More about Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters
IAS 2003 Paper ID IAS36p5
George D. Gregory (Fellow), Kon Wong, and Robert Dvorak
Schneider Electric / Square D Company, Cedar Rapids, IA USA
Abstract: Since the Arc-Fault Circuit
Interrupter (AFCI) was commercially
introduced in 1998, questions have arisen
about how it detect arcs, whether it detects
series and parallel arcs, and what types of
AFCIs are available. Types other than the
original branch/feeder AFCI are emerging.
This paper is intended to provide an update
regarding answers to those questions,
following an earlier paper that introduced the
basic functioning of the AFCI. [1]
Index Terms. Arc-fault circuit interrupter,
arc-fault detection, AFCI.
I. INTRODUCTION
According to 210.12 of the National Electrical
Code (NEC), an AFCI is “a device intended to
provide protection from the effects of arc faults
by recognizing characteristics unique to arcing
and by functioning to de-energize the circuit
when an arc fault is detected.” [2] AFCIs are
commercially available in ratings of 15 and 20
amperes, 120 V, ac, primarily for application in
residences. However, they are increasingly
applied in commercial and industrial offices and
workrooms. Their purpose is to detect and
disconnect uncontrolled arcing that could cause
fire. They are not helpful if they disconnect
useful, normal energy, and the industry standard
comprehensively tests against unwanted
operation.
The paper provides some details of how the two
functions of arc detection and ground fault
detection are used within the AFCI. These
techniques are applied in products that are being
produced today as well as newer products that
are currently being field tested.
II. SYSTEM PROTECTION
Each circuit today is provided with overcurrent
protection that detects overloads and short
circuits. When this overcurrent protection is
properly applied, it might seem that no other
form of circuit protection should be required.
However, as pointed out in other publications, a
0-7803-7883-0/03/$17.00 © 2003 IEEE
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number of fires are occurring from electrical
causes. [3, 4, 5, 6] Actual fire evidence indicates
that arcs are a cause of a significant number of
these electrical fires. [7, 8] As equipment is
used, it may be subjected to physical damage or
hot spots may occur from electrical or other
sources. In addition, those who are not skilled in
electrical work do modifications. A common
initiation of arcing is arc tracking from an
exposed live part across organic insulation. The
surface across which the arc travels becomes
carbonized or “pyrolyzed” and becomes fire fuel
as it becomes an electrical conductor.
Figure 1 shows a typical time-current
characteristic for a 20-ampere circuit breaker
used as overcurrent protection. Any element
such as the wire indicated above and to the right
of the curve is protected. The circuit breaker
opens the circuit prior to reaching those
conditions. Therefore overcurrent protection
provides protection for arcing faults as well as
other faults or overcurrent conditions. However,
the circuit breaker does not open when
conditions of time and current are as shown in
the regions marked 1 and 2 on the curve.
This curve is intended to protect conductors from
thermal damage. It is not intended to protect
against the effects of arcing.
10000
1000 Wire Protection
Curve
100
time (seconds)
10
1
0.1
0.01 2 1
0.001
1 10 100 1000 10000
current (am peres)
Figure 1 – Time-current characteristic for a 20 A
circuit breaker
Region 1 is a short circuit region in which the
short circuit will not be detected by an
overcurrent protective device. The energy from
an arc in this region is sufficient to cause ignition
of flammable materials or organic insulation in a
short time. Because the current level is above
the rating of the circuit, arcs in this region would
be from line to neutral, so-called parallel arcs.
Appliances on a 15- or 20-ampere circuit would
not have a load current through them of this
magnitude unless it were a starting or energizing
current of several electrical cycle duration.
Region 2 is a lower energy region for which the
arc current may well be in series with the load.
Ignition of materials is less likely for conditions
in this region than in region 1 unless the arcing is
sustained for a longer period. However, arcing
can be and is sustained for current levels in this
region by means of arc tracking across materials
such as insulation.
From the standpoint of arc detection, the
distinction between the two regions is important.
In region 1, current levels are higher, which
means that some of the arc characteristics are
more pronounced than at lower current levels.
Further, since region 1 arcs are line-to-neutral
arcs, the major circuit load is that of conductors
in the circuit. In contrast, region 2 arcs usually
contain appliance loads in the circuit in addition
to the fact that they are lower current levels.
These appliances frequently have characteristics
that would tend to mask or attenuate the
characteristics of an arc. Appliance
characteristics may also be quite similar to arcs
even when arcs are not occurring. These
similarities could cause an arc detection device
to nuisance operate, that is, to operate when an
arc is not present. This paper will illustrate a
method by which the arc is recognized even
under these conditions.
arc. The L-G arc occurs when the arc reaches a
ground path. Actual occurrences frequently
involve a combination of modes.
IV. GENERALIZED ARC
CHARACTERISTICS
An earlier paper disclosed several important
points or characteristics about any arc signal. [1]
• High frequency noise is seen in voltage and
current traces.
• There is a voltage drop across the arc.
• Because of the voltage drop across the arc,
arcing current is lower than non-arcing
current in the same circuit, except in cases in
which the equipment attempts to
compensate for the difference.
• Rate of rise of arc current is usually greater
than that for normal current.
• In each half cycle, arcing current
extinguishes before a normal current zero
and reignites after the normal current zero,
establishing a nearly flat, zero current
section in each half cycle. We named these
regions “shoulders.”
• The voltage wave looks rectangular.
• The arc is frequently sporadic, short bursts
of arcing interspersed between segments of
normal current flow.
Many of these generalized circuit characteristics
are seen in the current and voltage traces of
Figure 2. We will see illustrated in following
sections how these characteristics appear to the
AFCI for detection.
60 15
40 10
20
Voltage
5
Amperes
Volts

0 0

-20 -5
III. ARC MODES
-40 -10
Current
Hazardous or uncontrolled arcing occurs in three -60 -15
0.002
0.004

0.006
0.008
0.01

0.012
0.014
0.016

0.018
0.02
0.022

0.024
0.026
0.028
0

modes:
Time (sesonds)
• Line-to-neutral (L-N or parallel)
• Series
• Line-to ground (L-G)
Figure 2 – Generalized arc characteristics
The L-N arc is a short circuit and generally
occurs at higher levels that could cause fire
ignition rapidly. A series arc is in series with a In the parallel circuit case where influence of
load and therefore at lower levels than the L-N loads other than the conductors themselves is

1307
minimal on the current and voltage signal, these
arc characteristics are relatively pronounced.
However, as the attempt is made to distinguish
the arc where loads are in the circuit, other
factors emerge. The next section will explore
several of those influences.
V. ARC DETECTION TECHNOLOGY
The technology for detecting arcs is being
developed and enhanced continuously. There are
many possible means of detecting arcs and this
paper presents one view of technology as it
exists today. The purpose of this discussion is to
remove mystery from the question, “how is it
done?” Recognize that some technology
developers may already be employing a
completely different means of detecting arcs than
discussed here.
Each of the presently available AFCIs known to
the authors employ two means of detecting
hazardous arcs:
1. Arc signal detection
2. Ground fault detection
Figure 3 illustrates a typical arrangement of an
AFCI with monitoring of the current and voltage
signals plus the sensing transformer to detect the
difference between line and neutral current.
A. Arc Signal Detection
One method of detecting an arc is to constantly
monitor current and/or voltage signals for
distinguishing characteristics of arcs or changes
of arc characteristics. The detecting circuit
might look for a number of characteristics or
changes that indicate the probable presence of an
arc. If sufficient numbers of these conditions are
present, it declares that an arc exists and it
Arc Fault
Sensing &
Tripping Circuit
Normally
closed AFCI
contacts
Line
Supply
Neutral
Sensing
transformer(s)
Figure 3 - Typical AFCI sensing arrangement
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outputs a signal to cause the AFCI to open the
circuit. In the next subsections, we will examine
arc occurrences in several load conditions to see
what the AFCI sees.
B. Probabilistic Nature of the Arc
An arc is a dynamic phenomenon. As the arc
progresses, material from the cathode electrode
is eroded and expelled. The pressure wave forces
changes in location of conductors and insulating
materials. The high temperatures burn and
carbonize materials in the area. The conductivity
of the arc column is constantly changing. The
result is an ever-changing electrical environment.
In this environment, an arc will ignite in one half
cycle but not in the next. An anticipated
characteristic will be pronounced in one half
cycle but not in the next. There is no consistent
characteristic to look for. This is in great
contrast with overcurrent detection in which a
current elevated above an established datum is a
very definite and positive signal of the condition.
Couple the probabilistic nature of the arc with
the reality that many loads have characteristics
the same or similar to an arc. This means that to
detect an arc and distinguish it from a load, the
detector must find a combination of conditions
that indicate a very high probability of arcing
and a very low probability of a normal load. In
the case of the parallel arc, positive identification
may occur within the first half cycle of arcing.
When a load is in series with the arc, accurate
detection is possible when the signal is
monitored over a number of half cycles.
Detection requires a detailed understanding of
arc characteristics as well as load characteristics.
We will examine several of these loads and
characteristics.
Line-to Series
ground arc
arc
Load
Line-to-neutral
arc
 C. Parallel Arc Figure 5 is exactly the same circuit, same type of
cable and same conditions as for Figure 4.
Figure 4 illustrates a parallel arc between line Notice the difference in characteristics. We see
and neutral conductors of a NM-B cable cut by a some characteristics pronounced in Figure 5:
metal blade. A short-circuit current of 75 A was • Reduced current
available at the cut point with a bolted fault • Rate of rise steeper than ideal
connected. • Shoulders

150
However, we do not see high frequency chatter
Arc current and the wave shape is quite different in the two
100
figures.
Peak current (Amperes)

50

0
The differences between Figures 4 and 5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 illustrate the probabilistic nature of the arc and
-50
the fact that the detector must look for a
-100 combination of indicators to make a positive
Ideal current
-150
identification. With these L-N parallel arcs, the
Time (ms) characteristics are definite and recognizable,
even though quite variable from trial to trial and
from cycle to cycle.
Figure 4 – Current trace from a 75 A L-N arc
D. Series Arc
We can clearly see a number of arc
characteristics including: With the series arc we see lower current as well
• Reduced current amplitude from ideal as unusual waveshapes caused by the loads
• High frequency chatter themselves. To detect an arc when the arc is in
• Shoulders series with a load, it will be necessary to look for
• Rate of rise steeper than ideal in some cases changes as well as the characteristics themselves.
It is easiest to detect changes between normal
Notice that no two half cycle traces are the same and arcing current. However, the presence of the
and that the arc characteristics are more arc introduces changes from one half cycle to the
pronounced in some segments than others. Since next that also serve to distinguish arcing without
this arc was initiated by cutting the cable, there comparison with normal current. Some loads
was no “normal” current flow prior to the arc for have characteristics that look much like
comparison of changes. In other words, the characteristics of arcs. It is necessary in these
detector must recognize the arc characteristics cases to examine a number of half cycles in order
without a reference to “normal” current. Since to confirm that an arc is present with a high
the characteristics are definite in this case, the probability. We gain a glimpse of how that is
AFCI had no difficulty recognizing them and done as we look at current waveshapes in
opened the circuit after about 35 ms. Figures 6 through 9. Waveshapes of load current
with arcing in series are significantly different
150 from normal current waveshapes, but differences
Ideal current
100 may not be easily visible. They can be
Peak Current (Amperes)

distinguished by analysis with a high degree of

50
accuracy.
0
-0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
-50 Vacuum cleaner
-100
Arc current Figure 6 shows a vacuum cleaner with a
-150
universal motor running when an arc is
Time (ms)
introduced in series with the line conductor.
Characteristics that are noticeable are:
• Shoulders present
Figure 5 – Second current trace from a 75 A L-N arc • Change in peak amplitude
• Change in rate of rise of current

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 and current with arcing present. We see a
Even though current with and without an arc definite change in current amplitude from normal
present is similar, the characteristics of arcing to arcing current. Also, with arcing current, the
are readily distinguishable and the presence of duration of the current pulse varies. A high
the arc can be positively identified. frequency component is present, but not easily
seen in this figure. In order to distinguish arcing
20 Normal Arcing
15
positively with the dimmer in the circuit may
10
require a longer time for analysis than with more
Current (Amperes)

5
readily distinguishable loads.
0
-5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
20 Normal Arcing
-10 15
-15
10

Current (Amperes)
-20
5
Time (Seconds)
0
-5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

-10
Figure 6 – Current trace from vacuum cleaner
-15
-20
Time (Seconds)
Personal computer

Figure 7 shows a personal computer. Again an
arc is introduced after the device has been
operating, for comparison. The switch mode
power supply exhibits an unusual waveshape that
appears to have many of the characteristics of
arcing when no arcing is present. However, the
genuine arcing is readily distinguishable from
normal current by several characteristics:
• Significant change in amplitude from
normal
• Variable amplitude
• Occasional absence of current pulse
• Heightened high frequency chatter
25
20
Normal
15
Current (Amperes)
Figure 8 – Current from 1000 W dimmer
Compressor
The normal current and arcing current for the
compressor seen in Figure 9 share many
characteristics that make it difficult to
distinguish. As with the vacuum cleaner, high
frequency changes are not pronounced because
the inductance in the circuit filters them out to a
large degree. Also, notice that amplitude
variations exist in both normal and arcing
current. Distinguishable characteristics include:
Arcing • Amplitude variations
• Shoulders present
• Change in rate of rise of current

10
5 30 Arcing
0
Normal
20
-5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Current (Amperes)

-10 10
-15
0
-20
-0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Time (Seconds) -10

-20

-30
Figure 7 – Current from personal computer Time (Seconds)

Dimmer Figure 9 – Current from compressor

The 1000 W dimmer seen in Figure 8 illustrates

the great similarity between the normal current

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E. Microprocessor Decision Process for Arc
Signal Detection
The loads illustrated here represent those that are
among the most difficult to have in a circuit
while distinguishing the presence of an arc in
series. In each case, there are distinguishable
characteristics, but it is necessary to look for
multiple characteristics. There is no single
characteristic of the arc that is always present
and measurable. From these illustrations, it
should be clear that a systematic analysis is
possible to find the characteristics of arcing,
determine that multiple characteristics are
simultaneously present, and confirm that they
repeat. The analysis algorithm establishes
decision criteria that confirm the presence of an
arc with a high probability. Although we have
examined only current waveshapes for arcs in
series with loads, the analysis may also include
voltage characteristics.
F. Ground Fault Detection
In addition to arc signal detection and
processing, present AFCIs employ ground-fault
detection. That is, they detect the imbalance of
current between that leaving the line terminal
and that returning in the neutral conductor. If the
imbalance is greater than about 50 milliamperes,
the device opens the circuit.
There are two key reasons for including ground-
fault detection:
1. One form of arcing fault is the line-to-
ground fault. Regardless of whether this
stray current is arcing, it is unwanted since it
is outside of the intended circuit and is
detected at a low level. This is a very
definite method of detecting these L-G faults
including any arcing faults.
2. Many arcing faults involve multiple modes
of arcing. For example L-N arc tracking
inside of a damaged lighting fixture may
also include stray current to grounded metal.
Detecting the stray current to ground and
opening the circuit also clears the L-N fault.
There is a third reason for including ground-fault
detection that is really a corollary to reason 1
above. Glowing connections, which are
extremely hot connection points arising from
loose connections, are frequently cited as the
cause of damage to wiring devices and wire
insulation. The effects of these glowing
connections can lead to fire. Since an effect of
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these hot spots is to damage and pyrolyze
insulation, arc tracking and leakage is a frequent
result. The AFCI will detect such leakage and
provides a degree of protection against this mode
of electrical circuit damage.
The standard requirement is detection of L-G
arcing of 5 amperes or greater. The low 0.050 A
level of ground-fault detection identifies this
kind of fault in its early stages before it escalates
to become a fire hazard.
VI. STANDARDS REQUIREMENTS
Other works have identified the comprehensive
standards requirements for AFCIs, including
those that detect arcs in lower level circuits in
series with loads. [9, 10] The industry standard
is UL 1699, Standard for Safety for Arc-Fault
Circuit Interrupters. [11] UL 1699 includes three
extensive areas of testing for arc detection:
• Arc detection, which is determination that
the device will detect arcing under several
modes and a variety of current levels within
a specified time.
• Unwanted operation in which avoidance of
nuisance operation is tested with a wide
variety of equipment including some of the
devices illustrated in Figures 6 to 9.
• Operation inhibition in which the AFCI
must demonstrate that it will detect an arc
even when it is in series or parallel with
equipment or appliances that tend to hide,
mask attenuate or disguise the arc.
Required detection levels are indicated in Table
1 below.
VII. AFCI TYPES
There are three types of AFCI identified in UL
1699: branch/feeder (B/F), outlet circuit (OC)
and combination (COMB). As we look at the
section above titled, “System protection” and
Figure 1, the B/F AFCI is targeted at region 1,
the OC AFCI is targeted at region 2 and the
COMB AFCI combines the functions of the
other two and targets both regions together.
The definitions of these three devices from UL
1699 are as follows.
Branch/Feeder AFCI – A device intended to be
installed at the origin of a branch circuit or
feeder, such as at a panelboard. It is intended to
provide protection of the branch circuit wiring,
feeder wiring, or both, against unwanted effects
of arcing. This device also provides limited
protection to branch circuit extension wiring. It
may be a circuit-breaker type device or a device
in its own enclosure mounted at or near a
panelboard.
Outlet Circuit AFCI – A device intended to be
installed at a branch circuit outlet, such as at an
outlet box. It is intended to provide protection of
cord sets and power-supply cords connected to it
(when provided with receptacle outlets) against
the unwanted effects of arcing. This device may
provide feed-through protection of the cord sets
and power-supply cords connected to
downstream receptacles.
Combination AFCI – An AFCI that complies
with the requirements for both branch/feeder and
outlet circuit AFCIs. It is intended to protect
downstream branch circuit wiring and cord sets
and power-supply cords.
Table 1 below briefly compares the capabilities
of the three types of AFCI.
The B/F AFCI was the first to be introduced
commercially and today (June 2003) it is the
only AFCI commercially available. It detects the
higher level arcs most likely to cause fire. It is
also the device least likely to experience
unwanted operation. However, several devices
have more recently been third party listed to UL
1699 as COMB AFCIs. The manufacturers of
these devices have indicated that the COMB
AFCI is ready to be made commercially
available.
From Table 1, the OC and COMB AFCIs appear
to have the same performance. In UL 1699 there
TABLE 1 - ARC DETECTION AND PROTECTION CAPABILITIES
OF THREE TYPES OF AFCIS
Arc Condition Branch/Feeder
Line-to-neutral Yes – 75A
Line-to-ground # Yes – 0.050A
Series with ground* Yes – 5A
Series without No
ground**
* As tested with series arc exposed to grounding conductor
** As tested with series arc and no grounding conductor in the circuit
# UL 1699 requires operation at 5 A and above, but commercially available AFCIs detect L-G
arcing of at least 0.050 A and above
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are nuances of difference between requirements
for the two. However, the detection technology
used for one would likely apply to the other with
minor differences, if any. The major difference
between the two, as seen in the definitions, is the
intended location in the circuit. The OC AFCI is
intended to be located at an outlet and would not
protect an entire circuit from that location.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper has:
• Clarified differences between higher current
L-N (parallel) arcs and lower current arcs
that are in series with a load
• Illustrated characteristics of an arc in current
and voltage signals as detected by the AFCI
• Discussed the probabilistic nature of the
appearance of arc characteristics
• Shown that the AFCI detects several
characteristics simultaneously in order to
distinguish an arc from normal current with
a high probability
• Presented the various types of AFCI
This information confirms that the AFCI is a
practical product in all three types presented. It
detects arcs in all three modes, L-N, series and
L-G. The differences in degree of detection
among the three types are seen in Table 1. This
information is intended to serve the reader in
applying AFCIs to achieve protection needed.
Combination Outlet Circuit
Yes – 5A Yes – 5A
Yes – 0.050A Yes – 0.050A
Yes – 5A Yes – 5A
Yes – 5A Yes – 5A
 IX. REFERENCES

[1] George D. Gregory, Gary Scott, “The Arc-Fault

Circuit Interrupter: An Emerging Product,” IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications,
September/October 1998, pp. 928-933.

[2] National Electrical Code, ANSI/NFPA 70-2002,

National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

[3] Marty Ahrens, “The U.S. Fire Problem Overview

Report, Leading Causes and Other Patterns and
Trends,” National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, MA, June 2001.

[4] Kimberly D. Rohr, “The U.S. Home Product

Report (Appliances and Equipment Involved in
Fires),” National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
MA, January 2002.

[5] Technology for Detecting and Monitoring

Conditions That Could Cause Electrical Wiring
System Fires, contract number CPSC-C-C-94-112,
(Underwriters Laboratories Inc., September 1995).

[6] Jean Mah, 1998 Residential Fire Loss Estimates,

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission,
Washington, DC (www.cpsc.gov)

[7] Linda Smith and Dennis McCoskrie, “Residential

Electrical Distribution System Fires,” (U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission, December 1987).

[8] George Gregory, “AFCIs Target Residential

Electrical Fires,” NFPA Journal, March/April 2000,
pp.69-71.

[9] Dave Dini, Rich Wagner, “AFCIs show promise to

save lives by preventing electrical fires,” On the Mark,
Fall/Winter 1999, Underwriters Laboratories Inc.,
Northbrook, IL, pp. 11-13.

[10] George D. Gregory, “Using Arc-Fault Circuit

Interrupters to Reduce Residential Fires,” EC&M
Magazine, November 1997, p. 60.

[11] Standard for Safety, Arc-Fault Circuit

Interrupters, ANSI/UL 1699, Underwriters
Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, IL, March 2003

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