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Introductory Mathematical Analysis, 14e (Haeussler et al.)
Chapter 6 Matrix Algebra
6.1 Matrices
Provide an appropriate response.
1) If A = , determine (a) , and (b) the order of A.
Answer: (a) 7 (b) 3×4

Type: SA
Objective: (6) Matrices
2) If A = , determine (a) , and (b) the order of A.
Answer: (a) 5 (b) 3×3

Type: SA
3) Solve the matrix equation: =

Answer: x = 1, y = -1
Type: SA
4) Solve the matrix equation: =

Answer: x = 10, y = 5
Type: SA
5) Write A = if A is 2 × 2 and = 2i + j.
Answer:
Type: SA
6) Write A = if A is 2 × 3 and = 2i + j.
Answer:
Type: SA
1
© 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
7) If A = where A is 2 × 2 and = i - 2j, then matrix A is given by
A) .
B) .
C) .
D) .
E) .
Answer: E
Type: MC
8) If = , then y =
A) 0.
B) 2.
C) -2.
D) 4.
E) -4.
Answer: C
Type: MC
9) Write a diagonal matrix of size 3 × 3 with entries = i + 3, = 0 for i ≠ j.
Answer:
Type: SA
10) Find the transpose of the matrix:
Answer:
Type: SA
11) Find a 3 × 2 matrix with = = 0, all other equal to 1.
Answer:
Type: SA
2
12) A manufacturer who produces products A, B, and C is only interested in tracking labor costs.
What is the order of the matrix he would use?
Answer: 1 × 3
Type: SA
13) A manufacturer who produces one product is only interested in tracking material costs. What
is the order of the matrix he would use?
Answer: 1 × 1
Type: SA
14) A manufacturer who requires raw materials A, B, C, D, and E is interested in tracking the
costs of these materials from 3 different sources. What is the order of the matrix he would use?
Answer: 3 × 5
Type: SA
15) A blended juice product requires 5 gallons of apple juice, no orange juice, and 2 gallons of
cranberry juice. Construct an ingredient matrix for this product.
Answer:
Type: SA
16) A manufacturer of blended juices will also bottle pure juices for one supermarket chain. This
week he bottles cherry, grape, and cranberry juice. Fill in the matrix for the gallons of each juice
needed to produce 1 gallon of juice for each of the 3 pure juices.
Answer:
Type: SA
17) An employer offers medical, dental, and life insurance to both salaried and unsalaried
employees. She describes her annual costs for these benefits in a matrix, and finds that, after
employee contributions, only medical insurance requires an employer contribution of $20,000
for salaried and $15,000 for unsalaried employees. Construct a matrix which shows this result.
Answer: or
Type: SA
3
18) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the transpose of
Answer:
Type: SA
19) Find the transpose of .
Answer:
Type: SA
20) Find transpose of .
Answer:
Type: SA
21) Consider the matrix , this matrix can be best described as a(n):
A) upper triangular matrix

B) lower triangular matrix
C) diagonal matrix
D) main diagonal
Answer: A
Type: MC
6.2 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
4
1) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: +2
Answer:
Type: SA
Objective: (6) Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
2) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: 3 -4
Answer:
Type: SA
3) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: 2
Answer:
Type: SA
4) 2 - =
A)
B)
C)
D)
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Type: MC
5
5) If 4 +2 = , then
A) x = 0 and y = 0.
B) x = 4 and y = -5.
C) x = 0 and y = 4.
D) x = and y = .
E) There are no values for x and y which satisfy the equation.

Answer: C
Type: MC
6) If A = ;B= , then find (A + .
Answer:
Type: SA
7) Find x, y, z, u, t, v such that +2 =

Answer: x =6, y = -1, z = -1, u = 1, t = -2, v = 2
Type: SA
8) Solve the matrix equation: 3 -2 =
Answer: x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
Type: SA
9) Solve the matrix equation: x +2 +y =
Answer: x = -2, y = -1
Type: SA
6
10) An office furniture company manufactures desks and tables at two plants, A and B. Matrix J
represents the production of the two plants in January, and matrix F represents the production of
the two plants in February. Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to write a matrix
that represents the total product at the two plants for the two months.
J= ;F=
Answer: T =
Type: SA
11) A pharmaceutical company manufactures 3 drugs for high blood pressure, A, B, and C, each
of which requires a 2-step production process. The production cost of each drug has a materials
and labor component. If the matrices and represent the costs per ounce associated with
each step, use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to write a matrix that shows the
total cost of the two steps.
= ; =
Answer: T =
Type: SA
12) A small airline has 3 flights, A, B, and C, to each of 3 cities in Colorado. The matrix N
represents the number of passengers carried in November, and matrix D represents the number of
passengers carried in December. Write a matrix that shows the total number of passengers
carried in these two months.
N= ;D=
Answer: T =
Type: SA
7
A women's clothing chain takes inventory of one brand of sweater. The sweaters come in 3
sizes: small, medium, and large, and 5 colors. The inventories at stores A, B, and C are
represented by the matrices below.
A= ;B= ;C=
13) Show that A + B = B + A.

Answer:
A+B= ;B+A=
Type: SA
14) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to show that A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
Answer: A + (B + C) = A + =
(A + B) + C = +C=
Type: SA
15) Show that A + O = A.
Answer: A + O = + = =A
Type: SA
16) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to show that A + C = C + A.
Answer: A + C = ,C+A=
Type: SA
8
The energy economy of an area is composed of four industries: gas, coal, hydroelectric and
nuclear. The three main consumers of energy are area residential consumers, a
manufacturing plant, and a university. Assume that each consumer may use some of the
energy produced by each industry, and also that each industry uses some of the energy
produced by each of the other industries. The energy needs of each consumer and industry
are represented by a demand vector whose entries, in order, give the amount of gas, coal,
hydroelectric, and nuclear energy needed by each consumer or industry, in some
convenient units. The demand vectors for the consumers are:
and the demand vectors for the industries are:
17) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the total demand for the four types
of energy from only the consumers.
Answer: =
Type: SA
18) What is the total demand for the four types of energy from only the energy industries?
Answer: =
Type: SA
19) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the total demand for the four types
of energy from the manufacturing facility and the university.
Answer: =
Type: SA
20) What is the total demand for the four types of energy from both the consumers and the
energy industries?
Answer: T =
Type: SA
9
In the energy demand problem above, the demand vectors could be represented in a 2 row
matrix, where row 1 contains the energy demands of the consumers and row 2 contains the
energy demands of the energy industries:
D=
21) A boom in the economy causes an across the board increase of 10% in energy demands in
the area. Calculate a new demand matrix which reflects this increase.
Answer: D =
Type: SA
22) A new EPA mandate requires that all energy users reduce their energy use from the original
level by over the next 10 years to minimize global warming. Use the matrix operations on a
graphing calculator to calculate a new demand matrix which reflects this decrease.
Answer: D =
Type: SA
23) A researcher is studying the effects on the local economy of changes in the original demand
matrix. He models one change by the matrix equation = D + 0.5D. Calculate the new demand
matrix in his model.
Answer: =
Type: SA
24) The researcher then changes the original demand matrix using the matrix equation =A+
0.2D, where A = . Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to calculate the
new demand matrix in his model.
Answer: =
Type: SA
10
Let matrix A represent the sales (in thousands of dollars) of a toy company in 1994 in three
cities, let B represent the sales in the same cities in 1995, and let C represent the sales in the
same cities in 1996.
A= ;B= ;C=
25) What is the change in sales between 1994 and 1995?

Answer: B - A =
Type: SA

Answer: C - B =
Type: SA

Answer: C - A =
Type: SA
A manufacturer of doors, windows, and cabinets writes her yearly profit (in thousands of
dollars) for each category in a vector as: Her fixed costs of production can be
described by the vector:
28) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find her income if increasing it by 20%
would cause an increase in profit of 50%. (Round to the nearest thousand dollars.)
Answer: 1.2 - = 1.5 ; = 343, = 424, = 715
Type: SA
29) What would her income be if increasing it threefold would cause her profit to be five times
as large? (Round to the nearest thousand dollars.)
Answer: 3 - =5 ; = 427, = 542, = 907
Type: SA
11
30) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find her income if increasing it two
times would cause her profit to be three times as large. (Round to the nearest thousand dollars.)
Answer: 2 - =3 ; = 392, = 494, = 828
Type: SA
31) If A = and B = , find A + B.
Answer:
Type: SA
32) If A = and B = , find A - B.
Answer:
Type: SA
33) If A = and B = , find 2A - 3B.
Answer:
Type: SA
34) If A = and B = , find -4A + 5B.
Answer:
Type: SA
12
35) If A = ,B= , and C = , find 4A - 2B + 3C.
Answer:
Type: SA
36) If A = ,B= , and C = , find 7A + 6B - 3C.
Answer:
Type: SA
6.3 Matrix Multiplication
1) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer:
Answer:
Type: SA
Objective: (6) Matrix Multiplication
2) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer: [6][5]

Answer: [30]
Type: SA
3) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer:
Answer:
Type: SA
4) Perform the indicated operation if possible:
Answer: not defined

Type: SA
13
5) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: 2 -
Answer:
Type: SA
6) Three components A, B, and C, are used in the manufacturing of a product. For a production
run, 100, 150, and 200 units of A, B, and C are $2, $1, and $3, respectively. Represent the total
cost of A, B, and C by a matrix product.
Answer:
Type: SA
7) Use matrix multiplication to represent the system:
Answer: =
Type: SA
8) Use matrix multiplication to represent the system:
Answer: =
Type: SA
9) If the orders of the matrices Q, R, and S are 4 × 5, 3 × 2, and 5 × 3, respectively, then the
order of QRS is
A) 4 × 5.
B) 3 × 5.
C) 3 × 3.
D) 2 × 4.
Answer: E
Type: MC
14
10) =
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
Answer: C
Type: MC
11) =
A)
B)
C)
D)
Answer: A
Type: MC
12) Let A = . Find .
Answer:
Type: SA
15
13) If A is a 3 × 5 matrix, B is a 5 × 7 matrix, C is a 7 × 11 matrix, D is a 5 × 7 matrix, which of
the following matrix products are defined? Give the size of each answer if it is defined.
(a) A × B × C
(b) B × C × D
(c) A × D × C
(d) A × B × D
Answer:
(a) 3 × 11
(b) not defined
(c) 3 × 11
(d) not defined
Type: SA
14) Let A = ;B= ;C= . Find A
Answer:
Type: SA
15) Give an example of 2 matrices A and B where A × B ≠ B × A.

Answer: ; ; many possible answers
Type: SA
16) An appliance store has 25 refrigerators, 30 ranges, and 10 dishwashers in stock. If the value
of each refrigerator is $600, each range is $300 and each dishwasher is $250, use matrix
operations to find the total value of the appliance store's inventory.
Answer: =
Type: SA
17) An electronics store has 35 televisions, 15 VCRs, and 25 CD players in stock. If the value of
each television is $400, each VCR is $200 and each CD player is $150, use the matrix operations
on a graphing calculator to find the total value of the electronics store's inventory.
Answer: =
Type: SA
16
18) An appliance store has 25 refrigerators, 30 ranges, and 10 dishwashers in stock, and a second
store with 15 refrigerators, 25 ranges, and 20 dishwashers in stock. If the value of each
refrigerator is $600, each range is $300 and each dishwasher is $250, find the total value of the
inventory at the two appliance stores.
Answer: =
Type: SA
19) An electronics store has 35 televisions, 15 VCRs, and 25 CD players in stock, and a second
store with 45 televisions, 25 VCRs, and 30 CD players in stock. If the value of each television is
$400, each VCR is $200 and each CD player is $150, find the total value of the electronics
store's inventory.
Answer: =
Type: SA
20) A bookstore has 100 dictionaries, 70 cookbooks, and 90 thesauruses in stock, and a second
store with 85 dictionaries, 95 cookbooks, and 60 thesauruses in stock. If the value of each
dictionary is $28, each cookbook is $22 and each thesaurus is $16, use the matrix operations on a
graphing calculator to find the total value of the bookstore's inventory.
Answer: =
Type: SA
21) A pet store has 6 kittens, 10 puppies, and 7 parrots in stock, and a second store with 8 kittens,
14 puppies, and 9 parrots in stock. If the value of each kitten is $55, each puppy is $150 and each
parrot is $35, find the total value of the pet store's inventory.
Answer: =
Type: SA
22) The prices (in dollars per unit) for 3 video tapes are represented by the price vector:
A video rental store orders these tapes in the quantities given by the
column vector: Find the total cost (in dollars) of the purchase.
Answer: PQ = =
Type: SA
17
23) The prices (in dollars per unit) for 3 textbooks are represented by the price vector:
P= . A university bookstore orders these books in the quantities given by the
column vector: Q = . Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the total
cost (in dollars) of the purchase.

Answer: PQ = =
Type: SA
24) The prices (in dollars per case) for 3 types of pens are represented by the price vector: P =
. An office supply store orders cases of these pens in the quantities given by the
column vector: Q = . Find the total cost (in dollars) of the purchase.
Answer: PQ = =
Type: SA
25) The prices (in dollars per case) for 3 types of frozen pizzas are represented by the price
vector: A grocery store orders cases of these pizzas in the quantities given by the
column vector: Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the total cost
(in dollars) of the purchase.

Answer: PQ = =
Type: SA
18
The energy economy of an area is composed of four industries: gas, coal, hydroelectric, and
nuclear. The three main consumers of energy are area residential consumers, a
manufacturing plant, and a university. Assume that each consumer may use some of the
energy produced by each industry, and also that each industry uses some of the energy
produced by each of the other industries. The energy needs of each consumer and industry
is represented by a demand vector whose entries, in order, give the amount of gas, coal,
hydroelectric, and nuclear energy needed by each consumer or industry, in some
convenient units. The demand vectors for the consumers are:
and the demand vectors for the industries are:
The price of gas is per
unit, the price of coal is per unit, the price of hydroelectric power is per unit,
and the price of nuclear energy is per unit. These prices can be represented by the
(column) price vector:
P=
26) Find the income earned by the gas industry and its cost for the other forms of energy it uses.
Then calculate its profit.
Answer: Income = $210,000
Cost = $49,000
Profit = $161,000
Type: SA
27) Find the income earned by the coal industry and its cost for the other forms of energy it uses.
Then calculate its profit.
Cost = $85,000
Profit = $15,000
Type: SA
28) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the income earned by the
hydroelectric industry and its cost for the other forms of energy it uses. Then calculate its profit.
Cost = $64,000
Profit = $34,000
Type: SA
19
29) Find the income earned by the nuclear industry and its cost for the other forms of energy it
uses. Then calculate its profit.
Cost = $61,000
Profit = $47,000
Type: SA
Secret messages can be encoded by using a code and an encoding matrix. If we have the
code:
and an encoding matrix: E = , we can encode a message by taking every two letters of
the message, converting them to their corresponding numbers, creating a matrix, and
then multiplying each two numbers by E. Use the code and encoding scheme above and an
additional encoding matrix, F = , to answer the question.
30) If the letters to be encoded are L = , show that E(FL) = (EF)L.
Answer: E(FL) = = =
(EF)L = = =
Type: SA
31) If the letters to be encoded are L = , show that E(FL) = (EF)L.
Answer: E(FL) = = =
(EF)L = = =
Type: SA
32) If the letters to be encoded are L = , show that (E + F)L = EL + FL.
Answer: (E + F)L = = =
EL + FL = + = + =
Type: SA
20
33) If the letters to be encoded are L = , show that (E + F)L = EL + FL.
Answer: (E + F)L = = =
EL + FL = + = + =
Type: SA
Suppose that an automobile manufacturer has accepted orders for 30 minivans, 25 sport
utility vehicles, and 15 sedans. These orders can be represented by the row vector Q = [ 30
25 15 ].
The "raw materials" that go into each type of vehicle are steel, glass, plastic, paint, and
labor. The entries in matrix R below give the number of units of each raw material (in this
order) which are needed for each type of vehicle.
R= .
Suppose that steel costs $800 per unit, glass costs $400 per unit, plastic costs $300 per unit,
paint costs $200 per unit, and labor costs $1000 per unit. This data can be written as the
column cost vector C = .
The price the manufacturer negotiated for each minivan is $16,000, for each SUV is
$21,000, and for each sedan is $13,000. This information can be written as the column price
vector P = .
34) Find the amount of each raw material the manufacturer will need to fill the orders.
Answer: QR = =
Type: SA
35) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the cost of each type of vehicle.
Answer: RC = =
Type: SA
21
36) Find the total cost of raw materials for these vehicles.
Answer: QRC = Q(RC) = =
Type: SA
37) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find the profit made by the
manufacturer on these orders.
Answer: Q(P - RC) = = =
Type: SA
38) The price charged for 2 different CDs at two different stores can be represented by the matrix
The quantities of each CD sold at each store can be represented by the matrix
Show that the transpose of the income generated is equal to the product of the
transposes of P and Q in reverse order, .
Answer: =
= =
=
Type: SA
22
39) The price charged for 2 different paperback books at two different bookstores can be
represented by the matrix P = . The quantities of each book sold at each store can be
represented by the matrix Q = . Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to

show that the transpose of the income generated is equal to the product of the transposes of
P and Q in reverse order, .
Answer: =
= =
=
Type: SA
40) The price charged for cases of 2 different soft drinks at two different stores can be
represented by the matrix The number of cases of each soft drink sold at each
store can be represented by the matrix Show that the transpose of the income
generated is equal to the product of the transposes of P and Q in reverse order, .
Answer: =
= =
=
Type: SA
23
Use the encoding matrix E = , an additional coding matrix, F = , plus the
matrices I = and O = to answer the question.
41) I - E
Answer: I - E =
Type: SA
42) 4(E + 3I)

Answer: 4(E + 3I) =
Type: SA
43) EO
Answer: EO = =0
Type: SA
44) EF
Answer: EF = =I
Type: SA
If E = is the encoding matrix, compute the following.
45)
Answer: =
Type: SA
46)
Answer: =
Type: SA
24
47) (Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator.)
Answer: =
Type: SA
48) (Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator.)

Answer: =
Type: SA
Set up a matrix equation with integer values that is equivalent to the system of equations.
49)
Answer: =
Type: SA
50)
Answer: =
Type: SA
51)
Answer: =
Type: SA
25
52) If A = and C = , find AC.
Answer:
Type: SA
53) If B = and C = , find BC.
Answer: can't be done

Type: SA
54) If A = and B = , find BA.
Answer:
Type: SA
55) If A = ,B= , and C = , find BA - C.
Answer:
Type: SA
56) If A = ,B= , and C = , find 3C + BA.
Answer:
Type: SA
26
6.4 Solving Systems by Reducing Matrices
1) Which of the following are reduced matrices?

A=
B=
C=
D=
Answer: A, B
Type: SA
Objective: (6) Solving Systems by Reducing Matrices
2) Reduce the matrix:
Answer:
Type: SA
3) Reduce the matrix:
Answer:
Type: SA
4) Using the method of reduction, solve the system:
Answer: x = z, y = -2z, z = t
Type: SA
5) Using the method of reduction, solve the system:
Answer: x = 5, y = 7, z = -2
Type: SA
27
6) Reducing gives
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
Answer: E
Type: MC
7) If , then
A) x = 3, y = -1, and z = 4.
B) x = 5, y = -8, and z = 12.
C) x = 2 - 4z, y = -5 + 2z, and z = t.
D) x = 5 - 3z, y = 3 + 4z, and z = t.
Answer: E
Type: MC
8) If , then
A) x = , y = , and z = 0
B) x = 5, y = - , and z =
C) x = 4 - z, y = - z, and z = t
D) x = 2z, y = 3 - 4z, and z = t

Answer: B
Type: MC
28
9) Solve the following system of equations by reducing the matrix:
Answer: x = 48; y = - 85
Type: SA
10) Solve the following system of equations by reducing the matrix:
Answer: x = ; y = 0; z = -
Type: SA
11) For what values of a will the following system of equations have a solution?
Answer: a =
Type: SA
12) Find all solutions by reducing the matrix:
Answer: x = + 2z; y = - - z; z arbitrary
Type: SA
29
An air freight company has three types of aircraft which carry three types of cargo. The
payload, in tons, is summarized in the table below.
13) On Saturdays, the company must move 23 tons of mail, 16 tons of medical supplies, and 17
tons of freight. This system of equations can be represented by the matrix: . Reduce
this matrix to calculate how many aircraft of each type should be used.
Answer: ; 5 passenger planes, 1 transport plane, and 9 commuter planes.
Type: SA
14) On Sundays and holidays, the company must move 14 tons of mail, 9 tons of medical
supplies, and 11 tons of freight. This system of equations can be represented by the matrix:
. Reduce this matrix to calculate how many aircraft of each type should be used.
Answer: ; 3 passenger planes, 1 transport plane, and 4 commuter planes.
Type: SA
15) Each day of the holiday season, the company must move 75 tons of mail, 50 tons of medical
supplies, and 55 tons of freight. This system of equations can be represented by the matrix:
. Reduce this matrix to calculate how many aircraft of each type should be used.
Answer: ; 15 passenger planes, 5 transport planes, and 25 commuter planes.
Type: SA
30
An investment firm offers 3 stock portfolios, A, B, and C. The number of blocks of each
type of stock in each of these portfolios is summarized in the following table:
16) A client wants 26 blocks of high-risk stock, 25 blocks of moderate-risk stock, and 29 blocks
of low-risk stock. Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find how many of each
portfolio should be suggested.
Answer: 1 block of A, 2 blocks of B, and 6 blocks of C.
Type: SA
of low-risk stock. How many of each portfolio should be suggested.
Answer: 3 blocks of A, 3 blocks of B, and 4 blocks of C.
Type: SA
of low-risk stock. Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to find how many of each
portfolio should be suggested.
Answer: 2 blocks of A, 6 blocks of B, and 3 blocks of C.
Type: SA
A health spa customizes the diet and vitamin supplements for each client. They offer three
different vitamin supplements, each containing different percentages of the recommended
daily allowance (RDA) of vitamins A, C, and D. One tablet of supplement X provides 40%
of the RDA of A, 20% of the RDA of C, and 10% of the RDA of D. One tablet of
supplement Y provides 10% of the RDA of A, 10% of the RDA of C, and 30% of the RDA
of D. One tablet of supplement Z provides 10% of the RDA of A, 50% of the RDA of C, and
20% of the RDA of D.
19) The spa staff determines that a client should take 140% of the RDA of vitamin A, 140% of
the RDA of vitamin C, and 190% of the RDA of vitamin D each day. How many tablets of each
supplement should he take each day?
Answer: 2 of X; 5 of Y; 1 of Z
Type: SA
31
20) The spa staff determines that a client should take 90% of the RDA of vitamin A, 190% of the
RDA of vitamin C, and 130% of the RDA of vitamin D each day. Use the matrix operations on a
graphing calculator to determine how many tablets of each supplement should she take each day.
Type: SA
21) The spa staff determines that a client should take 190% of the RDA of vitamin A, 150% of
the RDA of vitamin C, and 120% of the RDA of vitamin D each day. How many tablets of each
supplement should he take each day?
Type: SA
A zoo veterinarian can purchase animal food of 4 different types, A, B, C, and D. Each food
comes in the same size bag, and the number of grams of each of three nutrients in each bag
are summarized in the following table. Use this information to answer the questions that
follow.
Food
22) For one animal, she determines that she needs to combine these bags to get 15,000 g of ,
30,000 g of , and 19,000 g of . How many bags of each type of food should she order?
Answer: A = 3D + 2200; B = 400 - 2D; C = 200 - D; D = any amount (≤ 200)
Type: SA
23) For one animal, she determines that she needs to combine these bags to get 6000 g of ,
12,000 g of , and 11,000 g of . How many bags of each type of food should she order?
Answer: A = 3D + 200; B = 500 - 2D; C = 250 - D; D = any amount (≤ 250)
Type: SA
24) For one animal, she determines that she needs to combine these bags to get 9000 g of ,
19,000 g of , and 17,000 g of . Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to
determine how many bags of each type of food should she order.
Answer: A = 3D; B = 800 - 2D; C = 500 - D; D = any amount (≤ 400)
Type: SA
32
25) Solve by the method of reduction:
Answer: x = -22, y = -6
Type: SA
Answer: no solution
Type: SA
Answer: x = -2 + r, y = r, where r is any real number
Type: SA
Answer: x = 0, y = -2
Type: SA
Answer: x = 1, y = -2, z = 3
Type: SA
Answer: x = - r, y = + r, z = r, where r is any real number
Type: SA
33
Answer: no solution
Type: SA
Answer: x = , y = 0, z =
Type: SA
6.5 Solving Systems by Reducing Matrices (Continued)
1) By using matrix reduction, solve the system:
Answer: = 5 - - , = -2 + 2 , = , =
Type: SA
Objective: (6) Solving Systems by Reducing Matrices (Continued)
2) If , then
A) = 3 - 6 , = 4 - , = -2 + 3 , =
B) = 3 - 6 , = 4 + , = -2 + 3 , =
C) = -1 + , = 3 , = 6 + 2 , =
D) = -1 + - , = 4 + 2 + , = , =
E) = 2 + , = -1 - 2 - 4 , = , =
Answer: E
Type: MC
3) Without solving, determine whether the following system of linear equations has a unique
solution, or infinitely many solutions.
Answer: infinitely many solutions

Type: SA
34
4) By looking at the solution of the above question, can you give the number of solutions of the
equations?
Answer: No
Type: SA
5) By only looking at the following equations, can you say if the equations have a unique
solution or infinitely many solutions?
Answer: No. The only way you can say the equations have infinitely many solutions is if the
number of equations is less than the number of variables.
Type: SA
6) Solve the following system of equations by reduction.
Answer:
Type: SA
A plane in three dimensional space can be written as ax + by + cz = d. We can find the

possible intersections of planes in this form by writing them as systems of linear equations
and using reduction to solve them. If d = 0 in each equation, then we have a homogeneous
system with either a unique solution or infinitely many solutions.
7) Determine whether the intersection of the planes:
has a unique solution or infinitely many solutions; then solve the system.
Answer: a unique solution; x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Type: SA
Answer: a unique solution; x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Type: SA
35
Answer: infinitely many solutions; x- z = 0, y + 1 z = 0; in parametric form: x = r, ,z
= r, where r is any real number.

Type: SA
10) A courier service has an order to deliver four products to a factory. The table below gives the
specifications of the products.
A B C D
Volume( ) 5 2 9 17
Weight(lb) 20 10 40 70
Value($) 300 200 700 1100
If the company's large van can carry 500 cu ft.; 2100 lb, and is insured for $34,000, how many
units of each product can be carried? Write the answer in terms of A, B, C, and D.
Answer: A = 80 - C - 3D, B = 50 - 2C - D
Type: SA
6.6 Inverses
1) If A = , use row reduction to determine providing it exists.
Answer:
Type: SA
Objective: (6) Inverses
36
2) (a) If A is the coefficient matrix of the system , determine .
(b) Use to solve the system.
Answer:
(a)
(b) x = 11, y = -3
Type: SA
3) If R = , then =
A)
B)
C)
D)

Answer: D
Type: MC
4) Let A = ; find .
Answer: =
Type: SA
37
5) Look at the equations
(a) Set up these equations in the matrix form Ax = b
(b) Find
(c) Using , solve the equations.
Answer:
(a) =
(b)
(c) x = 13, y = -21
Type: SA
6) Let A = . Find .
Answer: =
Type: SA
7) (a) If A is the coefficient matrix of the system , determine .
(b) Use to solve the system.

Answer:
(a) = ,
(b) x = -2, y = 18, z = -11

Type: SA
38
Secret messages can be encoded by using a code and an encoding matrix. If we have the
code:
and an encoding matrix
E, we can encode a message by taking every two letters of the message, converting them to
their corresponding numbers, creating a 2 × 1 matrix, and then multiplying each two
numbers by E. The message may be unscrambled with a decoding matrix which is the
inverse of the coding matrix, . Determine if the given pair of encoding matrices are
inverses of each other.
8) and
Answer: = ; yes, they are inverses

Type: SA
9) and

Type: SA
10) and

Type: SA
11) A group of investors has $500,000 to invest in the stocks of three companies. Company A
sells for $50 a share and has an expected growth of 13% per year. Company B sells for $20 per
share and has an expected growth of 15% per year. Company C sells for $80 a share and has an
expected growth of 10% per year. The group decides to try a new investment strategy which
entails buying equal amounts of shares in Company B and Company C, and having a goal of
11.4% growth per year. How many shares of each stock should they buy?
Answer: A: 2000 shares; B: 4000 shares; C: 4000 shares
Type: SA
39
12) Find the inverse matrix of .
Answer: Inverse matrix is .
Type: SA
Type: SA
Type: SA
40
6.7 Leontief's Input-Output Analysis
1) Given the coefficient matrix A and the final demand matrix D stated below, find and
find the output matrix X.
A= C=
A) = ;X=
B) = ;X=
C) = ;X=
D) = ;X=
Answer: A
Type: BI
Objective: (6) Leontief's Input-Output Analysis
2) An economy is based on two sectors, agriculture and manufacturing. Production of a dollar's

worth of agriculture requires an input of $0.40 from agriculture and $0.10 from manufacturing.
Production of a dollar's worth of manufacturing requires an input of $0.20 from agriculture and
$0.30 from manufacturing. Find the output for each sector that is needed to satisfy a final
demand of $16 billion for agriculture and $32 billion for manufacturing.
A) $44 billion agriculture, $52 billion manufacturing
B) $36 billion agriculture, $56 billion manufacturing
C) $56 billion agriculture, $36 billion manufacturing
D) $52 billion agriculture, $44 billion manufacturing
Answer: A
Type: BI
41
3) A large oil company produces three grades of gasoline: regular, unleaded, and super-unleaded.
To produce these gasolines, equipment is used which requires as input certain amounts of each of
the three grades of gasoline. To produce a dollar's worth of regular requires inputs of worth
of regular, $0.18 worth of unleaded, and $0.17 worth of super-unleaded. To produce a dollar's
worth of unleaded requires inputs of $0.14 worth of regular, worth of unleaded, and
worth of super-unleaded. To produce a dollar's worth of super-unleaded requires inputs of
worth of regular, $0.17 worth of unleaded, and $0.11 worth of super-unleaded. In addition, the
oil company has final demands for each of the different grades of gasoline. Find the coefficient
matrix that would be used in determining the total output of each grade of gasoline.
A) A =
B) A =
C) A =
D) A =
Answer: A
Type: BI
4) Suppose that a simple economy consists of three sectors: agriculture (A), manufacturing (M),
and transportation (T). Economists have determined that to produce one unit of A requires
units of A, units of B, and units of T, while production of one unit of M requires units of
A, units of M, and units of T, and production of one unit of T requires units of A,
units of M, and units of T. There is an external demand for 20 units of A, 40 units of M, and
10 units of T. Determine the production levels necessary to meet the external demand.
Answer: The Production Levels are:
64 units of Agriculture,
111 units of Manufacturing, and
74 units of Transportation.
Type: SA
42
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of How old are
fossils?
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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: How old are fossils?
Author: Sharat Kumar Roy
Release date: November 21, 2023 [eBook #72188]
Language: English
Original publication: Chicago, IL: Field Museum of Natural History,

1927
Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD

ARE FOSSILS? ***
HOW OLD ARE FOSSILS?
BY
SHARAT K. ROY
Assistant Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology
Geology
Leaflet 9
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

CHICAGO
1927
LIST OF GEOLOGICAL LEAFLETS
ISSUED TO DATE
No. 1. Model of an Arizona Gold Mine $ .10
No. 2. Models of Blast Furnaces for Smelting Iron .10
No. 3. Amber—Its Physical Properties and
Geological Occurrence .10
No. 4. Meteorites .10
No. 5. Soils .10
No. 6. The Moon .10
No. 7. Early Geological History of Chicago .25
No. 8. Agate .50
No. 9. How old are Fossils? .25
D. C. DAVIES, Director
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO, U.S.A.
LEAFLET 9. PLATE I.
A VIEW OF THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER,

ARIZONA.
ZOROASTER IN BACKGROUND.
Photograph by O. C. Farrington.
Field Museum of Natural History
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
Chicago, 1927
Leaflet Number 9
How old are Fossils?
“How old is that fossil and how do you know it?” is a question frequently asked by
visitors going through the hall of fossils in the Museum. A precise answer to such a
question is impossible and an adequate one demands a longer time than can usually
be afforded. The consequences of inadequate explanation have often proved to be
unsatisfactory. The visitor becomes skeptical and instead of taking interest in the
subject, he seems to be confirmed in his doubts.
In this leaflet is given a condensed, general statement of methods of determining
the age of ancient life. The information is drawn from the works of various authors,
especially Barrell’s “Rhythms and Measurements of Geologic Time.” It is intended for
those who are interested in the age of past life and yet do not intend an exhaustive
study of the subject, nor have free and easy access to its literature.
The birth of life was the most momentous occasion in the history of the earth. When
one considers the myriads of evidences unearthed by paleontologists and
paleobotanists, they seem to leave no room to doubt the great conception that the life
of the land has emerged from the sea. It is, therefore, only a natural impulse to look for
the remains of this life in the rocks laid down by the ancient seas and to wonder at the
vastness of time behind them.
Since traces of the lowest forms of life have been found in practically the oldest
known sedimentary strata, the problem of determining the age of life necessarily
involves the determination of the age of those strata. But unravelling the dead past is
not an easy task. One trying to unlock the “secrets of the cemetery of Nature’s dead,”
walks on a shadowy road. His difficulties are many. It is like crossing a deep moat,
climbing a steep wall.
Various methods have been applied to estimate the age of different periods of the
earth’s history and much progress has been made toward a successful issue. Broadly,
the procedure of different methods is the same. They do not differ in principle. “The
rates of certain changes at the present day are determined as accurately as possible,
and in imagination, the respective processes are traced backward in time until limiting
conditions are arrived at.” Until the epoch-making discovery of radium, the two most
outstanding methods used in calculating geologic time were (1) the rate of land erosion
and deposition and (2) the rate of derivation of salt (sodium chloride) from the land and
its accumulation in the oceans. Theoretically, it is simple to use the rate at which
sediments are being deposited or solutions gathered into the ocean, as “geologic
clocks” for estimating the length of past time. But in practice each method encounters
its own difficulties and the results deduced give us at best only a rough idea of the
immensity of time involved. I shall not deal with these individual estimates, but give the
mean of several, which is 100,000,000 years, speaking roundly. As stated before, it is
only a rough estimate. Nevertheless, it confirms the fact that the earth is very old—
indeed much older than is commonly believed. In 1650, Bishop Ussher, in his
interpretation of the “In the beginning” of Genesis, estimated that the earth was created
4004 years before the birth of Christ. According to this view the earth is 5931 years old
today. Many cosmogonists and even some geologists of the 19th century held this
Biblical interpretation to be the age of the earth. Other ancient religions held that the
earth was created much earlier then 4004 B.C. Hutton, one of the founders of Geology,
in his studies, found “no vestige of a beginning—no prospect of an end.” One cannot
help sympathizing with Hutton. Whoever has made a trip to the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado River, Arizona, must remember the awe-inspiring depth of the Paleozoic
strata and thousands of feet of Proterozoic sediments beneath them ( Pl. I). If he has
traveled farther north to the Cabinet Range, Montana, he must have carried with him an
undying impression of the 35,000 ft. of the rocky monument, there built up by the
Proterozoic seas.
LEAFLET 9. PLATE II.
COMPARISON OF AN ANCIENT AND A MODERN

MARINE ANIMAL OF ALLIED GROUPS.
1, A CAMBRIAN TRILOBITE (AFTER WALCOTT).
2, A MODERN HORSESHOE CRAB.
The present rate of denudation in the Hudson Bay region is one foot in about
47,000 years. How long then, has it taken the seas to lay down these miles of
sediments, which are but a small fraction of the whole geologic column? Having
considered all this, can we estimate, even approximately, the vast length of time that
has elapsed between these periods of sedimentation, the so-called “gaps” or
“breaks”—the torn, illegibly written pages of the history of the earth? Indeed, there are
moments when all may feel that it is much beyond their comprehension. But, man, by
nature, is at once humble and exalted. He is willing to admit his defeat, yet his thirst to
conquer new knowledge, to know the truth, is never satiated.
The reason for the failure to arrive at an absolute result is not very far to seek. In
computing geologic time, one has to calculate that which has elapsed, by some
process in nature that takes place in one direction only and that does not change its
rate when conditions alter. Whatever the method applied, be it the deposition of
sediments, or the gathering of solutions, or the losing of heat by the sun and the earth,
its rate of action should be uniform and uninterrupted. It should be independent of the
changing conditions of the earth. Uniformity of the rate of action is the criterion for
precise calculation. But we know that the past was quite different from the present.
Different conditions have existed at different times during the earth’s history. The
configuration of the earth, its climate, humidity, temperature and many other factors
have varied from time to time and with them the rate of erosion, deposition and solution
has either accelerated, diminished or ceased. The doctrine of uniformitarianism cannot
be assumed in a changing world, even though our knowledge of the earth of the past
can only be gained from a fuller study of the earth of the present.
When we consider the rate of sedimentation as a method for estimating geologic
time, we take the total observed thickness of the geologic column, (estimated to be 70
miles) and divide it by the rate at which the sediments are now being laid down. But do
we know this rate? By taking the average rate of sedimentation of nine large rivers[1]
now in existence and assuming it to be the rate at which sediments were deposited in
the past, an approximate conclusion can be arrived at. But it will be noticed from the
figures of the rate of sedimentation of different rivers that they are widely variable, the
highest being many times greater than the lowest. Can we then use an average of nine
figures so out of proportion and yet expect a reliable quantitative value? Furthermore,
the rate of deposition along the coast, near the mouth of a large and active river, is
much higher than on a coastline where no rivers empty their sediments into the sea.
The rate is also largely controlled by the character of the sediments deposited.
Sandstone and shale are more rapidly deposited than limestone. Moreover, just as
there is no knowledge of the duration of time of erosion between periods of
sedimentation, there is also no record of the amount of detritus that has fallen off the
edge of the continental shelf during widespread emergence of the continents.
[1]
Ratio of Height in feet of

Drainage areas Total tons sediment column of sedimen
River
in square miles annually to water with a base of
in weight 1 square mile
Potomac 11,043 5,557,250 1: 3,575 4.0
Mississippi 1,244,000 406,250,000 1: 1,500 241.4
Rio Grande 30,000 3,830,000 1: 291 2.8
Uruguay 150,000 14,782,500 1:10,000 10.6
Rhone 34,800 36,000,000 1: 1,775 31.1
Po 27,100 67,000,000 1: 900 59.0
Danube 320,300 108,000,000 1: 2,800 93.2
Nile 1,100,000 54,000,000 1: 2,050 38.8
Irrawaddy 125,000 291,430,000 1: 1,610 209.0
Ratio of Height in feet of
Drainage areas Total tons sediment column of sedimen
River
in square miles annually to water with a base of
in weight 1 square mile
Babb. Science, Vol. XXI, p. 343, 1893.
We have also no record of the vast quantity of shallow water sediments that were
stirred up by the penetration of storm waves, and carried to abyssal depths by the
currents and tides.
Similar uncertainties beset us when we consider the rate of chemical denudation,
that is, the rate at which salts have been dissolved from the lands and accumulated in
the oceans, as a measure of geological time. Here, again, we take the total amount of
salts that is in the oceans today and divide it by the present rate of annual supply. We
know with reasonable accuracy the quantity of salts in the oceans and if it were
possible to assume the present rate of supply to be a true mean for all geological time,
a satisfactory age of the oceans might be obtained. But it cannot be assumed as such.
An assumption of this nature will only lead us from the domain of exactness to that of
uncertainty. Aside from various other factors, neither the area of the continents, nor
their relief was in the past the same as today. Consequently, the stream gradient and its
power of dissolving salts from the land surfaces have not been the same. It is also not
known how much salt the ocean derived from the shore line and from beds beneath the
ocean, nor how much of the rock-salt beds on the earth that has been precipitated out
of ocean water.
It is plain, therefore, that the rate of any process that is controlled by so many
conditions cannot be used (even making generous allowances for irregularities and
inaccessible data) as a reliable guide to evaluate geologic time. “It is a clock,” says
Harker, “which now hurries and now creeps or stands still, and it cannot be trusted as a
timekeeper.”
Any estimate based on the temperature of the earth, or of the sun, encounters
similar practical difficulties, for the temperature of a body may not be constant. It may
rise or it may fall. Further, the rate of change of temperature is controlled by a variety of
conditions, such as the amount of energy radiated, the supply of energy and so forth.
Nor is there any record of the immense quantity of heat produced by igneous agencies
and radio-activity.
Another estimate, one of the earliest, was based on the rate of life transformation in
successive periods. The geological series were divided into twelve periods and it was
believed that 20,000,000 years were required for an entire change in the species of
each period, or 240,000,000 years in all. This does not include the time in which we
have no record of plant or animal life.
There is no reasonable debate as to the passage of one species to another. It is
clearly manifested in the succession of fauna found today all over the world in the
sedimentary rocks. Even the most casual student of paleontology is convinced of this
glaring truth. “The brutal cogency of a slab of fossils could be hated and fought, but
could not be gainsaid.” But when we are confronted with the question of setting a
standard of measuring geologic time by means of this paleontological record, more
precisely, through this biological process, we cannot help pondering over the grave
uncertainty of the result. When we fix our gaze upon a trilobite, a three-lobed, crab-like
creature (Pl. II fig. 1) that ruled the seas in the dim days of the Cambrian period (p. 11)
and see that it was equipped with gills and swimming organs, with powers of digestion
and excretion, with specific organs of circulation and reproduction and with motor and
sensory nerves, and compare it with one of its tribe, a present day horseshoe crab, (Pl.
II fig. 2) we do not find any noticeable progress in structure, in intricacy or in the degree
of specialization. Yet the time that has elapsed since the Cambrian is, according to a
moderate estimate, nearly 600,000,000 years! (p. 11). Geologic record testifies that
evolution awaits environmental change, that animals in some way adjust themselves to
their environment, either by discarding or modifying old characters or by acquiring new
ones. Yet, what are known as “immortal” types, such as the brachiopods, Lingula,
Crania and Terebratula (Pl. III figs. 1-3) or the pelecypods, such as Pecten, Pinna and
Arca (Pl. III figs. 4-6) or the gastropods, such as Pleurotomaria, Natica and Trochus (Pl.
III figs. 7-9), have withstood all possible environmental changes and have steadfastly
held their own ever since we have records of their very early appearance on earth. On
the contrary, we have records of types that have yielded so rapidly to change that their
evolution is almost explosive. It is almost incomprehensible how, within such a limited
period of time, fishes have changed into amphibians, amphibians into reptiles, and
reptiles into birds and mammals (Pl. IV figs. 1-4). With these conflicting evidences
staring us in the face, with the knowledge that the entire organic world has been
subject to earth-wide periods of long stagnation and rapid intensive change, one may
well ponder whether it is within our power to establish a standard for measuring
geologic time on the evidence of life transformation. The study of the succession of
faunas—the change of one species to another, can only indicate the magnitude of time
involved. It cannot afford any basis, whatsoever, for a concrete expression of geologic
time.
During the last three decades, a number of radio-active changes of one chemical
element into another have been discovered and studies of certain minerals and rocks
containing various radio-active elements have created means to calculate their age
with remarkable accuracy. “A study of the various radio-active elements contained in
minerals and rocks,” says Harker, “has shown that it is possible, in certain favorable
cases, to calculate directly their age in years.”
The radio-active minerals are commonly found in igneous rocks. They are widely
distributed all over the world. The parents of the whole series of radio-active elements
are uranium and thorium. They possess the highest atomic weights of all known
elements. Each of these parental elements transforms itself through a succession of
changes. The final product of uranium is the formation of the metal lead and the gas
helium. These transformations take place in one direction only, that is, from an element
of higher atomic weight to an element of lower atomic weight. It has also been
demonstrated beyond question that these transformations are unalterable by any
process whatsoever and that they are independent of temperature, pressure or any
other physical or chemical state. Temperatures up to 2,500 C. and pressures up to 600
tons per square inch have not been found to influence the rate of transformation. Time
estimated on the basis of these processes, therefore, offers a more reliable result than
that obtained by any other method hitherto known. Detailed descriptions of how the
metal uranium slowly and regularly breaks down in a descending series into the metal
lead and the gas helium, will be found in the literature on radio-activity. For our
purpose, it suffices to say that according to Barrell, an atom of uranium which breaks
up will ultimately give rise as a stable product to eight atoms of helium and one atom of
lead. Since the rate of transformation is known, data for calculating the age of the
mineral and with it the rock formation of which it is a part, can be obtained by
measuring the quantity of helium and lead in the rock and comparing it with the quantity
of uranium in the same volume of material. But, as helium is a gas, it is likely that a
certain portion of it leaks out and consequently the estimate of age on the basis of how
long helium had been in contact with uranium and lead is to be regarded as a minimum
estimate. For example, the age of the mineral thorianite that occurs abundantly in the
sands and gravels of Ceylon has been estimated to be 280,000,000 years, but the
mineral is doubtless much older, as, ever since it was broken away from its original
home in the pegmatite dikes of Ceylon, it lay exposed to the action of weathering and it
was, therefore, very likely that during all these years a certain percentage of its helium
contents had leaked away.
But estimates based on the lead ratios of radio-active minerals offer results
consistent among themselves. That is, whenever fresh, primary, uranium-bearing
minerals of the same geological age have been examined, the lead ratios are always
found to remain constant. The value of the ratios increases or decreases as the
geological age of the respective mineral increases or decreases. In other words, the
lead ratios are in keeping with the geological age.
The procedure of applying the lead ratio in calculating geological time can be briefly
stated thus: The rate of production of lead from uranium can be readily calculated. The
rate at which helium is generated is accurately known and the quantity of lead liberated
in the same time is approximately 6.5 times that of helium. In a year one gram of
uranium produces 1.25 × 10⁻¹⁰ grams of lead, and at this rate 8,000[2] million years will
be required for the production of one gram of lead.
[2] A more recent and accurate computation reduces this 8,000 million years to
7,500 million years.
There is no serious difficulty in applying this method for measuring geologic time,
except that it is necessary to determine whether the lead is of radio-active origin or
original lead. The presence of original lead is likely to mar the constancy of the lead
ratio essential for accurate results. But ordinary lead need not be confused with
uranium lead, as the atomic weight of ordinary lead is 207.1 and that of uranium lead is
206.2. Values between these two figures imply a mixture of two types of lead. For
reliable calculations, a series of fresh, primary minerals of the same geological age
showing a constant lead ratio of atomic weight 206.2 needs to be examined.
The following table shows the geologic time that has elapsed between the first
evidences of life and the present, as calculated by Barrell from radio-active data. The
figures are his minimum and maximum estimates. It will be noticed from the figures in
the table that the earliest life of which we have fossil records is about 1,500,000,000
years old. From this, it could be safely concluded that the inception of life on earth must
have taken place much earlier. It is quite significant that each geological era,
occasionally a geological period, has its characteristic grouping of life developed from
the life of preceding periods. As we climb higher in the geological column, life becomes
more and more complex and specialized. From the one-celled life of the Archeozoic it
passes through the invertebrates—fishes—amphibians—reptiles—birds and mammals
to man of the Recent time.
Since Barrell’s publication of the estimates of geologic time as measured by means
of radio-activity, some further studies have been made along the same line, but, as no
generally accepted results have shown any marked differences from Barrell’s results, it
has been deemed advisable to use his age data as perhaps our present most adequate
guide as to the length of geologic periods.
Although the measurable forces of radio-activity give on the whole a remarkably
satisfactory time gauge and are doubtless more accurate than any method here
discussed, it must not be considered that the ages given (p. 11) are absolute. The
knowledge of geological time is of more importance for the comparative than for the
absolute magnitude of the results obtained. Just as the study of astronomy gives us the
conception of the vastness of space, so does the study of geology reveal to us that of
the immensity of time.
Sharat K. Roy.
LEAFLET 9. PLATE III.
“IMMORTAL” TYPES.
1, LINGULA. 2, CRANIA. 3, TEREBRATULA. 4, PECTEN. 5, PINNA.
6, ARCA. 7, PLEUROTOMARIA. 8, NATICA. 9, TROCHUS.
(Figs. 1, 2, 7, after Hall, 3, 9, after Zittel, 4, 6, after Dall,
5, Pal. N. J. I, 8, after Cragin).
Drawings by Carl F. Gronemann.
THE GEOLOGICAL TIME TABLE
1.0 = One million years
TIME SCALE
CHARACTERISTIC
ERAS PERIODS (After Barrell)
LIFE
Minimum Maximum
Recent
PSYCHOZOIC 1 1.5 Age of Man
Pleistocene
Pliocene 7 9
Age of Mammals
CENOZOIC Miocene 19 23
and Modern
Oligocene 35 39
Flowering Plants
Eocene 55 65
Cretaceous 95 115
Comanchian 120 150
MESOZOIC Age of Reptiles
Jurassic 155 195
Triassic 190 240
Permian 215 280 Age of Amphibians
Pennsylvanian 250 330 and Ancient Floras
Mississippian 300 370
Age of Fishes
PALEOZOIC Devonian 350 420
Silurian 390 460 Age of Higher
Ordovician 480 590 Shelled
Cambrian 550 700 Invertebrates
Age of Primitive
PROTEROZOIC 925
Invertebrates
Systematic
Long Erosional Interval
classification
variable Dawn of Unicellular
ARCHEOZOIC 1500 Life, Algal Forms
Reported
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrell, J.—Rhythms and Measurements of Geological
Time.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 28, 1917, pp. 745-904.
Becker, Geo. E.—The Age of the Earth.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., LVI., No. 6, 1910.
Chamberlain, T. C.—Diastrophism and the Formative
Processes, XIII.
The Time over which the Ingathering of the Planetesimals
was Spread.
Jour. Geol., Vol. XXVIII, 1920, pp. 675-81.
Harker, A.—Geology in relation to the exact sciences, with
an excursus on geological time.
Nature, Vol. 95, 1915, pp. 105-109.
Holmes, A.—The Age of the Earth.
Harper and Bros., London and New York, 1913.
Joly, J.—Radioactivity and Geology.
Van Nostrand, N. Y., 1909;
An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin, VII. 1899, pp. 23-66;
The Age of the Earth. Phil. Mag., 6th ser.,

Vol. XXII, 1911, pp. 359-80.
Sollas, W. J.—Presidential Address.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. 65, 1909, pp. cxii;
Proc. Geol. Soc. of London, Sess. 1908-9, pp. i-cxxii.
Walcott, C. D.—Geologic Time, as indicated by the
sedimentary rocks of North America.
Smithsonian Rep. 1893, pp. 301-334;
Jour. Geol. Vol. III, 1893, pp. 639-674.
LEAFLET 9. PLATE IV.

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Provide an appropriate response.

1) If A = , determine (a) , and (b) the order of A.

Answer: (a) 7 (b) 3×4

2) If A = , determine (a) , and (b) the order of A.

Answer: (a) 5 (b) 3×3

3) Solve the matrix equation: =

4) Solve the matrix equation: =

9) Write a diagonal matrix of size 3 × 3 with entries = i + 3, = 0 for i ≠ j.

10) Find the transpose of the matrix:

11) Find a 3 × 2 matrix with = = 0, all other equal to 1.

19) Find the transpose of .

20) Find transpose of .

A) upper triangular matrix

6.2 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

1) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: +2

2) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: 3 -4

3) Perform the indicated operations and simplify your answer: 2

E) There are no values for x and y which satisfy the equation.

6) If A = ;B= , then find (A + .

7) Find x, y, z, u, t, v such that +2 =

8) Solve the matrix equation: 3 -2 =

9) Solve the matrix equation: x +2 +y =

13) Show that A + B = B + A.

14) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to show that A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.

15) Show that A + O = A.

16) Use the matrix operations on a graphing calculator to show that A + C = C + A.

25) What is the change in sales between 1994 and 1995?

26) What is the change in sales between 1995 and 1996?

27) What is the change in sales between 1994 and 1996?

described by the vector:

Answer: 1.2 - = 1.5 ; = 343, = 424, = 715

Answer: 3 - =5 ; = 427, = 542, = 907

Answer: 2 - =3 ; = 392, = 494, = 828

Provide an appropriate response.

31) If A = and B = , find A + B.

32) If A = and B = , find A - B.

33) If A = and B = , find 2A - 3B.

34) If A = and B = , find -4A + 5B.

36) If A = ,B= , and C = , find 7A + 6B - 3C.

6.3 Matrix Multiplication

Provide an appropriate response.

1) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer:

2) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer: [6][5]

3) Perform the indicated operation and simplify your answer:

4) Perform the indicated operation if possible:

Answer: not defined

7) Use matrix multiplication to represent the system:

8) Use matrix multiplication to represent the system:

12) Let A = . Find .