kelantan (TNB)
Tariff D
Price: RM 1.80 Price: RM 0.38
sen/kWh
Kechau Tui Lipis Pengurusan Air Tenaga Nasional

Industrial Park, Pahang Berhad Berhad
Pahang (TNB)
Price: RM 0.99 Tariff D
Price: RM 0.38
sen/kWh
From the Table 1.12, Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park has the cheapest price
of water and electricity supply which is RM 0.99 and RM 0.38 sen/kWh. Kerteh
industrial park has the same price rate as staphonal industrial park for electricity supply
but has lower price rate for water supply which is RM 1.15. Apart from that, staphonal
industrial area price rate is RM 1.80 for water supply and RM 0.38 sen/kWh for
electricity supply respectively.
33
vi. Regulations and policy
The policies of state and municipal governments in terms of safety, building

rules, and labor legislation are all aspects to consider. Malaysia's central and state
governments offer incentives to entrepreneurs and investors in order to achieve
balanced regional growth of industries.
Table 1.13: Incentives available within the area
Industrial Park Incentive’s availability
Kerteh Industrial
• Free trade area
Park, Terengganu
Staphonal Industrial • Stamp duty exemption on land or building acquired for approved
project/activity.
Park, Kelantan
Kechau Tui Lipis

Industrial Park,
• Application form
Pahang
Based on the Table 1.13 above, kerteh industrial park, staphonal industrial park and
kechau tui industrial park has its own government policies and incentives.
Subsequently it is useful in terms of support from both government and state.
34
vii. Transportation facility
Transportation is important for a production plant. It is because it can ease

the shipping of the raw material, products, and the production plant employees. If the
location is lack of transportation, it will consume more time to distribute the products
and the production process will be lengthy. There are many types of transportation to
be discussed such as railways, air transportation, road and others.
Table 1.14: Airport availability
Industrial Park Airport availability Distance (km)
Kerteh Industrial Park, Kerteh Airport 5.7

Terengganu
Staphonal Industrial Sultan Ismail Petra 84.5

Park, Kelantan Airport (KBR)
Kechau Tui Lipis Sultan Haji Ahmad

Industrial Park, Shah Airport 217
Pahang
From the Table 1.14 above, Kerteh Industrial Park has the nearest distance
to the airport which is 5.7 km than Staphonal Industrial Park with 84.5 km And
Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park with 217 km. From this, it can be concluded that
Kerteh Industrial Park has the advantage as it having the least distance.
35
Table 1.15: Road facilities within the area
Industrial Park Road facilities Distance (km)
Kerteh Industrial Park, LPT 2: Kerteh 36.9

Terengganu Interchange
Staphonal Industrial Kota Bharu- Kuala 38.0

Park, Kelantan Krai Expressway
Kechau Tui Lipis Kuala Lumpur-Gua 51.0

Industrial Park, Pahang Musang Expressway
Based on the Table 1.15, all the industrial park selected has the same advantages as
it has main road to access. Thus, the distance of the road and the industrial park need to
be compared. Then, Kerteh Industrial Park has the least distance with the main road
which is 36.9 km than staphonal industrial park with 38.0 km and Kechau Tui Lipis
Industrial Park with 51.0 km.
36
Table 1.16: Seaport availability within the area
Industrial Park Seaport availability Distance (km)
Kerteh Industrial Park, Kerteh Terminals 8.9

Terengganu
Staphonal Industrial None 0

Park, Kelantan
Kechau Tui Lipis

Industrial Park, Kuantan Port 283
Pahang
Based on the Table 1.16, the industrial park that has the most advantage is
kerteh industrial park as it has the nearest distance to the seaport which is 8.9 km. The
kechau tui lipis industrial park has the longest distance to the seaport which is 283 km.
37
Table 1.17: Summary of site selection
Criteria Location
Kechau Tui Lipis Industrial Park,

Kerteh Industrial Park Staphonal Industrial Park, Kelantan
Pahang
Distance from raw material availability

4492 4280 4431
(km)
2 6 4
Alpro Pharmacy
Availability of the customers within the Alamanda Pharmacy Medichemie Pharmacy (M) Sdn Bhd Pahang Pharmacy
area
6 2 2
Community College
Risda College
Mara University of Technology Educational institute of teacher’s campus
Labor supply within the area Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Tengku Ampuan Afzan
2 6 6
38
Criteria Location

Pahang
Reasonable land price (RM/ square feet)

6.51 3.72 6
2 6 4
Water Utilities Price: RM 1.15 Price: RM 1.80 Price: RM 0.99
4 2 6
Electricity Utilities Price: RM 0.38 sen/ kWh Price: RM 0.38 sen/ kWh Price: RM 0.38 sen/ kWh
6 6 6
39
Criteria Location

Pahang
Regulations and policy Free trade area Stamp duty exemption on land or
building acquired for approved Application form
project/activity.
6 6 6
Kerteh Airport Sultan Ismail Petra Airport (KBR) Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Airport
Airport Availability (Distance)
5.7 km 84.5 km 217 km
6 4 2
LPT 2: Kerteh Interchange Kota Bharu- Kuala Krai Expressway Kuala Lumpur-Gua Musang Expressway
Road Facilities (Distance)
36.9 km 38.0 km 51.0 km
6 4 2
Kerteh Terminals None Kuantan Port

Seaport Availability (Distance)
8.9 km 0 km 283 km
6 2 4
40
Score:
Favorable = 6, Medium = 4, Unfavorable = 2
Table 1.18: Summary of total marks
State Total Marks
Terengganu 46
Kelantan 44
Pahang 42
Figure 1.16: Distance from Kerteh, Terengganu to Fujian, China
41
From the analysis that has been done above, the industrial park that has the highest score
is Kerteh Industrial Park, Terengganu which scores 46. Thus, Kerteh Industrial Park is selected to
be the plant location for ascorbic acid production. The production of ascorbic acid is from D-
sorbitol as the raw material, and it can be obtained from the supplier with the distance of 4492 km
from Xiamen Chengbang Kaixuan Biotechnology Co., Ltd Fujian, China. The Alpro pharmacy
and Alamanda pharmacy are located near that can give ample market potential of the ascorbic acid
plant which will generate high profit. The number of populations for skilled labour around the
Kerteh Industrial Park is high which will give many benefits to maintain the operation of the plant.
The electricity and water supply for the production at Kerteh Industrial Park can be obtained at
reasonable price which is RM0. 38 sen/ kWh and RM 1.15. Other than that, it also has strategic
location which Kerteh Industrial Park nears to the seaport and airport, with just 8.9 km to Kerteh
Terminals and 5.7 km to kerteh airport. Thus, it will give many advantages to the production plant.
Next, Kerteh Industrial Park can be accessible via LPT 2: Kerteh Interchange.
42
1.5.2 Plant Layout
When designing a plant layout, the first to be taken into account is to build a safe
production plant design. It is because the plan layout is the actual placement of the machinery,
work areas and service areas within the production plant. To avoid undesirable situation, it is
compulsory to properly plan the plant layout of a production plant. From the Failure Knowledge
Database (FKD) analysis done by (Kidam & Hurme, 2012; Taylor, 2007), it shows that accident
cases have found that design's contribution to accidents is significant. Based on the analysis, 79%
of the accident cases were contributed by design errors and 17% of the most critical caused by
design errors were poor layout. In order to ensure the smooth flow of the process from the raw
material to the distribution of the product produced, below are some objectives to get a properly
planned plant layout.
I. To provide better supervision and control of operations.
II. Carefully plan of the plant layout can avoid congestion in the production plant.
III. Reduce the risks of accidents to occur.
IV. Can avoid frequent changes to the manufacturing plant layout which can increase in
the cost of production.
V. To ensure the quality and capacity requirements economically feasible.
VI. Provide adequate safety and health of the workers in the production plant.
VII. Reduce hazards to personnel.
VIII. Provide enough room for production.
The structures with functions and preferred placements in the plant are shown in Table 1.17
below.
43
Table 1.19: Buildings in the plant layout
Building in the ascorbic

Function Preferable location
acid production plant
An access control
checkpoint to record the
Usually, it is located beside
Security guard house activities of vehicles that go
the entrance of a plant.
in and out from the process
plant.
The main office of the

process plant as it organized
the direction of the workers
Located near the entrance
Administration department and resources to achieved
and assembly points.
desired goals. The resources
including materials and
financial.
It covers occupational safety

and health in the
manufacturing department,
Occupational safety & factories, workers and the Located beside or near the
health department areas around the plant. This administration department.
department also responsible
in planning the process on
accident prevention.
44
It is located near the
It is a designated area for all
entrance and guardhouse. It
the workers and staffs in the
is important to locate the
production plant to gather in
assembly point far away
Assembly point 1 and 2 case of an emergency
from the production area to
situation occur such as fire,
provide a safe place for the
explosion or other
workers to gather if
emergency cases.
undesirable situation occur.
Provide space for all the

staffs in the production Located near the assembly
Parking area plant to park their points and safety guard
transportation such as cars, house.
motorcycles and bicycles.
Located near the entrance

Place for the workers to eat and far away from
Cafe or buy food during the production area to provide
recess time. hygienic in the production
area.
Prayer room For people to pray. Located beside the toilet.
To repair and store all the It is located near the

Maintenance room broken and unused production area to facilitate
equipment. the maintenance works.
Located near the production

Water tank To provide storage of water.
area.
45
Provide electricity to the
TNB production plant.
area.
The function of a control

room is to control
production and to act as a
central place where a huge Located beside the
Control room
physical facility or production area.
geographically distributed
service may be monitored
and controlled.
Located far away from

For the production of
Production area entrance and assembly
vitamin.
points for safety purposes.
Used for raw material

delivery and unloading, as
Attached to the
Loading docks well as loading and
manufacturing area.
exporting completed
products.
The area to store the raw Located beside the

Raw material area
material. production area.
To store the products after

Located beside the
Product area the manufacturing process
production area.
complete.
46
The utility room is where
equipment that is not
Utilities room utilized on a daily basis is
area and laboratory.
kept.
Laboratory works such as

Near the production area
Laboratory research and development
and utilities.
process.
In case the capacity of the

Located beside the
Expansion area manufacturing plant in the
production area.
next future to expand.
47
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
Figure 1.17: The designated plant layout
48
1.6 Project Objective
The plant is designed to produce 18,000 MT ascorbic acid annually which based on the 30%
from the shortage of ascorbic acid for 2021-2028. The raw material selected is D-sorbitol due
to its high availability in Malaysia and environmentally friendly. This process involves only 6
reactions which are fermentation, filtration, membrane electrodialysis, evaporation,
crystallization and drying. The process will be conducted in batch mode that can produce up to
125 tons per batch and operate 144 batch per year.
49
CHAPTER 2: PROCESS SCREENING & SYNTHESIS
2.1 Level 1 Decision

2.1.1 Process Selection
At this section, the selection of synthesis route will be made from the comparison of several
synthesis route for production of ascorbic acid. The selection will compare based on the
reaction, raw material, operating condition, safety, and environment technologies of the
synthesis route to produce the desired product.
There are several process technologies that are available in producing the ascorbic acid will be
compare which are:
1. Reichstein process
2. Two-step fermentation with a single culture
3. Two-step fermentation with a mixed culture
2.1.2 Economic Potential 1, Profit Margin

Economic Potential 1, EP1 = Revenue – Raw Material Cost
2.1.2.1 Reichstein process
1
2
Table 2. 1: Price of raw materials and products for Reichstein process

Molecular
Price Price
Chemicals weight Source of Price
(RM/kg) (RM/kmol)
(kg/kmol)
Raw Materials
Sorbitol 3.33 182.17 606.63 Alibaba Group
Sodium
5.85 105.99 620.04 Alibaba Group
carbonate
Products
Ascorbic acid 24.97 176.12 4397.72
Sodium 66.79 Alibaba Group
1.67 39.997
hydroxide
50
Production of 18000 MTPA Ascorbic acid:
1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
18000 MT/year x × 176.12 𝑘𝑔 = 102203.04 kmol C6 H8 O6 /year
1 𝑀𝑇
Sorbitol required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑙
102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol C6 H14 O6/year
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
Oxygen required:
1.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

102203.04 kmol/year × = 153304.56 kmol O2/yr
Sodium carbonate required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol Na2 CO3 /year
Sodium hydroxide required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol NaOH/year
Hydrogen required:
2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
102203.04 kmol/year × = 204406.08 kmol H2 /year
Water required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol H2 O/yea
EP1 = Revenue – Cost of Raw Material
𝑅𝑀 4397.72
EP1 = [ (102203.04 kmol C6 H8 O6 /year × ) ] +[ (102203.04 kmol NaOH/year
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅𝑀 66.79 𝑅𝑀606.63
× ) ] – [ (102203.04 kmol C6 H14 O6/year × ) ] – [ (102203.04 kmol
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅𝑀 620.04
Na2 CO3 /year× )]
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
EP1 = RM 330917091/year
EP1 330917091
Profit Margin = × 100 = × 100 = 263.95 %
Raw Material Cost 125369403.1
51
2.1.2.2 Two-step fermentation single culture
Overall equation:
3
2
Table 2.2: Price of raw materials and product for two-step fermentation single culture
Molecular
Price Price
Chemicals weight Source of Price
(RM/kg) (RM/kmol)
(kg/kmol)
Raw Materials
Sorbitol 3.33 182.17 606.63 Alibaba Group
Oxygen 42.50 16 680 PHARMACOMPASS
Sodium 620.04
5.85 105.99
carbonate
Alibaba Group
Sodium 702.24
8.36 84
bicarbonate
Products
Ascorbic acid 24.97 176.12 4397.72
Sodium 66.79 Alibaba Group
1.67 39.997
hydroxide
Production of 18000 MTPA Ascorbic acid:
1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
18000 MT/year x × 176.12 𝑘𝑔 = 102203.04 kmol C6 H8 O6 /year
1 𝑀𝑇
Sorbitol required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑙
102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol C6 H14 O6/year
Oxygen required:
1.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

102203.04 kmol/year × = 153304.56 kmol O2/yr
52
Sodium carbonate required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol Na2 CO3 /year
Sodium bicarbonate required:
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
102203.04 kmol/year × = 102203.04 kmol NaHCO3 /year
Sodium hydroxide required:
3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

102203.04 kmol/year × = 306609.12 kmol NaOH/year
Water required:
2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
102203.04 kmol/year × = 204406.08 kmol H2 O/year
EP1 = Revenue – Cost of Raw Material
𝑅𝑀 4397.72
EP1 = [ (102203.04 kmol C6 H8 O6 /year × ) ] +[ (306609.12 kmol NaOH/year
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅𝑀 66.79 𝑅𝑀606.63
× ) ]– [ (102203.04 kmol C6 H14 O6 /year × ) ] – [ (102203.04 kmol
𝑅𝑀 620.04 𝑅𝑀 702.24
Na2 CO3 /year× )] – [ (102203.04 kmol NaHCO3 /year × )]
EP1 = RM 272798310.3/year
EP1
Profit Margin = × 100
Raw Material Cost
272798310.3
= × 100
197140465.9
= 138.38 %
53
2.1.2.3 Two-step fermentation mixed culture
Since the raw materials and the products of the two-step fermentation mixed culture is basically
the same with the two-step fermentation single culture. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
profit margin and economic potential Level 1 for mixed culture is the same with single culture
which is RM 272798310.3/year.
54
2.1.3 Decision Selection of Synthesis Route
Table 2.3: Comparison of the different synthesis route

Two-step fermentation
Aspect Reichstein process
Single culture Mixed culture
Sorbitol Sorbitol Sorbitol
Raw Material
3 3 3
Operating
30oC and pH 4-6 30oC and pH 6 29oC and pH 6.8-7.0
Condition on
Fermentation 3 3 3
1st fermentation: 1st fermentation:
Gluconobacter oxydans Gluconobacter oxydans
2nd fermentation: 2nd fermentation:
Microorganisms Glucono oxydans Acetobacter
Pseudoglyconobacter Ketogulonicugenium
used
Saccharoketogenes vulgarem and Bacillus
megaterium
1 3 1
Overall Yield 50 % 60 % 60 %
Production
1 3 3
USD 64.5 million USD 43 million USD 43 million

Cost
1 3 3
• Easier to regulate and • Replace the chemical
monitor the fermentation reaction by having
• Higher conversion efficiency process second fermentation to
Advantages of reactant to product • Lower investment cost produce keto-gluconic
• Lower waste disposal acid
cost
1 3 2
55
• Requires inhibits the growth • Growth rate of bacteria • Hard to be detected and
of bacteria are lower than mixed controlled the
• Requires high initial culture contamination of
concentration of sorbitol that fermentation
Disadvantages
decreased the rate of
oxidation
1 3 1
Reichstein process is not eco- • Less toxic solvents and • Less toxic solvents and
friendly. reagents reagents
1. Explosive gas, • Since the waste is less, so • Since the waste is less,
hydrogen (H2) is used it will reduce the disposal so it will reduce the
2. High pressure and cost disposal cost
Environmental
temperature needed
3. Acetone and KMnO4
are toxic
1 3 3
RM 330917091/year RM 272798310.3/year RM 272798310.3/year

EP1/
(263.95 %) (138.38 %) (138.38 %)
Profit Margin
3 1 1
Total Score 15 25 20
Based on the total score at Table 2.3, it can be justified that the synthesis route of two-step
fermentation with single culture is the most suitable route to produce ascorbic acid. Comparing
to all the factors, there is significant reason on why the selection is made considering operating
condition, advantages and disadvantages even though the economic potential gives the lower
than the Reichstein process.
56
2.1.4 Decision Mode of Operation
There is only two available mode of operation which is batch and continuous. Batch
mode is often utilized for small-scale operation such as test on the laboratory size or brand pilot
testing while in continuous mode is suitable for large scale operation that need high desired
product to be produced. The selection of mode of operation is selected based on aspect and
criteria shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Guidelines in the selection of the mode of operation

Mode of Operation Batch Continuous
Capacity < 500 MTPA ≥ 500 MTPA
Product types Multiple products Single product
Feedstock availability Inconsistent supply Continuous supply
Equipment fouling Severe fouling No severe fouling
• Multiple operation • Lower labour cost
Advantages equipment • Easy to control
• Easy to modify • Flexible operation
• High exposure to chemical • Large quantities of off-
• High operating labour cost spec product
Disadvantages
• Strict schedule and • Continuous operation
controllability throughout years
However, based on the guidelines above the semi-batch mode of operation is selected referred
to several aspects and since the process equipment required fermenter to operate in batch mode
and the reactor in continuous mode. Furthermore, the capacity production expected to produce
18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid
57
2.2.1 Raw material selection and impurities management
The raw materials used in this process are sorbitol solution, water, air, ammonia,
oxygen, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and methanol. All of the raw materials with
purity as stated in the table below can be purchased in Malaysia and China. The air feed is
having only 21% oxygen. Although Nitrogen content is high (79%), it normally remains in the
feed to the reactor as it is considered inert to the reaction and is also used for avoiding
flammability limit.
Table 2.5: Purity and prices data for raw materials

Component Purity (%) Price (RM/kg) Source of price
Sorbitol solution 70 3.32 Alibaba Group
Water 99.99 1.06/1000 L Kuching Water
Board
Air 100 -
Ammonia 99.9 2.51 Alibaba Group
Sodium carbonate 99.2 5.85 Alibaba Group
Sodium bicarbonate 99 8.36 Alibaba Group
Methanol 99.9 0.84 Alibaba Group
2.2.2 Output materials determination and decision of destinations

The cost of raw materials typically ranges from 33 to 85% of the entire processing cost,
and these costs must be calculated before any further detail is added to the design (Douglas,
1988). The impurity originates from the air feed at this level, but because consuming air is free,
there is no need to recycle oxygen/air. Except for an option to have recycle and purge streams,
which is not the case, the recycle streams will not appear because it comes out and goes back
into the process.
According to Douglas textbook, the boiling point was used to classify the output
destination for all components involved in the operation. Table below indicates the purity and
pricing of the product, as well as the information of the chemical components involved.
58
Table 2.6: Output material destination and decision code for production of ascorbic acid
Component Boiling point (℃) Destination and decision
Sodium hydroxide 1388 Secondary product
Carbon dioxide -78.46 Fuel
Ascorbic acid 553 Primary product
Water 100 Waste
Biomass - Waste
Table 2.7: Purity and prices data for product

Component Purity (%) Price (RM/kg) Source of price
Ascorbic acid 95 24.97 Alibaba Group
Sodium hydroxide 99 1.67 Alibaba group
Water - - -
Carbon dioxide - - -
Biomass - - -
Following the rule of thumb in process design guideline, it is preferable to recover more
than 90% of all useful materials when designing a process. The mole balances for the overall
system in which the limiting reactant is not 100 percent conversion are determined at the second
level of decision (various conversions are evaluated inside the process and would appear in the
third level of decision). The process input-output structure is represented in Figure below.
59
Figure 2.1: Block Flow Diagram of Production of Ascorbic Acid
60
2.2.3 Mole balance in terms of extent of reaction
The mole balance for this process can be analysed using the extent of reaction method. This is
because, this material balance is essential for economic potential calculation soon after. This
method is convenient for reactive processes with chemical equilibrium problems and when any
equation solving software will be used (Felder et.al, 2017). Firstly, we gather all the
information needed as well as coming up with extent of reactions calculation, ξ, to compute
the Degree of Freedom (DoF) analysis. The equation below shows the correlation that will be
used to compute general equation of mole balance.
𝑛̇ 𝑖 = 𝑛̇ 𝑖0 + 𝑣̇ 𝑖 𝜉
Where 𝑛̇ 𝑖 is the molar flow rate per second of each species and 𝑣𝑖 is the stoichiometry
coefficient while 𝜉 represents each reaction happens in the process.
Step 1: Conversion of sorbitol to sorbose by Gluconobacter oxydans
1
Main reaction: 𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝜉1
𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑙 + 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 → 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜉1
Table 2.8: Extent of reaction step 1

Species Symbol Inlet Change Outlet
Sorbitol A 𝐹𝐴0 −𝜉1 FA= 𝐹𝐴0 −𝜉1
Oxygen B 𝐹𝐵0 −𝜉1 FB= 𝐹𝐵0 −𝜉1
Sorbose C - 𝜉1 FC= 𝜉1
Water D - 𝜉1 PW=FD= 𝜉1
Step 2: Conversion of sorbose to sodium keto-gluconic acid by Pseudoglyconobacter

Saccharoketogenes
1 3 1
Main reaction: 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 + 2 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝐶𝑂2 𝜉2
𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑜 − 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 +

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 ----- 𝜉2
61
Sorbose C 𝐹𝐶0 −𝜉2 FC= 𝐹𝐶0 −𝜉2
Oxygen B 𝐹𝐵0 −𝜉2 FB= 𝐹𝐵0 −𝜉2
Sodium carbonate E 𝐹𝐸0 −𝜉2 FE= 𝐹𝐸0 −𝜉2
Sodium keto-gluconic F - 𝜉2 FF= 𝜉2
acid
Water D - 𝜉2 PW =FD= 𝜉2
Carbon dioxide G - 𝜉2 PCO2=FG= 𝜉2
Step 3: Conversion of sodium keto-gluconic acid to keto-gluconic acid through hydrolysis
𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂7 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝜉3
𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑜 − 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝐾𝑒𝑡𝑜 − 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒-
- 𝜉3

Sodium keto- F 𝐹𝐹0 −𝜉3 FF= 𝐹𝐼0 −𝜉3
gluconic acid
Water D 𝐹𝐷0 −𝜉3 PW=FD=
𝐹𝐷0 −𝜉3
Keto-gluconic H - 𝜉3 FH= 𝜉3
acid
Sodium I - 𝜉3 PSH =FI= 𝜉3
hydroxide
62
Step 4: Conversion of keto-gluconic acid to methyl gluconate through esterification process
𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂7 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝜉4
𝐾𝑒𝑡𝑜 − 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 → 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜉4

Keto-gluconic H 𝐹𝐻0 −𝜉4 FH= 𝐹𝐻0 − 𝜉4
acid
Methanol J 𝐹𝐽0 −𝜉4 FJ= 𝐹𝐽0 − 𝜉4
Methyl K - 𝜉4 FK= 𝜉4
gluconate
Step 5: Conversion of methyl gluconate to sodium ascorbate
𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻7 𝑂6 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 𝜉5
𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 +

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝜉5

Methyl gluconate K 𝐹𝐾0 −𝜉5 FK= 𝐹𝐾0 − 𝜉5
Sodium bicarbonate L 𝐹𝐿 −𝜉5 FL= 𝐹𝐿0 − 𝜉5
Sodium ascorbate M - 𝜉5 FM= 𝜉5
Methanol J - 𝜉5 FJ= 𝜉5
Carbon dioxide G - 𝜉5 PCO2 =FG= 𝜉5
63
Step 6: Recovery of ascorbic acid from sodium ascorbate through hydrolysis reaction
𝐶6 𝐻7 𝑁𝑎𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶 6 𝐻8 𝑂6 𝜉6
𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝐴𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝜉6

Sodium ascorbate M 𝐹𝑀0 −𝜉6 FM= 𝐹𝑀0 − 𝜉6
Water D 𝐹𝐷0 −𝜉6 PW =FD=
𝐹𝐷0 −𝜉6
Sodium hydroxide I - 𝜉6 PSH =FN= 𝜉6
Ascorbic acid N - 𝜉6 PAC = FO= 𝜉6
2.2.4 Degree of freedom

The extent of reaction is used to determine the degree of freedom. This analysis is carried out
in order to determine the information required to solve the material balance. The unknown
ggvariables can be determined by listing the available information to answer those variables
by computing the degree of freedom (Rousseau, 2005). In the table below, the degree of
freedom (DOF) analysis is performed.
i. Degree of Freedom at step 1 reaction
Table 2.14: Degree of Freedom (DOF) at step 1 reaction

No of unknown (2 inlet flowrate and 4 outlet flowrate) +6
No of independent reaction +1
No. Reactive species -4
Impurity (70% sorbitol) -1
98% conversion of sorbitol -1
Degree of Freedom 1
64
ii. Degree of Freedom at step 1 reaction (by Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes)
Table 2.15: Degree of Freedom step 2 reaction

76% conversion of sorbose -1
Degree of Freedom 3
iii. Degree of Freedom at step 3 reaction

Degree of Freedom 3
Iv. Degree of Freedom at step 4 reaction

Degree of Freedom 3
v. Degree of Freedom at step 5 reaction

Degree of Freedom 3
65
vi. Degree of Freedom at step 6 reaction

95% Purity of Ascorbic Acid -1
Production of 18000 MTPA of Ascorbic Acid -1
Degree of Freedom 1
66
2.2.5 Stoichiometry
In the table below show the stoichiometry for all steps that involved.
18000𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 1000𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑦𝑟 1ℎ𝑟 1000𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐹𝐴𝐶 = × 1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 × 176.12𝑘𝑔 × 8000ℎ𝑟 × 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 × =
1 𝑦𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙
212.9230 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Step 1: Conversion of sorbitol to sorbose by Gluconobacter oxydans
1
𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂 (1)
Table 2.20: Stoichiometry Table for Step 1 reaction

Species Symbol Initial Change Remaining
Sorbitol A 𝐹𝐴0 −FAO X1 𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐴𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
Oxygen B 𝐹𝐵0 −0.5FAO X1 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐴𝑂 (𝜃𝐵 − 𝑂. 5𝑋1 )

= 𝜃𝐵 𝐹𝐴𝑂
Sorbose C - +𝐹𝐴𝑂 𝑋1 𝐹𝐶 = FAO X1
Water D - +FAO X1 𝐹𝐷 = FAO X1
67
Step 2: Conversion of sorbose to sodium keto-gluconic acid by Pseudoglyconobacter
Saccharoketogenes
1 3 1
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 + 2 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝐶𝑂2 (1)

Sorbose C 𝐹𝐶0 −FCO X1 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
Oxygen B 𝐹𝐵0 −FCO X1 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐶𝑂 (𝜃𝐵 − 𝑋1 )
= 𝜃𝐵 𝐹𝐶𝑂
Sodium E 𝐹𝐸𝑂 −0.5𝐹𝐶𝑂 𝑋1 𝐹𝐸 = FCO (𝜃𝐸 − 0.5X1 )
carbonate = 𝜃𝐸 𝐹𝐶𝑂
Sodium keto- F - +FCO X1 𝐹𝐹 = FCO X1
gluconic acid
Water D - +1.5FCO X1 𝐹𝐷 = 1.5FCO X1
Carbon dioxide G - +0.5FCO X1 𝐹𝐺 = 0.5FCO X1
Step 3: Conversion of sodium keto-gluconic acid to keto-gluconic acid through hydrolysis
𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂7 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (1)

Sodium keto- F 𝐹𝐹0 −FF0 X1 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
gluconic acid
Water D 𝐹𝐷0 −FF0 X1 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐹𝑂 (𝜃𝐷 − 𝑋1 )
= 𝜃𝐷 𝐹𝐹𝑂
Keto-gluconic H - +𝐹𝐹0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝐹0 𝑋1
acid
Sodium I - +FF0 X1 𝐹𝐼 = 𝐹𝐹0 𝑋1
hydroxide
68
Step 4: Conversion of keto-gluconic acid to methyl gluconate through esterification process
𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂7 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 (1)

Species Symbol Initial Charge Remaining
Keto-gluconic H 𝐹𝐻0 −FH0 X1 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝐻𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
acid
Methanol J 𝐹𝐽0 = 𝜃𝐽 𝐹𝐻𝑂 −FH0 X1 𝐹𝐽 = 𝐹𝐻𝑂 (𝜃𝐽 − 𝑋1 )
Methyl gluconate K - +𝐹𝐻0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐾 = 𝐹𝐻0 𝑋1
Water D - +FJ0 X1 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐽0 𝑋1
Step 5: Conversion of methyl gluconate to sodium ascorbate
𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻7 𝑂6 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 (1)

Methyl gluconate K 𝐹𝐾0 −FK0 X1 𝐹𝐾 = 𝐹𝐾𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
Sodium L 𝐹𝐿0 = 𝜃𝐿 𝐹𝐾𝑂 −FK0 X1 𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝐾𝑂 (𝜃𝐿 − 𝑋1 )
bicarbonate
Sodium ascorbate M - +𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1 𝐹𝑀 = 𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1
Methanol J - +𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐽 = 𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1
Water D - +𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1
Carbon dioxide G - +𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐺 = 𝐹𝐾0 𝑋1
69
Step 6: Recovery of ascorbic acid from sodium ascorbate through hydrolysis reaction
𝐶6 𝐻7 𝑁𝑎𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶6 𝐻8 𝑂6 (1)

Sodium ascorbate M 𝐹𝑀0 −FM0 X1 𝐹𝑀 = 𝐹𝑀𝑂 (1 − 𝑋1 )
Water D 𝐹𝐷0 = 𝜃𝐷 𝐹𝑀𝑂 −FM0 X1 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝑀𝑂 (𝜃𝐷 − 𝑋1 )
Sodium I - +𝐹𝑀0 𝑋1 𝐹𝐼 = 𝐹𝑀0 𝑋1
hydroxide
Ascorbic acid N - +FM0 X1 𝐹𝑁 = 𝐹𝑀0 𝑋1
70
2.2.6 Yield and Selectivity Parameters
2.2.6 Yield and selectivity
The definitions of yield are extracted in the equation below (Fogler, 2006)
Yield (Y) = Number of moles of desired product produce/ number of moles reactant converted
1st CSTR:
Figure 2.2: Graph yield vs volume for CSTR 1
Figure 2.2 shows the graph of yield vs volume for CSTR 1. From the graph above it shows
that when the volume of a reactor increased, subsequently the yield will also be increased.
2nd CSTR:
Figure 2.3: Graph yield vs volume for CSTR 2
Figure 2.3 shows the graph of yield vs volume for CSTR 2. From the graph above it
shows that when the volume of a reactor increased, subsequently the yield will also be
increased.
Selectivity
Because there are no side reactions in the ascorbic acid synthesis method, the selectivity of
conversion is assumed as 100%. However, according to the conceptual design of a chemical
process (Douglas, 1988), selectivity is estimated to be 95%.
72
2.2.7 Material Balance
In Level 2, the material balance is performed on the fermenter 1 itself based on the
conversion value of 0.98. Recycle structures are not considered in the calculation. Block
diagram of reactor is shown as followed:
Figure 2.4: Block flow diagram for Fermenter 1
Table 2.26: Summary table of material balance for Fermenter 1

Component Inlet (MT/Year) Outlet (MT/Year)
Sorbitol 36196 724
Oxygen 6358 3243
Sorbose 0 35080
Water 0 3507
TOTAL 42554 42554
The material balance is performed on the fermenter 2 itself based on the conversion value of
0.76 for sorbose. Recycle structures are not considered in the calculation. Block diagram of
reactor is shown as followed:
73
Figure 2.5: Block flow diagram for Fermenter 2
Table 2.27: Summary table of material balance for Fermenter 2

Sorbose 35080 8419
Oxygen 4735 0
Sodium carbonate 7841 0
Sodium keto-gluconic
acid 0 31983
Water 0 3998
Carbon dioxide 0 3256
TOTAL 47656 47656
The material balance is performed on the bipolar membrane electrodialysis itself based on the
conversion value of 0.9 for sodium keto-gluconic acid. Recycle structures are not considered
in the calculation. Block diagram of reactor is shown as followed:
Figure 2.6: Block flow diagram for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1
74
Table 2.28: Summary table of material balance for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1
Sodium keto-gluconic acid 31983 3198
Water 2399 0
Keto-gluconic acid 0 25856
Sodium hydroxide 0 5326
TOTAL 34381 34381
The material balance is performed on the CSTR 1 itself based on the conversion value of 0.9
for keto-gluconic acid. Recycle structures are not considered in the calculation. Block
diagram of reactor is shown as followed:
Figure 2.7: Block flow diagram for CSTR 1
Table 2.29: Summary Table of Material Balance for CSTR 1

Keto-gluconic acid 25857 2586
Methanol 3841 0
Methyl gulonate 0 24953
Water 0 2159
TOTAL 29697 29697
The material balance is performed on the CSTR 2 itself based on the conversion value of 0.9
for methyl gluconate. Recycle structures are not considered in the calculation. Block diagram
of reactor is shown as followed:
75
Figure 2.8: Block flow diagram for CSTR 2
Table 2.30: Summary Table of Material Balance for CSTR 2

Methyl gulonate 24952 2495
Sodium bicarbonate 9063 0
Sodium ascorbate 0 21372
Methanol 0 3456
Water 0 1943
Carbon dioxide 0 4748
TOTAL 34015 34015
The material balance is performed on the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 itself based on
the conversion value of 0.9 for sodium ascorbate. Recycle structures are not considered in the
calculation. Block diagram of reactor is shown as followed:
76
Figure 2.9: Block flow diagram for bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2
Table 2.31: Summary Table of Material Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2
Sodium ascorbate 21372 2137
Water 1841 92
Sodium hydroxide 0 3884
Ascorbic acid 0 17100
TOTAL 23213 23213
77
2.2.8 Economic potential at level 2 decision
The material price shown in Table 2.31 is used for the Level 2 economic potential calculation.
Table 2.32: Price and purity for raw material

Component Purity (%) Price (RM/kg)
Sorbitol solution 70 3.32
Water 99.99 1.06/1000L
Air 99 -
Ammonia 99.9 2.51
Oxygen 99 42.50
Sodium carbonate 99.2 5.85
Sodium bicarbonate 99 8.36
Methanol 99.9 0.84
Since the practical values of the design variables depend on the process economics, the stream
costs are calculated where the costs of all raw materials and product stream equated in term of
design variables. The economic potential in level 2 is focused on cost of raw materials and
sales of products. As the conversion goes higher, the amount of sorbitol solution, water, sodium
carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and methanol, required are higher of products accordingly. The
potential of economics at the second level is:
𝐸𝑃 2 (𝑅𝑀𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡+𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡−𝑅𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝐸𝑃2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −

𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
78
Table 2.33: Tabulated data for EP2 vs Overall Conversion
Overall Conversion EP2

0.1 -1.31585E+11
0.2 -16274899283
0.3 -4619605813
0.4 -1757053283
0.5 -725131164.2
0.6 -261922940.4
0.7 -21951401.7
0.8 115665304
0.9 215308997.5
1 256728227.4
EP2 vs Overall Conversion,X

2E+10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-2E+10
-4E+10
EP2
-6E+10
-8E+10
-1E+11
-1.2E+11
-1.4E+11 Overall Conversion,X
Figure 2.10: Economic Potential – Level 2
As the result of the calculation, from the graph EP (RM/yr) versus conversion in figure 2.10,
the profit can be obtained as the conversion increase to 1.0. The negative profit obtained when
the conversion is less than 0.8. It shows positive value of net profit that is up to
RM115665304/yr once it reaches conversion of 0.80. This indicates that conversion with range
from 0.7 to 1.0 is profitable. The maximum of RM215308997.50/yr can be obtained at
conversion 0.90 where the production of ascorbic acid is 18000 MT/yr.
79
2.3.1 Block flow diagram
Figure 2.11.: Overall block flow diagram production of vitamin C

In this decision of level 3, the reactive unit involved in the production of ascorbic acid
are detailed in Figure 2.11. The conversion of the Fermenter 1 is 98% while in Fermenter 2 is
76%. Thus, unconverted sorbitol and sorbose will be separated by using nutsche filtration.
While in Reactor 1 and Reactor 2, the conversion of keto-gluconic acid and methyl gluconate
is 100% fully reacted respectively.
2.3.2 Degree of Freedom
2.3.2.1 Fermenter 1
Figure 2.12: Input-output block diagram of Fermenter 1
Table 2.34: Degree of freedom in Fermenter 1

No. of unknown variables +8
No. of independent reaction +2
No. of reactive component -8
Conversion (98%) -1
Molar feed ratio -1
Degree of freedom 0
2.3.2.2 Fermenter 2
Figure 2.13: Input-output block diagram of Fermenter 2
Table 2.35: Degree of freedom in Fermenter 2

Degree of freedom 0
82
2.3.2.3 Reactor 1
Figure 2.14: Input-output block diagram of Reactor 1
Table 2.36: Degree of freedom of Reactor 1

Conversion (100%) -1
Degree of Freedom 0
83
2.3.2.4 Reactor 2
Figure 2.15: Input-output block diagram of Reactor 2
Table 2.37: Degree of freedom of Reactor 2

Conversion (100%) -1
Degree of Freedom 0
84
2.3.3 Reaction Kinetics
Reaction Kinetic
Fermenter 1
The overall reaction for fermentation of D-sorbitol is shown in the equation below. The
operating temperature and pressure for fermenter 1 is at 303.15K at 1 bar to produce L-Sorbose.
𝑟1 = 𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 0.5𝑂2 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Fermenter 2
The overall reaction for fermentation of L-Sorbose is shown in the equation below. The
operating temperature and pressure for fermenter 1 is at 303.15K at 1 bar to produce sodium
keto-gluconic acid.
𝑟2 = 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝑂2 + 0.5𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 1.5𝐻2 𝑂 + 0.5𝐶𝑂2
Reactor 1
The overall reaction for esterification of keto-gluconic acid is shown in the equation below.
The operating temperature and pressure for fermenter 1 is at 337.15K at 1 bar to produce methyl
gluconate.
𝑟3 = 𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑁𝑎𝑂7 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Reactor 2
The overall reaction for esterification of keto-gluconic acid is shown in the equation below.
The operating temperature and pressure for fermenter 1 is at 337.15K at 1 bar to produce
sodium ascorbate
𝑟4 = 𝐶7 𝐻12 𝑂7 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶6 𝐻7 𝑂6 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
85
2.3.4 Reactor Design
For Fermenter 1, the type of fermenter will be in continuous stirrer tank mode. The calculation
of volume of fermenter is calculated using date obtained from the polymath which is tabulated
in the Levenspiel plot graph. The calculation of the volume of reactor is 4208.8m3 to achieve
98% conversion of sorbitol.
12
10
8
1/-rsr
0
0.000
0.133
0.218
0.290
0.351
0.403
0.647
0.778
0.837
0.872
0.895
0.911
0.923
0.932
0.939
0.945
0.950
0.954
0.957
0.960
0.963
0.965
0.967
0.969
0.971
0.972
0.973
0.975
0.976
0.977
X
Figure 2.16: Levenspiel plot for Fermenter 1
For Fermenter 2, the type of fermenter will be in continuous stirrer tank mode. The calculation
of volume of fermenter is calculated using date obtained from the polymath which is tabulated
in the Levenspiel plot graph. The calculation of the volume of reactor is 5052004.168m3 to
achieve 76% conversion of sorbose.
86
90000000
80000000
70000000
60000000
50000000
40000000
30000000
20000000
10000000
0
0.5953897
0.7612969
0
0.3652944
0.4604137
0.5204396
0.5630277
0.6211217
0.6422534
0.6600323
0.6752747
0.6885411
0.7002313
0.7106394
0.7199873
0.7284464
0.7361512
0.7432091
0.7497071
0.7557167
0.7664972
0.7713595
0.7759193
0.7802072
0.7842495
Figure 2.17: Levenspiel plot for Fermenter 2
For reactor 1, CSTR will be used. The calculation of volume of CSTR 1 is calculated using
date obtained from the polymath which is tabulated in the Levenspiel plot graph. The
calculation of the volume of reactor is 31.68m3 to achieve 99.8-100% conversion of keto
gluconic acid.
7000
6000
5000
Fao/-rkg
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.996619
0.997693
0.998249
0.000000
0.397786
0.555196
0.637992
0.707899
0.775374
0.835198
0.886179
0.935146
0.954226
0.975131
0.993673
0.995502
0.997223
0.997991
0.998427
0.998590
0.998707
0.998819
0.998902
0.998984
0.999046
0.999109
Conversion, X
Figure 2.18: Levenspiel plot for CSTR 1
87
For reactor 2, CSTR will be used. The calculation of volume of CSTR 2 is calculated using
date obtained from the polymath which is tabulated in the Levenspiel plot graph. The
calculation of the volume of reactor is 34.315m3 to achieve 99.2% conversion of methyl
gluconate.
800
700
600
500
Fao/-rmg
400
300
200
100
0
0.000
0.393
0.509
0.574
0.625
0.664
0.694
0.716
0.737
0.754
0.769
0.781
0.793
0.803
0.813
0.961
0.978
0.985
0.989
0.991
0.992
0.993
0.994
0.995
Conversion,X
Figure 2.19: Levenspiel plot for CSTR
88
2.3.5 Reactor Scheme
From block flow diagram there are four reactors which are two fermenter, and two continuous
stirred tank reactors that involved in the plant to produce 18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid.
2.3.5.1 Fermenter
The fermenters are designed to be in batch in order to avoid and control the contamination and
also maintain sterilization. The illustrated below is the suggested fermenter scheme for
fermenter 1 and 2 where in the fermenter 1, the light gas will be discharged at the top of the
fermenter and sorbose will be fed into fermenter 2 for the next process. In the fermenter 2, light
gas will be discharged at the top of the fermenter and sodium keto-gluconic acid will be fed to
microfiltration for the next process.
Figure 2.20: Scheme of Fermenter 1 and 2

2.3.5.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
The reactors are designed are to be in continuous mode because the production plant is in large
quantity and to achieve complete mixing process. The suggested reactor scheme is as figure
below.
Figure 2.21: Scheme of CSTR 1 and 2
90
2.3.6 Heat Effect
Fermenter 1
Reaction:
Table 2.38: Heat formation of components for Fermenter 1
Component Heat of formation, 298 K(J/gmol)

Sorbitol -1354150
Oxygen 0
Sorbose -1276900
Water -285830
Carbon dioxide −393,510
Ammonia -45898
Biomass 0
The formula for Heat of reaction is as follows:
Hence, at 298 K,
Therefore, the reaction is slightly exothermic as the value for heat of reaction gives a negative
value of –1119918.324 J /gmol.
Table below shows the heat capacities of the involved components.
Table 2.39: Heat capacities of each component of Fermenter 1
Table 2.40: Summary for heat capacities of each component Fermenter 1

Components Heat capacity, (J/ gmol. K)
Sorbitol 332.30
Oxygen 28.11 + (-3.00) T + T^2 +) T^3
Sorbose 228.61
Water 75.24
Carbon Dioxide 19.80 + (7.34×10–2) T + (−5.60×10–5) + (1.72×10–8)
Ammonia 80
Biomass 103
92
The equation below is used to plot graph of reactor outlet temperature versus conversion to
study the heat effect of the reactor itself.
Figure 2.22: X-T plot for fermenter 1

The X-T plot in the figure above is from the Polymath ODE solver and indicates temperature
increase due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. According to the graph above, the
ultimate temperature is 1000.15 K. The conversion rate rises as the temperature rises. As a
result, the heat impact of the reactor must be considered, and high temperatures must be used
for high conversion.
93
Fermenter 2
Reaction:
Table 2.41: Heat formation of each component in Fermenter 2

Sorbose -1,276,900
Oxygen 0
Sodium carbonate −1,130,770
Sodium keto-gluconic acid −1,164,600
Water −285,830
Ammonia -45898
Biomass 0
Hence, at 298 K,
Therefore, the reaction is slightly endothermic as the value for heat of reaction gives a
positive value of –645520.18 J/ gmol.
94
Table 2.42: Heat capacities of each component in Fermenter 2
Table 2.43: Summary for heat capacities of each component in Fermenter 2

Sorbose 228.61
Oxygen 28.11 + (-3.00) T + T^2 +) T^3
Sodium carbonate 189.54
Sodium keto- 305.40
gluconic
Water 75.24
Carbon dioxide 19.80 + (7.34×10–2) T + (−5.60×10–5) + (1.72×10–8)
Ammonia 80
Biomass 103
95
Figure 2.23: X-T plot for Fermenter 2
96
CSTR 1
Reaction:
Table 2.44: Heat formation of each component in CSTR 1

Keto-gluconic acid −1,164,600
Methanol −239,100
Methyl gluconate −1,164,600
Water -285830
Hence, at 298 K,
= [-1450430] - [-1403700]
= -46730 J / gmol
Therefore, the reaction is slightly exothermic as the value for heat of reaction gives a negative
value of –46730 J/ gmol.
97
Table 2.45: Heat capacities of each component in CSTR 1
Table 2.46: Summary for heat capacities of each component in CSTR 1

Keto-gluconic acid 305.40

Methanol 81.60
Methyl gluconate 305.40
Water 75.24
98
Figure 2.24: X-T plot for CSTR 1
CSTR 2
Reaction:
Table 2.47: Heat formation of each component in CSTR 2

Methyl gluconate −1,164,600
Sodium bicarbonate −950,810
Sodium ascorbate −1,164,600
Water -285830
Methanol −239,100
99
Hence, at 298 K,
= -393510) + (-239100) + (-285830) + (-1164600)] – [(-950810) + (-1164600)]
= [-2083040] – [-2115410]
= 32370 J / gmol
Therefore, the reaction is slightly endothermic as the value for heat of reaction gives a
positive value of 32370 J/ gmol.
Table 2.48: Heat capacities of each component in CSTR 2
100
Table 2.49: Summary for heat capacities of each component in CSTR 2
101
Figure 2.25: Heat formation of components in CSTR 2
102
2.3.7 Equipment Costing
The price for each process in the ascorbic acid production is covered in this section. The
purchased cost can be calculated by the formulas shown below (Turton et.al, 2009),
Where:
CPo = Purchased cost for base condition
A = reactor volume
Where:
CBM = Bare module equipment cost
FBM = Bare module equipment factor
The reactor price for relatively year can be estimated by using Equation that involved
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI). The CEPCI for base year of 2001 is
397 whereas CEPCI for the year 2021 is 686.7.
Where:
C = Bare module equipment cost
I = Cost Index
103
2.3.7.1 Fermenter Reactor 1
Based on Table A.1 in PEE Handbook (Turton R., 2009),
Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Vol Capacity (m3)
Type Description
Reactor Fermenter 4.1052 -0.4680 -0.0005 Min Size:0.1
Max Size: 35
The volume of the reactor designed is 335.61 m3
With Maximum Volume = 35 m3
Thus,
According to Turton (2009), Bare module factor for fermenter reactor, FBM = 4.0 for stainless
steel.
The cost of purchasing reactor in 2020 is calculated by using the formula below. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for the year 2021 value now sits at 686.7
and CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.
Where C = CBM and I = cost index based on CEPCI
104
2.3.7.2 Fermenter Reactor 2

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Vol Capacity (m3)
Type Description
Reactor Fermenter 4.1052 -0.4680 -0.0005 Min Size:0.1
Max Size: 35
The volume of the reactor designed is 349.04m3
With Maximum Volume = 35 m3
Thus,
steel.
The cost of purchasing reactor in 2020 is calculated by using the formula below. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 value now sits at 686.7 and CEPCI for
the base year 2001 is 397.
105
2.3.7.3 CSTR 1
The type of reactor used is jacketed agitated type for CSTR reactor.

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Vol Capacity
Type Description (m3)
Reactor Jacketed 4.1052 -0.4680 -0.0005 Min Size:0.1
agitated Max Size: 35
The volume of the reactor designed is 31.68m3.
Thus,
steel.
106
2.3.7.4 CSTR 2
The type of reactor used is jacketed agitated type for CSTR reactor.

Equipment Equipment K1 K2 K3 Vol Capacity
Type Description (m3)
Reactor Jacketed 4.1052 -0.4680 -0.0005 Min Size:0.1
agitated Max Size: 35
The volume of the reactor designed is 34.32m3.
Thus,
steel
107
2.3.9 Economic Potential level 3
In economic potential level 3, the cost of reactor is considered. The equation used to
calculate EP for level 3 is shown:
Where the payback period is assumed to be 3 years.
The steps for economic potential level 3 are shown below.
Table 2.50: Summary for Reactor Cost

Equipment Cost (RM)
R-101 673,751.73
R-102 700,713.04
R-103 71,931.60
R-104 70,914.31
Total 1,517,310.68
RM 1,517,310.68
EP3 = RM 229,347,037.40 -
3
EP3 = RM 228,840,755.40
108
CHAPTER 3: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM, MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE
3.1 Modified Process Flow Diagram

3.1.1 Process Description
Our plant design is to produce 18,000 metric tonnes per year of ascorbic acid from d-
sorbitol through a whole process route that consist of several process which are oxidative
fermentation process by bacterium, ion exchanges with water molecule, esterification process
with methanol, reaction process with sodium carbonate to sodium ascorbate and hydrolysis of
sodium ascorbate to produce ascorbic acid.
Figure 3.1 shows the Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of the ascorbic acid production from
d-sorbitol. The entering feeds used are d-sorbitol solution with the purity of 70%, ammonia,
and air at 25 °C and 1.013 bar for each component. Firstly, the d-sorbitol solution along with
ammonia and air are fed into the fermenter 1 (R-101) to undergo oxidative fermentation process
at 30 °C and 1.013 bar for 14 hr. of residence time. The fermenter 1 (R-101) has two types of
reactions: fermentation and the metabolism reaction with the presence of Gluconobacter
oxydans bacteria. In the fermentation process, d-sorbitol converted to sorbose by the bacteria
at a rate of 98% conversion, whereas ammonia converted at a rate of 98% in the metabolism
reaction. Carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen, and oxygen will leave fermenter 1 (R-101) at the
upper stream. After that, the product stream (1) will be entering fermenter 2 (R-102) at 30 °C
and 1.013 bar to react with sodium carbonate, ammonia and air which each component at 25
°C and 1.013 bar. The operating conditions for fermenter 2 (R-102) are at 30 °C and 1.013 bar
for 72 hr. of residence time. There are two types of reaction in fermenter 2 (R-102) which are
fermentation and metabolism reaction with the presence of Pseudoglyconobacter
Saccharoketogenes bacteria. For the fermentation process, the conversion for sorbose is 76%
to react with 33.94% of sodium carbonate. For the metabolism reaction, ammonia has achieved
100% of conversion. The carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen will be discharged at the upper
stream at 30and 1.013 bar.
The product stream (2) from fermenter 2 (R-102) will be entering the microfiltration (V
-101) process at 30 °C and 1.013 bar. The operating condition for the filtration time is set to
240.00 min, the filtrate flux at 20.00 L/m2-h and concentration factor is 5.00 to recover until
80%. The maximum particle concentration in the retentate is set to 600.00 g/L. The biomass
produced by the bacteria and some of unreacted sodium carbonate, sodium keto-gluconic acid,
109
sorbitol, sorbose, and water will be filtered out from the microfiltration (V -101) at the bottom
stream. After that, the product at stream (3) will be entering the bipolar membrane
electrodialysis 1 (V -102) at 30 °C and 1.013 bar to undergo hydrolysis process which involves
the exchange of ion with the water molecules to produce keto-gluconic acid. In this process,
the sodium keto-gluconic acid has achieved 100% of conversion to keto-gluconic acid. Sodium
hydroxide will be discharged at the effluent stream from the bipolar membrane electrodialysis
1 (V-102). The product stream (4) will go through heating process before entering the thin film
evaporation (V -103). The product is heated from 30 °C to 90 °C. The product stream (5) will
be entering the thin film evaporation at 90 °C to remove water before entering reactor 1(R-103)
which is a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR). The operating condition for the thin film
evaporation is at 100 °C and 1.013 bar. The heat efficiency is set to 90.0% and heat transfer
coefficient is set to 2904.913 Watt/m2-K. The process time in the thin film evaporation is set
to 1440.00 min. The purpose of discharging water before entering reactor 1(R-103) is to
increase the forward reaction since water is the product in the reaction.
Next, the product stream (8) entering reactor 1 (R-103) must be cooled down by a
cooler (E -102) from 100 °C to 64 °C. The product stream (9) will react with methanol in
reactor 1 (R-103) to undergo esterification to produce methyl gluconate and water at 64 °C and
residence time of 1 hr. and vessel volume ratio of 90%. The working volume for reactor 1(R-
103) is 34209.61 L. The conversion for keto-gluconic acid from the process in reactor 1 (R-
103) is 100%, whereas the methanol is 46.72%. The product stream (10) will undergo a cooling
process by cooler (E -104) to cool down from 64 °C to 30 °C. The entering feed stream (11) to
reactor 2 (R-104) will react with sodium bicarbonate to produce sodium ascorbate, methanol,
water, and carbon dioxide at 45 °C with 1 hr. residence time, the vessel volume ratio is 90%
and working volume of 30461.33 L. Sodium bicarbonate in the reactor 2 (R-104) is fully react
with 100% conversion and 100% conversion of methyl gluconate. From the reaction, carbon
dioxide will be discharged out from reactor 2 (R-104) in the upper stream at 45°C and 1.013
bar.
The product stream (12) will go through the cooler (E -105) to cool down from 45 °C to
30 °C before entering bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (V -104). The operating conditions
for the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (V -104) are at 30 °C and 1.013 bar. The conversion
for sodium ascorbate has reached 90% in bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (V -104). The
sodium hydroxide produces from the ion exchange process in the bipolar membrane
electrodialysis 2 (V -104) is discharged in the upper stream. The product stream (14) from the
110
bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (V -104) will go through heater (E -106) to increase the
temperature from 30 °C to 64 °C. Then, the product stream (15) is fed to the thin film
evaporation 2 (V -105) to remove the water produced from the reactor 2 (R-104) at 200 °C,
pressure of 1.013 bar, the heat transfer efficiency of 90% and heat transfer coefficient of
2904.913 Watt/m2-K before feeding the ascorbic acid produced to the crystallizer. The process
time in the evaporator is set to 24 hr. Then, the product stream (16) will be entering the
crystallizer (V -106) at 200 °C and 1.013 bar. In the crystallizer, the ascorbic acid will undergo
crystallization process at 4 °C, 54 hr. residence time, vessel volume ratio of 90% and working
volume of 35982.82 L to produce solid ascorbic acid.
The product stream (18) will be entering nutsche filtration (V –107) at 4 °C and 1.013
bar. The product stream (19) will be entering belt conveying (C –101) at 4 °C and 3.021 bar.
The product stream (20) will be entering freeze drying (V -108) to freeze-dry the solid ascorbic
acid. The operating condition for freeze drying (V -108) is the drying time of 900.00 min and
pressure of 1.013 bar with the final solid's temperature of –35 °C, wet cake depth of 15.00 mm
and maximum wet cake depth of 25.00 mm. Then, the sodium ascorbate and water will be
discharged in the upper stream of the freeze drying (V -108). The solid ascorbic acid will go
through heating process by heater (E -109) to increase the temperature from –35 °C to 4 °C
before entering the storage tank (TK –101) due to the sensitivity properties of solid ascorbic
acid.
111
3.1.2 Process Flow Diagram of Ascorbic Acid Production
R-101/R-102 FERMENTER E-101/E-102/E-103/E-104/E-105/E-106 HEAT EXCHANGER V-107 NUTSHCE FILTER

R-103/R-104 CONTINUOUS STIRRED TANK REACTOR V-103/V-105 THIN FILM EVAPORATOR BC-101 BELT CONVEYER
V-101 MICROFILTRATION V-106 CRYSTALLIZER TK-101 SOLID STORAGE
V-102/V-104 BIPOLAR MEMBRANE ELECTRODIALYSIS
Title:
Production of 18000 MTPA

Ascorbic Acid from D-sobitol
Supervisor:
A.P. Dr. Azilah Binti Ajit
Group Members:
Nurul Akmazatul Binti Ahmad

KA18049
Siti Hajar Binti Abd Rahim

KA18082
Nurul Syuhada Binti Baharin

KA18129
Nor Alif Akmal Bin Azmi

KA18216
Chua Kun Lai

KA18268
Date:
18 January 2022
Figure 3.1: Simulation flowsheet in SuperPro Designer
3.1.3 Equipment Involved in Production of Ascorbic Acid
The major and minor equipment involved in the production of ascorbic acid from d-sorbitol is
listed in table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: Major and minor equipment involved in Ascorbic Acid production.
Tag Number Type of Equipment Equipment Name
C – 101 Conveyer Belt Conveying
V – 102 Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis

Stoic. Reaction/ Separation
V – 104 Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis
V – 106 Crystallizer Continuous Crystallizer
V – 108 Dryer Freeze Drying
R – 101 Fermentation Reactor
R – 102 Fermentation Reactor
R – 103 Reactor Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
R – 104 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
E – 101 Heater
E – 102 Cooler
E – 104 Cooler
E – 105 Heat Exchanger Cooler
E – 106 Heater
E – 109 Heater
V – 101 Microfiltration
Filtration
V – 107 Nutsche Filtration
V – 103 Thin Film Evaporator
V – 105 Evaporator Thin Film Evaporator
TK- 101 Storage Tank Continuous Storage Tank

3.1.4 Description of Unit Operations
Table 3.2 shows the description of unit operation that involved in the production of ascorbic
acid from sorbitol.
Table 3.2: Unit Operation Description of Ascorbic Acid Production from Sorbitol.
Equipment Name Description

E-101 Heater 1 This heater is used to increase the temperature from
V-102 (bipolar membrane electrodialysis) to V-103
(thin film evaporator) at 90℃.
E-102 Cooler 1 This cooler is used to reduce the temperature of
solution to 64℃ before entered the continuous stirred
tank reactor (R-103).
E-103 Cooler 2 This cooler is used to reduce the temperature from
64℃ to 30℃ before entering R-104.
E-104 Cooler 3 This cooler is used to reduce the temperature from
45℃ to 30℃ before entering V-104.
E-105 Heater 2 This heater is used to increase the temperature from
V-104 at 30℃ to V-105 at 64℃.
E-106 Heater 3 This heater is used to increase the temperature of
ascorbic acid from -35℃ to 4℃ before enter storage
tank (TK-101)
R-101 Sorbitol This fermenter is operated at 30℃ and 1bar for 14
Fermenter hours. The sorbitol is converted to sorbose by
Gluconobacter oxydans at 98% conversion.
R-102 Sorbose At this fermenter, the conversion of sorbose to
Fermenter sodium keto-gluconic is 76%. Pseudoglyconobacter
Saccharoketogenes will be fed into this fermenter and
operated at 30℃ and 1 bar for 72 hours.
R-103 Continuous This continuous stirrer tank reactor will operate at
Stirrer Tank 64℃, 1 bar and undergo esterification process. The
Reactor 1 reaction that occurs is keto-gluconic acid reacts with
methanol and produces methyl gluconate and water.
115
R-104 Continuous In this reactor, methyl gluconate will react with
Stirrer Tank sodium bicarbonate and produce sodium ascorbate,
Reactor 2 methanol, water and carbon dioxide. The operating
condition at 45℃ and 1 bar.
V-102 Bipolar The recovery of 2-keto-gulonic acid from sodium
Membrane keto-gluconic acid is made by this bipolar membrane
Electrodialysis 1 electrodialysis through the exchanges of cation and
anion with water molecules. It operates at 30℃ and 1
bar. Sodium hydroxide will be completely removed
from the system.
V-104 Bipolar The sodium ascorbate is entering this V-104 to
Membrane recover ascorbic acid. It operates at 30℃ and 1 bar.
Electrodialysis 2 Sodium hydroxide will completely be removed from
the system.
V-101 Biomass This microfilter will operates at 30℃. It will separate
Microfilter biomass produced from the bacteria.
V-103 Thin Film This thin film evaporator operates at 100℃ and 1 bar.
Evaporator 1 This evaporator is used to remove water to increase
forward reaction in R-103 since water is product in
the reaction.
V-105 Thin Film This thin film evaporator operates at 100℃ and 1 bar.
Evaporator 2 This evaporator used to remove water and unreacted
methanol.
V-106 Ascorbic Acid This crystallizer operates at 4℃ and 1 bar for 54
Crystallizer hours. It will change the phase of ascorbic acid from
liquid to crystal.
V-107 Nutsche This filtration will remove all the unreacted
Filtration components. The maximum cake thickness is 15 cm
with 10% of limit of detection.
C-101 Belt Conveyer The solid ascorbic acid particles are transported to
freeze drying for further reaction by using this belt
conveyer.
116
V-108 Ascorbic Acid This freeze dryer operated at -35℃ for 48 hours. This
Freeze Dryer V-108 is used due to the heat sensitivity properties of
a solid ascorbic acid.
TK-101 Ascorbic Acid This solid storage tank operates at 4℃.
Storage Tank
117
3.1.5 Stream Operating Conditions
Table 3.3: Stream of Operating Condition

Stream Temperature Pressure Stream Temperature Pressure Stream Temperature Pressure
Number (℃) (Bar) Number (℃) (Bar) Number (℃) (Bar)
1 25 1 14 30 1 27 30 1
2 25 1 15 90 1 28 64 1
3 25 1 16 90 1 29 100 1
4 30 1 17 100 1 30 100 1
5 30 1 18 100 1 31 25 1
6 25 1 19 64 1 32 4 1
7 25 1 20 25 1 33 4.8 1
8 25 1 21 64 1 34 4.8 1
9 30 1 22 30 1 35 4.8 1
10 30 30 23 25 1 36 -35 1
11 30 30 24 45 1 37 -35 1
12 30 1 25 45 1 38 4 1
13 30 1 26 30 1 39 4 1
118
3.2 Material and Energy Balance
3.2.1 Material Balance Manual Calculation
In order to calculate the material balance for all unit operations in the plant, the following
assumptions are made:
1. The system is assumed to be ideal.

2. The process operated in steady state condition.
3. All components in the system are ideal.
4. Yeast used in fermentation does not contribute to mass because it remains unchanged
during the process.
5. The total inlet of mass flowrate of heat exchanger is equal to outlet mass flowrate.
6. The detailed material balance calculation is shown in Appendix A
119
3.2.1.1 Fermenter 1 (R-101)
The reactions that involved in this fermenter are:
Main reaction:
1
C6 H14 O6 + O → C6 H12 O6 + H2 O
2 2
Metabolism reaction:
C6 H14 O6 + 2.666O2 + 0.732NH3 → 3.66CH1.79 O0.5 N0.2 + 2.34CO2 + 4.822H2 O
Figure 3.2: Fermenter 1 (R-101)
Table 3.4: Material balance for Fermenter 1 (R-101)
Mass flowrate rate (kg/hr)

Component
Inlet Outlet
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Sorbitol 3188.16 - 57.39
Oxygen 277.40 - -
Sorbose - - 311.93
Water - - 311.93
Ammonia 0.4364 - -
Biomass - 3.19 -
Carbon Dioxide - 3.60 -
3.60 3462.43
Total 3466.00
3466.00
3.2.1.2 Fermenter 2 (R-102)
The reactions that involved in this fermenter are:

Main reaction:
1 3 1
C6 H12 O6 + O2 + Na2 CO3 → C6 H9 NaO7 + H2 O + CO2
2 2 2
Metabolism reaction:
C6 H12 O6 + 0.73NH3 + 2.157O2 → 3.66CH1.79 O0.5 N0.2 + 2.34CO2 + 3.804H2 O
Table 3.5: Material balance for Fermenter 2 (R-102)

Component
Inlet Outlet
S5 S6 S7 S8 S10 S9
Sorbose 3089.93 - - - 735.40
Oxygen - - - 419.48 -
Sodium Carbonate - 690.78 - - -
Sodium Keto-Gluconic - - - - 2817.08
Acid
Water 311.93 - - - 666.41
Ammonia - - 0.43 -
Biomass 3.19 - - - 9.51
Carbon Dioxide - - - - - 57.39
290.36 57.39
Total 4573.12
4576.15
121
3.2.1.3 Microfilter (V-101)
Figure 3.4: Microfilter (V-101)
Table 3.6: Material balance for Microfilter (V-101)

Component
Inlet Outlet
S10 S11 S12
Sorbitol 57.38 56.81 0.57
Sorbose 735.40 728.05 7.35
Sodium Keto-Gluconic Acid 2817.08 2788.90 28.17
Water 354.48 350.94 3.54
Biomass 6.32 - 6.32
3924.71 45.96
Total 3970.67
3970.67
122
3.2.1.4 Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)
The function of this equipment is to exchange the anion and cation molecules of sodium keto-
gluconic acid with water to recover keto-gluconic acid and sodium hydroxide.
The reaction involved is:
C6 H9 NaO7 + H2 O → C6 H10 O7 + NaOH
Figure 3.5: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)
Table 3.7: Material balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)

Component
Inlet Outlet
S11 S13 S14
Sodium Keto-Gluconic Acid 2788.90 - -
Water 350.94 38.60 -
Keto-Gluconic Acid - 2505.27 -
Sodium Hydroxide - 516.18
Sorbitol 56.81 56.81 -
Sorbose 728.05 728.05 -
3328.73 516.18
Total 3924.70
3844.91
123
3.2.1.5 Heat Exchanger (E-101)
Figure 3.6: Heat Exchanger (E-101)
Table 3.8: Material balance for Heat Exchanger (E-101)

Mass flowrate (kg/hr)
Component Inlet Outlet
S13 S15
Keto-gluconic acid 2505.27 2505.27
Sorbitol 56.81 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 728.05
Water 38.60 38.60
Total 3328.73 3328.73
124
3.2.1.6 Evaporator 1 (V-103)
The function of this equipment is to remove water from the inlet stream to increase forward
reaction in reactor 1.
Figure 3.7: Evaporator 1 (V-103)
Table 3.9: Material balance for Evaporator 1 (V-103)

S15 S16 S17
Keto-gluconic acid 2505.27 - 2505.27
Sorbitol 56.81 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Water 38.60 38.60 -
Total 3328.73 3328.73
125
Figure 3.8: Heat Exchanger (E -102)
Table 3.10: Material balance for Heat Exchanger (E-102)

S18 S17
Sorbose 728.05 728.05
Total 3290.13 3290.13
126
3.2.1.8 Reactor 1 (R-103)
The reaction involved in this reactor is:
Figure 3.9: Reactor 1 (R-103)
Table 3.11: Material balance for Reactor 1 (R-103)

S18 S19 S20
Keto-gluconic acid 2505.27 - -
Methanol - 413.46 -
Methyl gluconate - - 2686.31
Water - - 232.41
Sorbitol 56.81 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Total 3703.59 3703.58
127
Table 3.12: Material Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-103)

Mass flowrate (kg/h) Inlet Outlet
Species S20 S21
Methyl gluconate 2686.315 2686.315
Water 232.4087 232.4087
Sorbitol 56.81309 56.81309
Sorbose 728.0487 728.0487
Total 3703.585 3703.585
128
3.2.1.10 Reactor 2 (R-104)
The reaction involved in this reactor is:
Figure 3.11: Reactor 2 (R -104)
Table 3.13: Material Balance for Reactor 2 (R-104)

Mass Flowrate (kg/h) Inlet Outlet
Species S21 S22 S23 S24
Methyl gulonate 2686.315 -
Sodium bicarbonate - 1084.062 -
Sodium ascorbate - - - 2556.496
Methanol - - - 413.4578
Water - - - 232.4087
Carbon dioxide - - 567.9238
Sorbitol 56.81309 - - 56.81309
Sorbose 728.0487 - - 728.0487
129
3.2.11 Heat Exchanger (E-104)

Species S24 S25
Sodium ascorbate 2556.496 2556.496
Methanol 413.4578 413.4578
Sorbitol 56.81309 56.81309
Sorbose 728.0487 728.0487
Water 232.4087 232.4087
Total 3987.224 3987.224
130
Table 3.15: Material Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)

Species S25 S26 S27
Sodium ascorbate 2556.49 - -
Methanol 413.46 - 413.46
Sodium hydroxide - 516.18 -
Sorbitol 56381 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Water 244.64 - 12.23
Total 3999.46 3999.46
131

Mass flow rate (kg/hr)
S27 S28
Ascorbic acid 2272.73 2272.73
Sorbose 728.05 728.05
Methanol 413.46 413.46
Water 12.23 12.23
Total 3483.28 3483.28
132
3.2.1.14 Evaporator 2 (V-105)
Figure 3.15: Evaporator 2 (V-105)
Table 3.17: Material Balance for Evaporator 2 (V-105)

S28 S29 S30
Ascorbic acid 2272.73 - 2272.73
Sorbitol 56.81 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Methanol 413.46 413.46 -
Water 12.23 11.99 -
425.45 3057.59
Total 3483.28
3483.04
133
3.2.1.15 Crystallizer (V-106)
Figure 3.16: Crystallizer (V-106)
Table 3.18: Material Balance for Crystallizer (V-106)

S30 S31 S32
Ascorbic acid 2272.73 - 2272.73
Sorbitol 56.81 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Water 0.24 - 0.24
Total 3057.83 3057.83
134
3.2.1.16 Nutsche Filter (V-107)
Figure 3.17: Nutshce Filtration (V-107)
Table 3.19: Material Balance for Nutsche Filtration (V-107)

S32 S33 S34
Ascorbic acid 2272.73 22.73 2250.00
Sorbitol 56.81 55.68 1.14
Sorbose 728.05 713.49 14.56
Water 0.24 0.02 0.22
791.92 2265.92
Total 3057.83
3057.84
135
3.2.1.17 Belt Conveyer (BC-101)
Figure 3.18: Belt Conveyer (BC-101)
Table 3.20: Material Balance for Belt Conveyer (BC-101)
Mass flowrate (kg/h)

S34 S35
Sorbitol 1.136262 1.13626
Sorbose 14.56097 14.561
Water 0.220177 0.22018
Total 2265.918 2265.92
136
3.2.1.18 Freeze Dryer (V-108)
Figure 3.19: Freeze Dryer (V-108)
Table 3.21: Material Balance for Freeze dryer (V-108)
S35 S36 S37
Sorbitol 1.136262 1.136262
Sorbose 14.56097 14.56097
Water 0.220177 0.220177
2265.918 0.220177 2265.698

Total
2265.917793
137
Figure 3.20: Heat exchanger (E-106)
Table 3.22: Mass Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-106)
S37 S38
Sorbitol 1.136262 1.136262
Sorbose 14.56097 14.56097
Total 2265.698 2265.698
138
3.2.1.20 Storage (TK-101)
Figure 3.21: Storage (TK-101)
Table 3.23: Mass Balance for Storage (TK-101)

Inlet Outlet
Component
S38 S39
Sorbitol 1.136262 1.136262
Sorbose 14.56097 14.56097
Total 2265.698 2265.698
139
3.2.2 Energy Balance Manual Calculation
Assumption:
• Steady state conditions for all equipment
• Only enthalpy changes will be considered, whereas potential and kinetic energy will
be excluded.
• The law of energy conservation:
Energy = Energy out – Energy in
Table 3.24: Heat of formation (J/gmol)

Components Heat of formation (J/gmol)
Sorbitol -1354150
Oxygen 0
Sorbose -1276900
Water -285830
Sodium Carbonate -1130770
Sodium Keto-gluconic Acid -1164600
Carbon Dioxide -393510
Keto-gluconic Acid -1164600
Sodium Hydroxide -425930
Methanol -239100
Methyl Gluconate -1164600
Sodium Bicarbonate -950810
Sodium Ascorbate -1164600
Ascorbic Acid -1164600
Ammonia -45898
Nitrogen 0
Biomass 0
Table 3.25: Specific heat capacities constant for liquid and solid (J/gmol.K)
Components Specific heat capacities constant
liquid/solid (J/gmol.K)
Sorbitol 332.20
Oxygen 97.00
Sorbose 228.61
Water 75.24
Sodium Carbonate 189.54
Sodium Keto-gluconic Acid 305.40
Carbon Dioxide 209.53
Keto-gluconic Acid 305.40
Sodium Hydroxide 87.18
140
Methanol 81.60
Methyl Gluconate 305.40
Sodium Bicarbonate 90.00
Sodium Ascorbate 305.40
Ascorbic Acid 305.40
Ammonia 80.00
Nitrogen 88.80
Biomass 103.00
To calculate specific heat capacities for gaseous form, the formula is shown below:
Gaseous Cp: A + BT + CT^2 + DT^3
Table 3.26: Specific heat capacities for gaseous (J/gmol.K)

Components A B C D
Sorbitol 57.14 7.70E-01 -5.45E-04 1.61E-07
Oxygen 28.11 -3.00E-06 1.75E-05 -1.07E-08
Sorbose 71.45 1.27 -1.23E-03 4.49E-07
Water 32.24 1.92E-03 1.06E-05 -3.60E-09
Sodium 13.98 5.44E-02 -3.13E-05 0
Carbonate
Sodium Keto- 0 0.56 -3.73E-04 9.64E-08
gluconic Acid
Carbon Dioxide 19.80 7.34E-02 -5.60E-05 1.72E-08
Keto-gluconic 80.39 0.56 -3.73E-04 9.64E-08
Acid
Sodium 43.57 1.76E-02 -7.56E-06 1.09E-09
Hydroxide
Methanol 21.15 7.09E-02 2.59E-05 -2.85E-08
Methyl 80.39 0.56 -3.73E-04 9.64E-08
Gluconate
Sodium 10.97 3.37E-02 0 0
Bicarbonate
Sodium 80.39 0.56 -3.73E-04 9.64E-08
Ascorbate
Ascorbic Acid 80.39 5.64E-01 -3.73E-04 9.64E-08
Ammonia 27.31 2.38E-02 1.71E-05 -1.19E-08
Nitrogen 31.15 -1.33E-02 2.68E-05 -1.17E-08
Biomass 0 0 0 0
141
To calculate the heat of vaporization, the formula is shown below:
Table 3.27: Specific heat capacities for gaseous (J/gmol.K)

Components a b Tc
Sorbitol 209.200 0.33 332.20
Oxygen 9557.08 0.36 97.00
Sorbose 40411.71 0.35 228.61
Water 60334.52 0.41 75.24

Sodium Carbonate 0 0 189.54
Sodium Keto- 199700 0.33 305.40
gluconic Acid
Carbon Dioxide 24570.69 0.40 209.53
Keto-gluconic Acid 199700 0.33 305.40
Sodium Hydroxide 0 0 87.18
Methanol 58450.42 0.41 81.60
Methyl Gluconate 199700 0.33 305.40
Sodium Bicarbonate 0 0 90.00
Sodium Ascorbate 199700 0.33 305.40
Ascorbic Acid 199700 0.33 305.40
Ammonia 34403.33 0.40 80.00
Nitrogen 7900.94 0.36 88.80
Biomass 0 0 103.00
Table 3.28: Molecular weight for each species (kg/kmol)

Components Molecular weight (kg/kmol)
Sorbitol 182.17
Oxygen 16
Sorbose 180.16
Water 18.02
Sodium Keto-gluconic Acid 216.12
Keto-gluconic Acid 194.14
Sodium Hydroxide 40
Methanol 32.04
Sodium Bicarbonate 84.01
Ascorbic Acid 176.12
Ammonia 17.03
Nitrogen 14.01
142
3.2.2.1 Fermenter 1 (R-101)
Table 3.29: Energy Balance for Fermenter1 (R-101)

Ref: H2(g), O(g), C(s) at 25℃ and 1 bar
R-101 Inlet Outlet
Molar Flowrate Hin Molar Flowrate Hout
Component
(kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol) (kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 17.50 -1354150 0.32 -1352488.99
Ammonia 0.03 -45898 - -
Oxygen 8.67 0 - -
Sorbose - - 17.15 -1275756.95
Biomass - - 0.13 515
Water - - 17.32 -285453.80
Carbon
- - 0.08 -
Dioxide
Σ (n, in x H, in) = Σ (n, out x H, out) =
TOTAL
-23700209.29 kJ/hr -27282672.47kJ/hr
Q (kW) -995.13
143
3.2.2.2 Fermenter 2 (R-102)
Table 3.30: Energy Balance for Fermenter 2 (R-102)

Ref: H2(g), O(g), C(s) at 25℃ and 1 bar
R-102 Inlet Outlet
Molar Flowrate Hin Molar Flowrate Hout
Component
(kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol) (kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.32 -1352488.9 0.32 -1352488.9
Ammonia 0.03 -45898 - -
Oxygen 13.11 0 - -
Sorbose 17.15 -1275756.9 4.08 -1275756.9
Sodium
6.52 -1130770 - -
Carbonate
Sodium
Keto- - - 13.03 -1163652.3
Gluconic
Biomass 0.13 515 0.25 515
Water 17.32 -285453.80 19.68 -285453.80
Carbon
- - 6.60 -392463.3
Dioxide
Σ (n, in x H, in) = Σ (n, out x H, out) =
TOTAL
-34621343.16 kJ/hr -15004957.68kJ/hr
Q (kW) 5449
3.2.2.3 Microfilter (V-101)
Figure 3.24: Microfilter (V-101)
Table 3.31: Energy Balance for Microfilter (V-101)
Ref: Sorbitol, sorbose, sodium keto-gluconic, water, biomass 30°C and 1bar
V-101 Inlet Outlet

S10 S11 S12
Molar H, in Molar H, out Molar H, out
Components flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol)
(kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) (kmol/hr)
Sorbitol 0.32 0 0.31 0 0.003 0
Sorbose 4.08 0 4.04 0 0.04 0
Sodium 0
keto- 13.03 0 12.90 0.13 0
gluconic
Water 19.68 0 19.49 0 0.20 0
Biomass 0.25 0 0 0 0.25 0

TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) =
0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 0 kJ/hr
Q (kW) 0
Figure 3.25: Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (V-102)
Table 3.32: Energy Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (V-102)
Ref: H2(g), O2(g), C(s) at 25°C and 1bar
V-101 Inlet Outlet

S11 S13 S14
Components Molar H, in Molar H, out Molar H, out
flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.31 -1352489 0.31 -1352489 - -
Sorbose 4.04 - 4.04 - - -

1275756.95 1275756.95
Sodium - -
keto- 12.90 -1163073 - -
gluconic
Water 19.49 -285453.8 2.14 -285453.8 - -
Keto- - - 12.90 -1163073 - -

Gluconic
Sodium - - - -
Hydroxide 12.90 -
425494.11
26148381.61 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -26688649.83 kJ/hr
Q (kW) -150.07
146
Table 3.33: Energy Balance for Heat Exchanger (E-101)

Ref: Sorbitol, sorbose, water, keto-gluconic at 30°C and 1bar
E-104 Inlet Outlet

S13 S15
Components Molar flowrate H, in (kJ/kmol) Molar flowrate H, out
(kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.31 0 0.31 19932.14
Sorbose 4.04 0 4.04 13716.60
Water 2.14 0 2.14 4514.4
Keto-Gluconic 12.90 0 12.90 18324
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 307783.38
kJ/hr
Q (kW) 85.50
3.2.2.6 Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)
Figure 3.27: Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)
Table 3.34: Energy Balance for Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)

Ref: Sorbitol, sorbose, keto-gluconic, water at 30°C and 1bar
V-103 Inlet Outlet

S15 S17 S16
Components Molar H, in Molar H, out Molar H, out
flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.31 0 0.31 23254.16 - -
Sorbose 4.04 0 4.04 16002.70 - -
Keto- 12.90 0 12.90 21378 - -

Gluconic
0 - -
Water 2.14 12.90 55489.97
0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 466731.40 kJ/hr
Q (kW) 129.65
Ref: Sorbitol, sorbose, keto-gluconic at 100°C and 1bar
E-102 Inlet Outlet

S17 S18
Sorbitol 0.31 0 0.31 -11959.28
Sorbose 4.04 0 4.04 -8229
Keto-Gluconic 12.90 0 12.90 -10994.4
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -178864.44
kJ/hr
Q (kW) -49.68
3.2.2.8 Reactor 1 (R-103)
Table 3.36: Energy Balance for Reactor 1 (R-103)

Ref: H2(g), O(g), C(s) at 25°C and 1bar
R-103 Inlet Outlet

S18 S19 S20
Components Molar H, Molar H, out Molar H, out
flowrate in(kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.31 - - - 0.31 -
1341194.11 1341194.11
Sorbose 4.04 - - - 4.04 -

1267984.21 1267984.21
Keto- 12.90 - - - - -
Gluconic 1152689.40
Methanol - - 12.90 -239100 - -
Methyl - - - 12.90 -
Gluconate 1152689.40
- - - -
Water 12.90 -282895.64
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = -23502594.66kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -
24067733.02 kJ/hr
Q (kW) -156.98
Ref: Sorbitol, sorbose, methyl gluconate, water at 64°C and 1bar
E-103 Inlet Outlet

S20 S21
Sorbitol 0.31 0 0.31 -11294.87
Sorbose 4.04 0 4.04 -7772.74
Methyl 12.90 0 12.90 -10383.60
Gluconate
Water 12.90 0 12.90 -2558.16
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = --201938.94
kJ/hr
Q (kW) -56.09
151
3.2.2.10 Reactor 2 (R-104)
Table 3.38: Energy Balance for Reactor 2 (R-104)

Ref: H2(g), O2(g), C(s) at 25℃ and 1 bar
V-103 Inlet Outlet
S21 S24 S23
Components Molar H, in (kJ/kmol) Molar H, out Molar H, out
flowrate flowrate (kJ/kmol) flowrate (kJ/kmol)
Sorbitol 0.31 -1341194.11 0.31 -23254.16 - -
Sorbose
-1267984.21 -
4.04 4.04 -16002.70 -
Methyl Gluconate 12.90 -1152689.40 - - - -

Water 12.90 -282895.64 -
12.90 - 55489.97 -
Sodium
12.90 -950810 - - - -
Bicarbonate
Sodium
- - 12.90 -1158492 - -
Ascorbate
Carbon Dioxide - - - - 12.90 -392757
Methanol - - 12.90 -237468 - -

-36535120.96kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -27244995.47 kJ/hr
Q (kW) 1173.21
Ref: sodium ascorbate, methanol, sorbitol, sorbose and water at 45°C and 1bar
E-104 Inlet Outlet

S24 S25
Molar flowrate H, in (kJ/kmol) Molar flowrate H, out
Components (kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) (kJ/kmol)
Sodium 12.9044 0 12.9044 -4581
Ascorbate
Methanol 12.9044 0 12.9044 -1224
Sorbitol 0.3119 0 0.3119 -4983
Sorbose 4.0411 0 4.0411 -3429.15
Water 12.8973 0 12.8973 -1128.6
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -104878 kJ/hr
Q (kW) -29.1327
153
Table 3.40: Energy Balance for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)
V-104 Inlet
Outlet
S25 S26 S27
Sodium
Ascorbate 12.9044 -1163073 0 0 0 0
Methanol 12.9045 -238692 0 0 12.9045 -238692
Sodium
Hydroxide 0 0 12.9045 -425494.1 0 0
Sorbitol 0.3119 -1352489 0 0 0.3119 -1352489
Sorbose 4.0411 - 0 0 4.0411 -

1275756.95 1275756.95
Water 13.5760 -286206.2 0 0 0.6787 -286206.2
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = -

27551798.24 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -14342540.41 kJ/hr
Q (kW)
3666.5054
154
Table 3.41: Energy balance for Heat Exchanger (E-105)
Ref: ascorbic acid, sorbitol, sorbose, methanol and water at 30°C and 1bar
E-104 Inlet Outlet

S27 S28
Ascorbic Acid 12.9044 0 12.9044 10383.6
Sorbitol 0.3119 0 0.3119 11294.8
Sorbose 4.0411 0 4.0411 7772.74
Methanol 12.9045 0 12.9045 2774.4
Water 0.6787 0 0.6787 2558.16
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 206465.9
kJ/hr
Q (kW) 57.3516
3.2.2.14 Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)
Figure 3.35: Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)
Table 3.42: Energy Balance for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)
E-104 Inlet
Outlet
S28 S29 S30
Ascorbic 12.9044 0 0 0 12.9044 10994.4

Acid
Sorbitol 0.3119 0 0 0 0.3119 11959.2
Sorbose 4.0411 0 0 0 4.0411 8229.96

Methanol 12.9045 0 12.9045 40595.948 0 0
Water 0.6787 0 0.6654 47332.68709 0 0
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0

kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 734879.4225
kJ/hr
Q (kW)
204.1331729
3.2.2.15 Crystallizer (V-106)
Figure 3.36: Crystallizer (V-106)
ΔHcrsytallization = -187302
Table 3.43: Energy Balance for Crystallizer (V-106)
Ref: ascorbic acid, sorbitol, sorbose and water at 100°C and 1bar
E-104 Inlet
Outlet
S30 S31 S32
Ascorbic 12.9016 0 0 0 12.9016 -29318.4
Acid
Sorbitol 0.3119 0 0 0 0.3119 -31891.2
Sorbose 4.0411 0 0 0 4.0411 -21946.56
Water 0.0133 0 0 0 0.0133 -7223.04
kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -664287.447
kJ/hr
Q (kW) -184.5243
3.2.2.16 Nutsche Filtration (V-107)
Figure 3.37: Nutsche Filtration (V-107)
Table 3.44: Energy balance for Nutsche Filtration (V-107)

E-104 Inlet
Outlet
S32 S33 S34
Ascorbic 12.9016 0 0.1291 0 12.7754 0
Acid
Sorbitol 0.3119 0 0.3056 0 0.006258 0
Sorbose 4.0411 0 3.9603 0 0.08082 0
Water 0.0133 0 0.00111 0 0.01221 0
kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 0 kJ/hr
Q (kW) 0
3.2.2.17 Freeze Dryer (V-108)
Figure 3.38: Freeze Dryer (V-108)
Table 3.45: Energy Balance for Freeze Dryer (V-108)

E-104 Inlet Outlet

S34 S35
Ascorbic Acid 12.7754 0 12.7754 -11910.6
Sorbitol 0.006237 0 0.00624 -12955.8
Sorbose 0.080822 0 0.08082 -8915.79
Water 0.0122 0 0.0122 45002.597
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = -152415 kJ/hr
Q (kW) -42.337

Ref: ascorbic acid, sorbitol and sorbose at -35°C and 1bar
E-104 Inlet Outlet

S37 S38
Ascorbic Acid 12.7754 0 12.7754 11910.6
Sorbitol 0.00624 0 0.00624 12955.8
Sorbose 0.08082 0 0.08082 8915.79
TOTAL Σ (n, in x H, in) = 0 kJ/hr Σ (n, out x H, out) = 152964 kJ/hr
Q (kW) 42.49
3.3 Comparison of Simulation with Manual Calculation
3.3.1 Mass Balance
The simulation is done by using SuperPro Designer. The basic idea behind this comparison is
to assess the dependability of simulation results under assumed conditions. The following
formula is used to evaluate the comparison.
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%) = × 100
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Table below shows the summary of comparison material balance for simulation and manual.
The overall error is 21.19%. The largest error occur because manual calculation has been
calculated under fully conversion. While in simulation, the real running data could not
achieve the target and having lower conversion comparing to manual calculation
Table 3.47: Comparison manual calculation and simulation of mass balance
Stream Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Error (%)
1 3188.1645 4251.5034 25.01089
2 0.43636015 0.45572 4.24819
3 277.402405 535.512251 48.19868
4 3.60463321 3.68638 2.217536
5 3462.43404 6440.263 46.23769
6 690.77788 921.14204 25.00854
7 0.42646455 0.44538 4.247036
8 419.480451 3949.7178 89.37948
9 290.362755 386.1313 24.80207
10 4285.78511 7531.288 43.0936
11 3924.70619 6024.766 34.85712
12 45.9594584 1506.523 96.9493
13 3328.73062 5487.451 39.33922
14 516.177074 556.63015 7.267496
15 3328.73062 5468.024 39.1237
16 38.6033587 1918.54132 97.98788
17 3290.12726 3549.483 7.30686
18 3290.12726 3549.483 7.30686
19 413.457836 413.458 3.96E-05
20 3703.5851 3964.786 6.58802
21 3703.5851 3964.786 6.58802
22 1084.062 1083.06 -0.092516
23 567.92382 576.3988 1.470333
24 3987.2244 4480.447 11.00833
25 3987.2244 4480.447 11.00833
26 516.177074 515.6612 -0.100041
27 3483.27937 3768.204 7.561285
28 3483.27937 3768.204 7.561285
29 425.445234 640.911 33.61867
30 3057.58949 3124.977 2.156416
31 0 0 0
32 3057.83413 3124.977 2.148588
161
33 791.91634 601.456 -31.66655
34 2265.91779 2523.521 10.20809
35 2265.91779 2525.698 10.28548
36 0.02446408 0.09818 75.08242
37 2265.69762 2367.231 4.28912
38 2265.69762 2367.231 4.28912
39 2265.69762 2367.231 4.28912
3.3.2 Energy Balance
Table 3.48: Comparison of manual calculation and simulation of energy balance

Manual Heat
Simulation Heat
Equipment Duty Error (%)
Duty (kW)
(kW)
R-101 -995.15 -6951.23 85.68
R-102 5449 7560.48 27.92
R-103 -156.98 -252.58 37.85
R-104 1173.21 1377.18 14.81
V-101 0 0 0
V-102 -150.07 -37.05 75.00
V-103 -129.65 -1276.41 90.00
V-104 3666.51 34.32
V-105 204.13 11035.9 98.15
V-106 -803.75 -7489.67 89.27
V-107 0 0 0
V-108 -42.34 -39.70 -6.65
E-101 85.50 223.20 61.66
E-102 -49.68 -53.63 7.37
E-103 -56.09 -59.09 5.08
E-104 -29.13 -69.72 58.22
E-105 57.35 125.849 54.43
E-106 42.49 1225.46 96.53
162
3.4 Estimated Utilities
In this chapter, the estimated utilities from SuperPro Designer are divided into four categories
which are steam for heating process, chilled water and cooling water for cooling process and
glycol for crystallization process. Further details of calculation will be discussed on the next
chapter
3.4.1 Steam
The supply of stream is mainly used for heating process. There is one type of process steam
that is involved which is low pressure steam (LPS) (1 bar,152℃). Because the heat is provided
solely by latent heat, no temperature change occurs for the purpose of exchanging heat with
steam. The type of steam used should always be in reference to the target temperature. The
target temperatures of heat exchangers, fermenters, reactors, bipolar membrane electrodialysis,
freeze dryer, and thin film evaporators that required heating utility are shown in the table below.
Table 3.49: Type of steam use in each equipment
Equipment Kg/yr Target temperature Type of steam
(℃)
V-102 18,229.63 30 LPS
V-103 19,327,966.45 100 LPS
R-103 124,263.19 64 LPS
R-104 677,545.08 45 LPS
V-104 16,882.79 30 LPS
V-105 5,429,419.26 100 LPS
V-108 2,330,910.13 -35 LPS
E-106 602,902.61 4 LPS
E-101 3,041,768.42 90 LPS
E-105 910,853.80 64 LPS
R-101 323,549.47 30 LPS
R-102 34,901.35 30 LPS
3.4.2 Cooling water

The cooling water supply is used to cool the stream in the heat exchanger. The cooling water
has the ability to cool the stream to room temperature.
Table 3.50: Cooling water utilities
Equipment Kg/yr Target temperature (℃)
E-102 47,828,314.09 64
E-103 81,687,378.97 30
E-104 73,668,514.51 30
163
3.4.3 Chilled Water
The chilled water supply is used to cool the stream in the fermenters and microfilter. The chilled
water can achieve temperature of 10 ℃.
Table 3.51: Chilled water utilities
Equipment Kg/yr Target temperature (℃)

V-101 8,266,760.30 30
R-101 200,075,934.60 30
R-102 1,119,147,144.01 30
3.4.4 Glycol
Glycol acts as a cooling agent in the process of crystallization. The goal of the crystallization
process is to prevent the formation of salt-induced, disordered aggregates, which presumably
have less mobile non-lattice protein-protein interactions than those in the droplet phase.
Table 3.52: Glycol utilities
Equipment MT/yr Target temperature (℃)

V-106 24930.636 4
3.4.5 Electricity
The supply of electricity is mainly depended on Tariff of Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB)
which is RM0.38/kWh.
Table 3.53: Electricity consumption
Equipment Energy consumption (kW-h/yr)
V-102 192.00
V-104 24.89
V-106 3,755.10
V-108 11,474,964.40
V-101 482,515.76
R-101 1132584.53
R-102 6842071.88
R-103 1650.15
R-104 1779.39
BC-101 20132.30
Total 19959670.4
19959670.4𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑅𝑀 0.38
Electricity cost = 𝑦𝑟
× 𝑘𝑊ℎ
= 𝑅𝑀 7,594,674.75/𝑦𝑟
164
3.4.6 Summary of Estimated Utilities
Table 3.54: Cost estimation for utilities

Utilities Unit Price (RM/kg) Cost (RM/year)
Steam V-102, V-103, R- 0.1158 3,806,062.37
103, R-104, V-104, (Turton,2013)
V-105, V-108, E-
106, E-101, E-105,
R-101, R-102
Cooling water E-102, E-1023, E- 0.000062 12,597.42
104 (Turton,2013)
Chilled water V-101, R-101, R- 1.15 1,526,613.32
102 (SATU)
Glycol V-106 $0.35/MT 36,735.29
(SuperPro Designer)
Electricity V-101, V-102, V- RM 0.38/kWh 7,594,674.75
104, V-106, V-108
Total 20,597,971.22
165
CHAPTER 4: UTILITIES & HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 Introduction
Most of the chemical processes involve operation in non-ambient conditions. In these
instances, utilities will play a role in ensuring that the process stream's proper operating
conditions, such as pressure and temperature, are maintained. Steam, cooling water, fuel,
refrigerant, electricity, and air are all common utilities. Utilities account for a sizable portion
of the cost of a product. As a result, reducing utility consumption is critical for chemical
industries to maximize profits.
Heat integration is critical for increasing energy efficiency, lowering operating costs in energy
related applications as well as to maximize heat recovery. Heat integration is a process to
exchange heat between hot and cold process streams in heat exchanger networks (HEN) for
them to reach their desired thermal final state. Traditionally, a sequential strategy has been used
to optimize processes involving heat integration. In the conventional chemical industry, the
pinch analysis method proposed by Linnhoff and Hindmarsh in 1983 is one of the most widely
used HEN design methods. Pinch analysis will be discussed and applied to HEN design in this
report.
4.2 Heat Exchange Network

Heat exchanger networks (HEN) are extensively used to recover energy. The main objective
of heat exchanger Network analysis is to minimize the energy consumption of a given process,
which entails optimizing energy recovery and minimizing the use of external energy sources,
as well as optimizing economic potential. Maximum heat recovery can be achieved by
transferring heat from a hot to a cold stream via pinch technology. Heat exchanger network
integrate streams that need to be cooled and heated to reduce cooling effort and recover heat
from the process. Maximum Energy Recovery ensures the reduction of utilities usage in
operation cost of plant.
4.2.1 Pinch Technology

Pinch analysis is a technique for reducing the energy consumed by chemical processes through
the optimization of energy recovery systems, energy supply methods and the process operating
conditions. Other than that, pinch technology is also a simple methodology for systematically
analyzing chemical processes and the surrounding utility systems with the assistance of the
First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics specifies the
166
energy equation for calculating the enthalpy changes (ΔH) that occur in streams passing
through a heat exchanger. The direction of heat flow is determined by the Second Law of
Thermodynamics. Heat energy can flow only in one direction which is from hot to cold. A
pinch point is defined as a temperature where heat must be supplied to the streams above the
pinch and remove from the streams below the pinch with external utilities such as cooling
media only at temperatures below the pinch once a pinch point has been established to maintain
the steady operation of the process. Pinch point was initially proposed for heat exchanger
optimization to minimize the energy consumption of the given process, which means
maximizing energy recovery and minimizing the use of external sources. The concepts behind
pinch technology that should be abided when performing pinch design are:
1. Common values for ∆Tmin in the industry: 10℃

2. The minimum heating requirement, QHmin and minimum cooling requirement, QCmin
and the pinch temperature are determined from the cascade diagram.
3. When performing pinch design, there are two pinches known as above pinch, the
Cp,cold should always be greater than or equivalent to Cp,hot. Do the same vice versa
for below pinch design. The stream pairing should always start with the biggest Cp
value.
4. Comparison of utility consumption before and after minimum energy requirement
(MER) is done to determine the MER efficiency.
167
4.2.2 Heat Integration Process Flow
The process flow of heat integration for ascorbic acid is shown in Figure 4.2.2.
Figure 4.1: Flowchart for Heat Integration Process
168
4.2.2.1 Identification of Hot and Cold Stream
The first information that require to obtain before proceeding to heat integration is identifying
heat capacity of both hot stream and cold stream. Hot stream means that the process stream
which charge in at high temperature and exit with lower temperature which is used to heat up
the other stream. Meanwhile in cold stream, it functions to reduce the other stream temperature
by transporting out the heat energy using lower temperature inlet stream. Heat capacity can be
calculated with data that obtained from heat duty of each heater and cooler and using formula
below:
The first information that require to obtain before proceeding to heat integration is identifying
heat capacity of both hot stream and cold stream. Hot stream means that the process stream
which charge in at high temperature and exit with lower temperature which is used to heat up
the other stream. Meanwhile in cold stream, it functions to reduce the other stream temperature
by transporting out the heat energy using lower temperature inlet stream. Heat capacity can be
calculated with data that obtained from heat duty of each heater and cooler and using formula
below:
∆𝐻
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛
where Cp is heat capacity, Δ𝐻 is the heat duty, Tin and Tout is the supply and target
temperature, respectively.
169
4.2.2.2 Stream Data
Table 4.1: Stream details and heat capacity
Heat Supply Target Heat Stream CP

Exchanger Temperature, Temperature, Duty Type (kW/℃)
Ts TT (kW)
(℃) (℃)
E-101 30 90 4396.03 COLD 73.2672
E-102 100 64 -2489.12 HOT 69.1422
E-103 64 30 -641.68 HOT 18.8729
E-104 45 30 -517.55 HOT 34.5033
E-105 30 64 1675.59 COLD 49.2821
E-106 -35 4 1203.3 COLD 30.8538
4.2.2.3 Selection of Minimum Temperature Approach
Minimum approach temperature is the smallest temperature difference of two stream leaving
or entering a heat exchanger to ensure heat is transfer without violation the rules of
thermodynamic. It is also usually representing the smallest gap in temperature across where
the heat transfer occured in the system. The choices for minimum approach temperatures are
between 5˚C and 30˚C (G.P. Towler & Sinnott, 2013). Hence, ΔTmin = 10 ℃ is assumed for
this plant design to represent the minimum approach of temperature in pinch analysis.
4.2.2.4 Shifting of Stream Data
This step involves the calculation of new temperature by using ΔTmin obtained in the previous
step. The formulas involved as shown in equation below.
1
𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑇 − ∗ Δ𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
1
𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑇 + ∗ Δ𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
𝑄
𝐶𝑝 = Δ𝑇 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑃 = ṁ𝐶𝑝
170
Table 4.2: Summary of Shifted Temperature
Stream Type of Stream Supply Temperature, Target Temperature,

Ts TT
(℃) (℃)
E-101 COLD 35 95
E-102 HOT 95 59
E-103 HOT 59 25
E-104 HOT 40 25
E-105 COLD 35 69
E-106 COLD -30 9
171
4.2.2.5 Temperature Interval Diagram Construction
In the cascade diagram, the net quantity of energy in each temperature period is represented.
Excess energy at a specific temperature interval can be distributed to the next temperature level.
Q = Cp T is used to calculate the duty of cold and hot streams for each temperature interval
shown in Figure 4.2. The differences in cold and hot duty are computed, and the results are
shown as a deficit for positive values as well as a surplus for negative values. These variables
are employed to determine the pinch point in the heat balancing section.
Stream Cold Hot Cold Duty Hot Duty Hot – Cold Surplus
type (Kw) (Kw) (kW) /
Deficit
Heat E-101 E-105 E-106 E-102 E-103 E-104
exchanger
Cp 73.26 49.28 30.853 69.14 18.872 34.50
(kw/℃) 72 21 8 22 9 33
95
1904.9472 1797.6972 -107.25 Deficit
69
1225.493 691.422 -543.071 Deficit
59
2328.4367 358.5851 -1969.8516 Deficit
40
612.7465 266.881 -345.8655 Deficit
35
0.0000 533.762 533.762 Surplus
25
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Surplus
9
1203.2982 0.0000 -1203.2982 Deficit
-30
Figure 4.2: Temperature interval diagram
172
4.2.2.6 Cascade Diagram Constructions
The net amount of energy at each temperature interval is shown in Figure 4.3.
Temperature (℃) Qnet (kW)

Trial 1 Trial 2
95 0.0000 3635.5743
-107.25 (Qh minimum)
69 -107.25 3528.3243
-543.071
59 -650.321 2985.2533
-1969.8516
40 -2620.1726 1015.4017
-345.8655
35 2966.0381 669.5362
533.762
25 -2432.2761 1203.2982
0
9 -2432.2761 1203.2982
-1203.2982
-30 -3635.5743 0.0000

(Qc minimum)
Figure 4.3: Cascade diagram
If a negative value is shown along the cascade diagram, normalization is necessary to transform
the negative flow to a positive flow. According to Figure 4.3, the first trial heat energy balance
revealed a maximum negative flow of -3635.5743 kW at -30 °C. To normalize the cascade, a
maximum heat utility of 3635.5743 kW must be added so that there is no negative heat flow.
From the figure, it shows that the design has pinch point at -30 °C after the 2nd trial. After the
2nd trial, all the value are positive thus the cascade diagram has achieved feasible design.
173
4.2.2.7 Heat Exchange Network Design Based on Pinch
Heat integration between heat duties of each equipment occurs in this stage, and a new heat
exchanger network can be established. This heat integration is performed using the pinch
temperature, -30 °C, established in the cascade diagram. The heat exchanger network is
separated into two sections: above and below the pinch. The hot and cold streams are linked to
ensure maximum heat recovery in each segment based on the following criteria:
i. Cpin ≤ Cpout
ii. No cold utilities above the pinch
iii. No hot utilities below the pinch
iv. Transfer heat across the pinch point is not allowed.
v. The remaining heat load will be fulfilled by a heater or cooler.
Based on the rules stated above, heat exchanger network (HEN) was generated after pinch
analysis as shown in Figure 4.4 which will be applied in the new process flow diagram.
Hot Below Heat Duty

Stream Above pinch pinch pinch Cp (kW)
-25°C
E-102
64 69.1422 2489.12
100
E-103
30 18.8729 641.68
64
E-104
45 30 34.5033 517.55
E-101 747.68 kW
90 30 73.2672 4396.03
2489.12 kW 641.68 kW 517.55 kW
kW
E-105
64 30 49.2821 1675.59
E-106
4
30.8538 1203.3
Cold
pinch
-35°C
Figure 4.4: Heat exchanger network design
174
The heat integration in Figure 4.4 show that the integration takes place at above the pinch only.
Stream for E-101 is integrated with stream for E-102, E-103 and E-104 to transfer the required
energy. However, the stream still have additional of energy, thus a heater is needed to achieve
the target temperature. Based on the heat exchanger network (HEN) design above, the QH =
747.68 kW is achieved.
4.2.2.8 Maximum Energy Recover (MER)

After the heat integration using pinch analysis, the maximum energy recovery (MER)
of hot utility and cold utility is determined. To calculate the energy saving, the following
formula would be used:
Heat duty before HEN−Heat duty after HEN

% Energy Saving = × 100
Heat duty before HEN
Table 4.3: Summary of heat duty of heat exchanger before and after HEN
Before HEN After HEN

Heat Exchanger Cooling Utility Heating Utility Cooling Utility Heating Utility
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
E-101 - 4396.03 - 747.68
E-102 2489.12 - - -
E-103 641.68 - - -
E-104 517.55 - - -
E-105 - 1675.59 - 1675.59
E-106 - 1203.3 - 1203.3
Total 3648.35 7274.92 0 3626.57
175
Table 4.4: Summary of percentage of energy saving
Heat Duty, kW
Energy % Energy Saving
Before HEN After HEN
Cold Utility 3648.35 0 100
Hot Utility 7274.92 3626.57 50.15

Total
10923.27 3626.57 66.80
Consumptions
Based on Table 4.4 above, the comparison between before HEN and after HEN seems satisfied
and feasible in which the initial cold and hot utility are 3648.35 kW and 7274.92 kW
respectively. Then it reduced to 0 kW and 3626.57 kW after the heat integration. Eventually,
the total energy consumptions can be saved up to 66.80% after the heat integration.
176
4.3 Process Utilities
The additional elements required in the functioning of any production are now commonly
provided by process utilities. Utility systems that are both reliable and efficient are critical to
the successful running of a manufacturing facility. Purchased utilities have consumption-based
expenses, whereas company-owned utilities have both capital and operating costs. Steam for
heating, electricity, cooling water, refrigeration, natural gas, wastewater treatment, waste
disposal, and landfill are all examples of process utilities. As for this production plant, the
utilities that involved are steam, cooling water, glycol and chilled water. The details of the
process utilities for production of 95% ascorbic acid from d-sorbitol will be discussed in this
section.
4.3.1 Steam Consumption

Water in the gaseous state is referred to as steam. This can happen owing to evaporation or
boiling, where heat is provided until the enthalpy of vaporisation is reached. Although saturated
or superheated steam is invisible, "steam" frequently refers to wet steam, the visible mist or
aerosol of water droplets generated when water vapour condenses. Understanding how steam
is used is critical in the study of utility systems since steam is the most widely used heat utility
in chemical plants. Low pressure steam (LP), medium pressure steam (MP), and high-pressure
steam (HP) are the three types of steam, with saturation temperatures of 160°C, 184°C, and
254°C, respectively.
Table 4.5: Cost of steam (Turton,2013)

Type of steam Cost ($/1000 kg)
Low Pressure 27.70
Table 4.6: Summary of steam consumption by equipment

Equipment Type of Mass flowrate, Cost (RM/yr)
steam (kg/yr)
V-102 LPS 18,229.63 2118.283006
V-103 LPS 19,327,966.45 2245909.701
R-103 LPS 124,263.19 14439.38268
R-104 LPS 677,545.08 78730.7383
V-104 LPS 16,882.79 1961.780198
V-105 LPS 5,429,419.26 630898.518
177
V-108 LPS 2,330,910.13 270851.7571
E-106 LPS 602,902.61 70057.28328
E-101 LPS 3,041,768.42 353453.4904
E-105 LPS 910,853.80 105841.2116
R-101 LPS 323,549.47 37596.44841
R-102 LPS 34,901.35 4055.53687
Total 32,839,192.19 3,815,914.13
Total cost of steam consumption:

32,839,192.19𝑘𝑔 $27.70 𝑅𝑀4.21
× × = 𝑹𝑴 𝟑, 𝟖𝟏𝟓, 𝟗𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟑/𝐲𝐫
𝑦𝑟 1000𝑘𝑔 1$
4.3.2 Cooling Consumption

A cold utility stream is required when heat must be rejected at lower temperatures, below
around 120 ℃ (more precisely, below the pinch temperature). In the temperature range of 120
℃ to 40 ℃, cooling water is the most widely utilised cold utility, while air cooling is favoured
in locations where water is expensive or the ambient humidity is too high for cooling water
systems to operate well. If a process stream must be cooled to a temperature below 40 ℃,
cooling water or air cooling will be used to cool it to a temperature between 40 ℃ and 50 ℃,
then chilled water or refrigeration will be used to cool it to the target temperature. The source
of the water that used in this plant is from Syarikat Air Terengganu (SATU) with the cost of
RM1.15/m3. While for the glycol that used in this plant is $0.35/MT (SuperPro Designer).
4.3.2.1 Chilled Water

Table 4.7: Summary of chilled water consumption by equipment
Equipment Mass flowrate (kg/hr)
V-101 Microfilter 3970.67
R-101 Fermenter 3466
R-102 Fermenter 4573.12
Total 12009.79
178
Cost of chilled water:
kg m3 8000hr RM 1.15
12009.79 × × × = 𝑹𝑴𝟏𝟏𝟎, 𝟒𝟗𝟎. 𝟎𝟕/𝒚𝒓
hr 1000kg yr m3
4.3.2.2 Glycol
Table 4.8: Summary of glycol consumption by equipment
Equipment Mass flowrate (MT/hr)
V-106 Crystallizer 1.925
TK-101 Storage tank 1.2
Total 3.125
Cost of glycol:
MT 8000hr $0.35 RM 4.21
3.125 × × × = 𝑹𝑴𝟑𝟔, 𝟖𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝟎/𝒚𝒓
hr yr MT $1
4.3.2 Electricity Utilities Consumption

Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) provides energy in Malaysia in collaboration with the
Malaysian government, ensuring that customers receive the power quality they require so that
equipment may operate and produce. Tenaga Nasional Berhad is a Malaysian company. The
equipment in this plant that needed electricity to operate is bipolar membrane electrodialysis
and crystallizer. According to the Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) the price for the medium
voltage general industrial (Tarif D) is RM 0.38/kWh.
Table 4.9: Summary of electricity utilities

Equipment Energy Consumption (kW)
V-101 Microfilter 15.95
V-102 BME 37.05
V-104 BME 34.32
V-106 Crystallizer 26.0771
V-108 Freeze dryer 122.97
R-103 CSTR 1 5.7297
R-104 CSTR 2 6.1784
BC-101 Belt 139.8076
Conveyor
Total 1,248.78
179
Operating hour per year is 8000 therefore,
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
8000ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝐸 = 1,248.78𝑘𝑊 × = 9,990,233.60
𝑦𝑟 𝑦𝑟
The electricity charged at a rate of RM 0.38/kWh.
𝑅𝑀 0.38
Electricity cost = 9,990,233.6 × = 𝑹𝑴 𝟑, 𝟕𝟗𝟔, 𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟕/𝒚𝒓
𝑘𝑊ℎ
4.3.3 Summary of utilities cost
Table 4.10: Summary of utilities cost
Type of utilities Cost (RM/yr)

Steam 3,815,914.131
Electricity 3,796,288.77
Chilled water 110,490.07
Glycol 36,837.50
Total 7,759,530.47
4.4 Economic Potential 4

For the fourth level decision, the cost of utilities is included. The equation below shows the
calculation of Economic Potential 4, EP4:
EP4 = EP3 – Cost of Utilities
EP4 = RM 228,840,755.40 - RM 7,759,530.47
EP 4= RM 221,081,224.90
180
4.5 Integrated Process Flow Design
Figure 4.5: Heat Integration Process Flow Diagram
181
CHAPTER 5: PROCESS EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING
5.1 Reactor
Reactor is used as the process vessel where the reaction occurred between the feed components
to become the products. For production of the ascorbic acid, 2 types of reactors which are
fermentation reactor and continuous stirrer tank reactor. The fermentation reactor is used to
fermentate the sorbitol to sorbose and from sorbose to Sodium keto-gluconic acid. The CSTR
is used for conversion of Keto-gluconic acid to Methyl gluconate and from Methyl gluconate
sodium ascorbate. The catalyst has been used in fermentation reactors, which is Gluconobacter
oxidants for first fermentation reaction and Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes for
second fermentation reaction. The kinetic mechanism for the reactions is derived based on few
assumptions. First, the process is in steady state operation. Second, the reaction is in adiabatic.
Third, the pressure drop in the tank is negligible. Lastly, the flow of the fermentation reactor is
semi-batch while for the CSTR is continuous. Both fermentation reactor and CSTR consist of
a mixer which is to ensure the composition of the feed in the evenly distributed. The semi-
batch fermentation reactor gives the benefit of continuous flow which can ensure the
production rate would be higher compared to batch reactor. CSTR has given advantages of
uniform composition though out the reactor, high retention time for slow reaction and good
temperature control.
5.1.1 Fermentation Reactor 1
Table 5.1: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 1 (R-101)
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR FERMENTER, R-101

Item Fermentor By CHUA KUN LAI
Code R-101 Date 09.04.2022
No. Unit 2
General
Function Production of Sorbitol to Sorbose
Type of Reactor Jacketed Agitator
Operation Semi-batch Orientation Vertical
Material of Cooling
Stainless Steel Utility
Construction water
6951.23
Cooling Duty (kW)
182
Catalyst
Catalyst Gluconobacter Oxydans
Operating Data
Stream S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5
Phase Liquid Gas Gas Gas Liquid
Temperature (℃) 25 25 25 30 30
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 6073.6 0.456 2550.07 2192.47 6440.285
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbitol 4251.518 78.504
Water 1822.079 2237.211
Ammonia 0.456 0.009
Oxygen 588.209 226.913
Nitrogen 1961.858 1961.858
Sorbose 4121.34
Biomass 3.23
Operational Design
Reactor Vessel
Volume 335.60 m^3
Diameter 5.414 m
Height 8.121 m
Residence Time 14 hr
Wall Thickness 6.18 mm
Number of Baffles 4
Width of Baffles 0.5414 m
Agitator
Number of Impeller 3
Number of Blades 6
Impeller diameter 1.805 m
Length of blade 0.451 m
Width of blade 0.361 m
Impeller above bottom 1.805 m
Speed of impeller 30 RPM
Equipment Estimated Cost : RM 850701.31
183
5.1.2 Fermentation Reactor 2
Table 5.2: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 2 (R-102)
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR FERMENTER, R-102

Item Fermentor By CHUA KUN LAI
Code R-102 Date 09.04.2022
Unit 2
General
Production of Sorbose to Sodium Keto-
Function
gluconic acid
Operation Semi-batch Orientation Vertical
Material of
Stainless Steel Utility Cooling water
Construction
Cooling Duty (kW) 7560.48
Catalyst
Catalyst Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes
Operating Data
Stream S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S-10
Phase Liquid Solid Gas Gas Gas Liquid
Temperature(℃) 30 25 25 25 30 30
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 6440.29 921.145 0.445 18808.2 18644.7 7531.314
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbitol 78.504 78.504
Sorbose 4121.34 982.666
Water 2237.211 2709.369
Biomass 3.23 6.459
Ammonia 0.445
Oxygen 4373.265 3823.572
Nitrogen 14434.985 14434.985
Sodium KLG 3754.317
Operational Design
Reactor Vessel
Volume 387.82 m^3
Diameter 5.481 m
Height 8.222m
Residence Time 72 hr
184
Number of Baffles 4
Agitator
Number of Blades 6
Speed of impeller 30RPM
5.1.3 CSTR 1
Table 5.3: Design Data Sheet of CSTR 1 (R-103)
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR CSTR, R-103

Item CSTR By CHUA KUN LAI
Code R-103 Date 09.04.2022
Unit 1
General
Production of Keto-gluconic Acid to
Function
Methyl Gluconate
Orientatio
Operation Continuous Vertical
n
Material of
Construction
Operating Data
Stream S-18 S-19 S-20
Phase Liquid Liquid Liquid
Temperature (℃) 64 25 64
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 3549.495 413.459 3964.8
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbitol 62.854 62.854
Sorbose 786.773 786.773
Keto-gluconic Acid 2699.868 196.557
Methanol 413.459
Water 232.46
Operational Design
185
Reactor Vessel
Volume 35.37 m^3
Diameter 2.48 m
Height 7.44 m
Wall Thickness 5.8mm
Number of Baffles 4
Width of Baffles 0.248m
Agitator
Number of Blades 6
Impeller diameter 0.827m
Impeller disc diameter 0.620m
Length of blade 0.207m
Width of blade 0.165m
Impeller above bottom 0.827m
5.1.4 CSTR 2
Table 5.4: Design Data Sheet of CSTR 2 (R-104)
SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR CSTR, R-104

Item CSTR By CHUA KUN LAI
Code R-104 Date 09.04.2022
Unit 1
General
Production of Methyl Gluconate to
Function
Sodium Ascorbate
Orientatio
Operation Continuous Vertical
n
Material of
Construction
Operating Data
Stream S-21 S-22 S-23 S-24
Phase Liquid Liquid Gas Liquid
Temperature(℃) 30 25 45 45
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 3964.8 1083.064 567.401 4480.462
186
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbitol 62.854 62.854
Sorbose 786.773 786.773
Keto-gluconic Acid 196.557 196.557
Methyl Gluconate 2686.156 2.316
Water 232.46 464.719
Sodium
1083.064
Bicarbonate
Methanol 413.103
Operational Design
Reactor Vessel
Volume 35.37 m^3
Diameter 2.48 m
Height 7.44 m
Number of Baffles 4
Width of Baffles 0.248m
Agitator
Number of Blades 6
Impeller disc diameter 0.620 m
187
5.2 Heat Exchanger
Most chemical processes require heat to be transferred to and from process fluids. The term
"exchanger" can refer to any type of equipment that exchanges heat, but it is mostly used to
refer to equipment that exchanges heat between two process streams. The heat exchangers are
normally classified as either shell-and-tube type or compact type, which shell-and-tube type is
commonly used as it has the advantage of giving larger heat transfer surface in a smaller
volume. Heaters and coolers are exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a
plant service stream. If the process stream is vaporized, the exchanger is referred to as a
vaporized if the stream is completely vaporized; and a reboiler and condenser if it is connected
to a distillation column.
The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is:
Q = UAΔTm,
Where.
Q = Heat transferred per unit time, W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2. °C
A = Transfer area, m2
ΔTm = Mean temperature difference, °C
The heat exchanger design method is based on Kern’s and Bell’s (Sinnott, 2014). The
procedures are as below:
1. Determine the duty by defining the heat transfer rate, fluid rate, and temperature.
2. Collect the fluid physical required: density, viscosity and thermal conductivity.
3. Select the type of heat exchanger that will be used.
4. Select the trial value for exchanger to be used.
5. Determine the difference in mean temperature, Tlm.
6. Determine the required heat transfer area.
7. Determine the layout of the heat exchanger.
8. Calculate the number of tubes and the diameter of shell.
188
5.2.1 E-101
Table 5.5: Design Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger (E-101)

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR HEAT EXCHANGER, E-101
Item Heat Exchanger Date 7th April 2022
Nurul Akmazatul
Code E-101 By
binti Ahmad
No. Of Unit 1
General
Function To heat up the reactants from 30°C to 90°C.
Type Shell and tube
Operation Continuous Orientation Vertical
Shell: Carbon steel
Material of Construction Utility Steam
Tube: Carbon steel
Heat Duty (kW) 4396.03
2)
Heat transfer area (m 65.01
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Stream
S13 S15
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature (℃) 30 90
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Quantity(kg/hr) 5468.04 5468.04
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbose 786.77 786.77
Water 1918.55 1918.55
Operational Design
Tube Design
Tube layout pattern Triangular pitch
Number of passes 4
Number of tubes, Nt 191
Tube Length, Lt (m) 4.88
Tube inside diameter, Dti (mm) 16.69
Tube outside diameter, Dto (mm) 22.23
Tube pitch, Pt (mm) 27.79
Bundle diameter, Db (mm) 474.50
Tube side heat transfer coefficient,
2448.22
hi(W/m2.℃)
Shell Side
189
Shell diameter, Ds(mm) 534.00
Corrosion allowance (mm) 1.5
Baffle spacing, Ib (mm) 159.75
Baffle diameter (mm) 530.90
Number of baffles, Nb 31
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, ho
26790.98
(W/m2.℃)
Equipment Estimated Cost : RM 590,861.53
5.2.2 E-102

Nurul Akmazatul
Code E-102 By
binti Ahmad
No. Of Unit 2
General
Function To cold up the reactants from 100°C to 64°C.
Type Shell and tube
Shell: Carbon steel
Material of Construction Utility Cooling Water
Tube: Carbon steel
Heat Duty (kW) -2489.12
2)
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Stream
S17 S18
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature(℃) 100 64
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Quantity(kg/hr) 3549.50 3549.50
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbose 786.77 786.77
Operational Design
Tube Design
Number of passes 4
190
5441.83
hi(W/m2.℃)
Shell Side
15166.66
(W/m2.℃)
Equipment Estimated Cost: RM 521,406.74
5.2.3 E-103

Nurul Akmazatul
Code E-103 By
binti Ahmad
No. Of Unit 3
General
Type Shell and tube
Shell: Carbon steel
Material of Construction Utility Cooling Water
Tube: Carbon steel
2)
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Stream
S20 S21
Phase Liquid Liquid
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Quantity(kg/hr) 3964.8 3964.8
191
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbose 786.77 786.77
Water 232.46 232.46
Operational Design
Tube Design
Number of passes 4
1158.86
hi(W/m2.℃)
Shell Side
18355.81
(W/m2.℃)
5.2.4 E-104

Nurul Akmazatul
Code E-104 By
binti Ahmad
No. Of Unit 4
General
Type Shell and tube
Material of Construction Shell: Carbon steel Utility Cooling Water
192
Tube: Carbon steel
Heat transfer area (m2) 19.35
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Stream
S24 S25
Phase Liquid Liquid
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Quantity(kg/hr) 4480.46 4480.46
Composition (kg/hr)
Sorbose 786.77 786.77
Water 464.71 464.71
Methanol 413.10 413.10
Sodium keto gluconic
2554.14 2554.14
acid
Operational Design
Tube Design
Number of passes 4
2739.19
hi(W/m2.℃)
Shell Side
15741.38
(W/m2.℃)
193
5.2.5 E-105
Heat Exchanger, E-105 specification data sheet

Item Heat Exchanger Date 8 April 2022
Code E-105
By Siti Hajar Binti Abd Rahim
No of unit 5
General
Function To heat up stream 27
Type Shell and tube
Operation Continuous
Material construction Carbon steel
Heat transfer area ,(m2) 29.04
Orientation Vertical
Utility Low pressure steam
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-27 S-28
Phase Liquid Liquid
Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr) 3768.22 3768.22
Temperature, (℃) 30 64
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Composition Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr) Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Ascorbic Acid 2270.71 2271.71
Sorbose 786.77 787.77
Methanol 413.1 414.1
C7H12O7 2.32 2.32
Water 232.46 233.46
Total 3768.21 3768.21
Operational Design
Tube design
Number of passes 4
Number of tubes 132
Length of Tube (m) 4.5
Tube inside diameter, (m) 0.01033
Tube outer Diameter (m) 0.01588
Tube pitch, (m) 0.01985
Bundle diameter, (m) 0.2885
Tube side heat transfer
995.93
coefficient, (W/m2. K)
Shell side
Shell diameter, (m) 0.3
Baffle spacing, (m) 0.088
Baffle diameter, (m) 0.2921
194
Shell side heat transfer
4116392.547
coefficient, (W/m2. K)
5.2.6 E-106
Heat Exchanger, E-105 specification data sheet

Heat
Item Exchanger Date
Code E-106
No of unit 6
General
Function To heat up stream 37
Type Flat plate
Material of construction Carbon steel
2
Heat transfer area, (m ) 19.3110993
Utility Low pressure steam
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-37 S-38
Phase Liquid Solid Liquid Solid
Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Temperature -35 4
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Composition Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr) Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Ascorbic Acid 0 2270.71 0 2270.7
Sorbitol 18.67 0 18.67 0
Sorbose 87.89 0 87.89 0
Water 0.17 0 0.17 0
Total 2377.44 2377.44
Operational Design
Log Mean Temperature
Difference (℃) 100.87
Correction factor 0.98
Correction Mean Temperature
98.85
Difference
Heat transfer coefficient, (W/m2.
261.1677996
K)
Mechanical Design
Number of plates 9
Thickness of plate, (mm) 5
2
Effective Area of Plate, (m ) 1.7
195
Width of plate, (m) 0.6
Plate spacing, (mm) 5
Length of plate, (m) 2
Number of passes 4
Channel cross sectional area,
0.003
(m2)
Hydraulic mean difference 0.01
Estimated Cost = RM 291,694.51
196
5.3 Separator
5.3.1 Microfiltration
Microfiltration is a physical separation method that employs porous membranes with pore sizes
ranging from 0.1 to 10 micrometers. A symmetric or asymmetric porous structure separates a
feed solution from a permeate or filtration membrane. A pressure gradient is the driving factor
for mass transfer across the membrane. Because the membrane only separates big particles with
diameters greater than about 0.1 mm, particle diffusion and the osmotic pressure differential
between the feed and filtrate solution are negligible.
Working Principle
Microfiltration is commonly used as a pre-treatment for ultrafiltration and as a post-treatment

for granular media filtration. These membranes can segregate macromolecules with molecular
weights smaller than 100,000 g/mol in terms of estimated molecular weight. The filters used
in the microfiltration process are specifically designed to prevent particles like silt, algae,
protozoa, and big bacteria from passing through. Water (H2O), monovalent species like Sodium
(Na+) or Chloride (Cl) ions, dissolved or natural organic substances, and tiny colloids and
viruses will all pass through the filter. The suspended liquid is transported over the semi-
permeable membrane in a sheet or tubular shape at a reasonably high velocity of roughly 1–3
m/s and low to moderate pressures (around 100-400 kPa).
Figure 5.1: Working principle of microfiltration
197
Table 5.11: Design Data Sheet of Microfiltration (V-101)
Microfilter, V-101 specification data sheet
Item Microfilter Date 7/4/2022
Code V-101
No of unit 1
General
Function To remove biomass after fermentation process
Type Microfiltration (Centrifuge)
Operation Batch
Material of construction Stainless steel
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-10 S-11 S-12
Temperature, (℃) 30 30 30
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Mass Flowrate
Composition (Kg/hr) Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Biomass 6.45911 0 6.45911
Sorbitol 78.5038 78.5038 0
Sorbose 982.6659 982.6659 0
Sodium Keto Gluconic Acid 3754.317 3754.317 0
Water 2709.3684 2709.368 0
Total 7531.31421 7531.31421
Operational Design
Temperature, (℃) 30
Pressure, (Bar) 1.013
Mechanical Design
Inner diameter tank, (m) 0.75
Outer diameter tank, (m) 1.875
Height of tank, (m) 6
Diameter of particles, (m) 3.4871 × 10−6
Design temperature, (℃) 30
Design pressure, (bar) 1.013
Equipment Esimated Cost : RM 148,063.37
198
5.3.2 Bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1
Bipolar membranes are a form of layered ion exchange (IX) membrane in which one polymer
layer is exclusively permeable for anions while the other is only permeable for cations. In
contrast to other membrane processes, EBM is used to initiate a reaction in the bipolar junction
of the membrane, where the anion and cation permeable layers are in direct contact (Pärnamäe
et al., 2021).
The main requirements for a bipolar membrane are:
1. Excellent long-term stability

2. A low passive drops in potential
3. A high rate of water splitting
4. High perm selectivity
5. Good mechanical stability
As a result, BPMs and their applications have recently attracted economic interest, mostly due
to their environmental benefits. BPMs, for example, can be used in a variety of pH-modifying
processes: instead of adding chemicals, BPMs might be used to modulate pH via in H+/OH
(Pärnamäe et al., 2021).
Application examples of BPM

1. Production of organic acid from organic acid salt
2. Production of amino acid from amino acid salt
3. Production of acid and alkali from waste solution with salt
4. Production of acid and alkali from inorganic salt
Figure 5.2: The salt ion split is shown schematically as a process of applying bipolar
membranes to their corresponding acids and bases.
199
Table 5.12: Design Data Sheet for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis (V-102)
Bipolar membrane electrodialysis, V-102 specification data sheet

Bipolar Membrane
Item Electrodialysis Date 7/4/2022
Code V-102
No of unit 1
General
To convert sodium keto-gluconic acid to keto-gluconic acid
Function through hydrolysis reaction
Type Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis
Operation Batch
Material of construction Stainless Steel
Orientation Horizontal
Utility Steam
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-11 S-13 S-14
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Mass Flowrate
Composition (Kg/hr) Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Sodium Keto Gluconic Acid 3005.89942 0 0
Keto Gluconic Acid 0 2699.888 0
Sorbitol 62.85417 62.85417 0
Sorbose 786.77289 786.7729 0
Sodium Hydroxide 0 0 556.63206
Water 2169.25989 1918.548 0
Total 6024.78637 6024.69501
Operational Design
Operating temperature 30
Operating pressure, (bar) 1.013
Volume of reactor, (m) 6.05
Height of reactor, (m) 4.11
Diameter of reactor, (m) 1.37
Wall thickness, (m) 1.38
Head thickness, (m) 0.0052
Mechanical Design
Type of head Tori spherical
No of baffle 4
Width of baffle 0.138
200
5.3.3 Bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2
Table 5.13: Design Data Sheet for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)
Bipolar membrane electrodialysis, V-102 specification data sheet

Bipolar Membrane
Item Electrodialysis Date 7/4/2022
Code V-104
By Nor Alif Akmal Bin Azmi
No of unit 1
General
To convert sodium ascorbate to ascorbic acid through
Function hydrolysis reaction
Type Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis
Operation Batch
Material of construction Stainless Steel
Utility Steam
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-25 S-26 S-27
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Composition Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr)
Sodium Ascorbate 2554.14 0 0
Ascorbic Acid 0 0 2270.71
Methyl Gluconate Acid 2.32 0 2.32
Keto Gluconic Acid 196.56 196.56 0
Sodium Hydroxide 0 515.66 0
Methanol 413.10 0 413.10
Sorbitol 62.85 0 62.85
Sorbose 786.77 0 786.77
Water 464.72 0 232.46
Total 4480.46 712.22 3768.22
Operational Design
Operating temperature 30
Operating pressure, (bar) 1.013
Volume of reactor, (m) 4.60
Height of reactor, (m) 3.75
Diameter of reactor, (m) 1.25
Wall thickness, (m) 1.12
Head thickness, (m) 0.0052
Mechanical Design
Type of head Tori spherical
No of baffle 4
Width of baffle 0.126
201
5.3.4 Thin Film Evaporator 1
The evaporation process is used in the pharmaceutical business to remove excess

moisture from products, making them easier to handle and enhancing product stability. An
evaporator is a device that converts a liquid to a gas while absorbing heat. It can also be used
to separate water or other liquids from other liquids in a combination.
In this project, agitated thin film evaporator have been used as it functions to remove water
from other components. The process uses indirect heat transfer and mechanical agitation of the
flowing product film under regulated conditions to swiftly separate the volatile from the less
volatile components.
Table 5.14: Design specification sheet of Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)

Specification Data Sheet
Date 7 April 2022
General
Identification No. V-103
Design Type Vertical
Material Stainless Steel
Type of film Agitated film
Function To separate water from sorbitol, sorbose and
keto-gluconic acid
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-15 S-16 S-17
Quantity (kg/hr) 5468.043 1918.548 3549.495
Composition Mass flowrate (kg/hr)
Keto-gluconic acid 2699.87 - 2699.87
Sorbitol 62.85 - 6.85
Sorbose 786.77 - 786.77
Water 1918.55 1918.55 -
Operating Design
Volume (m3) 114.87
Diameter (m) 3.653
Height (m) 10.96
2
Area (m ) 10.48
Steam Economy 0.6807
Estimated Equipment Cost : RM 4,445,981.39
202
5.3.5 Thin Film Evaporator 2
Table 5.15: Design specification sheet of Thin Film Evaporator (V-105)

Date 7 April 2022
General
Design Type Vertical
Type of film Agitated film
Function To separate water from ascorbic acid,
sorbitol, sorbose and methanol
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
S-28 S-29 S-30
Quantity (kg/hr) 3483.3 425.45 3057.59
Ascorbic acid 2272.73 - 2272.73
Methanol 413.46 413.46 -
Sorbitol 56.81 - 56.81
Sorbose 728.05 - 728.05
Water 12.03 11.99 -
Operating Design
Volume (m3) 20.30
Diameter (m) 2.050
Height (m) 6.150
Area (m2) 3.30
Steam Economy 1.4111
Estimated Equipment Cost : RM 3,833,018.75
203
5.3.6 Nutsche filter
Nutshce filter is designed for solid-liquid separation process by filtration. Normally

used for pharmaceutical, chemical, fine chemical and food industries.
Process steps of nutshce filter with agitator and discharge valve are:
1) Filtration
2) Washing of filter cake
3) Repeat mix or washing the cake
4) Convection drying of the cake
5) Smoothing with compression of the cake
6) Discharge of the wet or dried cake
Table 5.16: Design specification sheet of Nutsche Filter (V-107)
Date 7 April 2022
General
Design Type Nutsche Filter
Function To remove all the unreacted components by
filtration
Operating Data
Streams Inlet Outlet
S-32 S-33 S-34
Quantity (kg/hr) 3124.99 601.46 2523.53
Ascorbic Acid 2270.71 0 2270.71
Sorbitol 62.85 44.18 18.67
Sorbose 786.77 553.09 233.68
Water 4.65 4.18 0.4649
Operating Design
Volume (m3) 6
3
Volume of filtrate (m ) 5.99
Estimated Equipment Cost : RM 105,250
204
5.3.7 Crystallizer
Crystallization plays a critical part in the pharmaceutical business, as it begins with the
separation of intermediates and ends with the manufacturing of active medicinal components
(APIs). Almost every step in the pharmaceutical production process involves crystallization.
Table 5.2 shows the equipment specification sheet for Crystallizer, V-106.
Table 5.17: Specification sheet of Crystallizer (V-106)

By Nurul Syuhada Binti Baharin
Date 5 April 2022
General
Growth rate (m/hr) 0.00018
3
Volumetric inlet flowrate, Qi (m /hr) 2.3535
Density of solution (kg/m3) 998.78
3
Density of crystal (kg/m ) 1650
Dominant crystal size, LD (m) 0.002
Function To crystallize ascorbic acid
Operating Data
S30 S31 S32
Quantity (kg/hr) 3124.988 - 3124.988
Ascorbic acid 2270.71174 - 2270.71174
Sorbitol 62.85417 - 62.85417
Sorbose 786.77289 - 786.77289
Water 4.64919 - 4.64919
Operating Design
Volume (𝑚3 ) 16.4957
Holding time (hr) 3.7037
Height(m) 4.6105
Diameter (m) 2.5
Estimated Equipment Cost: RM 66,871.40
205
5.3.8 Freeze dryer
Freeze drying pharmaceuticals employs a process known as lyophilization, which

involves lowering the temperature of the product to below freezing and then extracting the
water in the form of vapor using a high-pressure vacuum. The vapor condenses on a
condenser, freezes, and is removed. Finally, a gradual temperature rises extracts all the
product's remaining 'bound' moisture. This process preserves the material's physical structure
and allows it to be stored or transported.
Table 5.18: Specification sheet of Freeze Dryer (V-108)

Date 5 April 2022
General
Mass flowrate (kg/hr) 2523.530
Volumetric inlet flowrate, Qi (L/hr) 1644.074
Function To evaporate water from solid ascorbic acid
Orientation horizontal
Design Type Freeze Dryer
Operating Data
S35 S36 S37
Temperature (℃) 4.8 -35 -35
Quantity (kg/hr) 2523.530 146.087 2377.443
Ascorbic acid 2270.71174 - 2270.71174
Sorbitol 18.66870 - 18.66870
Sorbose 233.68426 145.79658 87.88767
Water 0.46492 0.29006 0.17485
Operating Design
Area (m2 ) 1.2618
Desired running time (hr) 48
Length (m) 19.999
Diameter (m) 1.2675
Estimated Equipment Cost: RM 799,900
206
5.4 Belt Conveyer
In the medical and pharmaceutical industries, product transportation necessitates

precision and control. Medical and pharmaceutical products are often small, light, and delicate.
They're tough to handle, orient, and move because of this. Clean room standards, as well as
any space limits, must be considered when selecting conveyor belts for pharmaceutical
products. Pharmaceutical conveyors are used to move medical and pharmaceutical particles,
raw materials, and finished products from one location to another.
Table 5.19: Design specification sheet of Belt Conveyer (BC-101)

Date 5 April 2022
General
3
Density of ascorbic acid (kg/m ) 1650
Density of sorbitol (kg/m3) 1490
3
Density of sorbose (kg/m ) 1650
Density of water(kg/m3) 997
3
Average density of mixture (kg/m ) 1648.5041
Identification No. BC-101
Function To transport product to another equipment
Operating Data
S34 S35
Temperature (℃) 4.8 4.8
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 2523.530 2523.530

Ascorbic acid 2270.71174 2270.71174
Sorbitol 18.66870 18.66870
Sorbose 233.68426 233.68426
Water 0.46492 0.46492
Operating Design
Volume (𝑚3 ) 1.5308
Belt width (m) 0.699
Length (m) 100
Estimated Equipment Cost : RM 88, 640.14
207
5.5 Storage Tank
5.5.1 Ascorbic Acid Storage Tank
A storage tank is a container that holds liquid or medium and is built to withstand fluctuating
pressures. There are numerous different shapes to choose from, including vertical and
horizontal cylindrical. The finished product will be stored in a storage tank before being sold
at this plant.
Table 5.20: Design specification sheet of Storang Tank (TK-101)

Date 5 April 2022
General
Design Type Vertical Storage Tank
Roof Type API-fixed roof
Identification No. TK-101
Function To store Ascorbic Acid
Operating Data
Streams Inlet
S38
Temperature (℃) 4
Pressure (bar) 0.954
Quantity (kmol/hr) 12.89254
Operating Design
Inventory (days) 5
3 181.6452
Volume (𝑚 )
Corrosion Allowance (mm) 2
Height(m) 2.9162
Diameter (m) 4.0875
Estimated Equipment Cost : RM 488, 429.34
208
CHAPTER 6: PROCESS CONTROL & SAFETY STUDIES
6.1 Introduction
All the safety analysis was done in this chapter. The material safety data sheet (MSDS) and
fire prevention has been studied in this chapter. Major equipment controls were outlined and
determined, and a Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) was done for the whole
production plant. Lastly, Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) was done for all major
equipment in the designed plant. The availability of advanced technology enables the chemical
industries to turn into more complex processes which involve higher pressure, more reactive
chemicals, and exotic chemistry. Once the chemical process technology has become more
complex, it is a fundamental for the engineer to understanding the safety in designing an
industrial plant to reduce the likelihood of accidents to be occurred in future. It is also to give
assure the safety of the plant. Safety plays very important in industry especially to the
employees in the plant who required to always exposed to life threatening situations. Moreover,
a safe working environment can ensure that the efficient production of the plant would be better
than a plant that without proper design or unstable running. Therefore, a process safety should
always be considered during the early stage of design of the plant with fully co-operation with
the management, contractors, employees and specialist in environment and industrial health.
6.2 Equipment Control

Process control is the active alteration of a process based on process monitoring outcomes. The
person in charge of the process makes an adjustment to bring the process back under control
once the process monitoring tools have spotted an out-of-control scenario. The control system
for this designed plant's aims is to ensure the plant's safe operation and to achieve the target
efficiency of the output desired items. The equipment control in the production design of
ascorbic acid will be the topic of this section.
6.2.1 Introduction
Because of rising industrialization, process plants are in higher demand. Process control has
become increasingly vital in the creation of a productive plant. Modern plants, especially those
employing complex, highly connected, and innovative technology, make it more difficult to
prevent disruptions from spreading from one linked unit to the others. Without computer-based
process control, running a modern factory would be challenging. Process control's main
209
purpose is to ensure that a factory operates in compliance with desired safety, performance,
product quality, and environmental sustainability standards (Seaborg et al., 2011).
Temperatures, pressure, flow rate, and level are all monitored and controlled during the
manufacturing process. Its goal is to orchestrate a chain of events that culminate in the
transformation of a raw material into the final product. In the industry, instrumentation replaces
humans in controlling many variables at the same time.
There are many different types of control systems available nowadays, with the most prevalent
being the traditional feedback control system, which is widely utilized in industry. Feedback
data is obtained by measuring the controlled variable and comparing it to the set point for that
specific unit action to make a control system work. For each of the unit operations, the data
will be modified if necessary until it reaches the desired set point. The following are the key
objectives of the plant's control strategy:
• To reduce the amount of energy used for heating and cooling.
• Maintaining a safe working environment at the factory and avoiding explosions.
6.2.2 Objectives of Control System

There're a few aims for implementing a control system in the plant. The key aim of process
control is to maintain ascorbic acid production in this plant at the exact operating parameters,
to ensure the process's safety, environmentally friendly, and efficiency, and to attain the desired
product. Following the specification of the control objectives, the following considerations are
made to achieve the above objectives:
1. Security
a) Maintain well-defined safe operating limits for method variables.
b) To monitor potentially hazardous conditions and include warnings, automatic

shutdown
mechanisms, or interlocks when they occur.
2. Production Criteria
a) Obtaining the desired amount and quality of ascorbic acid.
b) It is critical to keep the output composition under the agreed-upon level of quality.
c) To fulfil all these operational constraints, a management panel should be established.
210
3. Economics
a) To produce ascorbic acid at the lowest possible cost.
b) The plant's operation must be in accordance with the ascorbic acid market conditions,
which include raw material availability and demand for the finished product.
c) The variable controlled must not exceed the permissible limits imposed by law.
6.2.3 Control Variable

We need to control reactors, fermenters, heat exchangers, microfilters, bipolar membrane
electrodialysis, evaporators, nutsche filters, crystallizers, freeze dryers, belt conveyors, and
storage tanks in our plant. The control system of the entire plant employs five types of control
variables. To produce 18,000 MTPA of ascorbic acid, for example, flow control, pressure
control, temperature control, and level control are all required.
6.2.3.1 Level Control

Level control is essential for monitoring the liquid level in the equipment to prevent overflow
and maintain volume during the process. This can be built into the design of the equipment, as
is commonly done for automatic control of the flow out or in of the equipment.
6.2.3.2 Temperature Control

Temperature control is critical since all the plant's equipment must be kept at a constant
temperature in order to provide the intended results. The conversion required to obtain the
desired output is frequently influenced by the temperature in the reactors. To maintain the
temperature in the reactor, the temperature controller in the reactor is frequently combined with
automatic control of the flow rate of cooling utilities intake to the reactor.
6.2.3.3 Pressure Control

Pressure control is required to maintain a specific value for reactor operation by installing a
pressure relief valve in the reactor. Aside from that, excessive pressure can cause runaway
reactions such as explosions.
211
6.2.3.4 Flow Control
To maintain the intake and output flow rates during operation, flow control is frequently
coupled with inventory control in all equipment. The control valve can also be employed as a
final component to regulate the flow rate. The flow rate is changed and maintained at the
desired level by adjusting the control valve (Seaborg, 2011).
6.2.4 Classification of Control Strategies

A control strategy is a predefined set of controls that are derived from current product and
process knowledge and are designed to ensure process performance and product quality. Each
unit operation has its own set of parameters, including temperature, pressure, flow, and
composition. To automate the operation of a process, it is important to use measurements of
process outputs or disturbance inputs to make decisions about the proper values of manipulated
inputs.
Control strategy consists of formulating or identifying the following steps:
1. Control Structure
⚫ The controller can be feedback or feed forward in nature.
2. Constraints
⚫ Classify these as hard and soft.
3. Control Objectives
⚫ A chemical-process operating unit often consists of several unit operations. The
control of an operating unit is generally reduced to considering the control of
each unit operation separately. Even so, each unit operation may have multiple,
sometimes conflicting objectives, so the development of control objectives is
not a trivial problem.
4. Safety, environmental and economic considerations.
⚫ Better process automation and control allows processes to operate closer to
“optimum” conditions and to produce products where variability specifications
are satisfied.
5. Input variables
212
⚫ Classify these as manipulated or disturbance variables, input may change
continuously or at discrete intervals of time.
6. Operating characteristics
⚫ Classify these as continuous, batch or semi-continuous (semi-batch).
7. Output variables
⚫ Classify these as measured or unmeasured variables, measurement may be made
continuously or at discrete intervals of time.
The control systems applied for each major and minor unit operation in this chapter. The
following is the included control system:
1. Control system of Fermenter reactor

2. Control system of CSTR reactor.
3. Control system of heat exchanger
4. Control system of microfilter
5. Control system of membrane electrodialysis
6. Control system of evaporator
7. Control system of nutsche filter
8. Control system of crystallizer
9. Control system of freeze dryer
10. Control system of belt conveyer
11. Control system of storage tank
213
6.2.5 Standard Symbol of P&ID
Standard symbols of P&ID used, and the arrangement of the process equipment, piping and
others are identified by ISA standard ISA-S5-1 and shown in table below.
Table 6.1: Instrument Identification System

First Letter Succeeding Letter
Readout
Letter Measured or Initiating Output
Modifier of Passive Modifier
Variable Function
Function
A Analysis - - Alarm -
C Composition - - Control -
F Flow Rate - - - -
I Current (Electrical) - Indicator - -
L Level - - Light Low -
P Pressure, Vacuum - - - -
S - Safety - Switch -
T Temperature - - Transmit -
V - - Valve - -
Table 6.2: Legend Used in P&ID

Symbol Symbol Description
TT and TC Temperature Transmitter and Temperature Controller
PT and PC Pressure Transmitter and Pressure Controller
LT and LC Level Transmitter and Level Controller
FT and FC Flow Transmitter and Flow Controller
CT and CI Composition Transmitter and Composition Indicator
TAH and TAL Temperature Alarm High and Temperature Alarm Low
PAH and PAL Pressure Alarm High and Pressure Alarm Low
LAH and LAL Level Alarm High and Level Alarm Low
FAH and FAL Flow Alarm High and Flow Alarm Low
214
Table 6.3: Function of Control Element
Control
Function
Element
Temperature Control Instruments
TT Detects temperature change in the equipment
Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
TC
element (valve) to do an action
Detect high temperature in the equipment. When temperature exceeds

TAH
temperature limit, it sends a signal to the TC
Detect low temperature in the equipment. When temperature is lower

TAL
than temperature limit, it sends to the TC
Pressure Control Instruments
PT Detects pressure change in the equipment
PC
Detect high pressure in the equipment. When pressure exceeds pressure

PAH
limit, it sends a signal to the PC
Detect low pressure in the equipment. When pressure is lower than

PAL
pressure limit, it sends to the PC
Level Control Instruments
LT Detects level change in the equipment
LC
Detect high level in the equipment. When level exceeds level limit, it
LAH
sends a signal to the LC
LAL Detect low level in the equipment. When level is lower than level limit, it
sends to the LC
215
Flow Control Instruments
FT Detects flow change in the equipment
FC
Detect high flow in the equipment. When flow exceeds flow limit, it
FAH
sends a signal to the FC
Detect low flow in the equipment. When flow is lower than flow limit, it
FAL
sends to the FC
Composition Control Instruments
CT Detects composition changes in the equipment
CI Display the composition in the equipment to the control room
Table 6.4: Basic Symbols Used to Show the Valve, Instruments and Control Loops
Hardware Element Symbol Description
TT Temperature Transmitter
PT Pressure Transmitter
LT Level Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
AT Composition Transmitter
TC Temperature Controller
PC Pressure Controller
LC Level Controller
FC Flow Controller
AC Composition Controller
TAH/TAL Temperature Alarm High/Low
PAH/PAL Pressure Alarm High/Low
LAH/LAL Level Alarm High/Low
FAH/FAL Flow Alarm High/Low
216
CV Control Valve
TI Temperature Indicator
PI Pressure Indicator
LI Level Indicator
AI Composition Indicator
Pneumatic Transmission Line
Transmission Line
Electric Transmission Line
6.2.6 Control system of Fermenter

The objectives of the control system for the fermenters are:
i. To maintain the operating condition of reactor.
ii. To maintain the feed composition to achieve higher possible production
rate.
iii. To observe the composition leaving the reactor
Figure 6.1: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 1 (R-101)
217
Table 6.5: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 1 (R-101)
Control Manipulated Type of

Controller Objectives Disturbance Set-Point
Variable Variable Controller
T=30°C (If
temperature
To control
Adjust the ±10% of
and maintain Fluctuating
The inlet flow setpoint,
the inlet Feedback
TC temperature rate of cold- temperature
temperature temperature controller
in the reactor water alarm
of the of the feed
stream high/low
reactor
will be
activated)
P=1 atm (If
pressure
To control exist ±10%
Control by
and maintain Fluctuating of setpoint,
Pressure in safety relief Feedback
PC the pressure inlet flow pressure
the reactor valve controller
of the rate alarm
attached
reactor high/low
will be
activated)
H=7.3 m (If
volume exist
Adjust the ±10% of set
To control Fluctuating
Level in the inlet flow Feedback point, level
LC the level in inlet flow
reactor rate of the controller alarm
the reactor rate
product high/low
will be
activated)
218
Figure 6.2: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 2 (R-102)
Table 6.6: Control and Feedback System of Fermenter 2 (R-102)

T=30°C (If
temperature
To control
Adjust the ±10% of
and maintain Fluctuating
The inlet flow setpoint,
the inlet Feedback
TC temperature rate of cold- temperature
temperature temperature controller
in the reactor water alarm
of the of the feed
stream high/low
reactor
will be
activated)
P=1 atm (If
pressure
Control by
and maintain Fluctuating of setpoint,
of the rate alarm
attached
reactor high/low
will be
activated)
219
H=7.4 m (If
volume exist
To control Fluctuating
the reactor rate
feed high/low
will be
activated)
6.2.5 Control System of Reactor

The objectives of the control system for the fermenters are:
i. To maintain the operating condition of reactor.
ii. To maintain the feed composition to achieve higher possible production
rate.
iii. To observe the composition leaving the reactor
Figure 6.3: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 1 (R-103)
220
Table 6.7: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 1 (R-103)

T=64°C (If
temperature
To control
±10% of
and maintain Changes Adjust the
The setpoint,
the inlet inlet flow Feedback
TC temperature temperature
temperature temperature rate of cold- controller
in the reactor alarm
of the of the feed water stream
high/low
reactor
will be
activated)
H=6.6 m (If
volume exist
To control Changes
the reactor rate
feed high/low
will be
activated)
P=1 atm (If
pressure
Control by
and maintain Changes of setpoint,
of the rate alarm
attached
reactor high/low
will be
activated)
221
Figure 6.4: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 2 (R-104)
Table 6.8: Control and Feedback System of CSTR 2 (R-104)

Controller Control Objectives Disturbance Manipulated Type of Set-Point
TC The To control Changes Adjust the Feedback T=45°C (If
temperature and maintain inlet inlet flow controller temperature
in the reactor the temperature rate of cold- ±10% of
temperature of the feed water setpoint,
of the stream temperature
reactor alarm
high/low
will be
activated)
PC Pressure in To control Changes Control by Feedback P=1 atm (If
the reactor and maintain inlet flow safety relief controller pressure
the pressure rate valve exist ±10%
of the attached of setpoint,
reactor pressure
alarm
high/low
will be
activated)
222
LC Level in the To control Changes Adjust the Feedback H=6.6 m (If
reactor the level in inlet flow inlet flow controller volume exist
the reactor rate rate of the ±10% of set
product point, level
alarm
high/low
will be
activated)
6.2.7 Control System of Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is used to adjust the temperature of a stream by cooling or heating the streams
that entering it. A specific temperature is set to ensure that it reaches the appropriate
temperature for the process, or the temperature required for a reaction to take place.
The control system of the heat exchanger is designed as:
1. To control and maintain the temperature in the heat exchanger.

2. Responsibility of each control is shown in Table 6.9.
Figure 6.5: Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger (E101, E102, E103, E104,
E105, E106)
223
Table 6.9: Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger (E101, E102, E103, E104,
E105, E106)
Controlled Measured Manipulated Type of

Controller Disturbance Set Point
Variables Variables Variables Controller
E101:
The
90℃
temperature is
E105: (At ± 10%
control by the
Operating 64℃ of set point
Outlet flowrate of
temperature E106: temperatur
temperature cooling water Changes in Feedback 4℃
TC of heat e
of heat (for E102, inlet flowrate controller
exchanger E102: TAH/TAL
exchanger E103, E104) 64℃
will be
and steam (for E103:
activated)
E101, E105, 30℃
E106) E104:
30℃
6.2.8 Control System of Microfiltration
Figure 6.6: Control and Feedback System for Microfilter (V-101)
224
Table 6.10: Control and Feedback System for Microfilter (V-101)
Controller Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable controller
Flow rate Inlet flowrate Components Feedback Inlet=Outlet

of inlet of inlet filtrate
(If flowrate ± 10%
FC stream stream flowrate
of the set point,
flow alarm high/
low will be
activated)
Level in Inlet flowrate Outlet Feedback Desired level=
the flowrate 1.2m
LC microfilter
(If level ± 10% of
the set point, level
alarm high/ low
will be activated)
Flowrate Steam inlet V-101 inlet Feedback Desired
of steam flowrate flowrate temperature = 30℃
inlet
(If temperature ±
TC stream
10% of the set
point, temperature
alarm high/ low
will be activated)
225
6.2.9 Control System of Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis
Figure 6.7: Control and Feedback System for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)
Table 6.11: Control and Feedback System for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)
Controller Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set point
variable variable controller
Inlet=Outlet
(If flowrate ± 10%
Outlet flow
Flowrate of of the set point,
FC Inlet flowrate of the Feedback
inlet stream flow alarm high/
products
low will be
activated)
Desired level= 4.11
Level in the m
bipolar Level of (If level ± 10% of
LC Inlet flowrate Feedback
membrane tank the set point, level
electrodialysis alarm high/ low
will be activated)
226
Figure 6.8: Control and Feedback System for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)
Table 6.12: Control and Feedback System for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)
Controller Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set point
variable variable controller
Inlet=Outlet
Outlet flow (If flowrate ± 10%
Flowrate of
FC Inlet flowrate of the Feedback of the set point, flow
inlet stream
products alarm high/ low will
be activated)
Desired level= 3.75
Level in the m
bipolar (If level ± 10% of
LC Inlet flowrate Level of tank Feedback
membrane the set point, level
electrodialysis alarm high/ low will
be activated)
227
6.2.10 Control system of Thin Film Evaporator
Figure 6.9: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)
Table 6.13: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 1 (V-103)
Controller Controlled Manipulated Disturbances Type of Set Point
P = 1 bar
(If pressure
Inconsistent
Pressure in exists ± 10% of
pressure of Feedback
PC thin film Inlet flowrate the set point,
vapor outlet controller
evaporator pressure alarm
flowrate
high/ low will
be activated)
H= 10.96 m
(If level exists ±
Level in the Fluctuating Feedback 10% of the set
LC thin film Inlet flowrate the inlet controller point, level
evaporator flowrate alarm high/ low
will be
activated)
228
Figure 6.10: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)
Table 6.14: Control and Feedback System for Thin Film Evaporator 2 (V-105)
P = 1 bar
(If pressure
Inconsistent
Pressure in exists ± 10% of
pressure of Feedback
PC thin film Inlet flowrate the set point,
vapor outlet controller
evaporator pressure alarm
flowrate
high/ low will
be activated)
H= 6.15 m
(If level exists ±
Level in the Fluctuating Feedback 10% of the set
LC thin film Inlet flowrate the inlet controller point, level
evaporator flowrate alarm high/ low
will be
activated)
229
6.2.11 Control System of Crystallizer
Figure 6.11: Control and Feedback System for Ascorbic Acid Crystallizer (V-106)
Table 6.15: Control and Feedback System for Ascorbic Acid Crystallizer (V-106)
Controlled Manipulated Disturbances Type of Set Point
Controller
ṁ =
3124.988
Changes in Feedback kg/hr
Inlet flowrate the flowrate controller (If flowrate
Flowrate in
of the outlet exists ± 10%
the coolant
stream of the set
entering
FC point,
stream
flowrate
alarm high/
low will be
activated)
T= 4°C
(If
Adjust the Fluctuating temperature
Temperature inlet flowrate temperature Feedback ± 10% of the
in the of the for the inlet controller set point,
TC
crystallizer crystallizer flowrate temperature
tank alarm high/
low will be
activated)
H= 2.5 m
(If level
Feed flowrate Outlet Feedback exists ± 10%
Level in the
flowrate controller of the set
crystallizer
point, level
LC tank
alarm high/
low will be
activated)
230
6.2.12 Control System of Nutsche Filter
Figure 6.12: Control and Feedback System for Nutshce Filter (V-107)
Table 6.16: Control and Feedback System for Nutshce Filter (V-107)
(If level exists
Level in ± 10% of the
the Feedback set point, level
LC Inlet flowrate Feed flowrate
Nutshce controller alarm high/ low
Filter will be
activated)
231
6.2.13 Control System of Freeze Dryer
Figure 6.13: Control and Feedback System for Freeze Dryer (V-108)
Table 6.17: Control and Feedback System for Freeze Dryer (V-108)
(If flowrate
exists ± 10%
Control the Variation of Feedback of the set
level of Inlet flowrate flowrate in the controller point,
LC
nutshce inlet stream flowrate
filter alarm high/
low will be
activated)
232
6.2.14 Control System of Belt Conveyor
Figure 6.14: Control and Feedback System for belt conveyor (BC-101)
Table 6.18: Control and Feedback System for belt conveyor (BC-101)

Speed of
the belt Inlet flowrate Increasing Feedback S= Desired
SC conveyor of the belt flow at the controller speed
conveyor inlet stream
233
6.2.15 Control System of Storage Tank
Figure 6.15: Control and Feedback System for Storage Tank (TK-101)
Table 6.19: Control and Feedback System for Storage Tank (TK-101)
Controlled Manipulated Disturbances Type of Set Point
Controller
H= 3m
(If level
LC Changes level Feedback exists ± 10%
Maintain
Inlet flowrate of the controller of the set
level of the
to the storage ascorbic acid point, level
storage tank
tank in the storage alarm high/
tank low will be
activated)
T= 4°C
(If
Control the Change in the temperature
inlet flowrate temperature Feedback ± 10% of the
Temperature
of the coolant controller set point,
TC in the
temperature
storage tank
alarm high/
low will be
activated)
234
6.2.16 Piping &Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
235
6.3 Identification of Hazards
Hazard identification is a step in the process of determining whether a circumstance,
material, or thing has the potential to cause harm. A chemical or physical state that has the
potential to harm people, property, or the environment is referred to as a hazard. Chemical
factories are exposed to a wide range of dangers. Then there are the standard mechanical risks,
such as tripping, falling, or moving equipment, which cause worker injuries. Second, there are
chemical dangers to consider. Risks such as fire and explosions, reactivity, and chemical
hazards are among them. A chemical or physical state that has the potential to harm people,
property, or the environment is referred to as a hazard. Chemical factories are exposed to a
wide range of dangers. Then there are the standard mechanical risks, such as tripping, falling,
or moving equipment, which cause worker injuries. Second, there are chemical dangers to
consider. Fire and explosion hazards, reactivity hazards, and toxic hazards are among them.
The process safety assessment is an important element in the design of a chemical plant
because it prevents major incidents at the plant and ensures the safety of personnel and the
general public. Traditionally, the chemical industry has placed a strong emphasis on safety,
beginning with plant architectural research and development and the creation of new
procedures. A safety analysis can be performed at any stage during the process' life cycle.
However, research is more successful early in a project when the risk characteristics of a
proposed procedure are more clearly minimised.
6.3.1 Flammability
A material's or substance's flammability refers to its ability to burn, ignite, combust, or catch
fire. It refers to the frequency and incidence of such occurrences. The flammability of gases,
liquids, and vapours of scattered dusts and liquid droplets, all of which we refer to as fuels, is
a major concern in the process industries. Combustible materials typically follow fires and
explosions of flammable air mixtures, which can occur as a result of an unregulated reaction
or even an explosion within the process or the entire facility. Although the machinery and
structure utilized in the process industries often require fire protection, the constructional
materials used in the process industries are mostly low flammability.
Splitting flammable liquids can be extremely dangerous since the flammable vapours
are highly likely to ignite explosively. As a result, flammable gases and flammable liquid
vapours are more hazardous than the liquids themselves. Furthermore, because it cannot be
contained, it has the potential to travel a significant distance before encountering an ignition
source and igniting a fire.
236
6.3.1.1 Flammable Prevention
If the fires spread to the point of explosion, the plant might be regarded a serious threat. The
presence and involvement of flammable liquids and gases in the process may pose a significant
threat to the entire plant, yet it is unavoidable. As a result, any fire extinguisher medium, such
as water supply, firefighters, hydrants, and foam, must be reliable. The components and agents
of fixed extinguishing systems must be designed and approved by the local government for use
on the specific fire threats they are expected to control or suppress. To investigate any signs of
leaking, routines and periodic checks on any combustible chemicals and operations that operate
at or near the flammability limit should be carried out.
Moreover, all employees are required to receive basic firefighting training in order to
ensure that they know how to properly put out a fire in the event of an incident. A fire started
by electricity, for example, cannot be put out using a water-based fire extinguisher. If a dry
powder fire extinguisher or foam spray extinguisher is accidentally sprayed over live electrical
machinery, it is a safer technique to put out the fire than a water-based extinguisher.
6.3.1.2 Fire extinguisher
The purpose of having a portable fire extinguisher supply is to have extinguishers on hand that
can be utilised rapidly in the early stages of a fire. Only employees who have been trained to
use portable fire extinguishers should be expected to do so. Extinguishers are made to put out
various types of fires. As a result, a fire extinguisher is one of the most vital safety equipment
that must be readily available in the workplace. All combustible compounds must be stored in
an approved, well-sealed can that is clearly labelled and visible to workers. Fire extinguishers
are divided into four sorts or classes, each of which extinguishes a specific type of fire as
follows:
• Class A: The extinguishing agent can be water, dry chemical or the foaming agents.
• Class B: Extinguishers should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as
thinners, grease, gasoline, oils, paints and tar. CO2, dry chemical and the aqueous film
forming foam can be used to put out this class of fire.
• Class C: Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrically energized fires and flammable
gas such methane and butane. CO2 or dry chemical type of extinguisher can be used.
237
• Class D: Extinguishers are designed for use on flammable metals, such as magnesium,
titanium or potassium. Dry powder is suitable for the specific flammable metals
involved.
6.3.1.3 Fire Detector
Fire detection systems are meant to identify fires early in their development, when there is
still enough time for inhabitants to safely evacuate. Early detection is also important for
ensuring the safety of emergency response personnel. Early detection can limit property
loss and reduce downtime for the operation since control operations can begin while the
fire is still small. Most fire alarm systems offer emergency responders with information on
the location of the incident, speeding up the firefighting operation.
A fire detection system has been placed in the storage area to ensure that operators are
alerted if the worst-case scenario is surpassed. The fire detectors should be able to detect
the presence, location, and size of a fire quickly and accurately. Automatic shutdown
systems should be considered, triggered by several fire detectors and activated soon enough
to prevent large-scale damage.
6.3.2 Toxicity
The degree to which a chemical compound or a certain mixture of chemicals might harm an
organism is known as toxicity. Toxicity can relate to the effect on an entire organism, such as
an animal, bacteria, or plant, as well as a substructure of the organism, such as a cell
(cytotoxicity) or an organ, such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). The term can also be used
metaphorically to represent toxic consequences on larger and more complex groupings, such
as the family unit or society as a whole. In ordinary usage, the word is sometimes used
interchangeably with poisoning.
An extremely poisonous material that causes instant harm, such as phosgene or chlorine, is
defined as a safety hazard. If the effect of carcinogenic substances, such as vinyl chloride, was
only noticeable after extended exposure at low concentrations, they would be listed as
industrial health and hygiene concerns (Sinnot., 2005).
238
6.3.3 Safety Data Sheet
A Safety Data Sheet (previously known as a Material Safety Data Sheet) is a detailed
informational document prepared by a hazardous chemical's producer or importer. It describes
the product's physical and chemical qualities. Toxicity, flash point, spill and leak procedures,
storage instructions, and exposure control are all contained in SDSs. The properties of each
chemical, as well as the physical, health, and environmental hazards, protective measures, and
safety precautions for handling, storing, and transporting the chemical, are all included in an
SDS. The material in the SDS is basically the same as that in the MSDS, with the exception
that the SDSs must now be presented in a consistent user-friendly 16-section structure. This
brief includes instructions to help workers who work with hazardous substances get familiar
with the format and contents of SDSs.
The SDS lists the properties of each chemical, as well as the physical, health, and
environmental hazards, as well as preventive measures and safety precautions for handling,
storing, and transporting the chemical. The SDS must include information in both English and
the local language. Sections 1 through 8 include general information on the chemical,
including identification, dangers, composition, safe handling procedures, and emergency
control methods (such as firefighting). This material should be beneficial to people who require
quick access to information. Other technical and scientific information, such as physical and
chemical properties, stability and reactivity information, toxicological information, exposure
control information, and other information, such as the date of preparation or last revision, can
be found in Sections 9 through 11 and 16. When the preparer cannot find relevant information
for any needed element, the SDS must also mention that no applicable information was found.
The SDS that we usually use comes from the European Union, and it has 16 sections,
as seen below:
SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking
SECTION 2: Hazards identification
SECTION 3: Information on ingredients
SECTION 4: First aid measures
SECTION 5: Firefighting measures
SECTION 6: Accidental release measures
239
SECTION 7: Handling and storage
SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection
SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties
SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity
SECTION 11: Toxicological information
SECTION 12: Ecological information
SECTION 13: Disposal considerations
SECTION 14: Transport information
SECTION 15: Regulatory information
SECTION 16: Other information
The summary of physical properties of components in material safety data sheets is

shown in Table below. The detail MSDS of each component are shown in Appendix.
240
Table 6.20: Summary of physical properties in Safety Data Sheet
Component Ammonia Sorbitol Sodium Carbonate Sodium Bicarbonate

Appearance/colour Liquefied gas/colourless White Powder/white Aqueous/colourless
Odour Stinging Odourless Odourless Odourless
Molecular weight 17.03 182.17 105.99 N/A
(g/mol)
Boiling point, (℃) -33 75 1600 N/A
Freezing point, (℃) -78 N/A 851 N/A
Specific gravity N/A 1.489 N/A N/A
Vapour density, Air=1 0.6 N/A N/A N/A
Vapour pressure, (hPa) 8,600 N/A N/A N/A
Solubility in water, 531 Soluble 212.5 N/A
(g/L)
Stability and reactivity -Stable under recommended -Stable under normal -The following applies in -Not classified as a
storage conditions. conditions. general to flammable organic reactivity hazard.
substances and mixtures: in -Stable under normal
-Hazardous decomposition correspondingly fine conditions.
products formed under fire distribution, when whirled up
conditions. a dust explosion potential -Can react with
may generally be assumed. strong oxidizing
agents.
-The product is chemically
stable under standard ambient -Oxidizing agents
conditions (room
temperature). Hygroscopic
References (Sigma, 2020) (Thermofisher, 2021) (Sigma,2021) (MSD,2020)
241
Table 6.20: Summary of physical properties in Safety Data Sheet (cont.)
Component Methanol Sodium Hydroxide Sorbose Keto Gluconic Acid Carbon dioxide
Appearance/colour Liquid/colourless Pellets/white Powder/off-white Liquid Liquefied gas
Odour Irritating/pungent Odourless N/A N/A N/A
Molecular weight 32.04 40.00 180.16 196.16 44.01
(g/mol)
Boiling point, (℃) 64.7 1390 N/A N/A N/A

Freezing point, (℃) N/A 318 N/A N/A -78.5
Specific gravity 790 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Vapour density, Air=1 1.1 1.38 N/A N/A 1.52
Vapour pressure, 128 hPa 24 hPa N/A N/A 57249
(hPa)
Solubility in water, 1 1090 Soluble N/A N/A
(g/L)
Stability and reactivity Violent to explosive The product is N/A Stable under Stable under
reaction with (some) chemically stable under recommended storage recommended storage
metal powders and with standard ambient conditions. conditions.
(strong) oxidizers. conditions (room
Violent exothermic temperature)
reaction with (some)
acids and with (some)
halogens compounds
References (LabChem, 2020) (Sigma, 2021) (ThermoFisher, 2021) (Sigma, 2020) (Sigma, 2021)
242
Table 6.20: Summary of physical properties in Safety Data Sheet (cont.)
Component Sodium Ascorbate Ascorbic Acid Sodium Keto Gluconic Acid

Appearance/colour Crystalline/light yellow Solid Solid
Odour Odourless N/A N/A
Molecular weight (g/mol) 198.11 176.12 213.17
Boiling point, (℃) N/A N/A N/A
Freezing point, (℃) 220 190-194 N/A
Specific gravity N/A N/A N/A
Vapour density, Air=1 N/A N/A N/A
Vapour pressure, (hPa) N/A N/A N/A
Solubility in water, (g/L) 642.6 N/A N/A
Stability and reactivity -The following applies in -The following applies in -Stable under recommended
general to flammable organic general to flammable organic storage conditions.
substances and mixtures: in substances and mixtures: in
correspondingly fine correspondingly fine
distribution, when whirled up a distribution, when whirled up a
dust explosion potential may dust explosion potential may
generally be assumed. generally be assumed.
-The product is chemically -The product is chemically

stable under standard ambient stable under standard ambient
conditions (room temperature). conditions (room temperature).
References (Sigma, 2021) (Sigma,2020) (Sigma,2020)
243
6.4 Hazards and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
6.4.1 HAZOP for Fermenter
Table 6.21: HAZOP Study of Fermenter (R-101 & R-102)
Potential risks Action Recommended

Parameter
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences Required (Next layer of protection)
- Check the
- Cooling water - The product does
heat exchanger - Regular maintenance on heat
temperature is not meet required
for cold water exchanger
too high specification
High stream
High
temperature - Check
- Temperature - Yeast inactive or temperature - Repair or replace the temperature
controller failure dead controller controller
valve
- Rate of reaction
decrease - Check the
Temperature - Cooling water
heat exchanger - Regular maintenance on heat
temperature is
- The product does for cold water exchanger
too low
not meet required stream
Low specification
Low
temperature - Replace or repair the controller
- Yeast inactive
- Check
- Temperature
- Production does not temperature
controller failure
reach the desired controller
amount
- The product does - Check
High - Pressure - Replace or repair the pressure
Pressure High not meet required pressure
pressure controller failure controller
specification controller
244
- Check
- Partially close
pressure relief - Replace or repair the relief valve
pressure valve
valve
- Check
- Leakage of the
leakage - Repair or change leakage pipeline
pipeline
pipeline
- Failure of - Check
- Rupture in the - Replace or repair the pressure
pressure pressure
vessel or explosion controller
controller controller
Low Low pressure
- The product does - Check
- Blockage of the
not meet required blockage of - Repair or change blockage pipeline
pipeline
specification inlet pipeline
- Check feed
- Repair or change the feed stream
stream control
control valve
valve
- Excessive feed
More - Check the
More entering the - Runaway reaction
reaction pressure & - Repair or change the pressure &
reactor
temperature temperature indicator and alarm
indicator and system
alarm system
Reaction
- Check feed
- Reaction rate - Repair or change the feed stream
stream control
decrease control valve
valve
- Insufficient
- Check the
Less Less reaction feed entering at
- Unable to reach the pressure & - Repair or change the pressure &
the inlet
desired product temperature temperature indicator and alarm
specification indicator and system
alarm system
245
- Insufficient or - Check feed
- Reactant builds up - Repair or change the feed stream
no feed entering stream control
inside the vessel control valve
at the inlet valve
- Vessel - Check the
No No reaction
condition does pressure & - Repair or change the pressure &
- No product is
not meet the temperature temperature indicator and alarm
produced
reaction indicator and system
condition alarm system
246
6.4.2 HAZOP for Reactor
Table 6.22: HAZOP Study of CSTR Reactor (R-103 & R-104)
Potential risks Recommended

Parameter Action Required (Next layer of
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences protection)
- Low feed temperature - low conversion
- Unreacted - Check the cold

Low temperature - Change cold water
Low material might water control
inside reactor - Less reaction control valve
accumulate inside valve
reactor
Temperature - Repair cold water

- Check the cold control valve
- Reactor explode water stream and
- High feed temperature - Possible to get control valve - Repair or change
High temperature clogged pipeline
High - Insufficient cooling injured due to high
inside reactor
water equipemnt - Check cold
temperature. - Replace broken cold
water pipe
water pipeline
leakage
- Check the
- Leakage or blockage in leakage and - Repair or change
Less Less pressure - Backflows occur
the inlet pipeline blockage for inlet clogged inlet pipeline
pipeline
Pressure - Pressure build up
in the microfilter - Repair or change
- Blockage in the outlet - Check blockage
More More pressure clogged outlet
pipeline - Microfilter at outlet pipeline
pipeline
explode
247
6.4.3 HAZOP for Heat Exchanger
Table 6.23: HAZOP Study of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-106)
Potential risks
Recommended
Parameter Action required
Guide (Next layer of protection)
Deviation Cause Consequences
word
-Temperature controller
malfunction because too
much cooling water or -Desired cooling -Install low temperature
Low not enough steam supply or heating alarm
Low
temperature for the heat exchanger. temperature not -Regular maintenance and
achieved inspection for temperature
-Blockage or failure of controller and detector.
utility system
Temperature -Clear all blockage at
-Temperature controller pipeline of utility system
malfunction because not
enough cooling water or -Desired cooling -Install high temperature
High too much steam supply or heating alarm
High
temperature for the heat exchanger. temperature not
achieved
-Blockage or failure of
utility system
248
6.4.4 HAZOP for of Microfiltration
Table 6.24: HAZOP for Microfiltration (V-101)
Potential risks
Parameter Action required Recommended
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences (Next layer of protection)
- Replace flow indicator

- Pipe blockage - Filtration rate -Flow sensor and
- Regular inspection of the
Less Less flow - Less flow from decrease indicator installation to
equipment
fermenter -Less permeate flux detect less flow
- Do maintenance on pipe
Flow
-Flow sensor and -Do maintenance on flow sensor

- Control valve
More More flow - Flooding indicator installation to alarm
broken
detect high flow - Replace control valve
- Leakage or -Flow sensor and

Less Less pressure blockage in the inlet - Backflows occur indicator installation to - Do regular maintenance
pipeline detect less flow
Pressure
- Leakage or - Pressure build up in -Flow sensor and - Regular monitor the pressure
More More pressure blockage in the the microfilter indicator installation to valve
outlet pipeline - Microfilter explode detect overpressure - Regular maintenance pipe
249
6.4.5 HAZOP for Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis
Table 6.25: HAZOP for bipolar membrane electrodialysis (V-102 &V-104)
Potential risks
Action required Recommended
Parameter
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences (Existing) (Next layer of
protection)
- Pipe blockage -Flow sensor and

Time taken to fill in the
Less Less flow - Less flow from indicator installation -Regular inspection of
desired level is longer
microfilter to detect less flow the flowrate valve and
Flow detector
Flooding and overfill - Do maintenance on
-Flow sensor and
Control valve will increase the pipe
More More flow indicator installation
malfunction pressure inside the
to detect overflow
BME
-Flow rate of the inlet
Overfill the bipolar -Level alarm
High reactant stream high
High membrane installation to detect
level - Control valve
electrodialysis tank the high reactant level -Do maintenance on flow
malfunction
sensor alarm
Level -Flow rate of inlet -Regular maintenance on
stream low Do not achieve the - Level alarm equipment
Low reactant
Low - Control valve desired level and daily installation to detect
level
malfunction production low reactant level
- Pipe blockage
250
6.4.6 HAZOP for Thin Film Evaporator
Table 6.26: HAZOP for Thin Film Evaporator (V-103 &V-105)
Potential risks Action required Recommended

Parameter
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences (Existing) (Next layer of protection)
- Level control valve - Lower - Install low flow alarm

Less Less flow
malfunctioning production output
- Regular maintenance for

Flow - Heating load flowrate valve and detector
will be more in
- Flow control - Install high flow
evaporator,
More More flow valve/level control alarm
vibration will be
valve malfunctioning
more, possibility
of pipeline cracks
- Install pressure alarm
- Effected the - Flow sensor and
Less - Leakage in the
Less flowrate of the indicator applying to
pressure pipeline
output detect the overpressure
- Regular maintenance for
Pressure
equipment
- Pressure control fails - Outlet pressure
More - Install pressure alarm
More - Leakage on the obtained higher
pressure
pipeline than desired flow
251
6.4.7 HAZOP for Crystallizer
Table 6.27: HAZOP for Crystallizer (V-106)
Potential Risks Recommended

(Next level
Parameter Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences Action Required
protection)
-High inlet -Overfill and
flowrate increased pressure
High flowrate in inside the
More
the inlet stream - Flow controller crystallization
malfunction tank -Install flow
- Clogging in the controller
inlet stream
- Leak detection Regular
-Leakage in the -Longer time and tracing using maintenance and
Low flowrate in pipeline system taken to meet the a digital sensor inspection of the
Less
Flow the inlet stream required flowrate pipeline.
-Valve not fully
open
-Solid ascorbic
No flowrate of the -Install flow
-Pipeline blocked acid cannot be
No stream coming in alarm detector
produced
the equipment
-Install the
Repair the
Higher than the - Temperature -Effect the temperature
High temperature
Temperature desired controller failure product quality controller and
controller.
temperature detector.
252
-Less production
Low than the - Low inlet feed of solid ascorbic
Low desired flowrate acid
temperature
-Overfill of the Set up of a high
-The flowrate at
High reactant crystallization flow cut – off Do regular
High the inlet is high
level tank system inspection and
-The flowrate at Clear any install a new
the inlet is low - Cannot meet the blockages in the device at the
Level Low reactant
Low -Clogging of daily goal feed line on a pipeline.
level
pipeline regular basis.
253
6.4.8 HAZOP for Nutsche Filter
Table 6.28: HAZOP for Nutsche Filter (V-107)
Potential risks Recommended

Parameter Action required (Next layer of
Guideword Deviation Cause Consequences protection)
- Flowrate of the - Effected the - Install the low alarm

Less Less level inlet streams is filtrate leaving level
low the cake
Level - Do regular
maintenance
- Pipe blockage
- Control valve - Install the high alarm
More More level - Overflow
malfunction level
254
6.4.9 HAZOP for Freeze Dryer
Table 6.29: HAZOP for Freeze Dryer (V-108)

(Next level
protection)
Install a controller
system that will
-High inlet cause the
flowrate -Overfill and equipment to shut
High flowrate in
increased pressure down
More the inlet of
- Flow controller inside the system automatically if
coolant stream
malfunction the flow exceeds
the required set
point.
- Clogging in the Install an air-to-
inlet stream open control
valve to control
-Leakage in the -Longer time the inlet or outlet
Flow Low flowrate in
pipeline system taken to meet the flow rate in way
Less the inlet coolant
required flowrate to sustain the Do maintenance
stream
-Valve not fully storage tank level inspection on the
open at an optimal pipeline.
level.
No flowrate of the
coolant stream -Pipeline blocked -Production loss Install flow alarm
No
coming in the
equipment
255
-Temperature Install high
Higher than the -Effect the
High controller temperature
desired product quality
malfunction detector.
temperature
Repair the
Temperature -operating
-Too much Install low temperature
Low than the condition in the
coolant coming in temperature controller
Low desired system will be
the system detector.
temperature affected
-The air flowrate
-Pressure Install high
at the outlet is
High High air pressure increased pressure alarm.
high
Monitor the
-The air flowrate pressure valve
-Affect the air
Pressure at the outlet is low Install low regularly.
coming out from
Low Low air pressure -Clogging of pressure alarm.
the equipment
pipeline
256
6.4.10 HAZOP for Belt Conveyor
Table 6.30: HAZOP for Belt Conveyor (BC-101)

(Next level
protection)
The speed of the -Increasing load -Spillage of the

High belt conveyor too in the inlet stream material
high -Install impact
-Consuming more beds, skirt clamps Regular
time to deliver the or a belt plough. maintenance on
Speed -Speed controller
The speed of the material to the equipment.
Low malfunction
conveyor too low another
equipment.
257
6.4.11 HAZOP for Storage Tank
Table 6.31: HAZOP for Storage Tanks (TK-101)

(Next level
protection)
Install a controller
system that will
-High inlet cause the
flowrate equipment to shut
High level in the -Product overflow down
High
storage tank - Level controller automatically if
malfunction the flow exceeds
the required set
point. Regular
Install an air-to- maintenance.
-Leakage in
Level open control
storage tank
valve to control
-Does not meet the inlet or outlet
- Clogging in the
Low level in the production flow rate in way
Low inlet stream
storage tank capacity to sustain the
storage tank level
-Low inlet
at an optimal
flowrate
level.
-Temperature Install Repair the
-Effect the
High Uncontrollable controller temperature temperature
Temperature product quality
Low temperature malfunction indicator. controller.
258
CHAPTER 7: WASTE MANAGEMENT & POLLUTION CONTROL
7.1 Introduction
Waste that contained the material and objects which have no economic value either by now or
in future because there is no demand for them in the marketplace. Besides, keeping those waste
will impose additional cost for handling, affect the financial or other disadvantages to the
owner. Therefore, proper management of waste must be conducted before releasing it to the
environment. Waste management which included the development, storage, disposal and the
resulting item thereof. By analyse the entire material process flow, we can discover the waste
and manage it properly. Waste products are known as pollution into the ecological system that
is into the earth, water or air-borne ecological system. Before the waste is stored or sent to
landfill, it must be completely environmentally harmless.
The objective of waste management is to separate and convert, possibly to reutilize the harmful
substance to reduce the impact on air, water and earth at minimal. It is a human control and
action that included over the collection, treatment and disposal of various waste. In current era,
chemical plant is one of main source of releasing waste that relatively high when comparing to
other sectors. With fast development of industry area, the discharge of industrial waste has
become even serious. Hence, to solve the problem, Environmental Act 1974, has been
introduced to control and manage the waste.
According to Alshammari et al. (2008), waste management today is made difficult and costly
by increasing volumes of waste produced, by the need to control potential serious
environmental and health effects of disposal. Various mathematical models were developed,
and will continue to be developing, to study the treatment of hazardous wastes via physical,
chemical, thermal, and biological processes. Planning and management of the logistical
aspects, of hazardous waste system, many goals, such as community, environmental control
and much more are taken into consideration before any actions were taken.
This ascorbic acid plant produces waste in solid, liquid, and gaseous form. The source of the
solid waste, which is biomass, mainly from V-101. For wastewater, it is from V-102, V-104
and V-107 meanwhile for gaseous waste, it is from R-101, R-102, R-104 and V-105.
Before proceeding with the plant's waste management, the economic factor should be
considered as whether the waste can be sold as a commodity or keep it for other usage. The
following strategy should be included for waste management:
259
• Waste Minimization
This means by applying the method of not reducing production to reduce or eliminate the waste
generated at source This can help in saving the capital cost.
• End of Pipe Treatment
This means to convert the waste into another type of materials or components that can be
released to the environment without causing the pollution. This can be achieved through any
physical, chemical, or biological methods as well as any combination between it. However, the
waste still has to send to waste treatment expert for handle it if the released waste still poses
hazardous after the treatment.
7.2 Sources of Waste

In the production of ascorbic acid from sorbitol, there are few main streams that produce wastes
as shown in Table 7.2. The streams are in solid, liquid and gas form. It also contains a variety
of chemical components.
Table 7.1: Sources and types of waste from process streams

Component
Chemical
Type Equipment Stream Component Flow Rate Action
Formula
(kg/h)
Solid V-101 12 Biomass 6.46 CH1.44 O0.66 Disposal
Sodium
V-102 14 516.18
Hydroxide
NaOH Reuse
Sodium
Liquid V-104 26 516.18
Hydroxide
V-107 Sorbose C6H12O6
33 601.46 Reuse
V-107 Sorbitol C6H14O6
R-101 4 Carbon dioxide 3.6
Release to
R-102 9 Carbon dioxide 57.39 CO2
Gaseous environment
R-104 23 Carbon dioxide 567.92
V-105 29 Methanol 413.46 CH3OH Reuse
260
7.3 Related Environmental Act
7.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
Since the beginning of the 1920s, Malaysia has had environmental legislation. However, the
legislation's limited scope and inadequacy for addressing emerging complex environmental
problems make it insufficient. Thus, the Environmental Quality Act of 1974 (EQA, 1974) was
enacted to establish a more comprehensive form of legislation and an agency to control
pollution. The Environmental Quality Act of 1974 (EQA) is a piece of legislation for
preventing and controlling pollution, enhancing the environment, and other similar purposes.
Pollution, as declared in EQA, 1974 includes the direct or indirect alteration of any
quality of the environment or any part of it with a positive act or act of emission. Pollution is
‘controlled’ through the mechanism of licenses issued by Department of Environment (DOE).
The mode of control is by prescribing, with a ministerial regulation, that licenses are mandatory
for:
i. The use and occupation of prescribed premises.

ii. Discharging or emitting wastes exceeding acceptable conditions into the atmosphere,
as well as noise pollution, polluting or causing the pollution of any soil or surface of
any land.
iii. Emitting, discharging, or depositing any wastes or oil, more than acceptable
conditions into inland waters or Malaysian waters.
Under EQA, 1974, the DOE enforces 16 distinct sets of regulations and orders. Despite
the government's efforts to implement environmental laws and regulations, it has been
determined that enforcement measures must be strengthened further to ensure full compliance.
Below are the listed laws and regulations have been introduced and are strictly enforced by the
DOE:
1. Control of Agro-based water pollution

i. Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulation, 1977
ii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order, 1977
iii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order, 1977, and
(Amendment) 1982
iv. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Order, 1978
v. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulation,
1978
2. Control of municipal and industrial wastewater pollution
i. Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979
ii. Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Controlled Substances in Soap,
Synthesis Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents) Order, 1995
3. Control of industrial emissions
261
i. Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978
ii. Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offenses) Rules, 1978
4. Control of motor vehicle emissions
i. Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke and Gas Emission) Rules, 1977 (made under
the Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958)
ii. Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Gasoline)
Regulations, 1985
iii. Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise) Regulations, 1987
5. Control of toxic and hazardous waste management
i. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations, 1989
ii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989
iii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Regulation, 1989
iv. Promotion of Investment (Promoted Activities and Products) (Amendment) (No.
10) Order, 1990 (made under the Promotion of Investment Act, 1986)
To strengthen monitoring and enforcement of laws and regulations, surveillance
capabilities will be enhanced. The environmental offences penalty structure will be revised to
ensure a more effective deterrent, especially for repeat offenders. The 246-enforcement
function of agencies such as the Department of Energy, Health Department, Pesticide Board,
and local authorities will be rationalised and streamlined, and their enforcement staff will
receive adequate training.
7.3.2 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards

According to the Environmental Quality Regulation (Clean Air) of 1978 and the Environmental
Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations of 1979, industries are required to
comply with both air emission and effluent discharge standards that are considered acceptable
in Malaysia. Consequently, air emissions and effluent discharge standards must meet the
quality standard prior to being released into the environment or sent to a landfill.
Table 7.2: Stack Gas Emission Standards in Malaysia
Pollution Emission Sources Standards

Solid Fuel Equipment to facilities Ringlemann Chart No.2
Dark Smoke
Equipment using other types of fuel Ringlemann Chart No.1
Facilities used for heating of metal other
0.2 gm/Nm3
than Cold Blast Foundry Cupola
Dust
Facilities discharging dust containing
0.12 gm/Nm3
asbestos and free silica
262
Portland cement manufacturing
i. Kiln 0.2 gm/Nm3
ii. Clinker, cooler, grinder, others
0.1 gm/Nm3
Asphalt concrete/bituminous mixing
i. Stationary plant 0.3 gm/Nm3
ii. Mobile plant
0.4 gm/Nm3
Other sources 0.4 gm/Nm3
Mercury industry 0.01 gm/Nm3
Cadmium industry 0.015 gm/Nm3
Metal and Lead industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
metallic Antimony industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
compound Arsenic industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Zinc industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Copper industry 0.1 gm/Nm3
Acid gases from sulphuric acid 3.5 gm of SO3/Nm3 and
manufacturing no persistent mist
Sulphuric acid, mist or SO3 from any 0.2 gm of SO3/Nm3 and
other sources no persistent mist
Chlorine from any other gas sources 0.2 gm of HCL/Nm3
HCL from any sources 0.4 gm of HCL/Nm3
Gases
Fluorine, hydrofluoric acid and inorganic
0.4 gm of hydrofluoric
compound from aluminium
acid/Nm3
manufacturing
Hydrogen sulphide from any sources 5 ppm (vol%)
NOX from any sources 1.7 gm of SO3/Nm3
SOX from any sources 2.0 gm of SO3/Nm3
• Allowable to exceed both standards not longer than 5 minutes in any period of one
hour and 15 minutes in any period of 24 hours.
263
7.3.3 Water Quality Standards and Parameter Limit of Effluent of Standard A And B
The Environmental Quality Act of 1974 establishes two standards for effluent discharge:
Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water intake and Standard B for discharge
downstream of any raw water intake (Doe.gov.my, 2017). The parameter thresholds are shown
in table below.
Table 7.3: Parameter Limit of Effluent of Standard A and B
Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B

(i) Temperature °C 40 40
(ii) pH Value 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0
(iii) BOD5 at 20°C mg/l 20 50
(iv) COD mg/l 50 100
(v) Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100
(vi) Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05
(vii) Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02
(viii) Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05
(ix) Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.1
(x) Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.1
(xi) Lead mg/l 0.1 0.5
(xii) Chormium, Trivalent mg/l 0.2 1
(xiii) Copper mg/l 0.2 1
(xiv) Manganese mg/l 0.2 1
(xv) Nickel mg/l 0.2 1
(xvi) Tin mg/l 0.2 1
(xvii) Zinc mg/l 1 1
(xviii) Boron mg/l 1 4
(xix) Iron (Fe) mg/l 1 5
(xx) Phenol mg/l 0.001 1
(xxi) Free Chlorine mg/l 1 2
(xxii) Sulphide mg/l 0.5 0.5
(xxiii) Oil and Grease mg/l Not detectable 10
264
7.4 Waste Treatment System
7.4.1 Waste Management Hierarchy
The waste management hierarchy is a basic ranking system for various waste management
solutions based on which is the most environmentally friendly. The traditional hierarchy of
waste management, depicted as an inverted pyramid figure, includes five critical steps:
prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal. This hierarchy strives to help waste
generators get the most out of their products while producing the least amount of garbage
possible, emphasising the importance of reducing, reusing, and recycling as critical actions in
sustainable materials management.
The waste management hierarchy is a conceptual framework for guiding and ranking
waste management decisions on a personal and organisational level. Waste prevention comes
first, followed by re-use, recycling, recovery, and eventually disposal. The waste management
hierarchy expands on the traditional waste management strategy of "the three Rs" (reduce,
reuse, and recycle) into a five-step process with the most favoured activities at the top and the
least preferred at the bottom of the inverted pyramid. The application of the waste management
hierarchy contributed to the rise of life cycle thinking in waste management policy, which
considers the whole environmental impact of a product or service, from raw material extraction,
processing, and manufacture to distribution, use, and disposal.
In recent years, Malaysia has followed a step-by-step strategy to privatising and

centralising its solid waste management. Malaysia's government continues to promote efficient
waste management by encouraging people to reuse and minimise. This has significant
environmental benefits, ranging from lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced pollution,
energy savings, natural resource conservation, and the creation of new jobs, all of which drive
the long-term development of green technologies.
265
Figure 7.1: Hierarchy of waste management
7.4.2 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization

Pollution avoidance and waste reduction allow everyone to be ecologically responsible.
Pollution prevention lowers trash formation at the source, whereas waste reduction involves
recycling and other ways that limit the quantity of garbage that must be disposed of in the end.
To restrict the amount of energy, time, and money that can be allocated to hazardous waste
reduction, industries must focus their attention and resources to hazardous waste treatment.
In general, contamination control may be classified into two categories:
▪ The first scenario involves preventing contaminants from being produced or

discharged into the environment. In this situation, if the pollutants are regarded wastes,
strategies such like waste reduction, minimization, or elimination should be used to
minimize waste generation. This has a clear economic advantage since eliminating
waste typically leads to higher productivity, output, and profits.
▪ As in subsequent case, contaminants are not discharged into the environment. Because
these materials have no negative influence on the environment, this should give some
environmental advantages. Yet, the economic gain may be limited because trash must
be kept, handled, or discarded of, which incurs extra costs.
According with all waste disposal methods, waste reduction is the primary concern choice for
reducing environmental issues from ever becoming severe. Pollutant creation may be
decreased, resulting in better protection for public health and the environment. Simultaneously,
266
waste disposal and compliance requirements expenses can be reduced, as can long-term
obligations and dangers. In fact, waste reduction is frequently relegated to pollution prevention,
despite the fact that minimizing waste might be the most efficient strategy to reduce
environmental danger.
There are numerous general techniques to waste reduction and pollution prevention:
▪ Improving a manufacturing process to create less waste.

▪ Applying non-toxic or less hazardous cleaning, degreasing, and other maintenance
chemicals.
▪ Recycle a percentage of possible pollution on the location where it is formed.
▪ Water and energy conservation measures are being implemented.
7.4.3 Solid Waste Management

7.4.3.1 Conceptual design of solid waste management
Solid waste management is a systematic approach concerned with the regulation of solid waste
creation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and discharge. Even though
Malaysia's economy and industries grow rapidly, solid waste management remains a challenge.
This should be addressed by enhancing waste minimization strategies and controls. A 3R
(reduce, reuse, recycle) hierarchy idea is an effective waste management technique. The
remaining component in this project will be left into biomass. The biomass will be store in
storage tank before sending to Kualiti Alam for disposal.
7.4.3.2 Solid Waste Storage

The storage of burnt biomass should be built and maintained to minimize solid waste spills or
leakage and to make transportation easier. The container utilized to store solid waste in this
project is a concrete tank. The image below depicts the concrete used for solid waste. The
planned capacity includes around 15-20% excess storage space for the actual quantity of waste
generated.
267
Figure 7.2: Concrete tank of the solid waste storage
Table 7.4: Design specification sheet of solid waste storage

Specification Description
Type Concrete tank
Function Store solid waste
Shape of storage Cylindrical
Dimension (m) Diameter: 1.011
Height: 2.0022
Material Concrete
3
Volume (m ) 0.8
Storage time (days) 4
Estimated equipment cost: RM 4715.20
7.4.3.3. Scheduled Waste Cost

Kualiti Alam treatment fee for incineration = RM2790/MT
Assuming plant running 8000 hours per year,
Flow rate of biomass produced: 6.45911 kg/hr = 51.68 MT/y
Fees of biomass disposal = RM 144,187.20 /year
268
7.4.4 Wastewater Treatment
7.4.4.1 Introduction
Industrial wastewater treatment is the process of removing contaminants from
wastewater or sewage before it reaches natural bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, estuaries,
and oceans. General types of contaminant or water pollutants is included pathogenic organisms,
oxygen-demanding wastes, plant nutrients, synthetic organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals,
microplastic, sediments, radioactive substances, oil and heat. According to Environmental
Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009 stated that industrial effluent treatment system
shall be designed and constructed to collect and treat the industrial effluent or mixed effluent
generated with strict compliance with specifications as the requirements. Many parameters that
have to be considered and this is the typical parameter, which is temperature, pH, Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Total Suspended Solid
(TSS).
Table 7.5: Component in liquid waste

Mass flowrate Molar flowrate
Equipment Component Stream
(kg/hr) (kmol/hr)
V-102 Sodium 14 516.18 12.90
Hydroxide
V-104 Sodium 26 516.18 12.90
Hydroxide
269
Figure 7.3: Wastewater treatment plant for the production of ascorbic acid
7.4.4.2 Primary Treatment

Primary treatment involves sedimentation to remove settleable organic and inorganic
solids, as well as skimming to remove floatable materials. During primary treatment, 25 to 50%
of the incoming biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), 50 to 70% of the total suspended solids
(SS), and 65 percent of the oil and grease are eliminated. Chemical coagulation and flocculation
process using alum as to separate the solid and liquid wastewater before entering the primary
clarifier. This process will increase the sludge to ensure that the wastewater having good quality
according to the requirement by Department of Environment (DOE).
7.4.4.3 Secondary Treatment

In secondary treatment, wastewater conducted biological treatment where after the primary
clarifier the wastewater will involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal
organic matter and suspended solids. Aerobic biological treatment involves aerobic
microorganisms (mostly bacteria) metabolising the organic materials in wastewater and
creating additional microorganisms and inorganic end-products in the presence of oxygen.
270
Then, the process continues through physical treatment using filter press and rapid gravity sand
filter to remove the residual sludge before the wastewater being discharged.
Table 7.6: Summary of wastewater treatment plant equipment design

Parameter Volume (m3)
Neutralization Tank 1.2
Primary Clarifier 3.808
Aeration Tank 721.87
Secondary Clarifier 2.613
Sludge Thickener 2.92
Table 7.7: Summary cost of wastewater treatment plant equipment

Parameter Cost (RM)
Neutralization Tank 199,166.16
Primary Clarifier 367,176.82
Aeration Tank 3,774,090.11
Secondary Clarifier 338,933.74
Sludge Thickener 360,018.37
Filter Press 35,870
Total 4,876,089.04
271
7.4.5 Gaseous Waste Treatment
In this ascorbic acid plant, the source of gaseous waste is coming from stream 4, stream 9 and
stream 23 that produced carbon dioxide during the fermentation process in Fermenter (R-101
& R-102) and at the Reactor (R-104). In the production of 18,000 MTPA of ascorbic acid,
628.91 kg/hr of carbon dioxide will be produced. Furthermore, there is methanol in gas phase
was produced from stream 29 of amount of 413.46 kg/hr that produced during the process of
evaporation at evaporator (V-105). Therefore, considering safety aspects to the environments,
absorption column will be used to eliminate carbon dioxide gas meanwhile for methanol gas
flare system is applied to eliminate excess gases that cannot be recovered and used of flare
system as the last line defence in the safety emergency relieves for the plant.
Table 7.8: Waste gas produced in ascorbic acid production plant
Equipment Stream Component Mass flowrate Mole flowrate

(kg/hr) (kmol/hr)
R-101 4 Carbon dioxide 3.6 0.08
R-102 9 Carbon dioxide 57.39 6.60
R-104 23 Carbon dioxide 567.92 12.90
V-105 29 Methanol 413.46 12.90
7.4.5.1 Absorption Column

Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas that need to be removed in order to manage
future climate change that produced by the combustion of fossil fuels. Various absorption
method as the one of the conventional packing material and structured packing being used
using mono-ethanolamine (MEA) as the liquid solvent. However, to reduce the cost sodium
hydroxide is used to replace MEA as the cost of MEA is more expensive than sodium
hydroxide. The reaction of involved in this absorption column as the following:
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
The design of absorption column can be found in Appendix E.
272
Table 7.9: Equipment specification of absorption column
Equipment Specification Sheet
Identification Absorption Column
Function To reduce carbon dioxide emission
Gas Inlet Data
Gas flowrate (kg/hr) (kmol/hr)
628.91 19.58
3
Gas density, 𝜌𝑉 (kg/m ) 1.13
2
Gas viscosity,𝜇𝑉 (Ns/m ) 1.52
Liquid Inlet Data
Absorbent flow rate (kg/hr) (kmol/hr)
1723.43 39.16
3
Liquid density, 𝜌𝐿 (kg/m ) 2130
Liquid viscosity, 𝜇𝐿 (Ns/m2) 0.00366
Packing Details
Type of packing Ceramic Raschig Rings
Size of packing (in) 1
3
Bulk density (kg/m ) 673
Surface area, A (m2/m3) 190
Packing factor, FP 361
7.4.5.2 Flare System

A flare system is a piping and specialised equipment arrangement that collects
hydrocarbon releases from relief valves, blowdown valves, pressure control valves, and manual
vents and disposes of them by combustion in a remote and safe location.
A gas flare, also known as a flare stack, is a type of gas combustion device that is used in
industrial plants such as petroleum refineries, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants,
and oil or gas production sites with oil wells, offshore oil and gas rigs/platforms, and landfills.
Gaseous wastes can be safely disposed of using flare systems. These systems can be utilised
for a variety of purposes depending on local environmental conditions:
• Start-up or shutdown extensive venting

• Venting the excessive process gas
• Handling emergency responses from safety valves, blowdown and venting systems
• Cause of emergency relief such as fire, blocked outlets and utility failure (steam,
electricity, instrument air, cooling system).
273
Figure 7.4: Flare system for gas waste treatment
Design of Flare Stack:
The combustion chamber is designed to ensure that the flare stack 2 or 2.5 m higher than
surroundings buildings or structures. The combined height of the stack and plume rise is the
effective stack height. The design of the flare stack is designed based on these assumptions:
i. Wind speed, v = 2.5 m/s

ii. Air temperature, Ta = 31oC
iii. Stack gas temperature, TS = 100oC
iv. Stack gas velocity, G = 0.25
v. Physical stack height, H = 30 m
vi. Barometric pressure, P = 101.325 bar
274
CHAPTER 8: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The capital cost and operating cost estimation are important for a chemical plant prior to start-
up. The profitability analysis of this plant is estimated to gain insight into its earnings.
Economic performance must take into account the time value of money, plant lifespan, and
international or local trade regulations. Before the profitability analysis of this project can be
assessed, the investment must be estimated with the value of cost production. This section's
calculations are all pre-calculations for creating the cash flow diagram and discounted cash
flow.
This economic analysis basically considers capital cost, cost of manufacturing,

engineering economic analysis and profitability. In addition, cash flow analyses are made for
fixed and total capital investment costs. Fixed-investment capital, operating labour costs, the
cost of raw material, utilities costs and the cost of waste treatment are the basic components of
manufacturing costs for a process. Costs for equipment have been calculated in chapters 6. All
equipment quotations are determined by a bare module method. Interest, annuities, and
discount factors will be covered in engineering economic analysis. Finally, profitability is
determined by examining the discounted cash flow, payback period (PBP), discounted break-
even period, net present value (NPV), and discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR).
8.2 Costing
8.2.1 Equipment Cost
The module cost technique is used to calculate the grass root capital cost of a new chemical
0
plant. 𝐶𝐵𝑀 is the bare module cost at the base condition, which is equipment made of the most
common material, usually carbon steel, that operates at near ambient pressure where FP = 1.0
and FM = 1.0. The bare module cost is determined by the size of the equipment. It also includes
the direct and indirect costs of each unit of equipment. The cost of making small-to-moderate
expansions or alterations to an existing facility is referred to as total module cost. The bare
module cost (CBM) is represented by equation below.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝐵𝑀
Table 8.1 shows the bare module cost of all equipment used in the production of ascorbic acid
from d-sorbitol.
275
Table 8.1: Bare module cost for all equipment
Type of Equipment Tag Number CBM (RM)

E-101 590,861.53
E-102 521,406.74
E-103 499,644.76
Heat Exchanger
E-104 500,498.39
E-105 505,690.70
E-106 291,694.51
R-101 850,701.31
R-102 850,699.00
Reactor
R-103 80,692.19
R-104 82,129.56
V-101 148,063.37
V-102 7,826.03
V-103 4,445,981.39
V-104 6,412.43
Separator
V-105 3,833,018.75
V-106 66,871.40
V-107 105,250.00
V-108 799,900.00
Belt Conveyer BC-101 88,640.14
Storage Tank TK-101 488,429.34
Total 14,764,411.54
8.2.2 Bare Module Cost

The total module cost (CTM) is represented by equation below.
𝑛
𝐶𝑇𝑀 = 1.18 ∑ 𝐶𝐵𝑀,𝑖
𝑖=1
Table 8.2 shows the bare module cost of all equipment used in the production of ascorbic
acid from d-sorbitol.
276
Table 8.2: Total module cost of all equipment
Item Cost (RM)

Total bare module cost (CBM) 14,764,411.54
Total module cost (CTM) 17,422,005.62
8.2.3 Grass Root Capital or Fixed Capital Investment

8.2.3.1 Grass Root Capital Cost
The term grass root refers to a completely new facility in which the construction is started on
essentially undeveloped land, a grass field. The grass root capital equation is shown as equation
below.
𝐶𝐺𝑅 = 𝐶𝑇𝑀 + 0.5𝐶𝐵𝑀
Table 8.3: Total module cost of all equipment
Item Cost (RM)

Total bare module cost (CBM) 14,764,411.54
Total module cost (CTM) 17,422,005.62
Grass root capital cost (CGR) 24,804,211.39
From Table 8.3, the grass root capital cost, CGR of the proposed ascorbic acid plant is RM
24,804,211.39.
8.2.3.2 Fixed and Total Capital Investment

Before a plant can start up, expenses are required to purchase land and install all of the
necessary equipment. Fixed capital investment (FCI) is the total capital cost of assisted process
equipment. It includes the cost go direct and indirect cost for the set of the plant. The direct
cost is the cost of purchasing and installing equipment, including all piping and control
systems, as well as land and service facility expenses, whereas the indirect cost is the cost paid
to contractors and others
277
On the other hand, working capital was used for operation of the plant. Working capital (WC)
consists of the total amount of money invested in raw materials and supplies carried in stock,
finished products in stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured,
account receivable, cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses such as
salaries, wages and raw materials purchases. For the working capital, it is estimated to be 15%
of the grass root capital.
Working capital = 0.15 × GR
The total capital investment (TCI) is defined as the sum of fixed capital investment (FCI) and
working capital. CGR is assumed to be the fixed capital investment (FCI). The formula is shown
as equation below:
TCI = FCI + Working capital
Table 8.4: Total Capital Investment (TCI)
Total Cost (RM)

Fixed capital investment (FCI) 24,804,211.39
Working capital 3,720,631.71
Total capital investment (TCI) 28,524,843.10
8.2.4 Manufacturing and Operational Expenses

8.2.4.1 Manufacturing Cost
Manufacturing cost refers to the total cost for all resources consumed in the process for the
production of chemical products. There are 3 elements that affecting the cost of manufacturing
of a chemical product which are direct manufacturing cost, fixed manufacturing cost, general
manufacturing expenses and revenue from sales. The cost of manufacture (COM) is shown in
Equation below:
Cost of Manufacturing (COM) = Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) +
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) + General Manufacturing Expenses (GE)
278
8.2.4.2 Direct Manufacturing Cost
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) refers to the costs directly related to the manufacture of a
product, such as direct labour and benefit expenses, consumable raw materials, and other
production materials, as defined by generally accepted cost accounting standards.
8.2.4.3 Raw Material Cost
Table 8.5: Raw material cost
Raw Material Cost (RM/year)
Sorbitol 112,946,625.4
Sodium Carbonate 42,990,150.53
Sodium Bicarbonate 71,771,062.81
Total 227,707,838.70
8.2.4.4 Utilities Cost
Table 8.6: Utilities cost
Utilities Cost (RM/ year)
Steam 3,815,914.131
Electricity 3,796,288.77
Chilled water 110,490.07
Glycol 36,837.50
Total 7,759,530.47
8.2.4.5 Waste Treatment Cost
Table 8.7: Waste treatment cost

Treatment Cost (RM)
Solid 4715.20
Wastewater 4,876,089.04
Gaseous 7,801,536.11
Total 12,682,340.35
279
8.2.4.6 Operating Labour Cost
Table 8.8: Estimation of operating labour cost
Operators per
Equipment Quantity equipment per Operator per shift
shift
Reactor 4 0.5 2
Evaporator 2 0.3 0.6
Heat Exchanger 6 0.1 0.6
Microfilter 1 0 0
Bipolar Membrane 0
2 0
Electrodialysis
Crystallizer 1 0 0
Nutshce Filter 1 0 0
Freeze Dryer 1 0 0
Belt Conveyer 1 0 0
Storage Tank 1 0 0
Steam Boiler 1 1 1
Cooling Tower 1 1 1
Wastewater Treatment Plant 1 2 2
Waste Treatment Plant 1 2 2
Total 9.2
Assumption:
• 4.5 operators are needed for each operator needed in plant at any time
• The labour cost of operator per person is RM 70 per day
To calculate the operating labour,

4.5 x 9.2 = 41.4 ≈ 42 operators
Operating Labour Cost, COL = 42 x RM 70 x 330 days

COL = RM 970,200/year
280
The total manufacturing cost without depreciation (COMd) is estimated:
COMd = 0.180FCI + 2.73COL + 1.23(CUT + CWT + CRM)

COMd = 0.180 (RM 24,804,211.39) + 2.73 (RM 970,200) + 1.23 (RM 7,759,530.47 + RM
12,682,340.35+ RM 227,707,838.70)
COMd = RM 312,340,006.60/year
Table 8.9: Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC)

Components Multiplying Factor Cost (RM/year)
Raw Material, CRM CRM 227,707,838.70
Waste Treatment, CWT CWT 12,682,340.35
Utilities, CUT CUT 7,759,530.47
Operating Labour, COL COL 970,200
Direct Supervisory and 0.18COL 174,636
clerical labour
Maintenance and repairs 0.06FCI 1,488,252.68

Operating Supplies 0.009FCI 223,237.90
Laboratory Charges 0.15COL 145,530
Patent and Royalties 0.03COMd 9,370,200.20
Total 260,523,766.15
8.2.4.7 Fixed Manufacturing Cost

Fixed production costs (such as property tax, rent, and factory depreciation) that have been
assigned to (absorbed by) products at a predetermined pace. The amount applied should, in
theory, equal the amount actually incurred by the end of the accounting year.
Table 8.10: Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC)

Depreciation 0.1FCI 2,480,421.145
Local Taxes and Insurance 0.032FCI 793,734.76
Plant Overhead Costs 0.708COL + 0.036FCI 1,579,853.21
Total 4,854,009.12
281
8.2.4.8 General Manufacturing Expenses
Table 8.11: General Manufacturing Costs (GMC)
Administration Costs 0.177COL + 0.009FCI 394,963.30
Distribution and Selling Costs 0.11COMd 34,357,400.73
Research and Development 0.05COMd 15,617,000.33
Total 50,369,364.36
Table 8.12: Total manufacturing costs

Component Cost (RM/year)
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) 260,523,766.15
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 4,854,009.12
General Expenses (GE) 50,369,364.36
Total 315,747,139.63
8.2.4.9 Sales Revenue
Table 8.13: Sales Revenue

Product Amount Unit Price Total Revenue
(kg/year) (RM/kg) (RM/year)
Ascorbic acid 18,000,000 24.97 449,460,000
Total 449,460,000
282
8.3 Proforma Financial Statement
The annual net profit is calculated by using the equation below:
𝐴𝑁𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝐴𝑁𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 449,460,000 − 315,747,139.63 = 𝑅𝑀133,712,860.37/𝑦𝑟
By using 30% of income tax, the net annual profit after tax is RM93,599,002.26/yr. The
proforma financial statement is tabulated as below.
Table 8.14: Proforma financial statement for production of ascorbic acid

Ascorbic Acid Production
Direct Material RM/year RM/year
Raw Material Cost 227,707,838.70
Total Raw Material Cost 227,707,838.70
Direct Labour
Operating Labour 970,200
Direct Supervision & Clerical Labour 174,636
Total Direct Labour Cost 1,144,836
DIRECT EXPENSES
Utilities 7,759,530.47
Maintenance and Repairs 1,488,252.68
Operating Supplies 223,237.90
Laboratory Charges 145,530
Patents and Loyalties 9,082,075.73
Total Direct Expenses 18,698,626.78
Production Overhead
Depreciation 2,480,421.15
Local Taxes and Insurance 793,734.76
Plant Overhead Cost 1,579,853.21
Waste Treatment 12,779,806.22
Total production Overhead Cost 17,633,815.34
General Expenses
Administration Costs 394,963.30
Distribution and Selling Costs 34,357,400.73
Research and Development 15,617,000.33
Total General Expenses 50,369,364.36
PRODUCTION COSTS
PROFIT BEFORE TAX
Revenue From Sales 449,460,000
(-) Production Costs 315,747,139.63
Total Profit Before Tax 133,712,860.37
PROFIT AFTER TAX
(-) Income Tax (30%) 40113858.11
Total Profit After Tax 93,599,002.26
283
8.4 Cash Flow Analysis
Cash flow analysis is an economic evaluation that assesses whether a process can generate
income and is appealing in contrast to other processes. Cash flow analysis is a valuable tool for
tracking transactions that include several investments and payments across time. It preserves a
clear, undeniable record of the value, kind, and timing of each of the plant's 349 transactions.
In economic analysis, the following assumptions were made (Turton, 2003):
i. The plant's life expectancy has been set at 20 years, plus two years for setup.
ii. Construction is finished at the end of the second year, but more working capital is
needed to get through the first few months of operation.
iii. Revenue for the first year after start-up is less than half that of the next year due to a
development problem in the plant.
iv. For the first five years, this plant income tax is 20% of net profit, and for the following
five years, it is 30%.
v. The depreciation value is calculated using the straight-line depreciation method for the
first ten years after the plant is commissioned.
Table 8.15: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits
Item Description Formula

Expenses Manufacturing cost + Depreciation COMd + d
Income tax (Revenue-Expenses) *(Tax rate) (R-COMd-d) *(t)
After-Tax Net Profit Revenue-Expenses-Income Tax (R-COMd-d) *(1-t)
After-Tax Cash Flow Net profit + Depreciation (R-COMd-d) *(1-t) + d
284
8.4.1 Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Figure below shows the cumulative non-discounted cash flow for 20 years of plant life time.
Figure 8.1: Cumulative of non-discounted cash flow analysis along the project life
8.4.1.1 Pay-Back Period (PBP)
The pay-back period is the time it takes to recover the initial investment from income once the
project begins. The pay-back period is a useful factor for evaluating projects with a short life
cycle or funding that is only available for a limited time. This is frequently used to assess small-
scale plant improvements. Such projects are often expected to pay for themselves in 2 to 5
years. From the figure above the expected payback period for this plant is 5 years.
8.4.1.2 Rate of Return (ROR)
A simple indicator of the performance of money invested is the rate of return (ROR), which is
the ratio of annual profit to investment. The calculation of the ROR is complicated by the fact
that the annual profit (net cash flow) will not be consistent over the project's lifetime. The most
straightforward technique is to calculate the ROR using the average income over the project's
lifetime and the initial investment (Sinnott & Towler, 2013)
𝐶𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝑅𝑂𝑅 = × 100%
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 × 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
The calculated ROR is 44.46%
285
8.4.2 Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Figure 8.5.3 shows the cumulative discounted cash flow of ascorbic acid production plant at
discount rate of 0%. 10%, 20%, and 30% (Appendix K). The discounted cash flow analysis is
the method which the annual cash flow is discounted back to time zero. This is accomplished
by multiplying each cash flow by the discount factor (P/F, i, n), where n denotes the number
of years since the project began and i denotes the discount rate (Turton, 2003). The result from
discounted cumulative cash flow analysis is then used to assess profitability
Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Against Years

1600.0000
Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow (RM'MILLION)
1400.0000
1200.0000
1000.0000
800.0000
600.0000
400.0000
200.0000
0.0000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
-200.0000
-400.0000
Years
0% Interest 10% Interest 20% Interest 30% Interest
Figure 8.2: Graph of cumulative discounted cash flow against years
286
8.4.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV)
Net present value (NPV) of the project can be defined as cumulative discounted cash position
at the end of the project. It can be used to determine DCFROR. Table 8.5.2 shows the Net
Present Value (NPV) at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% discount rate.
Table 8.16: Table of Net Present Value (NPV)
INTEREST (%) NPV (RM'million)

0 1463.986305
10 409.9110236
20 98.41085359
30 -20.3485603
GRAPH OF NET PRESENT VALUE VS INTEREST

1600
1463.986305
1400
1200
NET PRESENT VALUE (RM'MILLION)
1000
800
600
400 409.9110236
200
98.41085359
0 -20.3485603
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-200
INTEREST (%)
Figure 8.3: Graph of net present value against interest
To determine the DCFROR from the graph, the net present value is set at 0. Hence, from the
graph the DCFROR is 28.28% interest.
287
8.4.2.2 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFROR)
The discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) is defined as the interest at which all the
cash flows must be discounted for the net present value of the project equal to zero. It represents
the highest after-tax interest or discount rate at which the project can just break even. The
profitability index, initial rate of return (IRR), or investor's rate of return are all terms used to
describe the DCFROR (Turton, 2003). From the calculations, the DCFROR is 29.55%.
Calculation of discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR):
𝐷𝐶𝐹𝑅𝑂𝑅 − 20% 0 − 𝑅𝑀 98410853.59

=
30% − 20% −𝑅𝑀 20348560.30 − (−𝑅𝑀 98410853.59)
= 28.28 %
8.5 Financial Ratios

Financial ratios are relationships calculated from a company's financial data and used for
comparison. These measures or account balances are often seen on one of the company's
financial statements, such as the balance sheet, income statement, cashflow statement, and/or
statement of changes in owner's equity. Financial ratios may be a helpful tool for small business
owners and managers to use in measuring their success against established internal targets, a
specific competition, or the general industry. Furthermore, studying various ratios throughout
time is a great tool for detecting trends in their early phases.
8.5.1 Activity Ratio

An activity ratio is a sort of financial indicator that measures how well a firm leverages its
balance-sheet assets to create revenue and cash. The activity ratio is represented by the
inventory turnover ratio, fixed asset turnover ratio, and total asset turnover ratio (Activity
Ratios Definition, n.d.). Inventory is defined by the cost of raw materials, whereas fixed assets
are defined by gross root capital.
I. Inventory turnover ratio:

𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒
I𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
= 𝑅𝑀 227,707,838.70
= 1.9738
288
II. Fixed assets turnover ratio:
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
= 𝑅𝑀 24,804,211.45
= 18.1203
III. Total assets turnover ratio:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠+𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
= 𝑅𝑀 227707838.70+𝑅𝑀 24,804,211.45
= 1.78
8.5.2 Profitability Ratio

Profitability ratios are a type of financial indicator that is used to evaluate a company's capacity
to create earnings compared to its sales, operational costs, balance sheet assets, or shareholders'
equity over time, utilising data from a single point in time. a measure of a company's overall
operating performance to assess plant profitability, the operating margin ratio, gross profit
margin, and net profit margin are employed.
I. Operating profit margin:

𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒−𝐷𝑀𝐶
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000−𝑅𝑀260,523,766.15
= 𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
× 100%
= 42.04%
II. Gross Profit Margin:
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒−𝐷𝑀𝐶−𝐹𝑀𝐶
Gross 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000−𝑅𝑀 260,523,766.15−𝑅𝑀 4,854,009.12

= × 100%
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
= 40.96%
289
III. Net Profit Margin:
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒−𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑥

N𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000−𝑅𝑀95,983,995.52
= × 100%
𝑅𝑀 449,460,000
= 78.64%
8.5.3 Rate of Investment (ROI)

The minimum acceptable rate of return (also known as the minimum appealing rate of return
or MARR) is a regularly used profitability guideline. The minimum acceptable rate of return
is the rate of earning that an investment must accomplish in order for it to be acceptable to the
investor. There are several techniques for estimating the rate of return. Return on investment
is the most popular way (ROI). Profitability is defined as the profit-to-investment-cost ratio.
This may be stated as follows:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑥

R𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑅𝑂𝐼) = 𝑇𝐶𝐼+𝑇𝑀𝐶+ 𝐶𝐺𝑅
× 100%
𝑅𝑀95,983,995.52
= 𝑅𝑀 28,524,843.10+𝑅𝑀 315,747,139.63+𝑅𝑀 24,804,211.39 × 100%
= 26.01%
290
8.6 Feasibility Analysis (Summary)
A feasibility analysis looks at both the financial and technical elements of a project. A
project's viability is examined using a number of evaluation methodologies, including
payback time, net present value, and discounted cash flow rate of return. The payback period
represents the time required to repay the fixed capital investment. A medium to big industrial
plant's usual payback period is 2 to 5 years (Leanmanufacture.net., 2019). This ascorbic acid
manufacturing unit has a payback period of 4.8 years, which is within the allowed range. Net
present value is the worth of a plant at the end of the project's life cycle.
The net present value of this ascorbic acid manufacturing unit is shown in Table 8.4.2.1. The
DCFROR, also known as the IRR, is a discount rate that equalises the net present value of all
cash flows generated by a certain project. A DCFROR of 18% to 35% is regarded appropriate
for a value-added project (Arbor Crowd., 2017). This ascorbic acid manufacturing factory has
a DCFROR of 28.28 percent, suggesting a good return on investment. Finally, the financial
studies of this project indicate that it has the ability to provide respectable profits for
investors. As a result, the project is feasible.
291
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS
The plant design for the production of 18,000 Metric tonne per annum of ascorbic acid from d-
sorbitol by two step fermentation with single culture was discussed thoroughly in this report.
Two-step fermentation with a single culture was chosen as it requires low production cost, low
waste disposal cost, and higher overall yield production. This technology also eases the
controlling and monitoring work on the fermentation process. The feasibility study of ascorbic
acid production was performed through simulation using SuperPro Designer.
Based on the market analysis in Chapter 1, the global demand of ascorbic acid is expected to
have a steady compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.1% throughout 2020 to 2027
reaching USD 1.8 billion, due to growing awareness of vitamin C's importance in treating
various conditions such as increasing as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. This is the primary
factor driving the market's growth. The spread of COVID-19 has had a significant effect on the
economy, with varying consequences for various industries. The dietary supplement market is
experiencing strong demand, as consumers are increasingly concerned with their health in order
to avoid illness. Based on the market survey analysis, it is decided to have production rate to
be set at 18 000 metric tonnes per annum of ascorbic acid with purity of 95%. In order to
optimize the production operation, the process technology and plant site was analyzed. As
conclusion, the process technology selected is two step fermentation with single culture and
production plant located at Kerteh Industrial Park, Terengganu.
Furthermore, the process flow diagram (PFD) was drafted, and the selection of separation
equipment is decided upon based on heuristics and research industrial applications. The
finalized PFD was designed with equipment such as reactor, fermenter, heat exchanger, thin
film evaporator, bipolar membrane electrodialysis, storage tank, microfiltration, nutsche
filtration, crystallizer, belt conveyer and freeze dryer. Its operating parameters are identified.
To ensure that the material and energy balances are accurate, simulations were run on Super
Pro. Comparing manual calculation with Aspen Plus simulation, the error for material balance
is 21.19% while the error for energy balance is 67.72%. The detail economic potential (EP) for
level 1, level 2, and level 3 has been calculated. The EP1 is RM 272,798,310.30, EP2 is RM
256,728,227.40 and EP3 is RM 228,840,755.40.
In order to reduce the usage of utility amount in the production plant, heat integration was
studied by heat exchange network, pinch analysis and cascade diagram. As a result, in heat
292
exchange network, over 89.72% of cold utility and 100% of hot utility are recovered. Overall,
the maximum energy recovery (MER) of heat integration is obtained at 93.15%. The annual
cost of steam, cooling water, electricity and glycol after the heat integration were found to be
RM3,815,914.13, RM110,490.07, RM3,796,288.77 and RM36,837.50 respectively. The total
cost of utilities after heat integration in RM7,759,530.47/ yr.
Detail equipment sizing and costing for all the major and minor equipment involved has been
done in Chapter 5. Several assumptions and theoretical framework were made to get the rough
estimation of the equipment dimension and cost. The major equipment included fermenter,
continuous stirred-tank reactor, heat exchanger, evaporator and bipolar membrane
electrodialysis. On the other hand, the minor equipment used are microfiltration, Nutcshe
filtration, freeze dryer and storage tank. The specification, design and operating condition of
each equipment are clearly stated in this chapter with detailed calculations attached in the
appendix.
In chapter 6, based on the process, necessary equipment control systems applied to all the
involved equipment to make sure the process run smoothly. Furthermore, the PFD was edited
with addition of control system and safety instrument to produce a complete P&ID. Then,
HAZOP analysis carried out to study the possible deviation, causes, existing facilities and
recommended action in order to minimize the danger and hazard of the production. Necessary
action or safeguard such as alarm installed, and safety relief valve were recommended to install
on necessary equipment.
In Chapter 7, the waste treatment design was planned in order to meet the regulation and laws
related to the industrial wastes set by the legislations. From IPA production plant, few waste
generated which including biomass, carbon dioxide, methanol and wastewater. The solid waste
was decided to sell, and wastewater treatment plant was designed to treat the liquid waste. For
more information, WWTP is consist of flocculation tank, primary clarifier, aeration tank,
secondary clarifier, sludge thickener and press filter with total fabrication cost RM4,876,089.04
while for gas waste treatment, absorption column will be used to eliminate carbon dioxide gas
meanwhile for methanol gas flare system is applied to eliminate excess gases that cannot be
recovered.
At last, an economic analysis is carried out to determine the plant's profitability. The total
capital investment of this project was calculated at RM28,524,843.10. This project has a
payback period of 5 years with discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) at 28.28% and
293
rate of return (ROR) at 44.46%. In conclusion, the convincing values of these parameters shows
that this project is feasible economically.
294
REFERENCES
Abobaker, A., Alzwi, A., & Alraied, A. H. A. (2020). Overview of the possible role of
vitamin C in management of COVID-19. Pharmacological Reports, 1-12.
Asamovich, I. K., Baxadirovna, N. S., Mirkhashimovich, B. T., Aktamovich, N.,
MirkhashimovBotirovich, B., Zokirovna, Y. K., ... & Fayziyevna, F. X. (2021).
VITAMIN C IN TERMS OF COVID-19, CURRENT TRENDS. European Journal of
Molecular & Clinical Medicine, 8(1), 1341-1351.
Ascorbic Acid Market | 2021 - 26 | Industry Share, Size, Growth - Mordor Intelligence.
(2021). Mordor Intelligence. https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-
reports/ascorbic-acid-market
Basaran, A., Basaran, M., & Topatan, B. (2010). Combined vitamin C and E supplementation
for the prevention of preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-
analysis. Obstetrical & gynecological survey, 65(10), 653-667.
BAUERNFEIND, J. C. (1982). Ascorbic Acid Technology in Agricultural, Pharmaceutical,
Food, and Industrial Applications. Ascorbic Acid: Chemistry, Metabolism, and Uses,
395–497. https://doi.org/10.1021/ba-1982-0200.ch020
Boretti, A., & Banik, B. K. (2020). Intravenous vitamin C for reduction of cytokines storm in
acute respiratory distress syndrome. PharmaNutrition, 12, 100190.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phanu.2020.100190
Burke, K. E. (2007). Interaction of vitamins C and E as better cosmeceuticals. Dermatologic
therapy, 20(5), 314-321.
Douglas, J. (1988). Conceptual Design of Chemical Process. (2nd Ed.). S.L.:McGraw-Hill.
DSM Focuses Its Vitamin C Production in Dalry, U.K. (2005b, May 12). GlobeNewswire
News Room. https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-
release/2005/05/12/327333/4487/en/DSM-Focuses-Its-Vitamin-C-Production-in-Dalry-
U-K.html
Fogler, S. (2006). Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering. (4th Ed.). New Jersey:
Pearson Education International.
295
Gao, Q., & Zhao, H. Y. (2013). Design of Flare Gas Flow Measurement System on Offshore
Oil Platform. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 385–386, 460–463.
https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.385-386.460
Global Market Study on ascorbic acid: South Asia to develop a high-potential consumer base
through 2028. Persistence Market Research. (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2021, from
https://www.persistencemarketresearch.com/market-research/ascorbic-acid-market.asp.
IndustryARC. (2021). Global Ascorbic Acid Market - Forecast(2021 - 2026).

https://www.industryarc.com/Research/Global-Ascorbic-Acid-Market-Research-
509551
Lim et al (2020). Process design and economic studies of two-step fermentation for production
of ascorbic acid. SN Applied Sciences, 2(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2604-8
Lim, S. M. (2020, April 5). Process design and economic studies of two-step. . . SN Applied
Sciences. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-020-2604-
8?error=cookies_not_supported&code=5f74570e-8095-43ef-99be-63c14a4547dc
Ltd, R. A. M. (2021). Vitamin C Market Research Report by Type, Form, End-use, and
Region - Global Forecast to 2026 - Cumulative Impact of COVID-19. Research and
Markets Ltd 2021. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/4986024/vitamin-c-
market-research-report-by-type-form
Lynch, S. R. (1997). Interaction of iron with other nutrients. Nutrition Reviews, 55(4), 102-
110.
Marketing. (2019, November 26). Vitamin C (L-Ascorbic acid). Food Additives &
Ingredients Supplier - Newseed Chemical Co., Limited.
https://www.foodsweeteners.com/vitamin-c-l-ascorbic-acid/
Pappenberger, G., & Hohmann, H. P. (2013). Industrial Production of l-Ascorbic Acid
(Vitamin C) and d-Isoascorbic Acid. Advances in Biochemical
Engineering/Biotechnology, 143–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2013_243
Sattar, A., Willman, J. E., & Kolluri, R. (2013). Possible warfarin resistance due to
interaction with ascorbic acid: case report and literature review. American Journal of
Health-System Pharmacy, 70(9), 782+.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A330005618/HRCA?u=anon~589311c&sid=googleSc
holar&xid=d3b2fa1d
296
Shklar, G., Schwartz, J., Trickier, D., & Cheverie, S. R. (1993). The effectiveness of a mixture
of β‐carotene, α‐tocopherol, glutathione, and ascorbic acid for cancer prevention.
To make better decisions, you need to see the big picture. (2002). IHS Markit.
https://ihsmarkit.com/products/chemical-technology-pep-reviews-ascorbic-acid-
2002.html
Vitamin C (L-Ascorbic acid). (n.d.). Retrieved November 3, 2021, from
https://www.foodsweeteners.com/vitamin-c-l-ascorbic-acid/
Wang et al (2016). Reorganization of a synthetic microbial consortium for one-step vitamin C
fermentation. Microbial Cell Factories, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-016
0418-6
Zhang, Y. P. E. (2020, December 8). Market analysis of the global vitamin C industry
in 2020: the scale of export hits a record high. Linkedin.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/market-analysis-global-vitamin-c-industry-2020-
scale-yolanda
Zhou et al (2012.). Metabolic Engineering of Microorganisms for Vitamin C production.
Retrieved November 3, 2021, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232320669_Metabolic_Engineering_of_Mic
roorganisms_for_Vitamin_C_Production/download
297
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Polymath Coding
Polymath coding for yield CSTR 1:

# 1st CSTR
#Fkg = keto-gluconic acid

#Fm = methanol
#Fmg = methyl gluconate
#Fw = water
d(Fkg) / d(V) = rkg #mole balance keto-gluconic acid

Fkg (0) = 0.215073 #kmole/min
d(Fm) / d(V) = rm #mole balance methanol
Fm (0) = 0.215073 #kmole /min
d(Fmg) / d(V) = rmg #mole balance methanol
Fmg (0) = 0
d(Fw) / d(V) = rw # mole balance water
Fw (0) = 0
T0 = 337.15 # kelvin (K)

T = T0
P0 = 1 #bar
P = P0
A = (1.58e6)*1000 #kmol.min/L
Ea = 50.46 #kJ/Kmol
R = 8.3145 # J/mol.K
298
k4 = A*exp (-Ea/ (R * T))
#rate law
rkg = - k4*Ckg*Cm
rm = - k4*Ckg*Cm
rmg = k4*Ckg*Cm
rw = k4*Ckg*Cm
#stoichiometry
Ct0 = ( P0/ (R* T0))
Ct = P/(R*T)
Ckg = Ct0 * ( Fkg/ Ft )*(T0/T)
Cm = Ct0 * ( Fm / Ft )*(T0/T)
Cmg = Ct0 * (Fmg / Ft )
Cw = Ct0 * (Fw/ Ft)
Ft = Fkg + Fm + Fmg + Fw
#conversion
Fkg0 = 0.215073
Xkg = (Fkg0 - Fkg) / Fkg0
#Yield
Y=(Fmg+0.00001)/(Fkg+0.00001) #yield
299
V(0) = 0
V(f) = 5
Polymath coding for yield CSTR 2:
# 2nd CSTR
#Fmg = methyl gluconate

#Fsb = sodium bicarbonate
#Fsa = sodium ascorbate
#Fm = methanol
#Fw= water
#Fcd= carbon dioxide
d(Fmg) / d(V) = rmg #mole balance methyl gluconate

Fmg (0) = 0.215073 #kmole/min
d(Fsb) / d(V) = rsb #mole balance sodium bicarbonate
Fsb (0) = 0.215073 #kmole/min
d(Fsa) / d(V) = rsa #mole balance sodium ascorbate
Fsa(0) = 0
d(Fm) / d(V) = rm # mole balance methanol
Fm (0) = 0
d(Fw) / d(V) = rw # mole balance water
Fw (0) = 0
d(Fcd) / d(V) = rcd # mole balance carbon dioxide
Fcd (0) = 0
T0 = 337.15 # kelvin (K)

T = T0
300
P0 = 1 #bar
P = P0
A = (1.58e6)*1000
Ea = 50.46 # kJ/mol.K
R = 8.3145 # kJ/mol.K
k5 = A*exp (-Ea/ (R * T)) #year
#rate law
rmg = -k5*Cmg*Csb
rsb = -k5*Cmg*Csb
rsa = k5*Cmg*Csb
rm = k5*Cmg*Csb
rw = k5*Cmg*Csb
rcd = k5*Cmg*Csb
#stoichiometry
Ct0 = ( P0/ (R* T0))
Ct = ( P/ (R* T))
Cmg = Ct0 * ( Fmg/ Ft )
Csb = Ct0 * ( Fsb / Ft )
Csa = Ct0 * (Fsa / Ft )
Cm = Ct0 * (Fm/ Ft)
Cw = Ct0 * (Fw/ Ft)
Ccd = Ct0 * (Fcd/ Ft)
Ft = Fmg + Fsb + Fsa + Fm + Fw + Fcd
Fmg0 = 0.215073
301
#conversion
Xmg = (Fmg0 - Fmg) / Fmg0
#Yield
Y=(Fsa+0.00001)/(Fmg+0.00001) #yield
V(0) = 0
V(f) = 50
Polymath coding for Heat Effect fermenter 1:
#Fermenter 1 (heat effect)
#SR = SORBITOL
#O = OXYGEN
#SB = SORBOSE
#W = WATER
#A=AMMONIA
#B= BIOMASS
#CD= CARBON DIOXIDE
#Cp in J/(mol*K)
deltaCpsr=332.30
d(deltaCpo)/d(T) = 28.11 + (-3.00 *10^ (-6)) * T + 1.75*10^ (-5) *T^2 + (-1.07*10^ (-8)) *
T^3
deltaCpo(0) =28.11
deltaCpsb=228.61
302
deltaCpw=75.24
deltaCpa= 80
deltaCpB=103
deltaCpCD=19.80
deltaCp = deltaCpsr + deltaCpo+ deltaCpsb + deltaCpw + deltaCpa + deltaCpB + deltaCpCD
X = deltaCpsr + 3.17*deltaCpo+0.732*deltaCpa*T-303.15 / (-(-1119918.324)

+(5.822*deltaCpw + deltaCpsb+2.34*deltaCpCD+3.66*deltaCpB)-(deltaCpsr +
3.17*deltaCpo+0.732*deltaCpa)*T-298.15)
T (0) = 298.15
T(f) = 1000.15
Polymath coding for heat effect fermenter 2:
#Fermenter 2 (heat effect)
#SB = SORBOSE
#O = OXYGEN
#SC = SODIUM CARBONATE
#SKG = SODIUM KETO-GLUCONIC
#W = WATER
#CD = CARBON DIOXIDE
#A = AMMONIA
#B = BIOMASS
303
#Cp in J/(mol*K)
deltaCpsb= 228.61
d(deltaCpo)/d(T) = 28.11 + (-3.00 *10^ (-6)) * T + 1.75*10^ (-5) *T^2 + (-1.07*10^ (-8)) *
T^3
deltaCpo(0) = 28.11
deltaCpsc=189.54
deltaCpskg=305.40
deltaCpw=75.24
d(deltaCpcd)/d(T) = 19.80 + (7.34*10^ (-2)) * T + (-5.60*10*(-5)) *T^2 + (1.72*10*(-8))
*T^3
deltaCpcd(0) = 19.80
deltaCpa = 80
deltaCpb= 103
deltaCp = deltaCpsb + deltaCpo + deltaCpsc + deltaCpskg + deltaCpw + deltaCpcd
X = (1/2*deltaCpsc + 3*deltaCpo +2*deltaCpsb +0.73* deltaCpa )*T-303.15 / (-(195100) +

(deltaCpskg +5.304* deltaCpw +2.84*deltaCpcd +3.66* deltaCpb) - (1/2*deltaCpsc
+3*deltaCpo +2* deltaCpsb + 0.73*deltaCpa) *T-298.15)
T (0) = 298.15
T(f) = 1000.15
Polymath coding for heat effect of 1st CSTR

#CSTR 1 (heat effect)
#KGA = KETO-GLUCONIC ACID

#M = METHANOL
#MG = METHYL GLUCONATE
304
#W = WATER
#Cp in J/(mol*K)
deltaCpkga= 305.40
deltaCpm= 81.60
deltaCpmg= 305.40
deltaCpw= 75.24
deltaHrx = deltaCpkga + deltaCpm + deltaCpmg + deltaCpw
X = (deltaCpkga + deltaCpm)*T-333.15 /(-(-46730) + (deltaCpmg + deltaCpw) - (deltaCpm

+ deltaCpkga) *T-298.15)
T(0) = 298.15
T(f) = 1000.15
Polymath coding for heat effect of 2nd CSTR

#CSTR 2 (heat effect)
#MG = METHYL GLUCONATE

#SBC = SODIUM BICARBONATE
#SA = SODIUM ASCORBATE
#W = WATER
#M = METHANOL
#CD = CARBON DIOXIDE
305
#Cp in J/(mol*K)
deltaCpmg= 305.40
deltaCpsbc= 81.60
deltaCpsa= 305.40
deltaCpw= 305.40
deltaCpm = 75.24
d(deltaCpcd)/d (T)= 19.80 + (7.34*10*(-2)) *T + (-5.60*10*(-5)) + (1.72*10*(-8))
deltaCpcd (0) = 19.80
deltaHrx = deltaCpmg + deltaCpsbc + deltaCpsa + deltaCpw + deltaCpm + deltaCpcd
X = (deltaCpsa + deltaCpsbc + deltaCpmg)*T-333.15 / (-(32370) + (deltaCpw + deltaCpm +

deltaCpcd) - (deltaCpsa + deltaCpsbc + deltaCpmg) *T-298.15)
T (0) = 298.15
T(f) = 1000.15
306
Appendix B: Process Simulation Report
PROCESS MODELLING
SuperPro Designer is a software simulation that is used for the modelling process in this
plant design to produce 18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid from sorbitol through two step
fermentations with single culture. SuperPro Designer simplifies the modelling, evaluation, and
optimization of integrated batch and continuous processes in a variety of industries, including
biotechnology, pharmaceutical, specialty chemicals, food processing, consumer goods,
metallurgical, materials, water purification, and wastewater treatment. The principles of
simulation in SuperPro Designer are to identify the mode of operation, chemical components
that are involved, build a process flow diagram sheet with the correct unit procedure selected,
evaluating plant capacity, and set up input parameters. Engineers and scientists working in
process development, process engineering, and manufacturing will find SuperPro Designer to
be a useful tool. It is also a useful resource for environmental professionals.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Physical and chemical properties
Ascorbic acid is the main product in this plant design. Ascorbic acid also known as l-
ascorbic acid, ascorbate and vitamin C. Ascorbic acid is commercially known as vitamin C.
Ascorbic acid is a naturally occurring water-soluble vitamin (Vitamin C). The molecular
weight of ascorbic acid is 176.12 g/mol with molecular formula 𝐶6 𝐻8 𝑂6. L-ascorbic acid is a
white to pale yellow crystalline powder with a pleasant acidic flavour. It is almost odourless.
In industry, there are several methods to produce ascorbic acid such as Reichstein method, two
step fermentation with mixed culture and two step fermentation with single culture.
In this plant design, the production of ascorbic acid will undergo two step fermentation
with single culture. This is because, after evaluated the process based on their reactions step,
the profit margin, and safety aspect, two step fermentation with single culture is chosen as a
process to produce 18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid from sorbitol solutions. The raw materials
that are used in this process is sorbitol solution, oxygen, ammonia, sodium carbonate, methanol
and sodium bicarbonate. Summarized below are the physical and chemical properties of raw
materials involved and product.
307
Table 1. 1: Physical and chemical properties of raw materials
Sodium Sodium
Component Sorbitol Oxygen Ammonia Methanol
Carbonate bicarbonate
Molecular
C6H14O6 O2 NH3 Na2CO3 CH3OH NaHCO3
formula
Clear, A White
colorless, White solid, colorless crystalline
Appearance Colorless Colorless
syrup hygroscopic volatile powder or
liquid liquid lumps
A faintly
Pungent sweet
Odour Odourless No odour Odourless
odour pungent
odour Odourless
State Liquid Gas Gas Solid Liquid Solid
Molecular 182.17
weight (g/mol) g/mol 16 17.031 105.989 32.04 84.0066
Boiling
point (℃) 296 -183 -33.34 1600 64.7 336.6
Melting point
(℃) 96 -218.8 -77.73 851 -97.6 50
1.49 1.292 0.73 792
Density g/cm3 kg/m3 kg/m3 2.54 g/cm3 kg/m3 2.20 g/cm3
Table 1. 2: Physical and chemical properties of products
Sodium
Component Ascorbic acid Carbon dioxide Water
hydroxide
Molecular
. C6H8O6 NaOH CO2 H2O
formula
White or light-
Appearance Colorless Colorless Almost colorless
yellow solid
Odour No odour Odourless Odourless Odourless
State Solid Liquid Gas Liquid

Molecular weight
176.12 39.997 44.01 18.02
Boiling point (℃) 553 1388 -78.46 100
Melting point (℃) 190 318 -56.65 0

Density 1.65 g/cm3 2.13 g/cm3 1.98 kg/m3 997kg/m3
308
1.2 Applications of Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid is a nutrient that the human body requires in trace amounts in order to
function and remain healthy. Ascorbic acid, as an antioxidant, can aid in the prevention of cell
damage caused by free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can harm cells. Scurvy is
also prevented and treated with it. According to the National Cancer Institute in the United
States, ascorbic acid can help the human body fight bacterial infections and form collagen,
which is an important protein in fibrous tissue, teeth, bones, skin, and capillaries.
1.2.1 Health supplement product

Supplements are the most common and popular way to get vitamin C. These
supplements, which are typically in powder or tablet form, are used to protect cells, maintain
healthy skin, and speed recovery from colds, flu, and other similar illnesses. With people
becoming more health-conscious and solutions becoming more affordable and accessible, the
use of vitamin C supplements has skyrocketed. According to research conducted by the Health
Food Manufacturers Association in 2016, approximately 27 percent of Brits take vitamin C on
a regular basis, making it the third most popular supplement after multivitamins (which often
contain vitamin C) and fish supplements.
In the human body, vitamin C has a wide range of pharmacological activities, including
anti-vital activity, immune modulation, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, anti-
inflammatory activity, and so on (Asamovich et al, 2021). Vitamin C reduces the release of
proinflammatory cytokines in SARSCoV-2 infection, which may play a significant role in
reducing the cytokine storm, resulting in less tissue damage due to inflammation and possibly
leading to Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ADRS) (Boretti & Banik, 2020). According
to Boretti and Banik (2020), an approach emerged as one alternative, which is intravenous (IV)
Vitamin C (Vit-C) for developing a stronger immune response, lowering the cytokine storm,
or enhancing antiviral activity through well-established mechanisms.
1.2.2 Food and Beverages

Ascorbic acid is added to many foods to help replenish vitamin C content that may be
lost in these ways. To fortify or add a citrus flavour, ascorbic acid is frequently added to fruit
juices, cereals, fruit-flavored candies, dried fruit, cured meats, and frozen fruits. Ascorbic acid
also serves as a preservative, preventing the spoilage of foods such as bread, cured meats, jams,
and jellies. New technological advancements enable the food processing industry to market far
more food products than in previous decades.
309
1.2.3 Personal care products and cosmetic
Cosmetics and other personal care products may contain less acidic forms of ascorbic
acid, such as calcium ascorbate, magnesium ascorbate, magnesium ascorbyl phosphate, sodium
ascorbate, and sodium ascorbyl phosphate, which act as antioxidants to slow deterioration of
the finished product due to air exposure and to control the pH of the produc
310
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
The two-step fermentation with a single culture is applied in our plant design. These
technologies have higher efficiency and product quality than Reichstein process. (Bohnet M C,
2003). Besides that, two-step fermentation process has lower capital and operating costs which
outweigh its lower atom economy. Hence, the overall revenue of the two-step fermentation is
higher than the Reichstein process.
In fermenter 1, the feedstock (sorbitol, oxygen, ammonia) will be fed into fermenter 1 for first
fermentation process with operating condition of 30˚C at 1 bar for 14hr. The chemical reaction
for fermenter 1 is 𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 0.5𝑂2 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 𝑂 . It is used to convert the sorbitol to
sorbose with using the Gluconobacter Oxydans as the bacteria for conversion of 98%. At
fermenter 2, the sorbose is converted into sodium keto gluconic acid with the presence of
Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes as bacteria for fermenter 2. The fermentation
operating condition for fermenter 2 is 30˚C at 1 bar for 72hr. The biomass is removed after
discharge from fermenter 2 to prevent external reaction at binary membrane electrolysis. At
CSTR 1, the keto gluconic acid is converted to form methyl gluconate at 64˚C at 1 bar. The
methyl gluconic acid is being cooled to 30˚C before entering CSTR 2. At CSTR 2, the keto
gluconate acid reacted with sodium bicarbonate to form sodium ascorbate at temperature of
45˚C at 1 bar. Lastly the sodium ascorbate is gone through the binary membrane electrodialysis
2 to form ascorbic acid. The carbon dioxide gas is removed through the top stream of CSTR.
The components (sorbitol, sorbose) are recycled back to fermenter 1 for reuse. The ascorbic
acid is sent to crystallizer to form the solid form ascorbic acid and freeze dried at freeze drying.
Lastly, the ascorbic acid is heat up to 3˚C for due to its sensitivity properties.
311
3.0 LIST OF CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
Table 3. 1: List of chemical components
Name Molecular State

Formula
@25˚C, 1atm
Ammonia NH3 GAS
Ascorbic acid C6H8O6 SOLID
Sodium ascorbate C6H7NaO6 SOLID
Methyl gluconate C7H12O7 SOLID
Carbon dioxide CO2 GAS
Keto-gluconic acid C6H10O7 SOLID
Methanol CH3OH LIQUID
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 SOLID
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 SOLID
Nitrogen N2 GAS
Oxygen O2 GAS
Sodium hydroxide NaOH SOLID
Sodium keto-gluconic
acid C6H9NaO7 SOLID
Sorbitol C6H14O6 SOLID
Sorbose C6H12O6 SOLID
Water H2O LIQUID
Raw materials are used to produce ascorbic acid are sorbitol, ammonia, and oxygen with
presence of Gluconobacter Oxydans bacteria. The feed for sorbitol is 90% purity. The biomass
which produced from fermenter 1 can remain to fermenter 2 but it must be fully removed at
microfiltration before entering the binary membrane electrodialysis 1. At CSTR 1, the
methanol is added with methanol to keto-gluconic acid ratio of 1:4.25 to form sodium keto-
gluconic acid.
At CSTR 2, sodium bicarbonate is feed to sodium keto-gluconic acid at ratio of 2.715 to form
sodium ascorbate. At thin film evaporator 2, the component on top stream (methyl gluconate,
methanol, sodium bicarbonate, sorbitol, sorbose, water) are recycled back to fermenter 1 for
reuse while component at down-stream is sent to crystallizer to solidify the ascorbic acid.
Lastly, to fully recover the ascorbic acid, the 99% of water and sodium ascorbate are remove
at freeze drying and left ascorbic acid and small volume of those 2 components to the storage
tank after heating up to 4 ˚C
312
4.0 PROCESS FLOWSHEET DESIGN
The production of ascorbic acid from d-sorbitol was demonstrated in a simulation by

using SuperPro Designer. Figure 4.1 shows the synthesis route flowsheet of ascorbic acid
production. The entering feeds used are 70% of d-sorbitol solution, ammonia, and air at 25 ˚C
and 1.013 bar for each component. Firstly, the 70% of D-sorbitol solution along with ammonia
and air are fed into the fermenter 1 (P-2/FR-101) to undergo oxidative fermentation process.
The operating condition for the oxidative fermentation process is at 30 ˚C and 1.013 bar for 14
hours of residence time. The fermenter 1 (P-2/FR-101) has two types of reactions: fermentation
and the metabolism reaction with the presence of Gluconobacter oxydans bacteria. In the
fermentation process, d-sorbitol converted to sorbose by the bacteria at a rate of 99%
conversion, whereas ammonia converted at a rate of 98% in the metabolism reaction. Carbon
dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen, and oxygen will leave the fermenter 1 (P-2/FR-101) at the upper
stream. After that, the other product leaving fermenter 1 (P-2/FR-101) will be entering
fermenter 2 (P-2/FR-102) at 30 degrees Celsius and 1.013 bar to react with sodium carbonate,
ammonia and air which each component at 25 and 1.013 bar. The operating conditions for
fermenter 2 (P-2/FR-102) are at 30 ˚C and 1.013 bar for 72 hours of residence time. There are
two types of reaction in fermenter 2 (P-2/FR-102) which are fermentation and metabolism
reaction with the presence of Pseudoglyconobacter Saccharoketogenes bacteria. For the
fermentation process, the conversion for sorbose is 76% to react with 57.23% of sodium
carbonate. For the metabolism reaction, ammonia has achieved 100% of conversion. The
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen will be discharged at the upper stream at 30 ˚C and 1.013
bar.
The effluent product from fermenter 2 (P-2/FR-102) will be entering the microfiltration
(P-3/MF-101) process at 30 ˚C and 1.013 bar. The operating condition for the filtration time is
set to 240.00 min, the filtrate flux at 20.00 L/m2-h and concentration factor is 5.00 to recover
until 80%. The maximum particle concentration in the retentate is set to 600.00 g/L. The
biomass produced by the bacteria and some of unreacted sodium carbonate, sodium keto-
gluconic acid, sorbitol, sorbose, and water will be filtered out from the microfiltration (P-3/MF-
101) at the bottom stream. After that, the product at the upper stream of the microfiltration (P-
3/MF-101) will be entering the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1 (P-4/BME-101) at 30 ˚C
and 1.013 bar. The reaction occurred in the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1 (P-4/BME-101)
is hydrolysis process which undergoes ion exchanges with the water molecules to produce keto-
313
gluconic acid. In this process, the sodium keto-gluconic acid has achieved 100% of conversion
to keto-gluconic acid. Sodium hydroxide will be discharged at the effluent stream from the
bipolar membrane electrodialysis 1 (P-4/BME-101). The keto-gluconic acid, unreacted sodium
carbonate, sorbitol, sorbose and water will go through heating process before entering the thin
film evaporation (P-6/TFE-101). The product will undergo a heating process from 30 ˚C to 90
˚C. After the product has undergoes heating process, the product will be entering the thin film
evaporation at 90 ˚C to remove water before entering reactor 1(P9/R-101) which is continuous
stirred tank reactor (CSTR). The operating condition for the thin film evaporation is at 100 ˚C
and 1.013 bar. The heat efficiency is set to 90.0% and heat transfer coefficient is set to 2904.913
Watt/m2-K. The process time in the thin film evaporation to evaporate the water is set to
1440.00 min. The purpose of discharging the water before entering the reactor 1(P9/R-101) is
to increase the forward reaction since water is the product in the reaction.
The water that has been discharged at the upper stream will be entering the
condensation (P-7/HX-103) at 100 ˚C to condense the water. The water in the effluent stream
will be discharged out at 55 ˚C and 1.013 bar. Next, the bottom product of the thin film
evaporation will be entering reactor 1 (P9/R-101). Before that, the product must be cooled
down by a cooler (P-8/HX-102) from 100 ˚C to 64 ˚C. The product entering reactor 1(P9/R-
101) will react with methanol and undergo esterification to produce methyl gluconate and
water. The operating conditions for reactor 1 (P9/R-101) are at 64 ˚C and have residence time
of 1 hour and vessel volume ratio of 90%. The working volume for the reactor 1(P9/R-101) is
34209.61 L. The conversion for keto-gluconic acid from the process in reactor 1 (P9/R-101) is
100%, whereas the methanol produced is 70.14%. Then, the product from reactor 1(P9/R-101)
will be undergoes cooling process by cooler (P-10/HX-104) to cool down from 64 to 30. The
entering feed to reactor 2 (P-11/R-102) will react with sodium bicarbonate to produce sodium
ascorbate, methanol, water, and carbon dioxide. The operating conditions for reactor 2 (P-11/R-
102) are set at 45 ˚C with the residence time of 1 hour. The vessel volume ratio is 90% and
working volume of 30461.33 L. Sodium bicarbonate in the reactor 2 (P-11/R-102) is fully react
with 100% conversion and 91.27% conversion of methyl gluconate. From the reaction, carbon
dioxide will be discharged out from reactor 2 (P-11/R-102) at the upper stream with 45 ˚C and
1.013 bar.
Then the product will go through the cooler (P-12/HX-105) to undergo cooling process
before entering bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102). The component entering
314
bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102) will be cooled down from 45 ˚C to 30 ˚C.
The operating conditions for the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102) are at 30
˚C and 1.013 bar. The conversion for sodium ascorbate has reached 90% in bipolar membrane
electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102). The sodium hydroxide produces from the ion exchange
process in the bipolar membrane electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102) is then discharged at the
upper stream. Before entering thin film evaporation, the product from the bipolar membrane
electrodialysis 2 (P-13/BME-102) will go through heater (P-14/HX-106) to increase the
temperature from 30 ˚C to 64 ˚C. Then, the product is fed to the thin film evaporation 2 (P-
15/TFE-102) to remove the water produced from the reactor 2 (P-11/R-102) before feeding the
ascorbic acid produce to the crystallizer. The thin film evaporation 2 (P-15/TFE-102) operate
with 200 ˚C, pressure of 1.013 bar, the heat transfer efficiency of 90% and heat transfer
coefficient of 2904.913 Watt/m2-K. The process time in the evaporator is set to 24 hours. The
product at the upper stream of the evaporator is then feed to the condenser (P-16/HX-107) to
recycle back the unconverted components to the fermenter 1 (P-1/FR-101). The operating
condition for the condenser is at 100 ˚C and 1.013 bar. The product from the effluent stream of
the evaporator will be entering the crystallizer (P-18/CR-101) at 200 ˚C and 1.013 bar. At the
crystallizer, the ascorbic acid will undergo crystallization process to produce solid ascorbic
acid. To produce solid ascorbic acid, the residence time for the crystallizer (P-18/CR-101) is
set to 54 hours at 4 ˚C, vessel volume ratio of 90% and working volume of 35904.62 L.
The solid ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and water will be entering freeze drying (P-
19/FDR-101) to free-dried the solid ascorbic acid. The operating condition for freeze drying
(P-19/FDR-101) is the drying time of 900.00 min and pressure of 1.013 bar with the final solid's
temperature of 35 ˚C, wet cake depth of 15.00 mm and maximum wet cake depth of 25.00 mm.
Then, the sodium ascorbate and water will be discharge in the upper stream of the freeze drying
(P-19/FDR-101). The solid ascorbic acid will go through heating process by heater (P-20/HX-
109) to increase the temperature from –35 ˚C to 4 ˚C entering the storage tank due to the
sensitivity properties of solid ascorbic acid.
315
Figure 4. 1: Process Flow Diagram
5.0 PLANT CAPACITY DETERMINATION
The production plant designed capacity is determined to recover 18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid.
By using Superpro Designer, the amount of ascorbic acid that are desired is achieve by
manipulating the inlet stream in this production according to the manual calculation and results
that obtained from polymath software.
Figure 5. 1: Amounts of raw materials needed

According to figure above, the optimum flowrate for the raw materials that are needed to
produce 18000 MTPA of ascorbic acid. Sorbitol is 2990733 kg/batch, sodium carbonate with
936698.30 kg/batch, sodium bicarbonate is 943229.75 kg/batch and ammonia, 30 kg/batch.
Based on the simulation result, the total batch is 9 batch per year with annual operating time
7269.10 hours.
Figure 5. 2: Stream result amount of production of ascorbic acid

According to the figure above, the production of ascorbic acid is 2000000.19028 kg/batch with
99.98% purity. So, 1 year has 9 batch, will give 18,000,001.7 kg/year and we will convert to
metric tonne (MT) by multiply this value with 1000 because 1 MT=1000 kg. So, we achieve
around 18,001.7 MT/year. In addition, these amounts of ascorbic acid are achieved by recycled
unreacted sorbose, sorbitol and sodium carbonate to fermenter 1.
Figure 5. 3: Summary result overall component balance
Figure above shows the overall component balance in kg/yr of this process modelling. The
amount of ascorbic acid produce is 18,000,002 kg/yr which equivalent to 18,000.002 MT/yr.
318
6.0 SUMMARY OF UNIT OPERATION (REACTORS)
6.1 Fermenter 1 (FR-101)
There are two reactions in the fermenter 1 where it involved the conversion of sorbitol to
sorbose:
1. Main reaction:
1
C6 H14 O6 + O2 → C6 H12 O6 + H2 O
2
Sorbitol + Oxygen → Sorbose + Water
2. Metabolism reaction:
C6 H14 O6 + 2.666O2 + 0.732NH3 → 3.66C1.79 H0.5 O0.2 + 2.34CO2 + 4.822H2 O

Sorbose + Oxygen + Ammonia → Biomass + Carbon dioxide + Water
Since the Fermenter 1 is operated in batch mode, therefore it required several process and
sequence for procedure included ‘TRANSFER-IN-1’, ‘CHARGE-1’, ‘CHARGE-1’, ‘HEAT-
1’, ‘FERMENT-1’, and ‘TRANSFER-OUT’.
Figure 6. 1: Operation sequence for procedure in Fermenter 1
319
Figure 6. 2: Operating condition for TRANSFER-IN-1 in Fermenter 1
Figure 6. 3: Operating condition for CHARGE-1 in Fermenter 1
320
Figure 6. 5:Operating condition for HEAT-1 in fermenter 1
321
Figure 6. 6: Operating condition of FERMENT-1 in Fermenter 1
Figure 6. 7: Reaction data for main reaction in Fermenter 1
322
Figure 6. 8: Reaction data for metabolism reaction in Fermenter 1
Figure 6. 9: Vent/Emissions at Fermenter 1
323
Figure 6. 10: Operating condition for TRANSFER-OUT-1 in Fermenter 1
324
6.2 Fermenter 2 (FR-102)
In the Fermenter 2, there are 2 reactions involving the conversion of sorbose to sodium keto-
gluconic acid occurred where it is different from the Fermenter 1, but the operating condition
is basically the same.
1. Main reaction:
1 3 1
C6 H12 O6 + O2 + Na2 CO3 → C6 H9 NaO7 + H2 O + CO2
2 2 2
𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
→ 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
2. Metabolism reaction:
C6 H12 O6 + 0.73NH3 + 2.157O2 → 3.66C1.79 H0.5 O0.2 + 2.34CO2 + 3.804H2 O
Since the Fermenter 2 also operated in batch mode, therefore it is also required several
process and sequence for procedure included ‘TRANSFER-IN-1’, ‘CHARGE-1’, ‘CHARGE-
1’, ‘HEAT-1’, ‘FERMENT-1’, and ‘TRANSFER-OUT’.
Figure 6. 11: Operation sequence for procedure in Fermenter 2
325
Figure 6. 12: Operating condition for TRANSFER-IN-1 in Fermenter 2
326
Figure 6. 15: Operating condition for HEAT-1 in Fermenter 2
327
Figure 6. 16: Operating condition for FERMENT-1 in Fermenter 2
Figure 6. 17: Reaction data for main reaction in Fermenter 2
328
Figure 6. 18: Reaction data for metabolism reaction in Fermenter 2
Figure 6. 19: Vent/Emissions at Fermenter 2
329
330
6.3 CSTR 1 (R-101)
At this CSTR 1, the reaction involved the conversion of keto-gluconic acid to methyl
gluconate through esterification process.
Reaction:
C6 H10 O7 + CH3 OH → C7 H12 O7 + H2 O
Keto gluconic acid + Methanol → Methyl gluconate + Water
331
Figure 6. 22: Volumes design specifications for CSTR 1
Figure 6. 23: Reaction specifications for CSTR 1
332
6.4 CSTR 2 (R-102)
At this CSTR 2, the reaction involved the conversion of methyl gluconate to sodium
ascorbate.
Reaction:
C7 H12 O7 + NaHCO3 → C6 H7 O6 Na + CH3 OH + H2 O + CO2
Methyl gluconate + Sodium bicarbonate
→ Sodium ascorbate + Methanol + Water + Carbon dioxide
Figure 6. 24: Operating condition for CSTR 2
333
Figure 6. 25: Volumes design specifications for CSTR 2
Figure 6. 26: Reaction specifications for CSTR 2
334
7.0 SUMMARY OF UNIT OPERATIONS (SEPARATORS)
7.1 Microfiltration (MF-101)
Microfiltration will be simulated to separate the biomass that produces from reaction in
fermenter 1 (FR-101) and fermenter 2 (FR-102). All the biomass that is produced from the
bacteria reaction will completely flow out at bottom stream of microfiltration as waste in liquid
form. All the products and impurities in the upper stream will flow out in liquid phase and fed
to bipolar membrane electrodialysis (BME-101) for further reaction.
Figure 7. 1: Operating condition for Microfiltration (MF-101)
335
Figure 7. 2: Utilities for Microfiltration (MF-101)
Based on Figure 7.2, since this microfiltration is required to operate in cooling process, so
chilled water will be selected for cooling agent.
336
7.2 Thin Film Evaporation 1 (TFE-101)
Thin film evaporation will be used to remove water that is produced from bipolar membrane
electrodialysis (BME-101) before entering continuous stirred tank reactor (R-101). The
purpose of removing water is to increase forward reaction in R-101 since water is a product in
the reaction. Water will be set to completely removed at upper stream of TFE-101 in vapor
phase while other product will flow out at bottom in liquid phase and enter continuous stirred
tank reactor (R-101).
Figure 7. 3: Operating condition for TFE-101
337
7.3 Thin Film Evaporation 2 (TFE-102)
Thin film evaporation will be used to remove other unreacted products such as water, sorbose,
sorbitol and others except for main product which is ascorbic acid before entering crystallizer
(CR-101). The other unreacted product will be set to completely removed at upper stream of
TFE-102 in vapor phase while main product will flow out at bottom in liquid phase and enter
CR-101.
Figure 7. 4: Operating Condition for TFE-102

Steam with high pressure will be choose because the temperature for thin film evaporation
2(TFE-102) is 200℃.
338
8.0 MODEL CONVERGENCE
The simulation is simulated successfully using SuperPro with result available without any
errors. After several trial and error, the production of 18000 MTPA ascorbic acid has been
achieved with the feed of sorbitol, ammonia, and air with 3702.88 kg/h, 0.0248 kg/h, and
1993.39 kg/h respectively.
Figure 8.1: Feed flowrate production of ascorbic acid
Figure 8.2: Final production of ascorbic acid in MT/year
339
9.0 SIMULATIONS RESULT
Tables below show the simulation result for this plant design to produce 18000 MTPA of
ascorbic acid.
Figure 9. 1: Result for overall process data
Figure 9. 2: Summary of the amount of raw material needed for entire process
Figure 9. 3: Amount of raw material needed for per section
340
Figure 9. 4: Result of bulk materials per material
341
Figure 9. 5: Result bulk materials for section total (kg/yr)
Figure 9. 6: Summary result of TFE 1 each stream
342
Figure 9. 7: Summary stream result for CSTR 1 each stream
Figure 9. 8: Summary stream result for CSTR 2 and BME 2
343
Figure 9. 9: Summary stream result of TFE 2 each stream
Figure 9. 10: Summary stream result recycle to Fermenter 1
344
Figure 9. 11: Summary stream result Fermenter 1 (cont)
Figure 9. 12: Summary stream result Fermenter 2
345
Figure 9. 13: Stream result microfiltration and BME 1
Figure 9. 14: Stream result crystallization
346
Figure 9. 15: Stream result of solid storage and condenser
Figure 9. 16: Overall component balance
347
10.0 Gantt Chart from SuperPro Designer
R-101
R-102
V-101
V-102
E-101
Main Equipment & CIP Skids
V-103
E-102
R-103
HX-103
R-104
E-104
V-104
E-105
V-105
V-106
V-107
BC-101
V-108
E-106
TK-101
h 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336 360 384 408 432 456 480 504 528 552 576 600 624 648 672 696 720 744 768
day
day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
11.0 REFERENCE
Boretti, A., & Banik, B. K. (2020). Intravenous vitamin C for reduction of cytokines storm in
acute respiratory distress syndrome. PharmaNutrition, 12, 100190.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phanu.2020.100190
Health Food Manufacturers’ Association (HFMA) - Food Matters Live. (n.d.).
Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://foodmatterslive.com/brand/health-food-
manufacturers-association-hfma/
Karimdjanov Asamovich, I., Sаdiqova Baxadirovna, N., Tadjiev Mirkhashimovich, B.,
Aktamovich, N., Mirkhashimovbotirovich, B., Komola Zokirovna, Y.,
Karimberdiyevich, A. T., & Fayziyevna, F. X. (n.d.). VITAMIN C IN TERMS OF
COVID-19, CURRENT TRENDS. European Journal of Molecular & Clinical
Medicine, 08, 2021.
Lim, S. M. (2020, April 5). Process design and economic studies of two-step. . . SN Applied
Sciences. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-020-
26048?error=cookies_not_supported&code=5f74570e-8095-43ef-99be-
63c14a4547dc
Treatment for Cancer - National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment
Simulation Report Comments from Examiners
Name of Panel:
1. Dr. Rozaimi Bin Abu Samah

2. Dr. Rohana Binti Abu
No. Comment Explanation/Remarks

1. Applying heat at freeze dryer although at low The product of ascorbic acid
temperature will damage the product. needs to be maintained at
optimum temperature,
therefore it will increase from
-35 ˚C to 4 ˚C
2. At thin film evaporator, sorbitol and sorbose will The correction has been made
removed as vapor? where only to remove water
and methanol at 100 ˚C
3. Add Gantt Chart from SuperPro. Amended
350
Appendix C: Lesson Learnt Report
PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN I (BKC4913)

LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT
GROUP NUMBER : E08 _________
PROJECT TITLE : PRODUCTION OF 18000 MTPA OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM

D-SORBITOL
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. ROZAIMI BIN ABU SAMAH

No Comment Explanation & clarification (C10)
How do you decide your annual capacity?

1. Global production = Vbegin = 140 000
MTPA
Time = 2020-2027 = 7 years
1
𝐶𝐴𝐺𝑅 = ( ) −1
1
=( ) −1
100 140 000
1
×7
7
𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 7
(1.071) = ( )
140 000
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
− 𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 230 000 − 140 000
We decide to produce 20% of the
shortage value because this amount is
sufficient to market to consumers and
make profit to our plant and to avoid
affecting the global price of ascorbic
acid and to avoid overproduction in
the future, which would result from a
decrease in demand and an increase in
the number of competitors.
351
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒
20
=
100
× 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
= 18 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
2 Normally, fermentation is an exothermic The calculation for fermenter 2 has

process. Are you sure Fermentation 2 is an been revised. The fermenter 2 has a
endothermic process? negative value as it releases heat
during the fermentation process.
We already revised and make
correction in our final report. After the
revision, we get exothermic process in
fermenter 2.
3 Please recheck errors between manual Noted. Already checked and revised
calculation and simulation. I might be wrong, but in the final report section 3.4.1.
please recheck.
Also, please justify the big errors for energy

balance.
4 Sorbose and sorbitol should be removed early, Crystallizer do not remove sorbitol
not at crystallizer. Crystallizer is only for and sorbose. We set at the setting of
changing slurry/liquid into solid. How can crystallization data to crystallize
crystallizer separate sorbitol and sorbose from ascorbic acid only and no evaporation
ascorbic acid? Based on what parameters? occur. And the product from
Boiling point? Please check. crystallizer is ascorbic acid in crystal
form while sorbose and sorbitol in
liquid form. Therefore, we used filter
to filtrate ascorbic acid.
5
Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required.
352
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. ROHANA BT ABU
Show the Global production = Vbegin = 140 000 MTPA

1. calculation of Time = 2020-2027 = 7 years
18000 MTPA of 1
your 𝐶𝐴𝐺𝑅 = ( ) −1
plant capacity. 𝑉𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛
1
Based on the 7.1 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 7
plant capacity, =( ) −1
show 100 140 000
1
×7
the 18000 7
(1.071) = ( )
MTPA in the 140 000
mass balance 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 226 284.25 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
calculation. 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ≈ 230 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 230 000 − 140 000
We decide to produce 20% of the shortage value because this amount is
sufficient to market to consumers and make profit to our plant and also
to avoid affecting the global price of ascorbic acid and overproduction
in the future, which would result from a decrease in demand and an
increase in the number of competitors.
20
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 = × 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
100
2 Revise the EP2

figure (slide page
46) to show EP2 VS Overall Conversion (0.0 to 0.5)
that the maximum 0
profit for 1.0 of 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-2E+10
overall
conversion is -4E+10
RM25,6728,227.40
-6E+10
EP2
-8E+10
-1E+11
-1.2E+11
-1.4E+11
Oveall Conversion
353
EP2 VS Overall Conversion (0.5 to 1.0)
400000000
200000000
256728227.4
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
EP2
-2E+08
-4E+08
-6E+08
-8E+08
Overall Conversion
3 Material
balance:
- FERMENTER
1 (R-101), where
is the stream
4? why at the
Amended
stirrer? Redraw.
4 - why there are For mass balance, manual calculation has been calculated under fully
a lot of error conversion. While in simulation, the real running data could not achieve
between manual the target and having lower conversion comparing to manual
and simulation calculation. Hence, error happened
in the mass and
energy balance
calculation?
Cannot check as
the slides only
show for R-101.
5 Utilities
- Why some The utilities information for this chapter we generate from SuperPro
equipment have Designer. The equipment that used steam as heating agent is involving
the steam and heat exchangers, fermenters, reactors, bipolar membrane electrodialysis,
electricity cost? microfilter, freeze dryer, and thin film evaporators. This is because in
V-104, V-102 this equipment need heating agent which is steam to operate at the
and all operating temperature and achieve the target temperature. As for the
reactors electricity, we mistaken take directly from SuperPro designer. There
should not has electricity cost because our plant does not have
compressor and pump.
354
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. KHAIRATUN NAJWA BINTI MOHD AMIN
No calculation provided to obtain amount of

1. 18000 MTA Global production = Vbegin = 140 000
MTPA
Time = 2020-2027 = 7 years
1
𝐶𝐴𝐺𝑅 = ( ) −1
1
=( ) −1
100 140 000
1
×7
7
(1.071) = ( )
140 000
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 230 000 − 140 000
make profit to our plant and to avoid
affecting the global price of ascorbic
acid and to avoid overproduction in
the future, which would result from a
20
=
100
× 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
= 18 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
2 Synthesis route table: What is the cost represent -The microorganism for method 3 in
of and why the microorganism for method 2 &3 the fermenter 2 is a process of mixed
– the rating is 3 & 1 however the microorganism culture with different culture from
is similar method 2 where it is hard to control
the contamination while method 2
only use a single culture in both
fermenter where it is easy to control
the contamination.
-The cost indicate cost of economic

potential level 1 that we calculated
and compare for these 3 methods.
355
3 No summary on calculation of heat effect to The summary of heat effect is already
conversion included, please refer section 2.3.6
4 The reason not doing recycle should be proven According to our mass balance, the
by calculation and numbers amount unreacted of sorbose and
sorbitol is not too much. The mass
balance can be referred in the section
3.2.1.
5 Assumption for Material Balance calculation Assumption for
not clearly stated – fermentation/residence time, Fermentator 1:
semi-batch etc. - Conversion : 0.98
- Type : Semi-batch
- Adiabatic
Fermentator 2:
- Conversion : 0.76
- Type : Semi-batch
- Adiabatic
CSTR 1:
- Conversion : 0.999 (nearly fully
conversion)
- Type : CSTR
- Adiabatic
CSTR 2:
- Conversion : 0.999 (nearly fully
conversion)
- Type : CSTR
- Adiabatic
6 % error of MEB calculation is wrong- the We had revised the %error of MEB
highest % error should be explained. calculation in section 3.4.1 in the final
report.
As for the highest error, manual
calculation has been calculated under
fully conversion. While in simulation,
the real running data could not
achieve the target and having lower
conversion comparing to manual
calculation.
356
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. CHEW FEW NE
-Who is your customer? Why choose • Pharmacy and medicines

1. Terengganu Sabah & Sarawak? distributors will be our potential
customers.
• Terengganu, Sabah and Sarawak
were chosen as potential site
locations for the production plant
because the distance to the
supplier is nearer than in the
other states.
• Please refer to section 1.5.1,
page 43
2 -How the production rate is decided? Global production = Vbegin = 140 000
MTPA
Time = 2020-2027 = 7 years
1
𝐶𝐴𝐺𝑅 = ( ) −1
1
=( ) −1
100 140 000
1
×7
(1.071)7 = ( )
140 000
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 230 000 − 140 000
make profit to our plant and also to
avoid affecting the global price of
ascorbic acid and overproduction in the
future, which would result from a
20
= × 90 000 𝑀𝑇𝑃𝐴
100
3 -Slide 39 PFD, why need 2 fermenters are We need 2 fermenters because our
needed as no extra reactant is fed or product is process is involved single culture in the
removed from fermenter 1? fermentation process. In the first
fermenter, we use gluconobacter
oxydans culture while in the second
357
fermenter, we use Pseudoglyconobacter
Saccharoketogenes culture.
4 -The purity of the product is not reach.

Recheck the whole process.
The product achieves 95% of purity
358
PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II (BKC4934)
PRESENTATION 1
GROUP NUMBER : E08

PROJECT TITLE: PRODUCTION OF 18000 MTPA OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM
D-SORBITOL
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. ROZAIMI BIN ABU SAMAH
No. Comment Explanation & clarification
1. BME1 – Operational design is based on
reactor? Used steam as utility? It has
baffles? Please check the principles of
bipolar membrane electrodialysis. You
may have to redo the sizing of BME
2. HAZOP – by default, temperature The suggestion has been applied. Refer Chapter
indicator/alarm is already installed. 6- HAZOP of equipment
Action required must focus on how to
overcome the risk.
359
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. ROHANA ABU.

1. Recalculate the sizing for heat exchanger, Type of heat exchanger is changed to plate heat
BME. Use the correct algorithm for the exchanger.
equipment.
2. P&ID CSTR The control system of CSTR had been changed

- Remove composition in reactor as no as the suggestion.
control system is required. Refer Chapter 6-Control system of CSTR
- For the LC, the manipulated variable
is outlet flowrate of product, but in the
drawing shown the manipulated is
inlet stream 18? no outlet stream
shown in the diagram only CW outlet
stream.
- No pressure control is shown in the
diagram. Draw the pressure relief
valve and the pressure alarm.
3. P&ID BME The correction has been made following the

- For the LC, the control variable & suggestion. Refer Chapter 6-Control system of
measured variable is the ‘level’ not BME.
flowrate of inlet stream.
- 1 valve controlled by 2 controllers, FC It is feedback controller.
and LC, is it feedback controller or
cascade controller?
4. P&ID crystallizer The manipulated remain as the inlet, while the

- FC and LC – manipulated and disturbance already changed to flowrate outlet
disturbance cannot be the same stream. Refer Chapter 6-Control system of
inlet/feed flowrate. crystallizer.
360
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: DR. CHEW FEW NE

1. E08 For reactor, the steam is used for utility, but we
-There is cooling duty in reactor, why not didn’t show the flow at the P&ID at the first
include in utilities. place. However, we already did the correction on
-No design equation for all equipment the other equipment that used steam including
design. Need to at least show in flow chart to the reactor. Refer Chapter 6-P&ID
tell audience how you all design your
equipments.
-In HE design, -35 degC for the process
For HE designs, it already changed to plate heat
stream? In solid form? exchanger. Refer Chapter 5-Sizing of HE
-CSTR 1 flow controller is control stream
18, how about stream 19 if keep continue Control system of CSTR 1 already changed
open, will the feed remain the same following the recommended suggestion. Refer
composition? Chapter 6-Control system of CSTR 1
361
PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II (BKC4934)
FINAL PRESENTATION
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: MOHAMED HANAFFI KHALID

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVE
ALAM FLORA ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS
SDN BHD (AFES)

1. -The wastewater treatment data for COD, -The COD, BOD, and TSS is assumed based on
BOD, TSS refer from which sources? typical value of liquid waste.
- The cost comparison between solid
waste management to Kualiti Alam and - No comparison has been made
solid waste treatment?
362
Assessed Unacceptable Weak Moderate Good Score

item (0) (1) (3) (5)
Students • No • Response • Response • Good X4
Interest response towards towards response
and Response towards certain comments towards
comments comments from panel comments
• Thinking from panel only in examiners in from panel
ability examiners presentation presentation examiners
• Creativity in from panel without with
• Problem presentation examiners clarification appropriate
solving and report. without in the report. clarification
skills clarification in the report.
• No in the report. • Clear
suggestion understanding • Excellent
of problem • Minimal on projects understanding
solving and understanding and on projects,
not creative on project, independence critical
lack of in making thinking
creativity and decision but towards
problem lack of problems,
solving skills creativity. creative and
good decision
making.
Appropriate Not be able • Numerous • Occasional • Insignificant X1

language to spelling and/or spelling spelling
expression understand grammar and/or and/or
(written) errors. grammar grammar
• Not well errors. errors.
organized • Well • Well
organized, organized,
points with points with
transition smooth
transition
363
Appendix D: Energy Balance Manual Calculation
Fermenter Reactor (R-101)
By using heat of formation method,
For Sorbitol
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar

̂ = ∆𝐻𝑓
𝐻𝑖𝑛
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1354150 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1354150 + 1661.01
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1352488.99 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Ammonia
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −45898 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Oxygen
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = 0𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Sorbose
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar

303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1276900 + 1143.05
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1275756.95 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Biomass
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 103.0 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + 515
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 515 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Water
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −285830 + 376.2
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −285453.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Carbon dioxide
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻 −2 −4 2 −8 3
𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 19.8 + 7.344 × 10 𝑇 − 0.5602 × 10 𝑇 + 1.715 × 10 𝑇 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −393510 + 186.3769
̂
∑(𝑁𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛) = −23700209.29 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
365
∑(𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡) = −27282672.47 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
𝑄 = ∑(𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡) − ∑(𝑁𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛)
𝑄 = −3582463.18 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −995.13 𝑘𝑊
Fermenter Reactor-102 (R-102)
For Sorbose
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar

𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1276900 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 298K, 1 bar

303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1276900 + 1143.05
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1275759.95 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Ammonia
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
For Oxygen
366
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = 0𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Sodium Carbonate
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1130770 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Biomass
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 103.0 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = 0 + 515
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = 515 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 103.0 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + 515
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 515 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Water
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −285830 + 376.2
367
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −285453.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −285830 + 376.2
̂
For Sorbitol
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1354150 + 1661.01
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1352488.99 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1354150 + 1661.01
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1352488.99 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Sodium Keto-Gluconic
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 305.4 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1164600 + 1527
̂
For Carbon dioxide
368
Outlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
̂
𝐻 −2 −4 2 −8 3
𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 19.8 + 7.344 × 10 𝑇 − 0.5602 × 10 𝑇 + 1.715 × 10 𝑇 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −393510 + 1046.75
̂
∑(𝑁𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛) = −34621343.16 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
∑(𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡) = −15004957.68 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
𝑄 = 19616385.49 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −5449 𝑘𝑊
CSTR 1(R-103)
For Sorbitol
Inlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1354150 + 12955.8897
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1341194.11 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1354150 + 12955.8897
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1341194.11 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
369
For Sorbose
Inlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1276900 + 8915.79
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1267984.21 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1276900 + 8915.79
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1267984.21 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Keto-Gluconic
Inlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 305.4 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1164600 + 11910.6
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1152689.40 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Methanol
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −239100
𝐻̂
370
For Methyl Gluconate
Outlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 305.4 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1164600 + 11910.6
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1152689.40 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Water
Outlet: 337K, 1 bar
337
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −285830 + 2934.36
̂
∑(𝑁𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛) = − 23502594.66𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
∑(𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡) = −24067733.02 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
𝑄 = −565138.36 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −156.98 𝑘𝑊
Reactor 2 (R-104)
For Sorbitol
Inlet: 303K, 1 bar
371
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1354150 + 1661.0115
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1341194.11 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 332.2023 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1354150 + 6644.046
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1347505.95 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
For Sorbose
Inlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1276900 + 1143.05
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1275756.95 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 228.61 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1276900 + 4572.2
̂
For Methyl Gluconate
Inlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 305.4 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1164600 + 1527
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −1163073 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
372
For Water
Inlet: 303K, 1 bar
303
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −285830 + 376.2
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −285453.80 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 75.24 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −285830 +1504.8
̂
For Sodium Bicarbonate
Inlet: 298K, 1 bar
𝐻̂
𝐻̂
𝑖𝑛 = −950810
𝐻̂
For Sodium Ascorbate
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 305.4 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1164600 + 6108
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −1158492 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
373
For Carbon Dioxide
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 209.35 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −393510 + 4187
̂
For Methanol
Outlet: 318K, 1 bar
318
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐻𝑓 + ∫298 81.6 𝑑𝑡
̂
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −239100 + 1682
̂
∑(𝑁𝑖𝑛 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛) = − 36535120.96 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
∑(𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡) = −27244995.47𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
𝑄 = −4223548.58 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −1173.21 𝑘𝑊
374
Crystallizer:
375
376
Appendix E: Sizing and Costing
Fermenter
Fermentation Reactor (R-101)

The calculation for fermentation reactor sizing and costing is made based on several
assumptions as stated below:
1. L/D = 1.5
2. The system is assumed to be ideal and in a steady state condition.
4. The volume of the reactor is assumed to be the volume of a cylindrical tank.
Length and Diameter Calculation:

From simulation result
Working Volume = 335.60 m3
Density of the reactants = 996.70 kg/m3,
Mass = 6440.28 kg/hr
Volume of reactor = 335.60 m3 / 0.9
= 372.89 m3
Number of reactors =2
Volume of each reactor = 372.89m3 / 2
= 186.45 m3
= 187 m3
πD2 L
Volume of reactor, V = 4
πD3 1.5
= 4
3 4V
Diameter of reactor, D = √1.5π
3 4×187
=√ 1.5π
= 5.414 m
Height of reactor, H = 1.5 × 5.414 m
= 8.121 m
Wall Thickness:
377
In order to calculate the wall thickness, calculation of the total pressure is required which
involved the sum of static pressure inside the reactor (Towler & Sinnott, 2005).
Static pressure, Ps = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
= 996.70 × 9.81 × 8.121 / 1000
= 79.404 kPa
Pressure in the reactor, P1 = 101.325 kPa
Total Pressure, Pt = Ps + P1
= 79.404 + 101.325
= 180.729 kPa
Maximum allowable internal pressure, P = 1.1 × Pt
= 1.1 × 180.729 kPa
= 198.802 kPa
Inside radius of shell before corrosion allowance is added, ri = √5.414
= 2.327 m
Assume that the reactor operates for 20 years,
Let corrosion allowance, Cc = 5mm
Efficiency of joints expressed as a friction, Ej = 0.85
Maximum allowable working stress, S = 460000 kPa
P ×ri
For cylindrical shell, thickness of wall, t = SEj−0.6P + Cc
198.802 ×2.341 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(198.802 ) + 1000
= 0.0062 m
Outside diameter, Do = D + 2t
= 5.414 + 2(0.0062)
= 5.426 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
Since the operating pressure for the reactor does not exceed 150 psig, hence tori spherical head
is selected in this process design.
Efficiency of reactor, εH = 0.85
1.104P
Head thickness, tH = 2𝜀 + Cc
𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 199.883 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 ×199.883) + 1000
378
= 0.00528 m
D
Width of baffle, J = 10
5.414
= 10
= 0.5414 m
Agitator:
𝐷𝐼 1
Impeller diameter, DI = =3
𝐷
= D/3
= 5.414 / 3
= 1.805 m
𝑍𝐼
Impeller distance from tank bottom, ZI = =1
𝐷𝐼
= 1.805 m
𝐷𝑑 3
Impeller disc diameter, Dd = =4
𝐷𝐼
= 3DI / 4
= 3*1.805 / 4
= 1.354 m
𝐼 1
Impeller blade length, I =𝐷 = 4
𝐼
= DI / 4
= 1.805 / 4
= 0.451 m
𝑏 1
Impeller blade width, b =𝐷 = 5
𝐼
= 1.805 / 5
= 0.361 m
Reactor Costing:
Volume of reactor, V = 372.89 m3
Based on Table A.1 (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006), for a jacketed agitated reactor,
379
log CP0 = k1 + k 2 log A + k 3 [log(A)]2
A = volume, m3
K1 = 4.1052
K2 = -0.4680
K3 = -0.0005
log CP0 = 4.1052 − 0.468[log(35)] − 0.0005[log(35)]2
log CP0 = 3.3814
CP0 = 2406.49
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
372.89 × 2406.49
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 25638.74
Based on Figure A.7 in (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006),
Equipment Type Equipment Description FBM

Reactor Jacketed agitated 4.0*
FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 26665.28× 4
= $ 102554.96
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 102554.96× 394.3
= $ 202066.82
Based on current currency change, 1 USD = RM 4.21,
CBM = $ 202066.82× RM 4.21
380
CBM = RM 850701.31
Therefore, the cost sizing of Fermenter 1 (R-101) is RM 850701.31
Fermentation Reactor (R-102)

The calculation for fermentation reactor sizing and costing is made based on several
assumptions as stated below:
1. L/D = 1.5

Working Volume = 349.04 m3
Density of the reactants = 637.80 kg/m3,
= 387.82 m3
Volume of each reactor = 387.82 m3 / 2
= 193.91 m3
= 194 m3
πD2 L
πD3 1.5
= 4
3 4V
3 4×194
=√ 1.5π
= 5.481 m
= 8.221 m
Wall Thickness:
381
= 996.70 × 9.81 × 8.221 / 1000
= 80.387 kPa
= 80.387 + 101.325
= 181.712 kPa
= 1.1 × 181.712 kPa
= 199.883 kPa
= 2.341 m
P ×ri
199.883 ×2.341 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(199.883) + 1000
= 0.0062 m
= 5.481 + 2(0.0062)
= 5.493 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
1.104P
𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 199.883 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 ×199.883) + 1000
382
= 0.00528 m
D
5.481
= 10
= 0.548 m
Agitator:
𝐷𝐼 1
𝐷
= D/3
= 5.481 / 3
= 1.827 m
𝑍𝐼
𝐷𝐼
= 1.827 m
𝐷𝑑 3
𝐷𝐼
= 3DI / 4
= 3*1.827 / 4
= 1.37 m
𝐼 1
𝐼
= DI / 4
= 1.827 / 4
= 0.457 m
𝑏 1
𝐼
= 1.827 / 5
= 0.365 m
Reactor Costing:
383
A = volume, m3
K1 = 4.1052
K2 = -0.4680
K3 = -0.0005
log CP0 = 4.1052 − 0.468[log(35)] − 0.0005[log(35)]2
log CP0 = 3.3814
CP0 = 2406.49
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
372.8889 × 2406.49
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 25638.67

FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 25638.67× 4
= $ 102554.68
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 102554.68× 394.3
= $ 202066.27
CBM = $ 202066.27 × RM 4.21
384
CBM = RM 850699.00
Therefore, the cost sizing of Fermenter 1 (R-101) is RM 850699.00
CSTR
Continuous Stirrer Tank Reactor (R-103)

The calculation for CSTR sizing and costing is made based on several assumptions as stated
below:
1. Length to diameter ratio (L/D) = 3.0 (Shetty et al., 2005)

Working Volume = 31.83m3
Density of the reactants = 985.34kg/m3
= 35.37 m3
= 35.37 m3
= 36 m3
πD2 L
πD3 3.0
= 4
3 4V
3 4×36
= √ 3.0π
= 2.48 m
= 7.44 m
385
Wall Thickness:
= 985.34 × 9.81 × 7.44 / 1000
= 71.916 kPa
= 71.916 + 101.325
= 173.241 kPa
= 1.1 × 173.241
= 190.565 kPa
= 1.575 m
P ×ri
190.565 ×1.575 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(190.565) + 1000
= 0.00577 m
= 2.48 + 2(0.00577)
= 2.492 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
386
1.104P
Head thickness, tH = + Cc
2𝜀𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 190.565 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 × 190.565 ) + 1000
= 0.00527 m
D
2.48
= 10
= 0.248 m
Agitator:
𝐷𝐼 1
𝐷
= D/3
= 2.48 / 3
= 0.827 m
𝑍𝐼
𝐷𝐼
= 0.827 m
𝐷𝑑 3
𝐷𝐼
= 3DI / 4
= 3*0.827 / 4
= 0.620 m
𝐼 1
𝐼
= DI / 4
= 0.827 / 4
= 0.207 m
𝑏 1
𝐼
= 0.827 / 5
= 0.165 m
387
Reactor Costing:
Volume of reactor, V = 35 m3

A = volume, m3
K1 = 4.1052
K2 = -0.4680
K3 = -0.0005
log CP0 = 4.1052 − 0.468[log(35)] − 0.0005[log(35)]2
log CP0 = 3.3814
CP0 = 2406.49
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
35.37 × 2406.49
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 2431.93

FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 2431.93 × 4
= $ 9727.72
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 9727.72 × 394.3
388
= $ 19166.79
CBM = $ 19166.79 × RM 4.21
CBM = RM 80692.19
Therefore, the cost sizing of CSTR 2 (V-103) is RM 80692.19
Continuous Stirrer Tank Reactor (R-104)

The calculation for CSTR sizing and costing is made based on several assumptions as stated
below:
1. Length to diameter ratio (L/D) = 3.0 (Shetty et al., 2005)

Working Volume = 34.325m3
Density of the reactants = 1933.09 kg/m3
= 35.37 m3
= 35.37 m3
= 36 m3
πD2 L
πD3 3.0
= 4
3 4V
3 4×36
= √ 3.0π
= 2.4 m
389
= 7.44 m
Wall Thickness:
= 1933.09 × 9.81 × 7.44 / 1000
= 141.089 kPa
= 141.089 + 101.325
= 242.414 kPa
= 1.1 × 242.414
= 266.655 kPa
= 1.575 m
P ×ri
266.655 ×1.575 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(266.655) + 1000
= 0.0061 m
= 2.48 + 2(0.0061)
= 2.492 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
390
1.104P
Head thickness, tH = + Cc
2𝜀𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 266.655 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 ×266.655 ) + 1000
= 0.00538 m
D
2.48
= 10
= 0.248 m
Agitator:
𝐷𝐼 1
𝐷
=D/3
= 2.48 / 3
= 0.827 m
𝑍𝐼
𝐷𝐼
= 0.827 m
𝐷𝑑 3
𝐷𝐼
= 3DI / 4
= 3*0.827 / 4
= 0.620 m
𝐼 1
𝐼
= DI / 4
= 0.827 / 4
= 0.207 m
𝑏 1
𝐼
= 0.827 / 5
= 0.165 m
391
Reactor Costing:
Volume of reactor, V = 36 m3

A = volume, m3
K1 = 4.1052
K2 = -0.4680
K3 = -0.0005
log CP0 = 4.1052 − 0.468[log(35)] − 0.0005[log(35)]2
log CP0 = 3.3814
CP0 = 2406.49
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
36 × 2406.49
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 2475.25

FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 2475.25 × 4
= $ 9901.00
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 9901.00 × 394.3
392
= $ 19508.21
CBM = $ 19508.21 × RM 4.21
CBM = RM 82129.56
Therefore, the cost sizing of CSTR 2 (V-103) is RM 82129.56
Evaporator
Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger, E-101
Sizing calculation,
Tube (cold) Shell (hot)

Tin (K) t1 = 303.15 T1 = 425.15
Tout (K) t2 = 363.15 T2 = 393.15
Logarithmic mean temperature can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
(T1 − t 2 ) − (T2 − t1 )
∆Tlm = = 75.13K
(T − t 2 )
ln 1
(T2 − t1 )
The temperature ratios for the temperature correction factor (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
(T1 − T2 )
R= = 0.87
(t 2 − t1 )
(t 2 − t1 )
S= = 0.49
(T1 − t1 )
The temperature correction factor from Figure 4.9-4 (Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler,
2013): -
𝐹𝑡 = 1
Therefore, the true temperature difference is (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm = 75.13K
393
The overall heat-transfer coefficient is assumed from the Table 12.1 (Chem Eng Vol 6)
(Sinnott & Towler, 2013): -
U = 900 W/m2 K
Hence, the area of heat exchanger can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
Q = UA∆Tm
A = 65.01m2
Tube Rating
The dimension of heat exchanger tubes is obtained from Appendix A.5-2 (C. J. Geankoplis,
1983):-
Material Construction Carbon Steel

BGW Number 12
Length of tube, Lt (m) 4.88
Outer diameter, Dto (mm) 22.23
Inner diameter, Dti (mm) 16.69
Area of one tube (m2) 0.3408
Thus, the number of tubes can be calculated as below (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
𝐴
𝑁𝑡 = = 191
𝐴𝑡
The tubes in an exchanger are arranged in an equilateral triangular as shown below (Sinnott
& Towler, 2013):-
Figure 14: Tube Pattern of Heat Exchanger, E-102
394
The tube pitch (distance between tube centers) can be obtained from (Sinnott & Towler,
2013):-
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 27.79𝑚𝑚
From Table 12.4, (Chem Eng Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013): -

No. Passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
Hence, the bundle diameter can be obtained from (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) = 529.04𝑚𝑚 = 0.4745𝑚
𝐾1
From figure B.1.6.2, for split-ring floating head,
Shell inside diameter - bundle diameter = 58mm
Shell inside diameter, Dsi = 587.04mm = 0.5325m
Tube-Side Coefficient
The mean temperature of tube fluid is calculated as follows :-
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 333.15𝐾
2
Table E. 1: Physical Properties of The Tube-Side Fluid of Heat Exchanger, E-101
Mass flow rate, kg/hr 5468.04

Fluid density, kg/m3 1340.81
Viscosity, kg/m.s 1.22E-04
Heat Capacity, kJ/kg.K 48.2
Thermal conductivity, W/m.K 0.3111
The tube cross sectional are can be obtained as follows:-
395
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.00022𝑚2
4
The number of tubes per pass can be determined as follows:-
𝑁𝑡
𝑁𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = 48
𝑁𝑜. 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Hence, the total flow area can be obtained as follows:-
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0417𝑚2
The tube fluid velocity can be obtained as follows:-
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = 36.40𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴𝑇
The linear velocity can be obtained as follows:-
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.0271𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑡
The tube-side Reynold number can be obtained as follow:-
ρt ut Dti
Re = = 4.98 × 103
μt
The tube-side Prandtl number can be obtained as follows:-
𝐶𝑡𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 18.90
𝑘𝑡𝑓
The ratio of length to the internal diameter of tube can be obtained as follows:-
𝐿
= 292.39
𝐷𝑡𝑖
The heat transfer factor can be obtained from Figure 12.23 (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
𝑗ℎ = 0.01
Therefore, inside fluid film coefficient can be obtained as follows:-
𝑘𝑡𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟0.33
ℎ𝑖 = = 2448.22𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖
Shell side coefficient
396
The baffle spacing can be obtained as follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
𝐼𝑏 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 159.751𝑚𝑚 = 0.1598𝑚
The baffle diameter can be obtained follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
Baffle Diameter = Dsi − 0.0016 = 530.90mm = 0.5309m
Hence, the number of baffles can be obtained as follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑏 = − 1 = 31
𝐼𝐵
Smaller corrosion allowance is use for heat transfer equipment, where the wall thickness can
affect the heat transfer.
Corrosion allowance = 1.5 mm
Therefore, the shell diameter is obtained as follow:-
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 534.00𝑚𝑚 = 0.5340𝑚
The mean temperature of shell fluid is calculated as follows:-
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 409.15𝐾
2
The physical properties of the shell side fluid are obtained from Transport Processes and Unit
Operations (3rd Edition) (C. J. Geankoplis, 1983):-
Fluid Density, kg/m3 939.03

Viscosity, kg/ms (10-3) 0.230
Heat Capacity, kJ/kgK 4.278
Thermal Conductivity, W/mK 0.6836
The shell cross flow area can be obtained as follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
(𝑃𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵

𝐴𝑆 = = 0.0171𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
The shell side mass flow can be obtained as follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
𝑄
𝑊𝑠 = = 19.7604 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑡2 − 𝑡2 )
397
Hence, the shell-side mass velocity can be obtained as follows (Sinnot & Towler, 2013):-
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 = = 1158.20𝑘𝑔/𝑠. 𝑚2
𝐴𝑆
The shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter) for an equilateral triangular pitch
arrangement can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 15.78𝑚𝑚 = 0.01578𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
The shell-side Reynolds number can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 7.93 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝑙
The shell-side Prandtl number can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 1.44
𝑘𝑠𝑓
The heat transfer factor for a 25% baffle cut can be obtained from Figure 12.20 (Chem Eng
Vol 6) (Sinnott & Towler, 2013): -
𝑗ℎ = 0.0069
𝜇
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs is calculated using the below equation, since ( 𝜇𝑠𝑙) value
𝑤
would not bring significant effect on hs thereforenit can be neglected in calculation.
Therefore, outside fluid film coefficient can be obtained as follows (Sinnott & Towler, 2013):-
1/3
𝑘𝑠𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝜇𝑠𝑙 1
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 26790.98𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑤
Overall Coefficient
Table E. 2: Resistance of Heat Exchanger, E-101
Outside fluid film coefficient, ho 26790.98 W/m2.K

Inside fluid film coefficient, hi 2448.22 W/m2.K
Outside dirt coefficient, hod 5000 W/m2.K
Inside dirt coefficient, hid 5000 W/m2.K
Thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, kw 16 W/m.K
398
Tube inside diameter, Dti 0.01669m
Tube outside diameter, Dto 0.02223m
The overall coefficient based on on the inside area of the tube can be obtained as follows:-
𝐷
1 1 1 𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ) 𝐷 1 𝐷𝑡𝑜 1
𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑜
= + + + × + ×
𝑈𝑖 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝐷𝑡𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝐷𝑡𝑖 ℎ𝑖
Thus,
𝑈𝑖 = 802.01𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
The error between the calculated and estimated value can be obtained as follow:-
U − Ui
Error = | × 100%| = 10.89% < 20% (Acceptable)
Ui
Costing
Table E. 3: Specification of Heat Exchanger, E-101
Heat exchanger type Shell and Tube

Design type Split-ring Floating Head
Material of construction CS-Shell & CS-Tube
Area (m2) 65.01
Feed pressure (bar) 1
The purchased cost of the heat exchanger, E-101 was calculated by using the following
equation:-
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃0 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2
where A is the area of the heat exchanger. The data for K1, K2 and K3, along with the
maximum and minimum values used in the correlation, was taken from the Table A.1
(Turton, 2003).
Table E. 4: Cost Data of Heat Exchanger, E-101
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
399
Therefore,
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $21,650.57
According to the reference (Turton, 2003), the CEPCI in 2001 and 2022 are 394.3 and 776.9
respectively.
𝐼2022 776.9
𝐶𝑃(2022) = 𝐶𝑃(2001) × = $21,650.57 × = $42,658.71
𝐼2001 394.3
The pressure factor, FP, for the heat exchangers was calculated by using the following
equation:-
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃0 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃) + 𝐶3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃)]2
where the units of pressure, P, are bar gauge or barg (1 bar = 0.0 barg) unless stated
otherwise. Since P<5 barg, the values of the constants were taken from Table A.2.
Table E. 5: Pressure Factor for Heat Exchanger, E-101
C1 C2 C3
0 0 0
Thus,
𝐹𝑃 = 1
The bare module cost, CBM for heat exchangers were calculated by using the following
equation:-
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃0 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
The material factor, FM for the heat exchangers is taken from Figure A.18, with the
appropriate identification number listed in Table A.3. Meanwhile, the values of the constants
B1 and B2 were taken from Table A.4 (Turton, 2003).
Table E. 6: Constant for Bare Module Factor of Heat Exchanger, E-101
FM 1.0
B1 1.63
B2 1.66
400
Hence,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $140,347.16
The current currency rate of 1 USD: RM4.21
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀590,861.53
Sizing calculation,
Tube (hot) Shell (cold)

Tin (K) T1 = 373.15 t1 = 278.15
Tout (K) T2 = 337.15 t2 = 283.15
(T1 − t 2 ) − (T2 − t1 )
∆Tlm = = 73.41K
(T1 − t 2 )
ln
(T2 − t1 )
(T1 − T2 )
R= = 7.2
(t 2 − t1 )
(t 2 − t1 )
S= = 0.05
(T1 − t1 )
2013): -
𝐹𝑡 = 1
∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm = 73.41K
401
U = 900 W/m2 K
Q = UA∆Tm
A = 37.67m2
Tube Rating
1983):-

BGW Number 12
𝐴
𝑁𝑡 = = 110
𝐴𝑡
& Towler, 2013):-
2013):-
402
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 27.79𝑚𝑚

No. Passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) = 373.71𝑚𝑚 = 0.3737𝑚
𝐾1
The mean temperature of tube fluid is calculated as follows:-
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 355.15𝐾
2

Fluid density, kg/m3 1460
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.00022𝑚2
4
403
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0242𝑚2
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = 40.77𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴𝑇
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.0279𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑡
ρt ut Dti
Re = = 1.00 × 105
μt
𝐶𝑡𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 2.48
𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝐿
= 292.39
𝐷𝑡𝑖
𝑗ℎ = 0.0035
ℎ𝑖 = = 5441.83𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖
𝐼𝑏 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 128.61𝑚𝑚 = 0.1286𝑚
404
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑏 = − 1 = 38
𝐼𝐵
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 430.21𝑚𝑚 = 0.4302𝑚
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 208.65𝐾
2


𝐴𝑆 = = 0.0111𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄
𝑊𝑠 = = 19.8399 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑡2 − 𝑡2 )
405
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 = = 1795.25𝑘𝑔/𝑠. 𝑚2
𝐴𝑆
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 15.78𝑚𝑚 = 0.01578𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 2.00 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝑙
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 3.95
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗ℎ = 0.0095
𝜇
𝑤
1/3
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 15166.66𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑤
Overall Coefficient

406
𝐷
𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑜
= + + + × + ×
Thus,
𝑈𝑖 = 1024.38𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
U − Ui
Ui
Costing

Area (m2) 37.67
equation:-
(Turton, 2003).
Table E. 10: Cost Data of Heat Exchanger, E-102 (Table A.1)
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
407
Therefore,
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $19,105.58
respectively.
𝐼2022 776.9
𝐶𝑃(2022) = 𝐶𝑃(2001) × = $19,105.58 × = $37,644.25
𝐼2001 394.3
equation:-
Table E. 11: Pressure Factor for Heat Exchanger, E-102 (Table A.2)
C1 C2 C3
0 0 0
Thus,
𝐹𝑃 = 1
equation:-
408
FM 1.0
B1 1.63
B2 1.66
Hence,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $123,849.58
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀521,406.74
Sizing calculation,

Tin (K) T1 = 337.15 t1 = 278.15
Tout (K) T2 = 303.15 t2 = 283.15
(T1 − t 2 ) − (T2 − t1 )
∆Tlm = = 37.66K
(T1 − t 2 )
ln
(T2 − t1 )
(T1 − T2 )
R= = 1.7
(t 2 − t1 )
(t 2 − t1 )
S= = 0.45
(T1 − t1 )
2013): -
𝐹𝑡 = 0.88
409
∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm = 33.14K
U = 900 W/m2 K
Q = UA∆Tm
A = 21.52m2
Tube Rating
1983):-

BGW Number 12
𝐴
𝑁𝑡 = = 63
𝐴𝑡
& Towler, 2013):-
410
2013):-
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 27.79𝑚𝑚

No. Passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) = 292.46𝑚𝑚 = 0.2925𝑚
𝐾1
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 320.15𝐾
2

Fluid density, kg/m3 1342.33
411
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.00022𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0138𝑚2
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = 79.74𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴𝑇
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.0594𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑡
ρt ut Dti
Re = = 1.10 × 104
μt
𝐶𝑡𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 7.26
𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝐿
= 292.39
𝐷𝑡𝑖
𝑗ℎ = 0.0032
ℎ𝑖 = = 1158.86𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖
412
𝐼𝑏 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 105.44𝑚𝑚 = 0.1054𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑏 = − 1 = 46
𝐼𝐵
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 352.96𝑚𝑚 = 0.3529𝑚
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 280.65𝐾
2


𝐴𝑆 = = 0.0074𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
𝑄
𝑊𝑠 = = 7.6738 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑡2 − 𝑡2 )
413
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 = = 1032.14𝑘𝑔/𝑠. 𝑚2
𝐴𝑆
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 15.78𝑚𝑚 = 0.01578𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 1.15 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝑙
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 10.19
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗ℎ = 0.02
𝜇
𝑤
1/3
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 18355.81𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑤
Overall Coefficient

414
𝐷
𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑜
= + + + × + ×
Thus,
𝑈𝑖 = 534.95𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
U − Ui
Error = | × 100%| = 40.67%
Ui
Costing

Area (m2) 21.52
equation:-
(Turton, 2003).
415
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
Therefore,
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $18,308.17
respectively.
𝐼2022 776.9
𝐶𝑃(2022) = 𝐶𝑃(2001) × = $18,308.17 × = $36,073.09
𝐼2001 394.3
equation:-
C1 C2 C3
0 0 0
Thus,
𝐹𝑃 = 1
equation:-
416
FM 1.0
B1 1.63
B2 1.66
Hence,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $118,680.47
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀499,644.76
Sizing,

Tin (K) T1 = 318.15 t1 = 278.15
Tout (K) T2 = 303.15 t2 = 283.15
(T1 − t 2 ) − (T2 − t1 )
∆Tlm = = 29.72K
(T1 − t 2 )
ln
(T2 − t1 )
(T1 − T2 )
R= = 1.5
(t 2 − t1 )
(t 2 − t1 )
S= = 0.25
(T1 − t1 )
2013): -
𝐹𝑡 = 1
417
∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm = 29.72K
U = 900 W/m2 K
Q = UA∆Tm
A = 19.35m2
Tube Rating
1983):-

BGW Number 12
𝐴
𝑁𝑡 = = 58
𝐴𝑡
& Towler, 2013):-
418
2013):-
𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 × 𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 27.79𝑚𝑚

No. Passes 4
K1 0.175
n1 2.285
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑡𝑜 ( ) = 279.19𝑚𝑚 = 0.2792𝑚
𝐾1
Shell inside diameter, Dsi =332.19mm = 0.3322m
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 310.65𝐾
2
Table #:

Fluid density, kg/m3 1028
419
𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑖2
𝐴𝑡 = = 0.00022𝑚2
4
𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑇 = 𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 0.0124𝑚2
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = 100.20𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴𝑇
𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑡 = = 0.0974𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑡
ρt ut Dti
Re = = 1.61 × 104
μt
𝐶𝑡𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 11.28
𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝐿
= 292.39
𝐷𝑡𝑖
𝑗ℎ = 0.005
ℎ𝑖 = = 2739.19𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖
420
𝐼𝑏 = 0.3𝐷𝑠𝑖 = 99.66𝑚𝑚 = 0.9966𝑚
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑏 = − 1 = 49
𝐼𝐵
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖 + 1.5 = 333.69𝑚𝑚 = 0.3337𝑚
(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 208.65𝐾
2


𝐴𝑆 = = 0.0067𝑚2
𝑃𝑡
421
𝑄
𝑊𝑠 = = 12.3373 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑡2 − 𝑡2 )
𝑊𝑆
𝐺𝑆 = = 1863.28𝑘𝑔/𝑠. 𝑚2
𝐴𝑆
1.10 2 2 )
𝐷𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 15.78𝑚𝑚 = 0.01578𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜
𝐺𝑠 𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 2.08 × 104
𝜇𝑠𝑙
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 10.20
𝑘𝑠𝑓
𝑗ℎ = 0.0095
𝜇
𝑤
1/3
ℎ𝑜 = ( ) = 15741.36𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑤
Overall Coefficient

422
𝐷
𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑜
= + + + × + ×
Thus,
𝑈𝑖 = 822.85𝑊/𝑚2. 𝐾
U − Ui
Ui
Costing

Area (m2) 19.35
equation:-
423
(Turton, 2003).
K1 K2 K3
4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
Therefore,
𝐶𝑃(2001) = $18,339.45
respectively.
𝐼2022 776.9
𝐶𝑃(2022) = 𝐶𝑃(2001) × = $18,339.45 × = $36,134.72
𝐼2001 394.3
equation:-
C1 C2 C3
0 0 0
Thus,
𝐹𝑃 = 1
equation:-
424
FM 1.0
B1 1.63
B2 1.66
Hence,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $118,883.23
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀500,498.39
Heat Exchanger (E-105)

Heat exchanger is designed as shell and tube heat exchanger using the below calculation
step. The more corrosive chemical will be putting in tube side for easier maintenance purpose.
Shell side: steam (Hot Fluid)
Tube side: Water, ascorbic acid, sorbitol, sorbose, methanol, methyl gluconate
Tube Shell
Tin (℃) 30 152
Tout (℃) 64 95
Determine Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
(𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )−(𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) (152−95)−(30−64)

ΔT𝑙𝑚 = 𝑇 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 152−95 = 75.92 ℃
𝐼𝑛( ℎ𝑖 ) 𝐼𝑛(
95−30
)
𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖
Determine F Correction Factor
425
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑍= = 1.6764 𝑆= = 0.2787
𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
From Figure C.1.6.1, F=0.78
Mean temperature, ΔTm = FΔTlm=72.12℃
Determine Area of Heat Exchanger
Refer to the table 4.9-2 in transport process and separation process principals book at water to
vegetable oil, the value that can be assume is 0.8 kW/ m2.K.
𝑄 1675.59
𝐴= = = 29.04m2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 0.8(72.12)
Number of tubes
Using 5/8 inch pipe size. The standard dimensions for steel tubes obtained from Transport
Process book by Geankoplis.
Material construction Carbon steel

Area of one tube (m2), At=  LtDto 0.2245
𝐴 29.04
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒, 𝑁𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 0.2245 = 129.34=132
Tube
From Chemical Engineering Design, constant for K1 and n1 for triangular pitch as follows:
Tube pitch, Pt (m) 0.01985

Triangular pitch, K1 0.175
4 passes, n 2.285
426
Shell diameter
1 Where
 N  n1
Db = d0  t  Db = bundle diameter, mm
 K1  D0 = tube outside diameter, mm
Nt = number of tubes
1
132 2.285
𝐷𝑏 = 0.01588 ( ) = 0.2885𝑚
0.319
From Figure B.1.6.2, for split-ring floating head,
Shell inside diameter - bundle diameter = 52 mm
Shell inside diameter, Ds = 0.052 + 0.2885=0.2937
Tube side coefficient
Mass flow rate inside tube = 1.0468 kg/s
 (10.33) 2
Tube cross sectional area, At = =83.8198 mm2
4
Number of tubes 132

Tube per pass = = = 33
pass 4
Total flow area = tube cross sectional area x tube per pass = 0.00277 m2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1.0468𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑓 = = = 0.1051 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝑁𝑡 𝐴𝑡 (132 × 0.00277)
Table: Properties of tube fluid
Fluid density,  t 1233.83 kg/m3

Viscosity,  tL 0.04627 kg/ms
Heat capacity, Ctp 1880 kJ/kgK
Thermal conductivity, Ktf 0.3447 W/mK
427
𝑣𝑓
𝑀𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑢 = = 8.5204 × 10−5 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌
𝜌𝑢𝐷𝑡𝑖 1233.83 × 0.04627 × 0.01033

𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 28.96
𝜇 0.04627
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 1880 × (0.04627)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑟 = = = 252357.41
𝐾𝑡𝑓 (0.3447/1000)
𝐿 4.5
= = 435.62
𝐷𝑡𝑖 0.01033
According to Figure B.1.6.3 from Chemical Engineering Design book Volume 6, jh= 0.017
0.14
  
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi is calculated using the below equation, since  

 w
value would not bring significant effect on hi therefore it can be neglected in calculation.
𝑘𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝜇 0.44

ℎ𝑖 = ( ) 995.93𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐷𝑡𝑖 𝜇𝑤
Shell size coefficient
Choose baffle spacing = IB = 0.3 x Ds = 0.3 x 0.2937 = 0.0881 m
Baffle diameter = Ds - 0.0016 = 0.29211 m
Tube pitch, pt = 1.25 x Dto = 19.85 mm
Cross flow area, As =
(𝑃𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡𝑜 )𝐷𝐵 𝐼𝐵 (0.01985 − 0.01588)(0.2921)(0.0881)

= = 0.0051𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 0.01985
Total fluid in shell, Ws=0.8785 kg/s
𝑊𝑠 0.8785
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺𝑠 = = = 170.66 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴𝑠 0.0051
428
1.1 2 2 )
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑑𝑒 = (𝑃 − 0.971𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 10.332𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑡𝑜 𝑡
Table: Properties of shell fluid
Density of water,  t (kg / m 3 ) 938.40

Water viscosity, µ (kg/ms) 2.302 x 10-4
Water thermal conductivity, k(W/mK) 0.6836
Specific heat capacity water, Cp(kJ/kgK) 4263.6
𝐺𝑠𝐷𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = = 7659.85
𝜇
𝐶𝑝𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 7659.85
𝐾𝑡𝑓
Selecting 25% for baffle cut, from Figure B.1.6.4, Chemical Engineering Design book, Volume
6, jh = 0.72
  
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs is calculated using the below equation, since   value
 s 
would not bring significant effect on hs therefore it can be neglected in calculation.
1
𝑘𝑡𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 3 𝜇
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, ℎ𝑠 = ( ) = 4116392.547𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑠
Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
Thermal conductivity of tube wall material, kw= 19W/m.℃
429
Fouling coefficient for mixture is 5680 W/m.℃.
d 
d to In  to 
1
=
1
+
1
+  d ti  + d to  1 + d to  1
U o hs hsd 2k w d ti hid d ti hi
 0.01588 
0.01588
𝑈 = In 
460.7863 
1 1 𝑜  0.01033𝑊/𝑚. ℃
 + 0.01588  1 + 0.01588  1
= + +
3563803W/m.℃
Uo= 460.7863 .675 3000 2(16) 0.01033 5000 0.01033 4922.71
= 0.001033
Costing of E-105
According to Turton (2013), the cost of is calculated as below:
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat Exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2, where A = area (m2)
𝐶𝑝𝑜 (2001) = 18,529.71
Carbon steel for shell and tube is chosen, hence Fm =1
Equipment Description B1 B2 FM Fp
Heat Floating head 1.63 1.66 1.15 1
Exchanger
Since P< 5 barg, Fp = 1.0
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑝)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 60,962.75
The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 776.9 (Chemical
Engineering, 2022). As for the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3 Turton (2013).
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ( )
𝐼1
430
where; C = CBM, I = Cost index
776.9
𝐶𝐵𝑀,2022 = $ 60,962.75 ( ) = $ 120.116.55
394.3
= $ 120,116.55 ∗ 4.21 = 𝑅𝑀 505,690.70
Heat Exchanger (E-106)

Heat exchanger is designed as shell and tube heat exchanger using the below calculation
step. The more corrosive chemical will be putting in tube side for easier maintenance purpose.
Hot side: Steam
Cold side: Slurry
Cold Hot
Tin (℃) -35 152
Tout (℃) 4 50
Determine Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
(𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )−(𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

ΔT𝑙𝑚 = 𝑇 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 113.60℃
𝐼𝑛( ℎ𝑖 )
𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖
Determine F Correction Factor
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

𝑍= = 2.615 𝑆= = 0.2086
𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
From Figure C.1.6.1, F=0.98
Mean temperature, ΔTm = FΔTlm=111.33℃
Determine Area of Heat Exchanger
Refer to the table 4.9-2 in transport process and separation process principals book at water to
vegetable oil, the value that can be assume is 0.57 kW/ m2.K.
𝑄
𝐴= = 19.311𝑚2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚
431
Determine number of plate
Assume the plate surface area, 𝐴𝑃 = 1.7 m2

𝐴𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝑁 =
𝐴𝑃
15.21𝑚2
=
1.7 𝑚2
= 8.9 ≈ 9 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑁−1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 =
2
9−1
=
2
=4
• Material of construction of E-106 is carbon steel.
• Plate spacing is assumed to be 5 mm (typical value for carbon steel).
• Effective area of plate is assumed to be 1.7 m2 with effective length of 2 m and width of
0.6 m
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 5 × 10−3 𝑚 × 0.6 𝑚
= 0.003 𝑚2
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 × 5 × 10−3 𝑚

= 0.01 𝑚
Costing:
According to Turton (2013), the cost of E-106 is calculated as below:
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat Exchanger Flat plate 4.6656 -0.1557 -0.1547
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2 where A is area (𝑚2 ).
A = 19.31 m2
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 4.6656 + −0.1557𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (19.31) + −0.1547[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (19.31)]2
432
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $16,204.96
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃𝑂 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑃 )
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙,
where
𝐵1 = 0.96
𝐵2 = 1.21
Since the material of construction used is carbon steel, therefore 𝐹𝑀 = 1
According to Turton (2013), 𝐹𝑃 is calculated as below:
Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Heat Exchanger Flat plate 0 0 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃) + 𝐶3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃)]2
𝐹𝑃 = 1
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝑝)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ (0.96 + 1.21(1)(1))
= $16,204.96(0.96 + 1.21)
= $35,164.77
433
The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 776.9 (Chemical
Engineering, 2022). As for the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 394.3 Turton (2013).
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ( )
𝐼1
where; C = CBM, I = Cost index
776.9
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 35,164.77 ×
394.3
= $ 69,286.11
RM4.21
= $69,286.11 × = 𝑅𝑀 291,694.51
$1
434
Separator:
Microfiltration (Centrifuge) (V-101)
Temperature = 303.1 K
Solution density = 996.17 kg/m3
Particle density = 600 kg/m3
Bowl volume = Total volume + 10 m3 = 47.8013 m3
Assuming:
Rotating speed, N = 1000 rev/min
Radius 1, 𝑟1 = 0.75 m
Radius 2, 𝑟2 = 2.5 × 𝑟1 = 2.5 × 0.75 = 1.875
Height, H = 6 m
Volume = 𝜋 × 𝐻 × (𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
Volume = 𝜋 × 6 × (1.8752 − 0.752 ) = 55.67 m3
2×𝜋×𝑁 2×𝜋×1000
W= = = 104.72 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
60 60
Assuming per batch pass through centrifuges is 2 hours,

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 55.67
𝑞= = = 7.731 × 10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑡 × 3600 2 × 3600
Liquid viscosity = 0.04627 kg/m.s
𝑤 2 ×𝐷𝑝2 ×(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑠 )×𝑉
q= 2𝑟2
18×𝜇×ln ( )
𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝐷𝑝 = 3.4871 × 10−6 𝑚
Centrifuge costing
Diameter, 𝐷 = 0.75 𝑚
According to Turton et al. (2009), the cost of microfilter/centrifuge can be calculated using
the formula as shown in figure below.
435
Where, K1 = 4.3612 K2 = 0.8764 K3 = -0.0049
A = diameter
log CP0 = 4.3612 + (0.8764 log 0.75) + {(−0.0049)[log(0.75)]2 }
CP0 = 17,849.55
FBM = 1.57 for the centrifugal separator.

CBM = CP0 FBM
CBM = $17,849.55
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
C2 = C1 × CEPCI 2001
C2 = $35,169.45
RM4.21
C2 = $35,169.45 × = 𝑅𝑀 148,063.37
1USD
Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 1 (V-102)

The calculation for bipolar membrane electrodialysis sizing and costing is made based on
several assumptions as stated below:
1. The membrane phases are assumed to be homogeneous.

The volume of bipolar membrane electrodialysis is estimated by using the volume of reactants
entering the reactor.
436
For normal reactor, length to diameter ratio (L/D) = 3.0 (Shetty et al., 2005)
mass
Volume = density
From simulation result, density of the reactants = 996.13 kg/m3, mass = 6024.786 kg/hr
6024.786
Volume = = 6.05 𝑚3
996.13
πD2 L
πD3 3.0
= 4
3 4V
3 4×6.05
=√ 3.0π
= 1.37 m
Length of reactor, L = 3.0 × 1.37 m
= 4.11 m
Wall Thickness:
= 996.13 × 9.81 × 4.11
= 40.16 kPa
= 40.16 + 101.3
= 141.46 kPa
= 1.1 × 141.46
= 155.606 kPa
= 1.17 m
437
P ×ri
155.606 ×1.17 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(155.606) + 1000
= 0.00546 m
= 1.37 + 2(0.00546)
= 1.38 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
1.104P
𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 155.606 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 ×155.606 ) + 1000
= 0.0052 m
D
1.38
= 10
= 0.138 m
Reactor Costing:
Based on Table A.1 (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006), for a jacketed non-agitated reactor,

A = volume, m3
K1 = 3.3496
K2 = -0.2765
438
K3 = 0.0025
log CP0 = 3.3496 − 0.2765 log(6.05) + 0.0025[log(6.05)]2
log CP0 = 3.1349
CP0 = 1364.50
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
6.05 × 1364.50
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 235.86
FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 235.86 × 4
= $ 943.45
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 943.45 × 394.3
= $ 1,858.91
CBM = $ 17355.69 × RM 4.21
CBM = RM 7,826.03
Therefore, the cost sizing of bipolar membrane electrodialysis (V-102) is RM 7,826.03
Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis 2 (V-104)
439
The volume of bipolar membrane electrodialysis is estimated by using the volume of reactants
entering the reactor.
For normal reactor, length to diameter ratio (L/D) = 3.0 (Shetty et al., 2005)
mass
Volume = density
From simulation result, density of the reactants = 973.36 kg/m3, mass = 4480.46 kg/hr
4480.46
Volume = = 4.60 𝑚3
973.36
πD2 L
πD2 L
4.60 =
4
3 4V
3 4×4.60
=√ 3.0π
= 1.25 m
Length of reactor, L = 3.0 × 1.25 m

= 3.75 m
Wall Thickness:
= 973.36 × 9.81 × 3.75
= 35.81 kPa
= 40.16 + 101.3
= 137.11 kPa
440
= 1.1 × 137.11
= 150.82 kPa
= 1.12 m

P ×ri
150.82 ×1.12 5
= 460000(0.85)−0.6(150.82) + 1000
= 0.0054 m
= 1.25 + 2(0.0054)
= 1.26 m
Reactor Head:
Tori spherical head
1.104P
𝐻 S−0.2P
1.104 × 150.82 5
= (2 × 0.85 ×460000)−(0.2 ×150.82 ) + 1000
= 0.0052 m
𝐷
Width of baffle, J = 10𝑜
1.26
= 10
= 0.126 m
Reactor Costing:
441
Based on Table A.1 (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006), for a jacketed non-agitated reactor,

A = volume, m3
K1 = 3.3496
K2 = -0.2765
K3 = 0.0025
log CP0 = 3.3496 − 0.2765 log(4.60) + 0.0025[log(4.60)]2
log CP0 = 3.1674
CP0 = 1470.43
VT × CP0
CP0 (actual) =
35
4.60 × 1470.43
CP0 (actual) =
35
CP0 (actual) = 193.26
FBM =4
CBM = CP0 FBM
= 193.26 × 4
= $ 773.04
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
442
776.9
= $ 773.04×
394.3
= $ 1,523.14
CBM = $ 1,523.14× RM 4.21
CBM = RM 6412.43
Therefore, the cost sizing of bipolar membrane electrodialysis (V-102) is RM 6412.43
Thin Film Evaporator V-103
V= 1918.55 kg/hr
F= 5468.043 kg/hr
T= 100oC
TF= 30 oC
yV= 0
xF(KLG)= 0.49
HV
hF = 340 kJ/kg
S
TS= 152oC
HS= 2748.86
S
kJ/kg
TS= 152oC
PS=1.67 atm
hS= 640.86 kJ/kg
L= 3549.495 kg/hr
T1= 100oC
xL= 0.76
hL
𝑘𝐽
Latent heat steam, 𝜆 = 𝐻𝑠 − ℎ𝑠 = 2108 𝑘𝑔
443
HV = Hsat + cp BPR
Tsat = 100 oC
Hsat = 2676.1 kJ/kg
Heat capacity of superheated steam:

CP = 1.884 kJ/kg.K
Boiling point rise as the concentration is very high,

BPR = Tsat -T1
BPR = 100 oC – 30 oC = 70oC
HV = 2676.1 + 1.884(70) = 2807.98 kJ/kg
FhF + S𝜆 = LhL + VHV
5468.043(340) + S (2108) = 3549.495 (680) + 1918.55 (2807.98)
S = 2818.68 kg steam /hr
q = S𝜆 = 2818.68 (2108) = 5941777.44 kJ/hr
q = 1650493.73 W
Heat Transfer Area

Q = UA∆T, where ∆T = Ts – T1
∆T = 100 - 30 = 70 oC
1650493.73 = (2250) A (70)

A = 10.48 m2
𝑉 1918.55
Steam Economy = = = 0.6807
𝑆 2818.68
Height of evaporator
h = 3D
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2
𝐴= ; 10.48 = 4
4
D = 3.653 m
444
h = 3 (3.653 m)
h = 10.96 m
𝜋𝐷2 𝐻
Vessel volume = ( )
4
𝜋(3.653)2 (10.96)
V=( ) = 114.87 m3
4
Costing of Thin Film Evaporator (V-103)
The cost of thin film evaporator is calculated using the information and formula below:
Value of K1, K2, and K3 can be obtained in Table A.1 (Turton R., et al, 2009)
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2
445
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 5.0000 + (0.1490)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10.48 ) + (−0.0134)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10.48)]2
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 5.1381
𝐶𝑃𝑜 = $137430.33
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 + 𝐶3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃]2

Value of C1 ,C2 ,C3 can be obtained using Table A.2
Pab = 1 bar
Pab = Pg + Patm ; Patm = 1 bar
Pg = 1 – 1 = 0 barg
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 0 − 0 log (0) + 0[0]2

Fp = 1
Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 for evaporators and vaporizers

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃𝑜 𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐹𝑃
446
Refer Table A.6; @ Equipment: Evaporator-falling film, scraped wall; Material: SS
∴ Identification Number = 26
Based on Identification Number = 26, on Figure A.19 the Bare Module Factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 3.9.

𝐶𝐵𝑀 =($137430.33) (3.9) (1)
447
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $535978.29
776.9
𝐶2 = $535978.29 ×
394.3
𝑅𝑀 4.21
𝐶2 = $1056052.59 × ( )
$
𝐶2 =RM 4,445,981.39
Therefore, the cost sizing of thin film evaporator (V-103) is RM 4,445,981.39
Thin Film Evaporator V-105

V= 643.23 kg/hr
T= 100oC
F= 3768.22 kg/hr yV= 0
TF= 64 oC HV
xF(KLG)= 0.6
hF = 600 kJ/kg
S
TS= 152oC
S
HS= 2748.86
TS= 152oC
kJ/kg
hS= 640.86 kJ/kg
PS=1.67 atm
L= 2270.71 kg/hr
T1= 100oC
xL= 0.72
hL
𝑘𝐽
Latent heat steam, 𝜆 = 𝐻𝑠 − ℎ𝑠 = 2108 𝑘𝑔
HV = Hsat + cp BPR
Tsat = 100 oC
448
Hsat = 2676.1 kJ/kg
Heat capacity of superheated steam:

CP = 1.884 kJ/kg.K
Boiling point rise as the concentration is very high,

BPR = Tsat -T1
BPR = 100 oC – 64 oC = 36oC
HV = 2676.1 + 1.884(-36) = 2608.28 kJ/kg
FhF + S𝜆 = LhL + VHV
3768.22(600) + S (2108) = 2270.71 (680) + 643.23 (2608.28)
S = 455.82 kg steam /hr
q = S𝜆 = 455.82 (2108) = 960868.56 kJ/hr
q = 266907.93 W
Heat Transfer Area

Q = UA∆T, where ∆T = Ts – T1
∆T = 64 – 100 = -36 oC
266907.93 = (2250) A (36)

A = 3.30 m2
𝑉 643.23
Steam Economy = = = 1.4111
𝑆 455.82
Height of evaporator
h = 3D
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2
𝐴= ; 3.30 = 4
4
D = 2.050 m
h = 3 (2.050 m)
449
h = 6.150 m
𝜋𝐷2 𝐻
Vessel volume = ( )
4
𝜋(2.050)2 (6.150)
V=( ) = 20.30 m3
4
Costing of Thin Film Evaporator (V-105)
The cost of thin film evaporator is calculated using the information and formula below:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴) + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2

Value of K1, K2, and K3 can be obtained in Table A.1 (Turton R., et al, 2009)
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 5.0000 + (0.1490)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.30) + (−0.0134)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.30 )]2

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑃𝑜 = 5.0737
450
𝐶𝑃𝑜 = $118482.96
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 + 𝐶3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃]2
Value of C1,C2 ,C3 can be obtained using Table A.2
Pab = 1 bar
Pab = Pg + Patm ; Patm = 1 bar
Pg = 1 – 1 = 0 barg
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐹𝑃 = 0 − 0 log (0) + 0[0]2

Fp = 1
Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 for evaporators and vaporizers

451
Refer Table A.6; @ Equipment: Evaporator-falling film, scraped wall; Material: SS
∴ Identification Number = 26
452
Based on Identification Number = 26, on Figure A.19 the Bare Module Factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 is 3.9.

𝐶𝐵𝑀 =($118482.96) (3.9) (1)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $462083.54
𝐼2
𝐶2 = 𝐶1 ×
𝐼1
776.9
𝐶2 = $462083.54 ×
394.3
𝑅𝑀 4.21
𝐶2 = $910455.76 × ( )
$
𝐶2 =RM 3,833,018.75
Therefore, the cost sizing of thin film evaporator (V-103) is RM 3,833,018.75
453
454
Crystallizer: V-106
Sizing crystallizer
Inlet temperature (°C) 100
Outlet temperature (°C) 4
Operating pressure (atm) 1
Volumetric inlet flowrate, Qi (m3/hr) 2.3535
Growth rate, G (m/hr) 0.00018
Dominant size of crystal, LD (m) 0.002
Density of solution, 𝜌𝑙 (kg/m3) 998.78
Density of crystal, 𝜌𝑐 (kg/m3) 1650
Basis 1 hour operation:

mass of solution
Volume of solution =
density
Mass of solution = 3124.988 kg

3124.988 kg
Volume of solution =
998.78 kg/m3
= 3.1288 m3
Crystallizer volume:
LD
𝜏=
3G
0.002 m
𝜏= m
3 (0.00018 )
hr
= 3.7037 hr
At any one time, the volume of suspension in the crystallizer is

V=V×𝜏
= 3.1288 m3 × 3.7037
= 11.5881 m3
455
This is the crystallizer's 'working volume.' To accommodate for vapor bubbles and froth, add
60%.
Effective suspension volume in the crystallizer = V × 1.6
= 11.5881 m3 × 1.6
= 18.541 m3
Volume in the conical flask = (π/3) (1.25) (1.25)

= 2.0453 m3
Volume in the cylindrical part = 18.541 m3 - 2.0453 m3
= 16.4975 m3
A vessel with a diameter of 2.5 m is chosen. The height of the crystallizer vessel is then
computed as shown below.
volume of vessel
Height of vessel =
πr2
16.4957
=
π(1.25)2
Height of vessel = 3.3605 m
A 1.25 m gap above the boiling liquid is supplied to allow the entrained droplets to
disengage. So,
Total length = 3.3605 m + 1.25 m
= 4.6105 m
The tank's expected diameter is verified. The volumetric rate of vapor generation, v at
operational conditions, and the density of vapor are computed.
MW×P
𝜌𝑣 =
RT
P is the operating pressure in atm, T is the operating temperature in K, and R is the gas
constant value = 0.0821 atm.m3 /kmol. K, where MW is the molar mass of water =
18.01kg/kmol, P is the operating pressure in atm, T is the operating temperature in K, and R
is the gas constant value = 0.0821 atm.m3 /kmol.K.
456
(18.01)(1)
𝜌𝑣 =
(0.0821)(277)
= 0.7919 kg/m3
mass of solvent evaporated
Volumetric rate of vapor generation =
𝜌𝑣
0
=
0.7919
=0
To compute the vapor's permitted velocity without risking entrainment, a Souder’s-Brown
type equation is used.
A conservative value Cv = 0.04 m is used

998.78 1/2
= 0.04 ( )
0.7919
= 1.4206 m/s
It is computed how much space is necessary for evaporation.
=0
∴ Since there is no area for evaporation required, hence a tank of 2.5 m diameter is suitable.
Costing of crystallizer:
A = 16.4957
K1 = 4.5097
K2 = -0.8269
K3 = 0.1344
Log10Cpo = K1 + K2log(A) + K3[log (A)]2

Log10Cpo = 4.5097 + (-0.8269 log (16.4957)) + 0.1344 [log (16.4957)]2
Log10Cpo = 4.5097 – 1.0066 + 0.1992
457
Log10Cpo = 3.7023
Cpo = 5038.4853
Based on figure A.7 in (Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006) for crystallizer
FBM = 1.6
CBM = Cpo × FBM
= 5038.4853 × 1.6
= USD 8061.5765
CEPCI2001 = 394.3
CEPCI2021 = 776.9
I,2021
CBM (2021) = CBM 2001 × I,2001
776.9
= USD 8061.5765 × 394.3
= USD 15883.9432
Based on current currency:

RM 4.21
CBM2021 = USD 15883.9432 × 1 USD
= RM 66, 871.40
458
Nutshce Filter V-107
To calculate filtrate volume in a nutshce filter

Based on the data that obtained from simulation using SuperPro Designer,
Volume of vessel, Vc = 6 m3
x = 27.34% (of hard phase as per mass that being filtrated)
𝜌𝑐 = 1401.67 kg/ m3
Quantity of hard phase with suspension being treated into the filter:
Gm∅1 = Vc𝜌𝑐 x/100
Gm∅1 = (6 m3) (1401.67 kg/ m3) (0.2734)
Gm∅1 = 2299.30 kg
y = 10.02% (of hard phase as per mass that not being filtrated)
Gm∅2 = Gm∅1.y/100
Gm∅2 = (2299.30 kg) (0.1002)
Gm∅2 = 230.39 kg
Remaining hard phase on the filter is equal to:

Gm∅3 = Gm∅1 - Gm∅2
Gm∅3 = 2299.30 kg - 230.39 kg
Gm∅3 = 2068.91 kg
After filtration process, the settlement of humidity is assumed to equal to 74% and the density,
𝜌OC = value obtained from SuperPro Designer is 1534.92 kg/m3
Therefore,
Total settlement weight:
GOC = Gm∅3/𝑤 × 100
GOC = 2068.91 kg / (74) (100)
GOC = 0.2796 kg
459
Volume of forming settlement:
VOC = GOC/𝜌OC =0.2796 kg/1534.92 kg/m3
VOC = 0.0002 m3
Volume of the forming filtrate:

𝑉∅ = VC - VOC = 6 – 0.0002
𝑉∅ = 5.99 m3
Costing of Nutshce Filter (V-107)

According to Alibaba (2018), the unit price of Nutshce filter is USD 25 000.
= USD 25 000 /module
Total cost of microfiltration unit (MF-101):

𝑅𝑀 4.21
Membrane module cost USD × 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷
𝑅𝑀 4.21
= USD 25 000 × 1 𝑈𝑆𝐷
= RM 105,250
460
Belt Conveyer: BC-101
Sizing
Basis 1 hour operation:
Bell width = 0.699 m
Height = 0.25 m
Length of the conveyor = 100 m
Mass flowrate = 2523.530 kg
Density of Ascorbic Acid = 1650 kg/m3
Density of sorbitol = 1490 kg/m3
Density of sorbose = 1650 kg/m3
Density of water = 997 kg/m3
m 1 + m2 + m3 + m4
Density of a mixture = m m m m
( 1 + 2+ 3 + 4 )
ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ4
2270.71174+18.66870+233.68425+0.46492
= 2270.71174 18.66870 233.68425 0.46492
( + + + )
1650 1490 1650 997
2523.530
=
1.5308
= 1648.5041 kg/m3
1
Volumetric flowrate = 2523.530 kg/hr × m3/kg
1648.5041
= 1.5308 m3/hr
Costing of belt conveyor:
Table A.1: Equipment cost data
461
From the table A.1:
K1 = 4.0637
K2 = -0.7416
K3 = 0.1550
Log10Cpo = K1 + K2log (A) + K3[log (A)]2
= 4.0637 + (-0.7416) log (1.5308) + 0.1550 [ log (1.5308)]2
= 4.0637 -0.1371 + 0.0053
Log10Cpo = 3.9319
Cpo = USD 8548.6985
Figure A.7: Bare module factors for belt conveyor
From figure A.7, FBM = 1.25
CBM = Cpo × FBM
= USD 8548.6985 × 1.25
= USD 10685.8731
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
I ,2021
CBM2021 = CEPCI2001 ×
I ,2001
776.9
= USD 10685.8731×
394.3
= USD 21054.6660
RM4.21
CBM2021 = USD 21054.6660 × 1 USD
= RM 88, 640.14
462
Freeze Dryer V-108
The maximum permitted air mass velocity ranges from 2000 kg/hr.m2 to 25000 kg/hr.m2
(McCabe et al, 1993). Assume that air has a mass velocity of 2000 kg/hr.m2. Then there's the
drying area.
Mass flowrate = 2523.530 kg/hr
mass flowrate
A = mass velocity of air
2523.530 kg/hr
A = 2000 kg.m2 /hr
= 1.2618 m2
4 (1.2618 )
D=√
π
= 1.2675 m
The completed drying diameter is approved since the drying diameter ranges from 1 to 3 m
(McCabe et al, 1993).
The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated using the following empirical equation from
Perry's Handbook with the index n = 0.67. (McCormick, 1962). According to AICHE (van't
Land, 2012), the k value for SI units should be in the range 3.75 k 5.25. Assume k = 4.85
kG𝑛
Ua = D
n = 0.67
4.85 ( 2000 kg.m2 / hr)0.67

Ua = 1.2675 m
kJ
= 622.9940 hr . m3. K
Inlet temperature = 4.8℃
= 277.95 K
Outlet temperature = -35℃
= 238.15 K
463
∆T = 277.95 K – 238.15 K
= 39.8 K
Ua A∆T
Q=
x
Assume x = 0.05 m
kJ
(622.9940 .m3.K)(1.2618 m2 )(39.8 K)
hr
Q= 0.05 m
31286.5332
= 0.05
Q = 625730.664 kJ/hr
To calculate the length of the drier:
Q
L=
Ua A(∆T)
625730.664
L = (622.9940)(1.2618)(39.8)
= 19.999 m
Desired running time according to superpro 48 h
Condenser sizing, Qc
24 hr
Qc = Q ×
48 hr
24 hr
= 625730 ×
48 hr
Qc = 312865 kJ/hr
Costing of freeze dryer
According to Alibaba,
1 unit of freeze dryer = USD 190,000.00
464
RM 4.21
= USD 190,000.00 ×
1 USD
= RM 799, 900
465
Storage Tank TK-101
Sizing
Molar flowrate, n = 12.89254 kmol/hr
Density = 1650 kg/m3
Molecular Weight, mw = 176.12 kg/kmol
kmol kg
n × mw 12.89254 ×176.12
hr kmol
Volumetric flowrate, v = = kg
𝜌 1650 3
m
hr
v = 1,3761m3 / hr × 24 day
= 33.0264 m3 / day
Shell Design:
volume that needed to store for 5 days inventory
VL = Vdaily × day of inventory
VL = 33.0264 m3 / days × 5 days
= 165.132 m3
Assume that the volume of vapor space is 10% of the original volume
Vstorage = Vvapor × VL
= 1.1 × 165.132 m3
= 181.6452 m3
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋 (0.4)𝐷 2 3𝐷
Vstorage = ( × 2D) + 2[ ×( – 0.2D)]
4 3 2
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋 (0.4)𝐷2 3𝐷
181.6452 m3 = ( × 2D) + 2[ × ( 2 – 0.2D)]
4 3
D = 4.0875 m
466
Where:
D = diameter of storage tank
HL = height of the liquid in storage tank
Tank Diameter (m) Ratio Height to Diameter (HL / 𝐷)

D < 18 0.5
18 < D > 29 0.4
29 < D > 53 0.3
D > 53 0.25
D = 4.0875 = < 18
Take D < 18
HL
= 0.5
D
HL = 0.5𝐷
= 0.5 (4.0875)
HL = 2.0438 m
Hs = 2.0438 × 1.25
= 2.5548 m
D
HR = 2 tan (θ)
∴ θ = 10° = 0.175 rad
4.0875
HR = tan (0.175)
2
= 0.3614 m
HT = Hs + HR
= 2.5548 m + 0.3614 m
= 2.9162 m
467
Determination of minimum wall thickness
Appendix table 13.2 chemical engineering (p. 812)
Typical design stress ft = 135 N/mm2
Gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2
g ρL HL DL
e= 2ft × 103
( 9.81)(1650)(2.0438)(4.0875)
=
2(135)× 103
e = 0.5008 mm
∴ corossion allowance = 2mm
Total minimum wall thickness = 2mm + 0.5008mm
= 2.5008 mm
Costing
A = tank volume
= 181.6452 m3
Table: Cost data for API-fixed roof tanks (Turton et al., 2009)
Equipment Equipment
Type Description K1 K2 K3
Tanks API-fixed roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445
Log10Cp° = K1 + K2log10 (A) + K3 [log10(A)]2
= 4.8509 + (-0.3973) log10(181.6452) + 0.1445 [log10(181.6452)]2
= 4.8509 – 0.8976 + 0.7375
Log10Cp° = 4.6908
Cp° = USD 49,068.19

468
Bare modulus factor (FBM) for API-fixed roof tanks from figure A.7 is 1.2 (Turton et al.,
2009)
CBM = Cp° FBM
= 49, 068.19 (1.2)
= USD 58,881.83
CEPCI:
I (2001) = 394.3 (Turton et al., 2009)
I (2021) = 776.9 (toweringskills.com, 2022)
I (2021)
CBM (2021) = CBM (2021) × I (2001)
776.9
= USD 58, 881.83 × 394.3
= USD 116,016.47
1 USD = RM 4.21 (in 2021)
RM 4.21
CBM (2021) = USD 116,016.47 × 1 USD
= RM 488, 429.34
469
Appendix F: Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
F.1 Ammonia Safety Data Sheet
Table F.1: Ammonia (SDS)
Items Specifications
Chemical Products Name: Ammonia
CAS No: 7664-41-7
Hazards Identification GHS Classification
Classification according to CLASS regulations 2013 Flammable
gases (Category 2), H221 Acute toxicity, Inhalation (Category 3),
H331 Skin corrosion/irritation (Category 1B), H314 Serious eye
damage/eye irritation (Category 1), H318 Hazardous to the
aquatic environment - acute hazard (Category 1), H400 For the
full text of the H-Statements mentioned in this Section, see
Section 16.
Hazard statement(s) H221 Flammable gas. H314 Causes severe
skin burns and eye damage. H331 Toxic if inhaled. H400 Very
toxic to aquatic life. Precautionary statement(s) Prevention P210
Keep away from heat/ sparks/ open flames/ hot surfaces. No
smoking. P260 Do not breathe gas. P264 Wash skin thoroughly
after handling. P273 Avoid release to the environment. P280
Wear protective gloves/ protective clothing/ eye protection/ face
protection
Response P303 + P361 + P353 IF ON SKIN (or hair): Remove/
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. Rinse skin with
water/ shower. P304 + P340 + P310 IF INHALED: Remove
victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for
breathing. Immediately call a POISON CENTER or doctor/
physician. P305 + P351 + P338 + P310 IF IN EYES: Rinse
cautiously with water for several minutes. Remove contact lenses,
if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing. Immediately call a
POISON CENTER or doctor/ physician. P377 Leaking gas fire:
Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely. P391 Collect
spillage. Storage P403 + P233 Store in a well-ventilated place.
Keep container tightly closed.
Other hazards
Corrosive to the respiratory tract.
First Aid Measures If inhaled: If breathed in, move person into fresh air. If not
breathing, give artificial respiration. Consult a physician.
In case of skin contact: Take off contaminated clothing and
shoes immediately. Wash off with soap and plenty of water. Take
victim immediately to hospital. Consult a physician.
In case of eye contact: Rinse thoroughly with plenty of water for
at least 15 minutes and consult a physician.
If swallowed: Do NOT induce vomiting. Never give anything by
mouth to an unconscious person. Rinse mouth with water. Consult
a physician.
Fire Fighting Extinguishing media
Measures
470
Suitable extinguishing media: Use water spray, alcohol-resistant
foam, dry chemical or carbon dioxide.
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture:
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Not combustible.
Advice for firefighters: Wear self-contained breathing apparatus
for firefighting if necessary.
Further information: Use water spray to cool unopened
containers.
Accidental Release Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures: Wear respiratory protection. Avoid breathing
vapours, mist or gas. Ensure adequate ventilation. Evacuate
personnel to safe areas. For personal protection see section 8.
Environmental precautions: Prevent further leakage or spillage
if safe to do so. Do not let product enter drains. Discharge into the
environment must be avoided.
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Clean up promptly by sweeping or vacuum.
Reference to other sections: For disposal see section 13.
Handling and Storage Precautions for safe handling: Avoid contact with skin and
eyes. Avoid inhalation of vapour or mist. For precautions see
section 2.2.
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
Keep container tightly closed in a dry and well-ventilated place.
Contents under pressure.
Specific end use(s): Apart from the uses mentioned in section 1.2
no other specific uses are stipulated
Exposure Controls/ Appropriate engineering controls: Avoid contact with skin,
Personal Protection eyes and clothing. Wash hands before breaks and immediately
after handling the product.
Personal protective equipment: Eye/face protection Tightly
fitting safety goggles. Faceshield (8-inch minimum). Use
equipment for eye protection tested and approved under
appropriate government standards such as NIOSH (US) or EN
166(EU).
Skin protection: Handle with gloves. Gloves must be inspected
prior to use. Use proper glove removal technique (without
touching glove's outer surface) to avoid skin contact with this
product. Dispose of contaminated gloves after use in accordance
with applicable laws and good laboratory practices. Wash and dry
hands. The selected protective gloves have to satisfy the
specifications of Regulation (EU) 2016/425 and the standard EN
374 derived from it. Full contact Material: butyl-rubber Minimum
layer thickness: 0.3 mm Break through time: 480 mi
Splash contact Material: butyl-rubber Minimum layer thickness:
0.3 mm Break through time: 480 min Material tested:Butoject®
(KCL 897 / Aldrich Z677647, Size M) data source: KCL GmbH,
D-36124 Eichenzell, phone +49 (0)6659 87300, e-mail
sales@kcl.de, test method: EN374 If used in solution, or mixed
with other substances, and under conditions which differ from EN
374, contact the supplier of the CE approved gloves. This
471
recommendation is advisory only and must be evaluated by an
industrial hygienist and safety officer familiar with the specific
situation of anticipated use by our customers. It should not be
construed as offering an approval for any specific use scenario.
Body Protection: Complete suit protecting against chemicals, the
type of protective equipment must be selected according to the
concentration and amount of the dangerous substance at the
specific workplace.
Respiratory protection: Where risk assessment shows air-
purifying respirators are appropriate use a fullface respirator with
multi-purpose combination (US) or type AXBEK (EN 14387)
respirator cartridges as a backup to engineering controls. If the
respirator is the sole means of protection, use a full-face supplied
air respirator. Use respirators and components tested and
approved under appropriate government standards such as NIOSH
(US) or CEN (EU).
Control of environmental exposure: Prevent further leakage or
spillage if safe to do so. Do not let product enter drains. Discharge
into the environment must be avoided.
Physical and Appearance Form: Liquefied gas Colour: colourless
Chemical Properties Odour: stinging, Do not attempt to smell the product as it is
hazardous.
Odour Threshold:No data available
pH: ca.10 - 12 at 50 g/l at 20 °C
Melting point/freezing point Melting point/range: -78 °C - lit.
Initial boiling point and boiling range -33 °C - lit.
Flash point: Not applicable
Evaporation rate: Not applicable
Flammability (solid, gas): The product is not flammable
Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits: Upper explosion
limit: 25 %(V) Lower explosion limit: 16 %(V)
Vapour pressure:8,600 hPa at 20 °C
Vapour density: 0.6 - (Air = 1.0) m)
Relative density: 0.7 g/cm3 at -33 °C - liquid
Water solubility: 531 g/l at 20 °C - OECD Test Guideline 105 o)
Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water Not applicable for
inorganic substances
Auto-ignition temperature: 651 °C
Decomposition temperature: > 450 °C - r) Viscosity No data
available
Explosive properties: No data available
Oxidizing properties: No data available
Stability and Reactivity
Reactivity No data available
Chemical stability
Stable under recommended storage conditions.
Possibility of hazardous reactions
No data available
Conditions to avoid
No data available
472
Incompatible materials
No data available
Hazardous decomposition products
Hazardous decomposition products formed under fire conditions.
- Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Other decomposition products - No data available
In the event of fire: see section 5
Toxicological Acute toxicity
Information No data available
LC50 Inhalation - Rat - male - 4 h - 4.93 mg/l
Remarks: (ECHA)
Skin corrosion/irritation
Skin - Rabbit
Result: Corrosive - 4 h
(OECD Test Guideline 404)
Remarks: (Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008, Annex VI)
Serious eye damage/eye irritation
Causes serious eye damage.
Respiratory or skin sensitisation
No data available
Germ cell mutagenicity
Ames test
Escherichia coli/Salmonella typhimurium
Result: negative
OECD Test Guideline 474
Mouse - male - Bone marrow
Result: negative
(in analogy to similar products)
Carcinogenicity
IARC: No component of this product present at levels greater than
or equal to 0.1% is
identified as probable, possible or confirmed human carcinogen
by IARC.
Reproductive toxicity
No data available
Specific target organ toxicity - single exposure
No data available
Specific target organ toxicity - repeated exposure
No data available
Aspiration hazard
No data available
Additional Information
Repeated dose toxicity - Rat - male and female - Oral - 35 Days -
No observed adverse
effect level - 250 mg/kg - Lowest observed adverse effect level -
750 mg/kg
(in analogy to similar products)
RTECS: BO0875000
To the best of our knowledge, the chemical, physical, and
toxicological properties have not
473
been thoroughly investigated.
Liver - Irregularities - Based on Human Evidence
Ecological Toxicity
Information Toxicity to fish flow-through test LC50 - Pimephales promelas
(fathead minnow) -
0.75 - 3.4 mg/l - 96 h
Remarks: (in analogy to similar products) (ECHA)
Toxicity to daphnia static test LC50 - Daphnia magna (Water flea)
- 101 mg/l - 48 h
and other aquatic
invertebrates
Remarks: (ECHA)
EC50 - Daphnia pulicaria - 1.16 mg/l - 48 h
Remarks: (Lit.)
Persistence and degradability
Biodegradability Result: - rapidly biodegradable
Remarks: Readily biodegradable.
Bioaccumulative potential
No data available
Mobility in soil
No data available
Results of PBT and vPvB assessment
PBT/vPvB assessment not available as chemical safety
assessment not required/not conducted
Other adverse effects
Very toxic to aquatic life.
No data available
Disposal Waste treatment methods
Considerations Product
Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal
company.
Contaminated packaging
Dispose of as unused product.
Transport Information UN number
ADR/RID: 1005 IMDG: 1005 IATA-DGR: 1005
UN proper shipping name
ADR/RID: AMMONIA, ANHYDROUS
IMDG: AMMONIA, ANHYDROUS
IATA-DGR: Ammonia, anhydrous
Passenger Aircraft: Not permitted for transport
Cargo Aircraft: Not permitted for transport
Transport hazard class(es)
ADR/RID: 2.3 (8) IMDG: 2.3 (8) IATA-DGR: 2.3 (8)
Packaging group
ADR/RID: - IMDG: - IATA-DGR: -
Environmental hazards
ADR/RID: yes IMDG Marine pollutant: yes IATA-DGR: no
Special precautions for user
None
Incompatible materials
474
F.2 Ascorbic Acid Safety Data Sheet
Table F.2: Ascorbic Acid SDS
Chemical Products Product name: L-Ascorbic acid
Product Number: A92902
Brand: Sigma-Aldrich
CAS-No.: 50-81-7
Classification according to CLASS regulations 2013
Not a hazardous substance or mixture.
Other hazards May form explosible dust-air mixture if dispersed
First Aid Measures Description of first-aid measures
If inhaled
After inhalation: fresh air.
In case of skin contact
In case of skin contact: Take off immediately all contaminated
clothing. Rinse skin with
water/ shower.
In case of eye contact
After eye contact: rinse out with plenty of water. Remove contact
lenses.
If swallowed
After swallowing: make victim drink water (two glasses at most).
Consult doctor if feeling
unwell.
Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
The most important known symptoms and effects are described in
the labelling (see section
2.2) and/or in section 11
Indication of any immediate medical attention and special
treatment needed
No data available
Measures Suitable extinguishing media
Water Foam Carbon dioxide (CO2) Dry powder
Unsuitable extinguishing media
For this substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents
are given.
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Carbon oxides
Combustible.
Development of hazardous combustion gases or vapours possible
in the event of fire.
Advice for firefighters
In the event of fire, wear self-contained breathing apparatus.
Further information
475
Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water
or the ground water
system
Accidental Release Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures
Advice for non-emergency personnel: Avoid inhalation of dusts.
Evacuate the danger
area, observe emergency procedures, consult an expert.
For personal protection see section 8.
Environmental precautions
Do not let product enter drains.
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up
Cover drains. Collect, bind, and pump off spills. Observe possible
material restrictions
(See sections 7 and 10). Take up dry. Dispose of properly. Clean
up affected area. Avoid
generation of dusts.
Reference to other sections
For disposal see section 13.
Handling and Storage Precautions for safe handling
For precautions see section 2.2.
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Light sensitive.
Specific end use(s)
Apart from the uses mentioned in section 1.2 no other specific
uses are stipulated.
Exposure Controls/ Control parameters
Personal Protection Ingredients with workplace control parameters
Contains no substances with occupational exposure limit values.
8.2 Exposure controls
Appropriate engineering controls
Change contaminated clothing. Wash hands after working with
substance.
Personal protective equipment
Eye/face protection
Use equipment for eye protection tested and approved under
appropriate
government standards such as NIOSH (US) or EN 166(EU).
Safety glasses
Skin protection
Handle with gloves. Gloves must be inspected prior to use. Use
proper glove
removal technique (without touching glove's outer surface) to
avoid skin contact
with this product. Dispose of contaminated gloves after use in
accordance with
applicable laws and good laboratory practices. Wash and dry
hands.
The selected protective gloves have to satisfy the specifications of
Regulation (EU)
476
2016/425 and the standard EN 374 derived from it.
Full contact
Material: Nitrile rubber
Minimum layer thickness: 0.11 mm
Break through time: 480 min
Material tested:Dermatril® (KCL 740 / Aldrich Z677272, Size M)
Splash contact
data source: KCL GmbH, D-36124 Eichenzell, phone +49
(0)6659 87300, e-mail
sales@kcl.de, test method: EN374
If used in solution, or mixed with other substances, and under
conditions which
differ from EN 374, contact the supplier of the EC approved
gloves. This
industrial hygienist
and safety officer familiar with the specific situation of
anticipated use by our
customers. It should not be construed as offering an approval for
any specific use
scenario.
Respiratory protection
required when dusts are generated.
Our recommendations on filtering respiratory protection are based
on the following
standards: DIN EN 143, DIN 14387 and other accompanying
standards relating to
the used respiratory protection system.
Control of environmental exposure
Physical and Appearance Form: solid
Chemical Properties b) Odor No data available
c) Odor Threshold No data available
d) pH No data available
e) Melting
point/freezing point
Melting point/range: 190 - 194 °C - dec.
f) Initial boiling point
and boiling range
No data available
g) Flash point No data available
h) Evaporation rate No data available
i) Flammability (solid,
gas)
May form combustible dust concentrations in air.
Upper/lower
477
flammability or
explosive limits
No data available
k) Vapor pressure No data available
l) Vapor density No data available
m) Relative density No data available
n) Water solubility No data available
o) Partition coefficient:
n-octanol/water
No data available
p) Autoignition
temperature
No data available
q) Decomposition
temperature
No data available
r) Viscosity No data available
s) Explosive properties No data available
t) Oxidizing properties No data available
Stability and Reactivity
Reactivity The following applies in general to flammable organic substances
and mixtures: in
correspondingly fine distribution, when whirled up a dust
explosion potential may generally
be assumed.
10.2 Chemical stability
The product is chemically stable under standard ambient
conditions (room temperature) .
10.3 Possibility of hazardous reactions
No data available
10.4 Conditions to avoid
Light.
no information available
10.5 Incompatible materials
No data available
10.6 Hazardous decomposition products
- Carbon oxides
Information LD50 Oral - Rat - 11,900 mg/kg
Remarks: (RTECS)
Skin - Rabbit
Result: No skin irritation
Eyes - Rabbit
Result: slight irritation
478
Respiratory or skin sensitization
Carcinogenicity
IARC: No ingredient of this product present at levels greater than
or equal to 0.1% is
by IARC.
Aspiration hazard
RTECS: CI7650000
Chronic ingestion of large doses may cause gastrointestinal
disturbances including nausea
and diarrhea, urinary effects involving urine acidification, oxalate
and uric crystallizaton in
the bladder and kidney, and decreased reaction times and
psychomotor coordination.
Ecological Toxicity
Information Toxicity to fish LC50 - Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) -
1,020 mg/l - 96 h
Remarks: acidic
Toxicity to daphnia
and other aquatic
invertebrates
EC50 - Daphnia magna (Water flea) - 360 mg/l - 48 h
Remarks: (External MSDS)
Toxicity to algae IC50 - Desmodesmus subspicatus (green algae) -
1,750 mg/l - 72 h
Toxicity to bacteria EC50 - Pseudomonas putida - 140 mg/l - 16 h
12.2 Persistence and degradability
Biodegradability Result: 97 % - Readily eliminated from water
(OECD Test Guideline 302B)
Ratio BOD/ThBOD 65 %
Remarks: Closed Bottle test(own results)
Ratio BOD/ThBOD 48 %
Remarks: Closed Bottle test(own results
Bioaccumulative potential
12.4 Mobility in soil
12.5 Results of PBT and vPvB assessment
assessment not required/not
conducted
12.6 Other adverse effects
Discharge into the environment must be avoided.
479
Waste material must be disposed of in accordance with the
national and loc No mixing
with other waste. Handle uncleaned containers like the product
See
www.retrologistik.com for processes regarding the return of
chemicals and containers, or
contact us there if you have further questions. According to
Quality Environment
Regulation (Scheduled Waste) 2005, waste need to be sent to
designated premise for
recycle, treatment or disposal. Please contact Kualiti Alam for
waste classification and
correct disposal method.
Transport Information UN number
14.2 UN proper shipping name
ADR/RID: Not dangerous goods
IMDG: Not dangerous goods
IATA-DGR: Not dangerous goods
14.3 Transport hazard class(es)
14.4 Packaging group
14.5 Environmental hazards
ADR/RID: no IMDG Marine pollutant: no IATA-DGR: no
14.6 Special precautions for user
Further information
Not classified as dangerous in the meaning of transport
regulations.
480
F.3 Carbon Dioxide Safety Data Sheet
Table F.3: Carbon Dioxide SDS
Chemical Products Product name: Carbon dioxide
Product Number: 295108
Brand: Aldrich
CAS-No.: 124-38-9
Gases under pressure (Liquefied gas), H280
For the full text of the H-Statements mentioned in this Section,
see Section 16.
Hazard statement(s)
H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
Precautionary statement(s)
Storage
P410 + P403 Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated
place.
First Aid Measures General advice
Consult a physician. Show this material safety data sheet to the
doctor in attendance.
If inhaled
If breathed in, move person into fresh air. If not breathing, give
artificial respiration.
Consult a physician.
Wash off with soap and plenty of water. Consult a physician.
Flush eyes with water as a precaution.
If swallowed
Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Rinse
mouth with water. Consult
a physician.
4.2 Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
4.3 Indication of any immediate medical attention and special
treatment needed
No data available
Use water spray, alcohol-resistant foam, dry chemical or carbon
dioxide
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Carbon oxides
5.3 Advice for firefighters
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus for firefighting if
necessary.
481
5.4 Further information
Use water spray to cool unopened containers.
Accidental Release 1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures
Avoid breathing vapors, mist or gas. Ensure adequate ventilation.
Evacuate personnel to
safe areas.
6.2 Environmental precautions
6.3 Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up
Clean up promptly by sweeping or vacuum.
6.4 Reference to other sections
Handling and Storage 7.1 Precautions for safe handling
7.2 Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Storage conditions
Store in cool place. Keep container tightly closed in a dry and
well-ventilated place.
Contents under pressure. Avoid heating above: 50°C
7.3 Specific end use(s)
uses are stipulated
Exposure Controls/ Appropriate engineering controls
Personal Protection Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
practice. Wash hands
before breaks and at the end of workday.
Eye/face protection
appropriate
Skin protection
proper glove
avoid skin contact
accordance with
hands.
Regulation (EU)
Full contact
Material: butyl-rubber
Material tested:Butoject® (KCL 897 / Aldrich Z677647, Size M)
482
Splash contact
Material: Chloroprene
Material tested:Camapren® (KCL 722 / Aldrich Z677493, Size
M)
data source: KCL GmbH, D-36124 Eichenzell, phone +49
(0)6659 87300, e-mail
sales@kcl.de, test method: EN374
If used in solution, or mixed with other substances, and under
conditions which
differ from EN 374, contact the supplier of the EC approved
gloves. This
industrial hygienist
and safety officer familiar with the specific situation of
anticipated use by our
customers. It should not be construed as offering an approval for
any specific use
scenario.
Body Protection
Impervious clothing, The type of protective equipment must be
selected according
to the concentration and amount of the dangerous substance at the
specific
workplace.
Where risk assessment shows air-purifying respirators are
appropriate use a fullface respirator with multi-purpose
combination (US) or type AXBEK (EN 14387)
respirator is the sole
means of protection, use a full-face supplied air respirator. Use
respirators and
components tested and approved under appropriate government
standards such as
NIOSH (US) or CEN (EU).
Physical and a) Appearance Form: Liquefied gas
Chemical Properties b) Odor No data available
c) Odor Threshold No data available
e) Melting
Melting point/range: -78.5 °C - lit.
and boiling range
No data available
g) Flash point Not applicable
483
gas)
No data available
j) Upper/lower
flammability or
explosive limits
No data available
k) Vapor pressure 57,249 hPa at 20 °C
l) Vapor density 1.52 - (Air = 1.0)
n-octanol/water
No data available
p) Autoignition
temperature
No data available
q) Decomposition
temperature
No data available
r) Viscosity Viscosity, kinematic: No data available
Viscosity, dynamic: No data available
Stability and 10.1 Reactivity
No data available
No data available
No data available

No data available
No data available
Respiratory or skin sensitization
No data available
No data available
Carcinogenicity
No data available
No data available
484
No data available
No data available
Aspiration hazard
No data available
Ecological 12.1 Toxicity
No data available
12.3 Bioaccumulative potential
No data available
No data available
conducted
No data available
Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal
company.
Transport Information 14.1 UN number
ADR/RID: 1013 IMDG: 1013 IATA-DGR: 1013
ADR/RID: CARBON DIOXIDE
IMDG: CARBON DIOXIDE
IATA-DGR: Carbon dioxide
ADR/RID: 2.2 IMDG: 2.2 IATA-DGR: 2.2
None
Other regulations
Hazchem Code : 2T
485
F.4 Gluconic Acid Safety Data Sheet
Table F.3: Gluconic Acid SDS
Chemical Products Product name: D-Gluconic acid solution
Product Number: G1951
Brand: Aldrich
2.2 GHS Label elements, including precautionary statements
Labelling according to CLASS regulations 2013
Pictogram none
Signal word none
Hazard statement(s) none
Precautionary
statement(s)
none
2.3 Other hazards - none
First Aid Measures 4.1 Description of first aid measures
General advice
Consult a physician. Show this safety data sheet to the doctor in
attendance.
If inhaled
Flush eyes with water as a precaution.
If swallowed
a physician.
treatment needed
No data available
Fire Fighting 5.1 Extinguishing media
dioxide.
5.2 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Carbon oxides
486
necessary.
No data available
Accidental Release 6.1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures
Use personal protective equipment. Avoid breathing vapours, mist
or gas.
Keep in suitable, closed containers for disposal.
uses are stipulated
Exposure Controls/ 8.1 Control parameters
Personal Protection Components with workplace control parameters
Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
Eye/face protection
appropriate
Skin protection
proper glove
avoid skin contact
accordance with
hands.
Regulation (EU)
Full contact
487
Splash contact
Body Protection
Impervious clothing, The type of protective equipment must be
selected according
specific
workplace.
Where risk assessment shows air-purifying respirators are
appropriate use a fullface respirator with multi-purpose
combination (US) or type ABEK (EN 14387)
respirator is the sole
means of protection, use a full-face supplied air respirator. Use
respirators and
components tested and approved under appropriate government
standards such as
NIOSH (US) or CEN (EU).
Physical and a) Appearance Form: liquid
Chemical Properties b) Odour No data available
c) Odour Threshold No data available
e) Melting
No data available
and boiling range
No data available
gas)
No data available
j) Upper/lower
flammability or
explosive limits
No data available
k) Vapour pressure No data available
l) Vapour density No data available
m) Relative density 1.250 g/cm3
n-octanol/water
488
No data available
p) Auto-ignition
temperature
No data available
q) Decomposition
temperature
No data available
No data available
No data available
Strong oxidizing agents
- Carbon oxides
Toxicological 11.1 Information on toxicological effects
Information Acute toxicity
No data available
No data available
No data available
No data available
No data available
Carcinogenicity
or equal to 0.1% is
by IARC.
No data available
No data available
No data available
Aspiration hazard
No data available
489
RTECS: Not available
To the best of our knowledge, the chemical, physical, and
toxicological properties have not
been thoroughly investigated.
No data available
No data available
No data available
conducted
No data available
Disposal Product
Considerations Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal
company.
None
490
F.5 Keto Gluconic Acid Safety Data Sheet
Table F.5: Keto Gluconic Acid SDS
Chemical Products Product name: 2-Keto-D-gluconic acid hemi calcium salt
hydrate
Product Number: K6250
Brand: Sigma
CAS-No.: 1040352-40-6
Hazards Identification 2.1 GHS Classification
Skin corrosion/irritation (Category 2), H315
Serious eye damage/eye irritation (Category 2), H319
Specific target organ toxicity - single exposure (Category 3),
Respiratory system, H335
For the full text of the H-Statements mentioned in this Section,
see Section 16.
Hazard statement(s)
H315 Causes skin irritation.
H319 Causes serious eye irritation.
H335 May cause respiratory irritation.
Precautionary statement(s)
Prevention
P261 Avoid breathing dust/ fume/ gas/ mist/ vapours/ spray.
P280 Wear protective gloves/ eye protection/ face protection.
Response
P304 + P340 + P312 IF INHALED: Remove victim to fresh air
and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing. Call a POISON CENTER or
doctor/ physician if you feel unwell.
P337 + P313 If eye irritation persists: Get medical advice/
attention.
Storage
P403 + P233 Store in a well-ventilated place. Keep container
tightly closed.
Disposal
P501 Dispose of contents/ container to an approved waste
disposal
plant.
First Aid Measures 4.1 Description of first aid measures
General advice
Consult a physician. Show this safety data sheet to the doctor in
attendance.
If inhaled
491
Rinse thoroughly with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes and
consult a physician.
If swallowed
a physician.
treatment needed
No data available
Fire Fighting 5.1 Extinguishing media
dioxide.
5.2 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Carbon oxides, Calcium oxide
necessary.
No data available
Accidental Release 6.1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures
Use personal protective equipment. Avoid dust formation. Avoid
breathing vapours, mist
or gas. Ensure adequate ventilation. Evacuate personnel to safe
areas. Avoid breathing
dust.
Pick up and arrange disposal without creating dust. Sweep up and
shovel. Keep in
suitable, closed containers for disposal.
Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Avoid formation of dust and
aerosols.
Provide appropriate exhaust ventilation at places where dust is
formed.
492
uses are stipulated.
Exposure Controls/ 8.1 Control parameters
Personal Protection Components with workplace control parameters
Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
Eye/face protection
Safety glasses with side-shields conforming to EN166 Use
equipment for eye
protection tested and approved under appropriate government
standards such as
NIOSH (US) or EN 166(EU).
Skin protection
proper glove
avoid skin contact
accordance with
hands.
Body Protection
Impervious clothing, the type of protective equipment must be
selected according
specific workplace.
For nuisance exposures use type P95 (US) or type P1 (EU EN
143) particle
respirator.For higher level protection use type OV/AG/P99 (US)
or type ABEK-P2 (EU
EN 143) respirator cartridges. Use respirators and components
tested and approved
under appropriate government standards such as NIOSH (US) or
CEN (EU).
Physical and a) Appearance Form: solid
Chemical Properties b) Odour No data available
c) Odour Threshold No data available
e) Melting
No data available
493
and boiling range
No data available
gas)
No data available
j) Upper/lower
flammability or
explosive limits
No data available
k) Vapour pressure No data available
l) Vapour density No data available
n-octanol/water
No data available
p) Auto-ignition
temperature
No data available
q) Decomposition
temperature
No data available
9.2 Other safety information
No data available
No data available
No data available
- Carbon oxides, Calcium
oxide
Toxicological 11.1 Information on toxicological effects
Information Acute toxicity
No data available
No data available
494
No data available
No data available
No data available
Carcinogenicity
or equal to 0.1% is
by IARC.
No data available
Inhalation - May cause respiratory irritation.
No data available
Aspiration hazard
No data available
RTECS: Not available
No data available
No data available
No data available
conducted
No data available
Disposal Product
Considerations Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal
company. Dissolve or
mix the material with a combustible solvent and burn in a
chemical incinerator equipped
with an afterburner and scrubber.
495
None
F.6 Methanol Safety Data Sheet

Table F.6: Methanol SDS
Chemical Products Product form: Substance
Substance name: Methanol
CAS-No.: 67-56-1
Product code: VT430
Formula: CH4O
Synonyms : acetone alcohol / alcohol C1 / alcohol, methyl /
carbinol / colonial spirits / columbian spirits /
green wood spirits / manhattan spirits / methyl alcohol / methyl
hydrate / methyl hydroxide /
methylen / methylol / monohydroxymethane / pyroligneous spirit
/ pyroxylic spirit / wood alcohol
/ wood naphtha
Hazards Identification GHS US classification
Flammable liquids Category 2 H225 Highly flammable liquid and
vapor
Acute toxicity (oral) Category 3 H301 Toxic if swallowed
Acute toxicity (dermal) Category 3 H311 Toxic in contact with
skin
Acute toxicity (inhalation) Category 3 H331 Toxic if inhaled
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure)
Category 1
H370 Causes damage to organs (liver, kidneys, central nervous
system, optic nerve)
(Dermal, oral)
First Aid Measures First-aid measures general : Check the vital functions.
Unconscious: maintain adequate airway and respiration.
Respiratory
arrest: artificial respiration or oxygen. Cardiac arrest: perform
resuscitation. Victim conscious
with labored breathing: half-seated. Victim in shock: on his back
with legs slightly raised.
Vomiting: prevent asphyxia/aspiration pneumonia. Prevent
cooling by covering the victim (no
warming up). Keep watching the victim. Give psychological aid.
Keep the victim calm, avoid
physical strain.
496
First-aid measures after inhalation : Remove the victim into fresh
air. Immediately consult a doctor/medical service.
First-aid measures after skin contact : Wash immediately with lots
of water. Soap may be used. Do not apply (chemical) neutralizing
agents. Remove clothing before washing. Consult a
doctor/medical service.
First-aid measures after eye contact : Rinse with water. Remove
contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing. Take
victim to an ophthalmologist if irritation persists.
First-aid measures after ingestion : Rinse mouth with water.
Immediately after ingestion, give alcohol to drink. Give nothing to
drink. Do not induce vomiting. Immediately consult a
doctor/medical service. Take the
container/vomit to the doctor/hospital
Fire Fighting 5.1. Suitable (and unsuitable) extinguishing media
Measures Suitable extinguishing media : Quick-acting ABC powder
extinguisher. Quick-acting BC powder extinguisher. Quick-acting
class B foam extinguisher. Quick-acting CO2 extinguisher. Class
B foam (alcohol-resistant).
Water spray if puddle cannot expand.
Unsuitable extinguishing media : Water (quick-acting
extinguisher, reel); risk of puddle expansion. Water; risk of
puddle
expansion.
5.2. Specific hazards arising from the chemical
Fire hazard : DIRECT FIRE HAZARD. Highly flammable liquid
and vapour. Gas/vapor flammable with air
within explosion limits. INDIRECT FIRE HAZARD. May be
ignited by sparks.
Explosion hazard : DIRECT EXPLOSION HAZARD.
Gas/vapour explosive with air within explosion limits.
INDIRECT EXPLOSION HAZARD. may be ignited by sparks.
Reactions with explosion
hazards: see "Reactivity Hazard".
Hazardous decomposition products in case of
fire
: Upon combustion: CO and CO2 are formed.
5.3. Special protective equipment and precautions for fire-fighters
Firefighting instructions : Cool tanks/drums with water
spray/remove them into safety. Do not move the load if exposed
to
heat. Take account of toxic fire-fighting water. Use water
moderately and if possible collect or
contain it.
Protection during firefighting : Do not enter fire area without
proper protective equipment, including respiratory protection.
Accidental Release 6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures procedures
General measures : No flames, no sparks. Eliminate all sources of
ignition. No naked lights. No smoking. Dike and
497
contain spill.
6.1.1. For non-emergency personnel
Protective equipment : Gas-tight suit.
Emergency procedures : Keep upwind. Mark the danger area.
Consider evacuation. Close doors and windows of
adjacent premises. Stop engines and no smoking. No naked
flames or sparks. Spark- and
explosion-proof appliances and lighting equipment. Keep
containers closed. Wash
contaminated clothes.
6.1.2. For emergency responders
Protective equipment : Equip cleanup crew with proper
protection.
Emergency procedures : Stop leak if safe to do so. Ventilate area.
6.2. Environmental precautions
Prevent soil and water pollution. Prevent spreading in sewers.
6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up
For containment : Contain released substance, pump into suitable
containers. Plug the leak, cut off the supply.
Dam up the liquid spill. Try to reduce evaporation. Measure the
concentration of the explosive
gas-air mixture. Dilute combustible/toxic gases/vapours with
water spray. Take account of
toxic/corrosive precipitation water. Provide equipment/receptacles
with earthing. Do not use
compressed air for pumping over spills.
Methods for cleaning up : Take up liquid spill into a non
combustible material e.g.: sand, earth, vermiculite slaked lime or
soda ash. Scoop absorbed substance into closing containers.
Carefully collect the
spill/leftovers. Damaged/cooled tanks must be emptied. Do not
use compressed air for
pumping over spills. Clean contaminated surfaces with an excess
of water. Take collected spill
to manufacturer/competent authority. Wash clothing and
equipment after handling
Handling and Storage 7.1. Precautions for safe handling
Precautions for safe handling : Use spark-/explosionproof
appliances and lighting system. Take precautions against
electrostatic charges. Keep away from naked flames/heat. Keep
away from ignition
sources/sparks. Measure the concentration in the air regularly.
Work under local
exhaust/ventilation. Comply with the legal requirements. Remove
contaminated clothing
immediately. Clean contaminated clothing. Handle uncleaned
empty containers as full ones.
Thoroughly clean/dry the installation before use. Do not discharge
the waste into the drain. Do
498
not use compressed air for pumping over. Keep container tightly
closed.
Hygiene measures : Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this
product. Wash hands and other exposed areas with
mild soap and water before eating, drinking or smoking and when
leaving work. Wash
contaminated clothing before reuse.
7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Incompatible products : Strong oxidizers. Strong bases. Strong
acids. Acid anhydrides. Acid chlorides.
Incompatible materials : Direct sunlight. Heat sources. Sources of
ignition.
Heat-ignition : KEEP SUBSTANCE AWAY FROM: heat
sources. ignition sources.
Prohibitions on mixed storage : KEEP SUBSTANCE AWAY
FROM: combustible materials. oxidizing agents. strong acids.
(strong) bases. halogens. amines. water/moisture.
Storage area : Store in a cool area. Store in a dry area. Keep
container in a well-ventilated place. Fireproof
storeroom. Keep locked up. Provide for a tub to collect spills.
Provide the tank with earthing.
Unauthorized persons are not admitted. Aboveground. Meet the
legal requirements.
Special rules on packaging : SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS:
closing. dry. clean. correctly labelled. meet the legal
requirements. Secure fragile packagings in solid containers.
Packaging materials : SUITABLE MATERIAL: steel. stainless
steel. iron. glass. MATERIAL TO AVOID: lead.
aluminium. zinc. polyethylene. PVC.
Exposure Controls/ 8.1 Appropriate engineering controls
Personal Protection Appropriate engineering controls : Emergency eye wash fountains
should be available in the immediate vicinity of any potential
exposure. Keep concentrations well below lower explosion limits.
8.2 Individual protection measures/Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment:
Safety glasses. Protective clothing. Gloves. Full protective
flameproof clothing. Face shield.
Materials for protective clothing:
GIVE GOOD RESISTANCE: polyethylene/ethylenevinylalcohol.
styrene-butadiene rubber. viton. GIVE LESS RESISTANCE:
chloroprene rubber.
chlorinated polyethylene. natural rubber. nitrile rubber/PVC.
GIVE POOR RESISTANCE: leather. neoprene. nitrile rubber.
polyethylene. PVA.
PVC. polyurethane
Hand protection:
Protective gloves against chemicals (EN 374)
Eye protection:
Safety glasses
Skin and body protection:
499
Head/neck protection. Protective clothing
Respiratory protection:
Full face mask with filter type AX at conc. in air > exposure limit.
High vapour/gas concentration: self-contained respirator
Physical and Physical state : Liquid
Chemical Properties Appearance : Liquid.
Color : Colourless
Odor : Characteristic odour Mild odour Pleasant odour Alcohol
odour Commercial/unpurified
substance: irritating/pungent odour
Odor threshold : No data available
pH : No data available
Melting point : -97.8 °C
Freezing point : No data available
Boiling point : 64.7 °C (1013 hPa)
Critical temperature : 240 °C
Critical pressure : 79547 hPa
Flash point : 9.7 °C (Closed cup, 1013 hPa, EU Method A.9:
Flash-Point)
Relative evaporation rate (butyl acetate=1) : 4.1
Relative evaporation rate (ether=1) : 6.3
Flammability (solid, gas) : No data available
Vapor pressure : 128 hPa (20 °C)
Vapor pressure at 50 °C : 552 hPa
Relative vapor density at 20 °C : 1.1
Relative density : 0.79 – 0.8 (20 °C)
Relative density of saturated gas/air mixture : 1
Specific gravity / density : 790 – 800 kg/m³ (20 °C)
Molecular mass : 32.04 g/mol
Solubility : Soluble in water. Soluble in ethanol. Soluble in ether.
Soluble in acetone. Soluble in chloroform.
Water: 100 g/100ml (20 °C)
Ethanol: complete
Ether: complete
Acetone: complete
Log Pow : -0.77 (Experimental value)
Auto-ignition temperature : 455 °C (1013 hPa, DIN 51794: Self-
ignition temperature)
Decomposition temperature : No data available
Viscosity, kinematic : No data available
Viscosity, dynamic : 0.544 – 0.59 mPa·s (25 °C)
Explosion limits : 5.5 – 36.5 vol %
Explosive properties : No data available
Oxidizing properties : No data available
Minimum ignition energy : 0.14 mJ
Saturation concentration : 166 g/m³
VOC content : 100 %
Other properties : Clear. Hygroscopic. Volatile. Neutral reaction
Stability and 10.1. Reactivity
Reactivity
500
Violent to explosive reaction with (some) metal powders and with
(strong) oxidizers. Violent exothermic reaction with (some) acids
and with (some)
halogens compounds.
10.2. Chemical stability
Hygroscopic.
10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions
No additional information available
10.4. Conditions to avoid
Direct sunlight. High temperature. Incompatible materials. Open
flame. Sparks. Overheating.
10.5. Incompatible materials
Strong oxidizers. Strong bases. Strong acids. Peroxides. Acid
anhydrides. Acid chlorides.
10.6. Hazardous decomposition products
Carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide.
Toxicological 11.1. Information on toxicological effects
Information Acute toxicity (oral): Toxic if swallowed.
Acute toxicity (dermal): Toxic in contact with skin.
Acute toxicity (inhalation): Toxic if inhaled
Germ cell mutagenicity: Not classified
Carcinogenicity: Not classified
Reproductive toxicity: Not classified
STOT-single exposure: Causes damage to organs (liver, kidneys,
central nervous system, optic nerve) (Dermal, oral).
STOT-repeated exposure: Not classified
Aspiration hazard: Not classified
Viscosity, kinematic: No data available
Potential Adverse human health effects and
symptoms
: Toxic in contact with skin. Toxic if swallowed. Toxic if inhaled.
Symptoms/effects after inhalation: EXPOSURE TO HIGH
CONCENTRATIONS: Coughing. Symptoms similar to those
listed under
ingestion.
Symptoms/effects after skin contact: Symptoms similar to those
listed under ingestion.
Symptoms/effects after eye contact: Redness of the eye tissue.
Lacrimation.
Symptoms/effects after ingestion: Nausea. Vomiting. AFTER
ABSORPTION OF LARGE QUANTITIES: FOLLOWING
SYMPTOMS MAY APPEAR LATER: Change in the blood
composition. Headache. Feeling of
weakness. Abdominal pain. Muscular pain. Central nervous
system depression. Dizziness.
Mental confusion. Drunkenness. Coordination disorders.
Disturbed motor response.
Disturbances of consciousness. Visual disturbances. Blindness.
Respiratory difficulties.
Cramps/uncontrolled muscular contractions.
501
Chronic symptoms: red skin. Dry skin. Skin rash/inflammation.
Headache. Disturbed tactile sensibility. Visual
disturbances. Sleeplessness. Gastrointestinal complaints. Cardiac
and blood circulation effects.
Ecological 12.1. Toxicity
Information Ecology - general: Not classified as dangerous for the
environment according to the criteria of Regulation (EC) No
1272/2008.
Ecology - air: Not included in the list of substances which may
contribute to the greenhouse effect (IPCC).
Not included in the list of fluorinated greenhouse gases
(Regulation (EU) No 517/2014). Not
classified as dangerous for the ozone layer (Regulation (EC) No
1005/2009).
Ecology - water: Not harmful to crustacea. Not harmful to fishes.
Groundwater pollutant. Inhibition of activated
sludge. Nitrification of activated sludge is inhibited. Not harmful
to algae. Not harmful to
bacteria
Disposal Waste disposal recommendations: Do not discharge into drains or
Considerations the environment. Remove waste in accordance with local and/or
national regulations. Hazardous waste shall not be mixed together
with other waste. Different
types of hazardous waste shall not be mixed together if this may
entail a risk of pollution or
create problems for the further management of the waste.
Hazardous waste shall be managed
responsibly. All entities that store, transport or handle hazardous
waste shall take the
necessary measures to prevent risks of pollution or damage to
people or animals. Recycle by
distillation. Incinerate under surveillance with energy recovery.
Obtain the consent of pollution
control authorities before discharging to wastewater treatment
plants.
Additional information: Hazardous waste according to Directive
2008/98/EC, as amended by Regulation (EU) No
1357/2014 and Regulation (EU) No 2017/997
Transport Information Transport document description: UN1230 Methanol, 3, II
UN-No. (DOT): UN1230
Proper Shipping Name (DOT): Methanol
Transport hazard class(es) (DOT): 3 - Class 3 - Flammable and
combustible liquid 49 CFR 173.120
Packing group (DOT): II - Medium Danger
Hazard labels (DOT): 3 - Flammable liquid
502
Appendix G: Waste Management & Control
Solid waste treatment
Sizing and costing
Concrete storage tank
The biomass solid waste will be stored in a storage tank in this plant design. The concrete
storage tank may hold biomass to ease out process and enable for product delivery
scheduling. Storage tanks are typically vertical cylindrical concrete tanks. This storage tank in
this project has a cylindrical form. This equipment's construction material is concrete. The
storage period is assumed to be four days.
Biomass produced: 6.45911 kg/hr
v, volumetric flowrate: 0.00646 m3/hr
Storage time, ꞇ = 96hrs (4 days)
Volume of storage tank: V = vꞇ = (0.00646 m3/hr) (96hr)
= 0.62016 m3
To calculate the dimension (height & diameter) of the storage tank, V is used:
Assume ratio height to diameter is H/D = 0.5 (Sinnott, 2013)
Therefore, H = 2D
πD2 (H)
V=
4
πD2 (2D)
0.62016m3 =
4
D = 1.0011 m
∴ Therefore the height of the column is H = 2.0022 m
503
Costing for concrete tank
A 10 m3 concrete tank costs $4,000 according to market prices. The actual capacity required
is 0.62016 m3, although a 0.8 m3 concrete tank is designed to allow 20% excess capacity.
Excess 20% = (0.2) (0.62016 m3)
= 0.12403 m3
Total volume = 0.12403 m3 + 0.62016 m3
= 0.74419
≈ 0.8 m3
Thus, for 0.8 m3 concrete tank the price is:
10 m3 = $ 4000
0.8 m3 = $ X
10 X = (4000) (0.8)
X = $ 320
Therefore, the equipment price for 0.8 m3 = $ 320
The tank installation costs roughly $1 per litre. As a result, the total cost is expected to be
$1120 (Tankulator - Tank Materials > Price Comparison, n.d.).
The cost of the sizing is = $ 1120 (RM 4.21)
= RM 4715.20
504
Wastewater Treatment
Sizing of Neutralization Tank:
Assumption:
1. Setting space time, t = 45 min = 0.75 h
2. Safety factor: 20%
3. Cylindrical shape of equalization tank
Volumetric flowrate, Q = 1.345 m3/h

𝑉 = 𝑄𝑡
𝑉 =(1.345m3/h) (0.75 h) = 1 m3
Consider the safety factor is 20%,

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉 × 1.2
𝑉𝑡 =(1 m3) (1.2)
𝑉𝑡 = 1.2 m3
To calculate the diameter and height:

𝜋𝐷2
𝑉= ×𝐻
4
assume H = 1.5D
𝜋𝐷2
𝑉= × 1.5𝐷
4
𝜋𝐷2
1.2 = × 1.5𝐷
4
𝐷 =1 m
H = 1.5 (1) = 1.5 m
Design of Impeller:
505
Based on the International Standard Organization and British Standard Institution standard
dimensions,
𝐷𝑖 5
=
𝐷𝑇 12
5
𝐷𝑖 = × 1 = 0.4167 𝑚
12
𝐿
= 0.25
𝐷𝑖
𝐿 = 0.25 × 0.4167 = 0.1041 𝑚
𝑊
= 0.2
𝐷𝑖
𝑊 = 0.2 × 0.4167 = 0.0833 𝑚
Number of impellers = Height of tank / diameter of impeller

1.5
Number of impellers = 0.4167 =3.59 ≈ 4 impellers
Design of baffles:
𝐷𝑏
= 0.054
𝐷𝑇
5
𝐷𝑏 = 12 × 1 = 0.4167 m
506
Costing of Neutralization Tank:
Based on Turton (2008), the equation to calculate the cost of coagulation tank is:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴 + 𝐾3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴)]2; where A= volume, m3
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 4.8509 + (−0.3973)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1.2 ) + (0.1445)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1.2 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $66122.19
Equipment cost:
CBM = CPo FBM
FBM = 4
CBM = $66122.19 (4)
CBM = $264,488.77
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3

CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 264,488.77× 394.3
= $521129.42
𝑅𝑀 4.22
Cost of Neutralization Tank = $521129.42× = RM 2,199,166.16
1$
507
Sizing of Primary Clarifier:
Parameter Range Typical
Detention time (t/h) 1.5-2.5 2.0
Overflow rate (m3/m2.day) 32-48 -
Weir loading (m3/m.day) 125-500 250
Depth,H (m) 3-5 4.5
Diameter,d (m) 3.6-60 12-45
Bottom slope (mm/m) 60-160 80
Sludge scraper spped 0.02-0.05 0.03
Q 32.28m3 /day
Required surface area, A = Overflow rate = = 1.0088 m2
32m/day
4𝐴 4×1.0088
Diameter, D = ( )0.5 = ( ) =1.2844 m
𝜋 𝜋
Assume a side wall depth of 3 meter,

Volume = A x depth = 1.0088 m2 x 3 = 3.0264 m3
v 3.0264m3
Detention time = Q = 32.28 m3/day = 0.09 day = 2.16 hours
The actual height of primary clarifier tank is the sum of water depth and the free board which
is 0.5 m.
Volume of primary clarifier tank = 3.0264 m3
Actual volume primary clarifier of tank (included freeboard)
= 1.0088 m2 x 3.5m
= 3.808 m3
508
Costing of Primary Clarifier:
Based on Turton (2008), the equation to calculate the cost of aeration tank is:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 3.4974 + (0.4485 )𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.0264 ) + (0.1074)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.0264 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $5469.35
509
Refer Table A.3, at the process vessel (horizontal, SS) the identification number is 20.
510
Based on the identification number is 20, FM is 3.2 to refer in Figure A.18
CBM = CPo FBM = CPo (B1 + B2FMFP)

FP = 1
CBM = $5469.35 [2.25 + 1.82 (3.20) (1)]
CBM = $ 44159.53
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3

CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 44159.53× 394.3
= $ 87,008.73
𝑅𝑀 4.22
CBM (2022) = $ 87,008.73× 1$
CBM (2022) = RM 367,176.82
Sizing of Aeration Tank:
Wastewater flowrate, Q = 1.345 m3/h = 32.28 m3/day
Percentage of BOD removal = 75%

Percentage of COD removal = 85%
Initial BOD, So = 16500 mg/L

Outlet BOD, S = 200 mg/L
Assumption of this aeration tank design (Howard et al.,1985):

MLSS = 4000 mg/L
511
VSS/SS = 0.8
Yield coefficient, Y = 0.6 kg/kg
Decay constant, kd = 0.07d-1
Mean cell residence time, θc = 15 day
To calculate the volume of aeration tank by using this formula,
YQθC (SO − S)
VX =
1 + k d θc
VSS
X = MLSS ( ) = 4000(0.8) = 3200
SS
0.6(32.28)(15)(16500 − 200)
V(3200) =
1 + (0.07)(15)
V = 721.87 m3
512
Costing of Aeration Tank:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 3.4974 + (0.4485 )𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (721.87 ) + (0.1074)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (721.87 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $453,901.35
513
514
Equipment cost:
FP = 1
CBM = $2355.70 [2.25 + 1.82 (3.20) (1)]
CBM = $ 453,901.35
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3

CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) ×
CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 453,901.35× 394.3
= $ 894,334.15
𝑅𝑀 4.22
CBM (2022) = $ 894,334.15× 1$
CBM (2022) = RM 3,774090.11
Sizing of Secondary Clarifier
Assumption:
MLSS = 3500 mg/L = 3.5 kg/m3
Flowrate, Q = 1.345 m3/h
Total solid loading = Q x MLSS = (1.345 m3/h) (3.5 kg/m3) = 4.7075 kg/h
Assuming G = 2.4 kg/h.m2

4.7075
Surface area of the clarifier, A = = 1.96 m2
2.4
4𝐴 4×1.96 0.5
Diameter, D = ( 𝜋 )0.5 = ( ) = 1.580 m
𝜋
4 4
Volume of the secondary clarifier, V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 = 3 𝜋(0.790)0.5 = 2.613 m3
515
Cost of Secondary Clarifier
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 3.4974 + (0.4485 )𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.613 ) + (0.1074)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.613 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $5048.65
516
517
Equipment cost:
FP = 1
CBM = $5048.65 [2.25 + 1.82 (3.20) (1)]
CBM = $ 40,762.80
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3

CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) ×
CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 40,762.80× 394.3
= $ 80,316.05
𝑅𝑀 4.22
CBM (2022) = $ 80,316.05× 1$
CBM (2022) = RM 338,933.74
Sizing of Sludge Thickener

Characteristic of wastewater, treatment plant, and sludge.
Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludge
Influent SS = 18000 mg/L Area of primary clarifier = Primary = 60 % solids
3.808 m3
Influent BOD = 16500 mg/L Volume of aerator = 721.87 m3 Secondary = 0.75% solids
Effluent BOD = 200 mg/L MLSS in aerator = 3500 mg/L Thickened = 4.0% solids
Flow, Q = 32.28 m3/day Y = 0.6 kg/kg
Mass of primary solids removed, MP = S x SS x Q = (200 mg/L) (0.6) (32.28 m3/day)

(1000 L/1 m3) (1 kg/ 1,000,000 mg) = 3.87 kg/ day
𝑃 𝑀 3.87 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Volume of primary sludge, VP = 1000×𝑆 = 1000𝑘𝑔 =0.065 m3/day
( )(0.06)
𝑚3
Secondary Solids
F
=1.5,
M
Assumption:
518
The biomass conversion factor = 0.5
BODin = 16,500 mg/L

BODout = 200 mg/L
BODconsumed = 16,300 mg/L
Mass of secondary solids, Ms = 4.7075 kg/h = 112.98 kg/day

𝑆 𝑀 112.98 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Volume of secondary sludge, VS = 1000×𝑆 = 1000𝑘𝑔 = 15.064 m3/day
( )(0.0075)
𝑚3
Total mass, MT = MP + MS = 3.87 kg/ day + 112.98 kg/day = 116.85 kg/day

Total volume, VT = VP + VS = 0.065 m3/day + 15.064 m3/day = 15.129 m3/day
116.85
Total volume of thickened sludge, Vthick = 1000 ×0.04 = 2.92 m3/day
519
Cost of Sludge Thickener:
Based on Turton (2008), the equation to calculate the cost of sludge thickener is:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 3.4974 + (0.4485 )𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.92) + (0.1074)[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2.92 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $5362.72
520

Equipment cost:
521
FP = 1
CBM = $5362.72 [2.25 + 1.82 (3.20) (1)]
CBM = $ 43,298.60
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3
CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
776.9
= $ 43,298.60× 394.3
= $ 85,312.41
𝑅𝑀 4.22
CBM (2022) = $ 85,312.41× 1$
CBM (2022) = RM 360,018.37
Design of Rapid Gravity Sand Filter
Surface area = 1.16 m2
Costing of rapid gravity sand filter:
Cost of rapid gravity sand filter = RM 35,870
522
Costing of Filter Press
Cost of Filter Press = RM 189,900

Material: stainless steel
523
Gaseous Waste Treatment
Sizing of Absorption Column

NaOH : CO2
2:1
19.58(2) = 39.16 kmol/hr : 19.58 kmol/hr
39.16 kmol/hr
MWCO2 = 44.01 kg/kmol
Mass flowrate = 1723.43 kg/hr
Assuming there is pressure drop of 42 mm NaOH/m, the liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV can be
calculated using this formula:
𝐿 𝜌 1723.43 1.13
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = [𝑉𝑊 ] (√ 𝜌𝑉) = [ 628.91 ] (√2130) =0.0631
𝑊 𝐿
Liquid mass flow rate, LW = 1723.43 kg/s
Vapour mass flow rate, VW = 628.91 kg/s
Vapour density, 𝜌v = 1.13 kg/m3
Liquid density, 𝜌L = 2130 kg/m3
Percentage of flooding can be calculated by,
1.5
Percentage of flooding = [√4.4] × 100% = 58.38%
∗
The gas-mass flow rate per unit column cross-sectional area, 𝑉𝑊 can be calculated by,
∗ 𝐾4 ×𝜌𝑉 (𝜌𝑉 −𝜌𝐿)

𝑉𝑊 =√ 𝜇
13.1×𝐹𝑃 ×( 𝐿 )0.1
𝜌𝐿
∗
Where 𝑉𝑊 : gas mass flowrate per unit column cross sectional area, kg/m3;
524
Fp: Packing factor, characteristic of the size and type of packing;
∗ 1.5×1.13(2130−1.13) 2
𝑉𝑊 =√ 0.00366 0.1 = 1.6987 kg/m .s
13.1×361×( )
2130
4
Column diameter, Dc = √𝜋 × 10.48 = 11.83 m
Estimation of HOG using Cornell’s method:
Operating temperature = 30oC

Operating pressure = 1.01325 bar
Referred Wilson (2004), the diffusivity of carbon dioxide in sodium hydroxide is:
DAB = 2.0932 × 10-2 m2s-1
Estimation of carbon dioxide in liquid phase:

Melting point of CO2 = -17.8oC
712.5 2.591×105
log DCO2 = −8.1764 + −
𝑇 𝑇2
DAB (liquid) = 0
𝜇𝑣 0.0154
(𝑆𝑐)𝑣 = [ ]=[ ] = 0.6511
𝜌𝑣 𝐷𝑣 1.13 × 2.0932 × 10−2
𝜇𝐿
(𝑆𝑐)𝐿 = [ ]=0
𝜌𝐿 𝐷𝐿
From Figure 11.41, at the flooding percentage of 58.38%, K3 = 0.9

From Figure 11.42, at the flooding percentage of 58.38%, ᴪh = 60
Assumption,
525
f1 = f2 = f3 = 1
Initial estimation column height = 5m
The height of gas phase transfer unit, HG can be calculated by,
𝐷𝑐 1.11 𝑧 0.33
0.01Ψℎ (𝑆𝑐)0.5
𝑣 ( ) ( )
𝐻𝐺 = [ 0.305 3.05 ] = 2𝑚
(𝐿∗𝑤 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 )0.5
𝐻𝐺 = height of gas-phase transfer unit, m

𝐻𝐿 = height of liquid-phase transfer unit, m
𝜇𝑣
(𝑆𝑐)𝑣 = gas Schmidt number = (𝜌 )
𝑣 𝐷𝑣
𝜇𝐿
(𝑆𝑐)𝐿 = gas Schmidt number = (𝜌 )
𝐿 𝐷𝐿
𝐷𝐶 =column diameter, m
Z = column height, m
K3 = percentage flooding correction factor
Ψℎ = 𝐻𝐺 factor
Φℎ = 𝐻𝐿 factor
Lw* = liquid mass flow rate per unit column cross section area, kg/m2.s
Packed column height, Z = 5 m x 2m = 10 m
Volume of absorber = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2𝜋(5.915)(10) = 371.65 m3
526
Costing of Absorption Column
Based on Turton (2008), the equation to calculate the cost of absorption is:
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 3.4974 + (0.4485 )𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (371.65 ) + 0.1074[𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (371.65 )]2
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = $ 228,847.13
To calculate cost of equipment,

CBM = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 FBM
527
To determine FM, refer Table A.6 first to find identification for equipment type. Since it is
tower packing and using the ceramic. Therefore, the identification number is 68
From the identification number of 68, we can determine FBM. Based on Figure A.18, the
material factor, FM is 4.1
Therefore, the cost of absorption column is

CBM = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 FBM
CBM = ($228,84713) (4.1)

CBM = $ 938,273.23
CBM (2001) = $
CEPCI 2021
CBM (2022) = CBM (2001) × CEPCI 2001
CEPCI 2001 = 394.3

CEPCI 2021 = 776.9
776.9
CBM (2022) = $ 938,273.23 × 394.3
CBM (2022) =$ 1,848,705.24

RM 4.22
CBM (2022) =$ 1,848,705.24 × $1
CBM (2022) = RM 7,801,536.11
528
Sizing of Flare Stack
The combustion chamber is designed to ensure that the flare stack 2 or 2.5 m higher than
surroundings buildings or structures. The combined height of the stack and plume rise is the
effective stack height. The design of the flare stack is designed based on these assumptions:
i. Wind speed, v = 2.5 m/s

ii. Air temperature, Ta = 31oC
iii. Stack gas temperature, TS = 100oC
iv. Stack gas velocity, G = 0.25
v. Physical stack height, H = 30 m
vi. Barometric pressure, P = 101.325 bar
To calculate the effective stack height,
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣
𝑈 = 𝐺√
𝜌𝑣
Stack gas velocity, G = 0.25
liquid density, 𝜌𝑙 = 958.7 kg/m3 = 59.85 lb/ft3
gas density, 𝜌𝑣 = 0.59 kg/m3 = 0.04 lb/ft3
59.85 − 0.04
𝑈 = 0.25√
0.04
𝑈 = 9.6671 ft/s
Minimum vessel cross-sectional area:
aQ (ft3 /min)
A = (60 sec/min)×(U ft/s)
Where Qa is the vent stream flow. Qa = 4043384.57 L/h = 2379.85 ft3/min
529
Cross sectional area, A:
2379.85(ft3 /min)
𝐴 = 60 (sec/min)×9.6671(ft/s)
𝐴 = 4.103 ft2
Vessel diameter, dmin:
dmin = 13.5√𝐴 = 13.5√4.103 = 27.3554 in
To determine the thickness of vessel, it can be referred to Table ## by looking at the vessel
diameter as the reference.
Table ##: Vessel thickness of flare tower
Diameter, d (in) Thickness, t (in)

d < 36 0.25
36 ≤ d < 72 0.37
72 ≤ d < 108 50.5
108 ≤ d < 144 0.75
d ≥ 144 1.0
Based on Table ##, since the vessel diameter, dmin is 27.3554 in and is less than 36 in.
Therefore, the thickness of vessel is 0.25 in.
dmin = 27.3554 in = 0.6948 m
t = 0.25 in = 0.00635 m
530
To calculate effective height,
∆h = 2.5dmin = 2.5 (0.6948 m) = 1.737 m
To calculate the effective stack height,
Effective stack height = H + ∆h = 30 m + 1.737 m = 31.737 m
∴ The effective flare stack height should be 31.8m or 104.33 ft
Costing of Flare System
Cost of Flare, CF
CF ($) = 78 + 9.14D + 0.749L2
CF ($) = 78 + 9.14 (27.3554 in) + 0.794 (104.33 ft)2
CF = $ 8970.52 = RM 37,855.59
Cost of vent stream piping, CP
CP ($) = 139D1.107; (where 30” < D < 60”)
CP ($) = 139 (27.3554 in) 1.07
CP = $3802.40 = RM 16046.13
Cost of knock-out drum, CK
CK ($) = 14.2 [ dt (h + 0.812d)] 0.737
CK ($) = 14.2 [ (27.3554 × 0.5) × (104.33 + 0.812(27.3554))]0.737
CK = $ 18113.63 = RM 76439.54
531
Total cost of flare system
= CF + CP + CK
= RM 37,855.59 + RM 16046.13 + RM 76439.54
= RM 130341.26
Installation Cost
Total capital investment, TCI is obtained by multiplying the purchasing equipment by factor
of 1.92
TCI = 1.92 (RM 130341.26) = RM 250,255.22
532
Appendix F: Economic analysis
i. Cumulative non-discounted cash flow analysis
Year Capital Depreciation,d Fixed Capital Revenue,R COMd Expenses Income Net Profit Net Cash Cumulative
Investment Investment (RM) (RM) tax Income flow, cash flow,
(RM) Depreciation Expenses (R- (R- (R-COMd- (RM) (RM)
(RM) COMd +d COMd- COMd- d)(1-t)+d
d)*t d)*(1-t)
0 -1.42E+08 0 2.48E+06 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1.42E+08 -1.42E+08
1 -2.48E+06 0 2.48E+07 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2.48E+06 -1.44E+08
2 -3.72E+06 0 2.48E+07 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3.72E+06 -1.48E+08
3 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 2.25E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 -1.80E+07 -7.21E+07 -6.96E+07 -6.96E+07 -2.18E+08
4 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 2.69E+07 1.08E+08 1.10E+08 1.10E+08 -1.07E+08
5 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 2.69E+07 1.08E+08 1.10E+08 1.10E+08 2.76E+06
6 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 2.69E+07 1.08E+08 1.10E+08 1.10E+08 1.13E+08
7 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 2.69E+07 1.06E+08 1.08E+08 1.08E+08 2.21E+08
8 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 4.04E+07 9.25E+07 9.50E+07 9.50E+07 3.16E+08
9 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 4.04E+07 9.25E+07 9.50E+07 9.50E+07 4.11E+08
10 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 4.04E+07 9.25E+07 9.50E+07 9.50E+07 5.06E+08
11 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 4.04E+07 9.25E+07 9.50E+07 9.50E+07 6.01E+08
12 0 2.48E+06 2.73E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.15E+08 4.04E+07 9.25E+07 9.50E+07 9.50E+07 6.96E+08
13 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 7.92E+08
14 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 8.88E+08
15 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.84E+08
16 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 1.08E+09
17 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 1.18E+09
18 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 1.27E+09
19 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 1.37E+09
20 0 0 2.48E+07 4.49E+08 3.12E+08 3.12E+08 4.11E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 9.60E+07 1.46E+09
ii. Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow at Different Discount Rate
Interest(%) = 0% Interest(%) = 10%
Non
Discounted Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Year Discounted Cumulative Discounted
Cash Flow Discount Discounted Discount Discounted Discounted
Cash Flow Discounted Cash Cash Flow
(RM) Factor Cash Flow Factor Cash Flow Cash Flow
(RM) Flow (RM) (RM)
(RM'million) (RM) (RM'million)
0 -141787800 1 -141787800 -141787800 -141.7878 1 -141787800.00 -141787800 -141.7878

1 -2480421.15 1 -2480421.145 -144268221.1 -144.2682 0.9091 -2254950.86 -144042750.9 -144.0428
2 -3720631.71 1 -3720631.71 -147988852.9 -147.9889 0.8264 -3074730.05 -147117480.9 -147.1175
3 -69607920.9 1 -69607920.89 -217596773.7 -217.5968 0.7513 -52296430.97 -199413911.9 -199.4139
4 110160079.1 1 110160079.1 -107436694.6 -107.4367 0.683 75239334.03 -124174577.8 -124.1746
5 110192079.1 1 110192079.1 2755384.472 2.7554 0.6209 68418261.92 -55756315.92 -55.7563
6 110192079.1 1 110192079.1 112947463.6 112.9475 0.5645 62203428.66 6447112.734 6.4471
7 108207742.2 1 108207742.2 221155205.8 221.1552 0.5132 55532213.29 61979326.03 61.9793
8 94991827.06 1 94991827.06 316147032.8 316.1470 0.4665 44313687.32 106293013.4 106.2930
9 94991827.06 1 94991827.06 411138859.9 411.1389 0.4241 40286033.86 146579047.2 146.5790
10 94991827.06 1 94991827.06 506130687 506.1307 0.3855 36619349.33 183198396.5 183.1984
11 94991827.06 1 94991827.06 601122514 601.1225 0.3505 33294635.39 216493031.9 216.4930
12 94991827.06 1 94991827.06 696114341.1 696.1143 0.3186 30264396.10 246757428 246.7574
13 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 792098336.6 792.0983 0.2897 27806563.50 274563991.5 274.5640
14 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 888082332.1 888.0823 0.2633 25272586.02 299836577.6 299.8366
15 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 984066327.6 984.0663 0.2394 22978568.53 322815146.1 322.8151
16 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 1080050323 1080.0503 0.2176 20886117.43 343701263.5 343.7013
17 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 1176034319 1176.0343 0.1978 18985634.31 362686897.8 362.6869
18 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 1272018314 1272.0183 0.1799 17267520.79 379954418.6 379.9544
19 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 1368002310 1368.0023 0.1635 15693383.27 395647801.9 395.6478
20 95983995.52 1 95983995.52 1463986305 1463.9863 0.1486 14263221.73 409911023.6 409.9110
534
Interest(%) = 20% Interest(%) = 30%
Non
Discounted Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Year Discounted Discounted
Cash Flow Discount Discounted Discounted Discount Discounted Discounted
Cash Flow Cash Flow
(RM) Factor Cash Flow Cash Flow Factor Cash Flow Cash Flow
(RM) (RM)
(RM) (RM'million) (RM) (RM'million)
0 -141787800 1 -141787800 -141787800 -141.7878 1 -141787800 -141787800 -141.7878

1 -2480421.15 0.83 -2066934.94 -143854734.9 -143.8547 0.77 -1907939.94 -143695740 -143.6957
2 -3720631.71 0.69 -2583606.66 -146438341.6 -146.4383 0.59 -2201497.78 -145897238 -145.8972
3 -69607920.9 0.58 -40282103.8 -186720445.4 -186.7204 0.46 -31685525.6 -177582763 -177.5828
4 110160079.1 0.48 53130206.15 -133590239.3 -133.5902 0.35 38567043.7 -139015720 -139.0157
5 110192079.1 0.40 44286196.59 -89304042.67 -89.3040 0.27 29674726.9 -109340993 -109.3410
6 110192079.1 0.33 36903327.29 -52400715.38 -52.4007 0.21 22831798.79 -86509193.9 -86.5092
7 108207742.2 0.28 30200780.85 -22199934.53 -22.1999 0.16 17248314.11 -69260879.8 -69.2609
8 94991827.06 0.23 22095098.97 -104835.5567 -0.1048 0.12 11645998 -57614881.8 -57.6149
9 94991827.06 0.19 18409416.08 18304580.53 18.3046 0.09 8957729.292 -48657152.5 -48.6572
10 94991827.06 0.16 15341180.07 33645760.6 33.6458 0.07 6886907.462 -41770245.1 -41.7702
11 94991827.06 0.13 12785899.92 46431660.52 46.4317 0.06 5300543.95 -36469701.1 -36.4697
12 94991827.06 0.11 10658083 57089743.52 57.0897 0.04 4075149.381 -32394551.7 -32.3946
13 95983995.52 0.09 8974503.581 66064247.1 66.0642 0.03 3167471.852 -29227079.9 -29.2271
14 95983995.52 0.08 7477153.251 73541400.35 73.5414 0.03 2437993.486 -26789086.4 -26.7891
15 95983995.52 0.06 6229361.309 79770761.66 79.7708 0.02 1871687.913 -24917398.5 -24.9174
16 95983995.52 0.05 5192734.158 84963495.82 84.9635 0.02 1439759.933 -23477638.6 -23.4776
17 95983995.52 0.05 4328878.198 89292374.01 89.2924 0.01 1113414.348 -22364224.2 -22.3642
18 95983995.52 0.04 3608998.232 92901372.25 92.9014 0.01 854257.5601 -21509966.6 -21.5100
19 95983995.52 0.03 3004299.06 95905671.31 95.9057 0.01 652691.1695 -20857275.5 -20.8573
20 95983995.52 0.03 2505182.283 98410853.59 98.4109 0.01 508715.1763 -20348560.3 -20.3486
535

Final Report E08

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Final Report E08

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SEMESTER 2 2021/2022

BKC4934 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II

PRODUCTION OF 18 000 MTPA OF ASCORBIC ACID FROM D-SORBITOL

SUPERVISOR: AP. DR. AZILAH BINTI AJIT @ ABD AZIZ

NURUL AKMAZATUL BINTI AHMAD KA18049

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

NURUL AKMAZATUL BINTI AHMAD KA18049

A.P. DR. AZILAH BINTI AJIT @ ABD AZIZ

Chapter 2: Process screening and synthesis

Chapter 3: Process flow diagram and material and energy balance

Chapter 4: Heat integration and utilities

Chapter 5: Process equipment sizing and costing

Chapter 6: Process control and safety

Chapter 7: Waste management and pollution control

Chapter 8: Economic analysis

Table 5.1: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 1 (R-101)…………………………182

Table 5.2: Design Data Sheet of Fermentation Reactor 2 (R-102)………………………….184

Figure 1.1: Possible effects of vitamin C to COVID-19………………………………….…....8

This report includes all literature study as listed at below:

1. Project background: Overview of ascorbic acid.

2. Property: Chemical and physical properties of ascorbic acid.

3. Toxicity: Safety and health of the products involved.

ascorbic acid in Malaysia, Asia Pacific and global.

according to specific aspects.

1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

1.1.3 Route of Synthesis

The chemical equation of this process can be seen as below:

Sorbitol + Oxygen + Sodium bicarbonate → Ascorbic acid + Sodium hydroxide +

Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen + Water

1.1.3.2.2 With Single Culture

Sorbitol + Oxygen + Sodium bicarbonate → Ascorbic acid + Sodium hydroxide +

Carbon dioxide + Water

1.1.4 Toxicity of Ascorbic Acid

Potential Health Effect Description

1.2.1 Food Industry

1.2.2 Pharmaceutical Industry

Table 1.2: Interaction of multivitamin or other ingredients with ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid works by keeping iron soluble and bioavailable as the

Figure 1.1: Possible effects of vitamin C to COVID-19 (Abobaker et al, 2020)

Ascorbic acid is a white crystalline compound that is soluble in water. It is also

1.3.2 Global Market of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

Figure 1.2: Global Market Ascorbic Acid (2021-2026) (Ltd, 2021)

Calcium Ascorbate, Sodium Ascorbate, Magnesium Ascorbate, Potassium Ascorbate,

Figure 1.3: Type of Ascorbic Acid (reportsanddata, 2020).

1.3.3 Global Demand of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

Figure 1.5: Ascorbic Acid Demand by Application (reportsanddata, 2020)

Figure 1.6: Global Market Vitamin C by Region (2018-2027) (reportsanddata, 2020)

1.3.4 Global Production of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

1.3.5 Competitors/Producers of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

Table 1.3: Global Competitor of Ascorbic Acid

⚫ DSM is a company that global purpose-led, science-based company

⚫ Amway is located at near Ada, Michigan,United Stated.

Table 1. 4: Asia Pacific Competitor of Ascorbic Acid

⚫ CSPC Weisheng Pharmaceutical Shijiazhuang Co. Ltd is a

⚫ Shandong Luwei Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd is a company that

Figure 1.8: Global Pricing of Ascorbic Acid 2020/2021 (dolchem.com, 2021)

Table 1. 5: Price of Ascorbic Acid (alibaba, 2021)

Company Location Purity (%) Price ($/MT)

Figure 1.9: Global Sorbitol Market (Marques et al., 2016)

The three process technologies for producing ascorbic acid are:

1.4.1 Reichstein process

Figure 1.10: Reaction step of production of ascorbic acid in Reichstein Process

Sorbitol + Oxygen + Sodium bicarbonate → Ascorbic acid + Sodium hydroxide +

Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen + Water