ae sale - _ a ee D ELECT! ND E Le - WAV We have mainly restricted our discussions to static or time invariant E and B fields. The electrostatic field E can exist in the absence of magnetic field H (or B), a capacitor with a static charge q is an example. The magnetostatic field H (or B) can exist in the absence of electric field, a conductor with a constant current has a magnetic field H without an E-field, We shall examine situations where electric and magnetic fields are dynamic or time varying. In such a case the electromagnetic fields are interdependent i., H cannot exist without an E- field nor can E exist without a corresponding H-field. In other words, a time varying electric field necessarily involves a corresponding time varying magnetic field. The time varying fields are usually due to accelerated charges or time varying currents. Although much valuable information can be derived from static field theory. The time variable fields are involved in the experiments of Faraday and Hertz and the theoretical analysis of Maxwells equations. ‘Two major concepts have been introduced : (i) the electromotive force based on Faraday’s experiments and (i) displacement current resulted from Maxwell's hypothesis. As a result of these concepts, Maxwell’ equations and the boundary conditions for static electromagnetic fields are modified to account for the time variation of the fields, The Maxwell's equations should be regarded as the base for the study of electromagnetic waves, 14.2 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT ‘The basic laws of electricity and magnetism, which we have discussed in the preceding chapters can be summarized in differential form by the four equations, Gauss's law (Blectrostaties) VE = ley, cy)536 ‘Evecrmterry anp MaGNerisat Gauss’ law (magnetism) VB =0, (2) Faraday’s law of Induction © VxE = -CB/6t, (8) Ampere’s law VxB = WJ, a) ‘These equations are written for fields in vacuum, in the presence of electric charge of density p, and electric current of density J. These are in macroscopic form and in 8.1. units. In the presence of simple dielectrics, cy is replaced by ¢ in Eq. (1). If simple ferromagnetic materials are present, ty is replaced by jin the Eq. (4). Let us recall that all but Faraday’s law were derived from steady-state observations. Maxwell while studying the electromagnetic laws, mentioned above, noticed that there was some thing strange about Eq. (4). As the divergence of a cur! is always zero, hence Eq. (4) becomes div curl B = divi) J) = igdiv J =0. ) Equation of continuity div J + dp/@t = 0 shows that dp/ot must thus be zero, i. the total flux of current out of any closed surface is zero. But this certainly cannot in general be zero because we know that the charges can be moved from one place to another. ‘Maxwell proposed that Eq. (4) was not correct for moving charges and suggested that for changing charge distributions or variable charge densi curiB = J+? (6) ‘To know this unknown, Maxwell suggested that similar to the electric field due to a changing magnetic field (Faraday’s law of induction) there would be a magnetic field due to the changing electric field, AD Here constant term 1/c? or jgey corresponds to the system of units in S.J. units. Using this term as missing term, we get eu B = pF + Hp 6 BE = Hy (T+I). 8) Maxwell called this added term J, the displacement current density. ‘To check this equation, take divergence of both sides, div (curl B) = div (gS) + div [i & OB/OH] = ip div I+ uy div (@D/ee] = i (div 3 + dpve0. (as divD =) As div (curl B) is zero, hence right hand side is also zero, which is same as obtained by virtue of the continuity condition. Maxwell used an indirect argument to back up his idea for the requirement of extra term in Ampere’s law. In the case of a current carrying wire, one may consider a flat surface A and ‘the sack-shaped surface A’ with the common closed path, as shown in Fig. 14.1 (a). Since the surface integral of the current density J is the total current threading the path of the line integral. Thus the current passing through the surfaces A and A’ is the same, as required by Kirehhoft’s law. Now consider a different situation, when the current deposits charge on the plates of a capacitor. Fig. 14.1(6) shows two surfaces A and A’ with the same loop as this common boundary. Acurrent I crosses surface A, while no current crosses surface A’. Thus we have‘Maxwe!s Equations ano Euacrrowaoneric WAVES 537 AIL ® © Fig. 14.1. Conduction current (continuous arrows) and displacement current (dotted arrows) §,B°dA = uf and §,B-da 9) ‘These relations thus predict two contradictory values for the surface ihtegral of B. We therefore conclude that the Ampere’s law in original form is in error. Maxwell noted that oven if no current passes through surface A’, there is a changing electric field through it. As the charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the electric field and the electric flux is developed in the space between the plates. Ifq is the charge at any instant f on the plates, each of aren A, then the electric field in the gap ss moa or (10) Hence the current density in the gap of the plates, = TIA = edBidt. or Sy = sgl. Thus the variation of E with time produces an additional current of current density J, space, called displacement current density. In the case of a parallel plate air capacitor, the displacement current in the space is such as shown by dotted arrows, while conduction current in the connecting wire and plates is such as shown by continuous arrows in the Fig. 14.1. ‘Thus Eq. (6) becomes cul B = 13 +H y=H (I +). ‘This is the Maxwell's eur] equation for magnet fields or the Ampere'seircuital law for time varying conditions. 14.2 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS: Paraday’s law shows that electricity and magnetism are fundamentally connected. The introduction of displacement current by James Clerk Maxwell enhances this connection. Thus we have a complete, consistent set of fundamental laws for eletrcity and magnetism, known as electromagnetic field equations or Maxwell's equations. These are the generalized forms of electromagnetic equations in time varying conditions.538. Exectaicrry aNb MAoverisnt In the absence of dielectric or magnetic materials, Maxwell's equations are = (® Gauss’s law for electric field, which may be written as GWE = ply or §,B-a8 = > [de (a) It states the relation between the electric field and the charges that produced it. In static situations, itis equivalent to Coulomb's law and relates the electric lux through a closed surface to the charge enclosed. This law is actually a generalization of Coulomb's law. Although. Coulomb's law is valid for static charge only, Gauss's law holds even if the charges are in arbitrary motion, ie. if the electric field varies with time. (i) Gauss's law for magnetic fields, which may be written as divB = 0 or ,Bd8 =0 a It states that there are no magnetic charges or magnetic monopole which would generate a ‘magnetic field in the same way as electric charges create an electric field. The magnetic field lines have therefore no sources or sinks to start or end on, as electric field lines start on posilive charges and end on negative charges. They are either closed or go ta infinity. Even for the bar ‘magnet, lines of B exist inside as well as outside the magnetic material. The relation (12) holds even for time dependent magnetic fields. (iii) Faraday’s law of induction, which may be written as Hy cul = ~aB/t or §,B-al=-2 §,Bds=— Se, 13) It states the relation between the induced electric field generated by a changing magnetic flux. It shows that a varying magnetic field acts as one of the possible sources of an electric field. As discussed earlier, the minus sign is very important, which represents the fact that the induced electric field would give rise to an induced current that opposes the change in the magnetic flux. Thus we see that an electric field is set up in a region of space where the magnetic feld is changing with time (iv) Generalized Ampere’s law, which may be written as curl = yy (J +6, 0E/@¢] - x or G,Bedl = 0G, (+00 =) as a) 2, = 2 = vol + Hote PE. (a5) It states the relation between a magnetic field and the current that gives rise to the ficld It shows that the magnetic field is produced by an electric current or by a changing electric field (or flux). The second term representing the rate of change of electric field flux is known as displacement current distribution, introduced by Maxwell. Thus we see that the conduction currents and displacement currents are two possible sources of a magnetic field. In the Gaussian system of units, Maxw: V-E = dnp, equations may be written as 216)‘Maxwerxs Equarions ano Euscrromaaneric Waves 539 ‘the first two equations show that the net flux of lines of E or B is zero throughout any arbitrary volume of no source. They show that lines of E and B are continuous. The third equation shows that the electric field due to the variation of B is not only a statement: of Faraday’s law but a property of space independent of the presence of a conducting loop of wire. ‘The fourth equation shows the new concept of magnetic field generation by displacement current. Maxwell's equations are the basic equations for all electromagnetism. They are fundamental as they are valid even relativistically. Now we cannot treat electric and magnetic fields separately if they vary with time. As a changing magnetic field produces an electric field and a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. An important outcome of this fact is the production of electromagnetic waves. The symmetry between electric and magnetic field is not perfect, because magnetic monopole does not exist. Faraday’s law contains no term like the ji term in Ampere’s law, because there is no free magnetic charge to form a magnetic current. The symmetry is perfect in the vacuum, where there is no electric charges, such as div B =0, div B = 0, curl B = jigs JB and curl E = ~0BIt. san) In the presence of matter, the Maxwell's equations are modified by replacing c by ¢ and ky by 1. Except for ferromagnetic materials, 4 is very close tos and the replacing of hy by 4 does not affect. much, ‘The electromagnetic properties of material media may be taken into account through relations D=cE,B=yH and J=oE, (08) known as constitutive relations. They express the relations between field vectors and currents, which take into account the properties of a material medium. Dieleetrie properties, which are phenomenologically described by polarization, are taken into account in permittivity ¢. Magnetic properties, which are phenomenologically described by magnetization, are taken into account. Jn permeability 1. The conducting properties ofthe medium are included in conductivity 0. ‘Maxwell's equation are applicable under the following conditions : (4) Material bodies are at rest relative to the electromagnetic field, (2) Material constants e, 4 and may depend on coordinates, but should be independent, of time and field vectors. (3) There should be no ferromagnetic substance and permanent magnets in the field region. 14.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘Two Maxwell's equations, Faraday’s law and the generalized Ampere’s law show that when the electric and magnetic fields are time dependent, they influence each other and are said to be coupled. As a consequence of this coupling, the electric and magnetic fics transport encray over very large distances. The coupled fields produce travelling Waves called electromagnetic waves. The existence of EM-waves was first investigated by Heinrich Hertz, who succeeded in generating and detecting radio waves. Which are sometimes ealled Hortian waves in his honour. ‘The EM-waves include light rays, radio-waves, TV-signals and radar beams. All forms of EM-energy have fundamental characteristics :() They travel at high velocity, (i) They assume the properties of waves in travelling, and (ii) They radiate outward from a source.540 ‘Eecrnicrry ano MAGNerism Before proceeding towards mathematics, let us see the qualitative features. For this purpose, consider an electric dipole antenna attached to an alternating voltage generator. When the upper end of the antenna is +vely charged, the electric field close to the antenna will bein -ve y-direction as shown in Fig. 14.2. After a half cycle the oscillator will have reversed the charges at the ends, and the electric field at any point P will be in the +ve y-direction. Fig, 142, Electric eld closed Ifthe charge on one end oscillates sinusoidally with frequency /' = ‘to oscillating charge. @ = agsin Qnft, (19) then the electric field at point P will be given as E, = -E, sin 2xf. (20) ‘The -ve sign occurs, as electric field is inv downward when upper end is +ve. The electric field is assumed to be the disturbance sent out by the dipole source as a wave on a string produced by an oscillating source. At a point P in the path of the wave, the elec field reverses periodically as the wave passes through the point. The frequency of the oscil electri field at P is the same as the frequency of the souree. If the point P is at some large distance x from the antenna, one can expect the field to take a time f, (= 2/0) to reach this point. Here v is the velocity with which the field travels from the antenna to point P. The field at point P will be that existed at the antenna at time ty, not that at time ¢. Thus the field at time ¢ at point P is given by E, = —Ey sin 2nft ~ ty) =~ By sin [2x lt —x/], By sin (ot =2/) = By sin (xx - 08), 2) where x is called the wave number and is related to the wavelength 2. as x = 2n/2 = UX. ‘Ata large distance, E, will vary very slowly with x and is constant approximately. Hence at any particular instant, the field along the x-axis appears as sinusoidal wave. As successive portions of the electric field (or wave) move through point P, the field will oscillate sinusoidally up and down in x-y plane thus giving rise to the alternating electric field E associated with an electromagnetic wave. tah, Fig. 14.3, Production of E-wave, M-wave and EM-wave.Maxwei!s Equarions ano Eurcrromaaneric Waves, Ban ‘The electric field wave is nearly a plane wave, its intensity does not change much with distance, It is a transverse wave, because the vibrating quantity (& ~ vector) is directed perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. ‘The wave requires no material ‘medium for its transmission and thus ean exist in vacuum or empty space. ‘The antenna also generates magnetic field waves, As the charges at the end ofthe antenna change, there results an alternating eurrent in the antenna, Because a magnetic field circles ‘ carrent, an oscillating magnetic feld is thus produced, The magnetic field wave also travels out along the x-axis asa transverse wave. The magnetic field i in the z-direction, ifthe electric field is in the y-direction. The E-wave, M-wave and the combination EM-wave are shown in Fig. 14.3. The E:M wave is a monochromatic, plane, linearly polarized wave traveling in @ vacuum, Since the current that produces EM-wave must change with time, Thus the charges that produce it must be accelerating, The important point is that the electric field remains parallel to the current direction and the magnetic field remains perpendicular both to the electric field and the direction of propagation. 14.4 EM-WAVES FROM MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS Let us consider only the case of plane waves with the direction of propagation along the - axis, where the electric and magnet fields are directed transverse tothe direction of travel. Consider a rectangle of infinitesimal size in xy plane (Fig. 144 (a)]. As the electromagnetic wave passes over it, the magnetic flux ®, through it will change. It will give rise to induced slectric fields around the rectangle, ‘which are the electric component of the traveling wave. As the wave is moving to the right through the rectangle, the flux 0, is deereasing with time. If the rectangle is [?4 assumed to be a conducting loop, a counter clockwise induced current a ‘would appear in it. This current s would produce a magnetic field ° oo within the rectangle, that would oppose the decrease in ¢y. Since there is no eonducting loop, but the net induced electric field E sets counter clockwise around the rectangle (E at right edge is greater than at the let edge), hence the electric field configuration is as induced by the changing magnetic field. As is directed in the +y direction, hence Kral will be zero over the ends of length Ax. if ‘we go around the rectangle counter clockwise, we get from Maxwell's Eq, (13) Fig. 14.4. Applying Maxwell's equations to the rectangles. [Bid f Bat Be ae (As dS = 1 ax is slong zrection). Assuming H, a8 B,, and By, slong paths 1 and 2 respectively, we have (Eq-E,N = -Loxt0 Be. all distance, we can assume E, to change linearly with x in this region. Since Ax is such ‘Thus we can write Eq = Ey + (0B fax) dx or Ey (GB Jez.542 Buncrmcrry axp Maser a, 2B.) a, Bt) ast = -tre( SB) or (Bs - a(S) «3-3 In evaluating aE /éx, itis assumed that ¢ is constant, because Fig. 14.3 is an instantaneous snap shot. In evaluating Bt, it is assumed that x is constant because the time rate of change of B at a particular place is required. The minus sign in this equation is appropriate, as Z, is increasing with x and B, is decreasing with time t. Now consider a rectangle in xz plane ((Fig. 14.4 (6)] for which flux ¢y is decreasing with time as the wave moves through it. This change will induce a magnetic field at points around the periphery of the rectangle. This induced field is the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave. As clear from Eq, (15), the closed line integral of B around the rectangle, if we proceed in counter clockwise direction, is negative, while itis positive for E. Thus we see that the lines of induced fields E and B circulate in opposite directions, even though fluxes ©, and @, respectively are changing with time in the same way. (22) Using similar operations for Bq. (15), here too the Brd 1 will be zero over the ends of the closed path in xz plane, Fig. 14.4 (b). Hence Eq. (15) with no conduction current becomes: a [Ba [Bell = vio 2 fae Assuming B, as B,, and B,, along paths 1 and 2 respectively, we have (By Ba) l= taf last Jee), ‘If, changes with x linearly with in this small distance Ax, then we have 2, + (0BJax) Ax. or B,, ~ B,, = (0B,/ex) Ax 2B.) ay 2 oo ~(Belaat = so tae Ze, or Be poss FE (23) Differentiating Eq, (22) with respect to x and Eq, (23) with respect tof and subtracting, we get PB fax = ip, (PE/O). Similarly we can get an equation involving B, only after differe in opposite order and then subtracting, as PB Jax? = tgp (PBIOC). (2B) ‘Comparison with the equation for a transverse wave on a string shows immediately that Eqs. (24) and (25) represent the differential equations that imply wave propagation. The velocity of propagation along.2- direction is given by Vig 5)", (26) Substitution of numerical values jy = 4 x 10-7 N-sec*/C? and ry = 8.85 x 10" C¥/N - mt, gives v = 2.998 x 10* m/sec, which is the measured velocity of light c. This shows that light ‘may be electromagnetic radiation. ‘To show the relationship between the magnitude of the electric and magnetic vectors in the wave, let us differentiate Eq, (21) with respect to t. This gives AB Jat = -E,0 cos (xx - ot) an 24) ing Bags, (22) and (23)Moweit’s Beuarions ano Becrroaoxertc Waves 543 Substituting this value in Ea, (23), we get OB fox = Wy By 0 608 ex ~ 0) On integrating with respect to x, we get B, = Yo Eyu sin (ex ~ ot) = wy 6 0E, (28) or B, = (iy)! B, = Bu = Be. (29) At any point in space the E and B are related by EJB, = EIB =v(=0). (30) ‘The relation (28) may be written as B, = Bysin (ex ot). = d5y8P = ByPHy AD, as the average of the sine-squared factor over one period is one half. For a monochromatic plane wave S = (Ex BY, = cry E,? sin? (xx - of i zeui (48) Here we see that the energy density and hence the magnitude of the Poynting vector varies with time. The average value of S over one cycle of electromagnetic wave is called the intensity 1 ofthe radiation. Th the intanityofem-vave is the average power per unit aren transported by the em-wave.‘Maxweu's Equarions ano Euecrromaoneric WAVES 57 S>zecur= I ce BE (49) ‘Momentum of Electromagnetic Wave : Electromagnetic fields not only earry energy, they also carry momentum, To see this qualitatively, consider an electromagnetic wave propagating along x direction with its electric and magnetic field vectors along y- and z-axes respectively. When such a wave impinges on a charge +g, the charge experiences a foree. If at any instant E-vector is along +y direction, a force q E will also act along +y— direction. Thus the charge accelerates and moves with some velocity v in the +y direction. The force gv x B due to B vector (which must act in the +2 direction) acts along +x direction and thus pushes the charge in that direction. When the electric field vector reverses sign, the electric force on the charge acts in the ~y-direction and the velocity component is thus along ~y-direction. The magnetic field vector has also reversed sign, thus the magnetic force continues to act in the x-direction, Thus for a complete cycle, the average of force gE is zero, but the force in the x-direction is always positive. The charge has an increased momentum in the x- direction, From conservation of momentum, this momentum is transferred by the em-wave. ‘The momentum density (the linear momentum per unit volume) of an electromagnetic wave, p= Skt =e 460)

= ie, GD) Radiation Pressure : When the electromagnetic waves are incident on the surface of a substance, they are absorbed or reflected and thus transfer momentum to the substance. The rate at which momentum is transferred per unit area is known as radiation pressure. If all the incident wave is absorbed, the whole of the momentum carried by the wave is ‘transferred to the absorbing surface. For the radiations falling normally on a surface of area A in a time interval af, the Impulse = Momentum density x volume PAt = (ule) (Ac At) =uA At, Rediation pressure P,,, = FIA= ‘The radiation pressure will be 2u, ifthe electromagnetic wave is totally reflected, 14.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER If the vacuum is replaced by matter, all equations given above must be modified by using. hand ¢ for p and ¢, respectively. If the medium is homogeneous and isotropic and for which the dielectric constant & and relative magnetic permeability &,, are constant, then the speed of electromagnetic wave in medium is given by (52) 1 e 0 = Ton Setokln ihn (53) where c is the speed of light in vacuum and n is the refractive index of the medium. In most dielectrics, k,, = Land k > 1. Thus the speed of electromagnetic wave in the medium is always Jess than that in vacuum. In a perfect conductor, there can be no electric field. Hence the em- wave can not penetrate a perfect conductor and thus totally reflected. Thus we see that the polished metal surfaces are good reflectors to em-waves. However, these waves can penetrate real conductors and the electric currents produced dissipate some of the wave enerzy.548 Eupornicrry ap Maaneris. Ina medium, energy density u= }ekts Bmp Poynting veetor 8 = (ExBy Intensity of wave = becky. 64) ‘The quantities & and k,, are also represented as ¢, and 4, such that © = ee and =, Hy. ‘There are following possible media (A) Free space (o = 0, = % 11s) (2) Non conducting media : (a) dielectrics without losses (o = (b) Dielectries with losses (« # 0, =6, 9,1 = Hh) (8) Good conductors (6 = 2, ¢ = H= H, Hy). Before we consider wave motion in these different media, itis appropriate to derive the wave equations in a linear medium using Maxwell’s equations. 14,6 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS AND WAVE EQUATION Let us find the equation for electromagnetic wave propagating in a linear medium using Maxwell's equations. In a linear medium, we have B = H, D = cK and J = oE. The quantities permittivity e, permeability « and conductivity o are assumed to be constants independent of = 5,8 = Hy) Position and time variables. Under these conditions, Maxwell's equations may be written as V+E = pe old) vB=0 w VxE = -0Blt i) VxB = p+ pooB/e iv) ‘Substituting J = oF in the equation (iv), we get VxB = poE+ pe dba, ‘Taking the curl of this equation, we get Vx(VxB)=10(VxE)+ pe 2 (xB (65) Using the vector identity Vx(VxA) = V(V-A)-VAA, weget VV B)- VB = ~ po aBict — ye # Bias? or VB — pe PBA? — yo Bot = 0. (68) In order to solve Maxwell's equations for E, we take the curl of equation (ii) as v(-2 a Using the vector identity V x (V x E) = V(V - E)~V°E, we get vive) viE = =o Eye ZF, 67) Lat us restrict to a charge free medium for which ¥-D=0or V- E=0. Thus Eq, (67) reduces to a ZivxB)= gorB) a « Z[noesne Z|‘Maxwa's Equamions ann Eugcrmomaaneric Waves 549 VE — we PEE — yo Ole = 0. (68) We thus obtain partial three dimensional second order (in space and time) differential equations each for E and B separately. 14.7 PROPAGATION OF EM-WAVES IN NONCONDUCTING MEDIUM For a non-conducting medium, such as dielectrics, = 0, then Eqns. (56) and (58) reduce to VEB— pe PBC? = 0, 69) and VIE ue PBIE = 0, 60) ‘These are called the undamped, three dimensional and homogeneous wave equations. An electromagnetic wave is said to be a plane wave if the field vectors of the wave have the same magnitude at all points of any plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. ‘A wave is called monochromatic if the time variation of the field vectors of the wave obeys a harmonic law with a certain constant frequency, since frequency corretpons perceptually to colour. ‘Thus for a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along the x-axis, the field vectors of the wave have the form Ete, 2) = EG) e™, B(x, t) = B(x) e“*". (61) ‘The wave is called homogeneous if the constant phase surfaces coincide with the surfaces of constant amplitude. Equations (59) and (60), show that the field vectors satisfy the wave equation, where the velocity of the wave v= 1h. 62) Substituting the value of E (x,t) in Eq. (60), we get @ Bde + PEG) = 0, (63) where x? = 0? w€ or x= a/v = wave number. The general solution of this equation is given hy Be) = Be + Be, 64) where E, and E, are constants, Substituting this value of E(x) in Eq. (61), we get Et, t) = Eye 2 4 Byori, (65) This relation represents plane wave in both directions along the x-axis, the first term for the wave along +z axis, and the second term for the wave along x axis. Thus for the wave propagating in the positive direction of the x-axis, we have EG,t) = Bytte-«0, (66) ‘Similarly the solution for B can be found to be Bi, t) = Bye-. 467) ‘The relations (66) and (67) show the plane, monochromatic and homogeneous waves propagating along +x-direction in a homogeneous dielectric without a change in their amplit ‘Let us now discuss a few properties. Phase Velocity : The velocity of motion of an equiphase surface is called the phase velocity ‘Thus the differentiation of constant phase with respect to time gives ke —ot = const or xdz/dt — @ = 0.550 Execraicrry ano MAcNEnisMt , de 1 ie Pham mony tg = Sate one Let be the radius vector of a point on such an equiphase plane. We have xr = xx and Efr, t) = By eM"; B (r,t) = By eft- 69) where « is in the direction of propagation of em-wave. Properties of Waves : Maxwell's equation div E =0 gives V-E = ix-E=0, (70) It shows that the electric field vector E of the wave is perpendicular tox, ie, perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. Similarly, Maxwell's equation div B = 0, gives V-B = ix-B=0, <7) ice, vector B is perpendicular tox, ie., perpendicular to the direction of propagation. It shows that E and B are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, ie, the ‘em-waves are transverse. ‘Maxwell's equation Vx E = ~AB/ét gives (68) kxE = oB. : 72) Let & be the unit vector in the direction of wave propagation. Then we have k= Rob R xB = uB. (73) It farther shows that E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other and are also perpendicular to ®. Further E and B are in phase. Their amplitudes are related by . By = (wlo) Ey = Eye. ATA) 14.8 PROPAGATION OF EM-WAVES IN A CONDUCTING MEDIUM. ‘We consider a homogeneous medium (j= const, ¢ = const), charge free and external current, free. The currents existing in the material are induced only by the electromagnetic waves itself, thus we have J = cE. As discussed earlier, the electromagnetic fields in such medium are given at VE ye R/O — yo B/C = 0 (68) and VB - us PBA? — po AB/at = 0. 1 56) For a plane monochromatic wave, we take E (r, t) = E(r) ¢, hence Eq. (58) may be written Ps VB + (ue0? +100) B = 0 or veri S(1+12)e = 0, 78) where n= \[kk,, = refractive index of the medium. ‘The quantity ng (1 +i o/ew)"? = complex refractive index, n,, which may be written as‘Maxwait's Equanions ano Euecraomaaneric Waves 551 n, = Mg(1+icla)=n-+im, (76) where n and m are real quantities, called the optical constants. We consider a plane wave propagating in x-direction. Therefore we take | E | independent of the coordinates y and z, V? may be replaced by 2/4x*. Thus Eq. (75) reduces to fe nde? GE, no0" (14/2) g = 0. an at ea. In the absence of the conducting properties of the material (i.e, « = 0), this equation is same as Eq, (63) and has the solution E = Eye". Thus, we see that for the conducting medium, the wave number x will be complex. Let us assume the solution of Eq. (77), as EW) = Ee, (78) where y is a constant complex wave number, which is independent of x and B,. Substituting this value of E(x) in the Eq, (77), we get Bet v= Metis), (09) This relation is known as dispersion relation as it relates the propagation constant and the angular frequency «. The complex quantity y may be written as ya tie. (80) or wPaet Qiks = o2e (On solving, we get -¢esl = 22s)" on ‘hu the elects ld vector take the form E = Bye eri etal a Byer oleae, 82) Similarly, we get the relation, fr magnetic eld vector B oa B = Bye etis—o0, (83) ‘The comparison of equations (76) and (81) gives x = Qnande=2m. (84)562 Euzcrucrry axp Maaxerisat ‘The quantity n is interpreted as the refractive index of the medium. It depends on the conductivity 0 of the medium and the frequency o of the wave. The Eq, (82) shows that the amplitude of the wave decreases during its propagation, ie, the em-wave propagating in a conducting medium is damped. The distance in which the electric field vector of the wave decreases to Le ofits initial value is called the penetration depth A of the wave into a conducting, tnedium This distance is alo called skin depth Thus aye yp? an dee 44.25) “| (65) ‘The quantity s is known as the attenuation constant, which also depends on and o. A rapid attenuation of electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium results into Joule's heat. v2 ° 2 Te stanreneoes = 26 sea This shows that the phase velocity in a conducting medium is smaller than its value in a non-conducting medium. The wavelength in a conducting medium «© © |pell+O+ oro?) *) is smaller in comparison with the wavelength in a non-conducting medium, Maxwell's equation Vx E = - dB/dt gives B he RxE ic z 2 By: ew etre io? ecient ‘This equation shows that the electric and magnetic field vectors are out of phase, although they are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. ‘The ratio of Ey/H,, the intrinsic impedance of the medium is « complex quantity dependent of frequency. LB. (88) fo Ng +ic/ea}® “= Above relations show that the ratio ByE, in the conducting medium is larger than that in ‘non-conducting medium. ‘The phase of Z, may be calculated by expressing it in complex polar form. Z, = [Zar where | Z | = —— 2". as there | Z| = Fe eapaghye mma tane =o (88)Maxwau1's Equarions ano Euzcraomacneric Waves, 553 ‘The electric and magnetic fields vectors of a monochromatic plane wave in a conducting ‘medium are shown in Fig. 14.6. Fig. 146. and B vector in a conductor. inane « £(2)"-(-2-) Since k,, = 1, therefore A = (2/i, 00)" (90) This relation shows that A does not depend on the dielectric properties of the good conductors, however it depends on the frequency and conductivity. It shows that waves of higher frequencies do not penetrate as much as those of lower frequencies. Since for ole >> 1, tan becomes very large, hence 6 > 7/2. Thus the phase difference between E and B fields in a perfect conductor is 4 Good Insulators (or weakly conducting medium) : The conductivity of good insulators is very small and o/eo < 1 even at very low frequencies. x= MA eR, 2-8 ot Sh S (ov 2am _ 20 ‘Thus skin - 2. . depth = Se (02) Since oiew < 1, hence s < x, the wave propagates many wave lengths without much loss, the material thus acts as transparent. Since, o/ew <1, tan clea, therefore the phase angle between E and B fields is 2 = aren, (93) One can prove easily that in a conductor, the energy is not equally shared between the electric and magnetic fields. The magnetic contribution predominates. In a good conductor, the energy is almost magnetic. 14.9 POLARIZATION OF PLANE WAVES. We can produce transverse and longitudinal waves in a string. Sound waves are longitudinal. Electromagnetic waves are transverse. There are two dimensions perpendicular to any given line of propagation. Correspondingly, transverse waves occur in two independent states, vibrations up and down (vertical direction), left and right (horizontal direction). If the electromagnetic wave propagates along x-direction, the electric vibrations may be along y- or