Professional Documents
Culture Documents
College Physics 4th Edition Giambattista Solutions Manual instant download all chapter
College Physics 4th Edition Giambattista Solutions Manual instant download all chapter
College Physics 4th Edition Giambattista Solutions Manual instant download all chapter
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-4th-edition-
giambattista-test-bank/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-10th-edition-
serway-solutions-manual/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-1st-edition-
freedman-solutions-manual/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-10th-edition-
young-solutions-manual/
College Physics 11th Edition Serway Solutions Manual
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-11th-edition-
serway-solutions-manual/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-9th-edition-
young-solutions-manual/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-global-10th-
edition-young-solutions-manual/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-a-strategic-
approach-4th-edition-knight-test-bank/
https://testbankdeal.com/product/college-physics-volume-1-11th-
edition-serway-solutions-manual/
Chapter 9: Fluids
A. Summary of main points of chapter
9.1 States of Matter
Matter is usually described as having three states – solid, liquid, and gas. Solids have a definite
shape and are not easily deformed; liquids and gases (together called fluids, because they flow)
do not have a definite shape, and take on the shape of their containers. Liquids are usually
incompressible – they will change their shape but not their volume – but gases are compressible,
and their volume will change with pressure.
9.2 Pressure
First, we will look at fluids at rest. Even if the bulk fluid is not flowing, the molecules in it are
moving. When they collide with the walls of the container, they exert a force on it; the aggregate
of all these molecular forces results on a net outward force on the walls. This force is always
perpendicular to the surface; if there were a force on the fluid parallel to the surface, it would
flow, and we are assuming that the fluid is static.
The pressure is defined as the force divided by the area over which the force is exerted; although
the force is a vector, the pressure is a scalar. The unit of pressure (N/m2) is the pascal (Pa).
Atmospheric Pressure: The Earth’s atmosphere is a fluid, and exerts pressure on all surfaces that
are in contact with it. We do not experience this pressure directly, as the fluids within our bodies
are at about the same pressure as the atmosphere, so there is no net force on us.
The pressure everywhere in a static fluid must be the same (otherwise there would be unbalanced
forces), as long as the weight of the fluid can be ignored. A change in pressure in a confined fluid
is transmitted throughout the fluid (this is true even when you take the weight of the fluid into
account); this allows such things as hydraulic lifts, as a small force exerted on a small area will
result in a large force on a larger area. Of course, since the liquid is incompressible, the small
force will act over a much larger distance than the large force does.
First, we define the density of a substance, which is its mass divided by its volume. For a liquid
whose density is constant, the force at a particular depth is increased by the weight of the fluid
above it compared to the pressure at the surface. Taking this into account gives us the variation of
pressure with depth in a fluid.
46
9.5 Measuring Pressure
There are a number of different units that are commonly used to measure pressure – pounds per
square inch, bars, millibars, centimeters, and inches, for example.
Manometer: Weather reports usually give barometric pressure in inches. These inches refer to
the height of a column of mercury which exerts the same pressure as the atmosphere; this is about
30 inches but will vary depending on the weather. This device is called a manometer; basically, it
is a U-shaped tube containing a fluid. If the two ends of the tube are maintained at different
pressures, the fluid will rise to different heights in the two arms of the tube. The difference in
height is a measure of the difference in pressure.
Barometer: Mercury is used for barometric pressures as it is dense, meaning that the tube does
not have to be too large. To measure atmospheric pressure, one side of the tube is in vacuum.
An object immersed in a fluid will have a larger pressure on its bottom surface than on its top
surface, due to the weight of the fluid. This results on a net upward force on the object, called the
buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the object. This is
true for objects of any shape, as well as for objects which are only partly submerged. The net
force on the object is then the vector sum of this upward force and the downward force of gravity
due to the object’s own weight. If this net force is upward, the object will float; if it is downward,
it will sink. This works in air as well as in water, and is what keeps hot-air balloons afloat.
A fluid in motion will exert a force parallel to the surfaces over which it flows; this is called a
viscous force, and is similar to friction. To begin with, we consider fluids where this force is
small enough to ignore.
Steady flow occurs when the velocity of the fluid at any point is constant in time (it may,
however, be different at different points). Steady flow is laminar (it occurs in layers), and can be
illustrated using streamlines (the path a particle of the fluid follows in the flow).
The Continuity Equation: We can use the fact that the fluid is incompressible (and is not created
or destroyed) to relate the speed of the flow to the cross-sectional area of the fluid – the flow is
47
faster where the area is smaller, since the total amount of mass passing any point must be the
same as that passing any other point.
Now we can relate the pressure of the fluid (which tells us the force on it) to its height and speed.
The flow is faster where the pressure is lower; the pressure difference reflects the presence of a
net force in the direction of motion. Using conservation of energy (both kinetic and potential)
leads us to Bernoulli’s equation, which relates the pressure, height, and speed of flow. This is
independent of the continuity equation, so we can use both to analyze problems.
Bernoulli’s equation works only in an approximate way for air, as air is compressible and the
equation assumes a constant density.
If an artery is narrowed due to deposits, the speed of the flow increases. This lowers the pressure,
and the artery narrows further. Eventually the artery may collapse. An aneurysm occurs for the
opposite reason – a weakened arterial wall expands, slowing the flow and increasing the pressure.
This can lead to rupture.
Air passing over an airplane wing is at a lower pressure than air passing beneath it; this results in
a net vertical force on the wing (lift).
9.9 Viscosity
No ordinary fluid has zero viscosity (there are quantum mechanical superfluids that do, however);
the presence of viscosity means that there must be a pressure difference in order to keep a fluid
flowing (just as there must be a force to keep an object moving over a surface when there is
friction). In addition, the flow will vary across the cross-section of a fluid; it will be zero next to
the walls, increasing to a maximum in the center. Different fluids have different viscosities (think
of water and honey).
Poiseuille’s Law: The flow rate through a horizontal, cylindrical pipe will depend on the pressure
difference (more pressure difference, faster flow; measured as the pressure drop per unit length),
the viscosity (more viscosity, slower flow), and the radius of the pipe (bigger radius, faster flow –
in fact, the flow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius). The equation relating the flow,
the pressure gradient, the viscosity, and the radius is called Poiseuille’s law; the strong
dependence of flow on radius explains why people with constricted arteries typically have high
blood pressure and diminished blood supply.
Turbulence: Turbulence is an extreme example of unsteady flow; the velocity changes erratically
from point to point.
An object moving through a fluid experiences a retarding force, called viscous drag. The form of
this force, for a spherical object, is given by Stokes’ law; the drag force depends on the speed of
the object, the viscosity of the fluid, and the radius of the object. If there is an accelerating force
on an object (such as one falling due to gravity), as it accelerates the drag force will increase,
48
until the drag force is equal to the accelerating force. At this point the net force is zero and the
object will no longer accelerate; it has reached its terminal velocity.
The surface of a liquid is different from the bulk of the liquid, in that the molecules on the surface
only experience forces from other fluid molecules in certain directions, rather than uniformly.
This leads to the surface acting rather like a stretched membrane; it will support small weights.
Bubbles: In a bubble that is in equilibrium, the outward pressure of the gas is equal to the inward
pressure on it. The surface tension contributes some pressure, so the pressure of the gas inside the
bubble must be greater than the pressure in the fluid outside the bubble.
Students may not be familiar with the compressibility of gases; demonstrations would be helpful.
The connection between macroscopic pressure and microscopic molecular motion is subtle; if the
students are really to understand it, it will take some time. The fact that we do not feel
atmospheric pressure due to its being exerted in all directions is probably familiar to students, but
they may very well not understand it.
The various units for pressure can be confusing to students, especially those which seem to be
units of length (inches or millimeters of mercury). The distinction between absolute pressure and
gauge pressure needs to be made clear.
The concept of displaced fluid can be tricky, especially with objects that are hollow, or are only
partially submerged. Demonstrations of how a metal boat can float are helpful.
The continuity equation generally makes logical sense to students, and they are usually familiar
with its effects (from making drinking fountains squirt, for example). Bernoulli’s equation, on the
other hand, is counterintuitive (that faster flow means lower pressure); repeated demonstrations
help but may not be sufficient. Hands-on experience for the students will help too.
Students are familiar with viscosity, but the mathematical details may be confusing. The fourth-
power dependence of the flow on the radius is startling, and makes for interesting real-world
calculations.
Viscous drag is familiar to students as well, but again, probably not in its mathematical exactness.
Terminal velocity has already been discussed, so it should be a familiar idea.
Surface tension is familiar, but not in the context of bubbles; the idea that the gas pressure inside
the bubble must be greater than the fluid pressure outside it, to counteract the effect of the surface
tension, may not be obvious.
49
Below are some suggestions for classroom demonstrations. For demonstration ideas with detailed
instructions, please visit the Instructor's Resources on the site for College Physics at:
http://www.mhhe.com/grr.
2. To reinforce the idea that pressure is transmitted to all parts of a fluid, place a
book on a board on the table. The book exerts a downward force on the board; the table exerts an
upward force on the board. (Any deformation of the board will be undetectable). Now (carefully!)
place the book on a water balloon. The balloon bulges out sideways, indicating that there is a
sideways force on it. Where does this sideways force come from? From the pressure! If you like,
after you do this you can drop the book on the water balloon, which will burst, spraying water in
all directions. You can then point out the multitude of directions in which there must have been
forces exerted on the water.
3. Hydraulic lift: If you have a supply of appropriate glassware, you can build a
model of a hydraulic lift, showing that a small force exerted over a small area translates to a large
force exerted over a large area.
5. There are many possible demonstrations of the Bernoulli effect; one of the
simplest uses a single sheet of paper. Hold it with both hands at one end, oriented horizontally (so
that it would be horizontal if it were stiff). It will droop vertically, of course. Now blow over the
top of it – it should rise by a considerable amount. You can encourage the students to try this
themselves at the same time. Of course, if you have air jets available, you can also show how
balls can be trapped by them.
6. Terminal velocity can be most easily demonstrated in liquids; just make sure the
liquid is not so viscous that the initial acceleration cannot easily be observed. Oil is a good
choice. Objects of different masses and shapes can be dropped, showing the dependence of the
drag force on these quantities.
7. Displaced fluid: You can make a boat out of aluminum foil, and show that it will
float if it displaces enough liquid, even if the same foil crumpled up will sink.
8. Soap bubbles are always fun; a discussion of surface tension can be enlivened by
the formation of bubbles on different wire shapes.
50
D. Suggested small-group, Just-in-Time, and active learning
exercises
5. Water pipe deposits: Suppose you have a 1”-diameter pipe bringing water into
your home. How thick a layer of calcium deposits does it take to cut your water flow in half?
6. Milk and cream: Suppose you have a bottle of fresh milk with a narrow neck;
you shake it so the milk and cream are thoroughly mixed. If you then let it sit, the cream will
separate out and be in the upper (narrow) part of the bottle. What happens to the pressure at the
bottom of the bottle after the cream separates?
7. If you put water into a container that has a hole in its side, the water will flow
out, forming a parabolic curve after it leaves the container. What happens if you drop the
container while the water is still flowing? Will it continue to flow? Why or why not? (After the
students have thought about this for a while, you can show them what does happen.)
51
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PRIMAL
WOMAN ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.F.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.