The Story of Life:

The Living World

Introduction
1.The living world
2.What is Living?
3.Diversity in the Living World
4.Taxonomic Categories
5.Taxonomical Aids
6.Species Concept
 Introduction
• Biology is the study of life and living organisms.
• Branch of science that deals with living organisms and vital processes
• As a field of science, biology helps us understand the living world and the ways its many species (including humans) function, evolve
and interact.
• On Earth, life is present in almost all habitats even in some of the most-harsh environments as well like hot Sulphur springs and
snow-covered areas. The extraordinary habitats in which we find living organisms, be it cold mountains, deciduous forests, oceans,
freshwater lakes, deserts, or hot springs.
The main characters of “Living” are: -
1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Metabolism
4. Cellular Organisation
5. Consciousness
• Hence, ‘the object by itself exhibiting the growth, reproduction, metabolism, consciousness, and other life processes, etc and show
independent existence in nature is designated as living being’.
• Defining Property: - exclusively found in all living organisms. Does not have any Exceptions.
• Characteristics Property: - is the character of a living organism and it may have exceptions. It can also be seen in non-living things.
• Growth, reproduction, ability to sense the environment and mount a suitable response are unique features of living organisms.
• features like metabolism, the ability to self-replicate, self-organize, and interact may be additional features of living organisms.
 Introduction
Growth
• Growth refers to an irreversible increase in mass or overall size of a tissue, an organism, or its parts.
• Growth occurs when anabolism or synthetic processes exceed catabolism.
• An increase in the mass of cells and an increase in the number of cells are twin characteristics of growth.
• Plants grow continuously and this growth is by cell division. The process of cell division is also observed in certain plant parts only.
Growth is Indeterminat or unlimited type.
• In Animals, growth occurs only up to a certain age. Growth is a diffuse or determinat or limited type.
• Unicellular organisms grow by cell division, but being unicellular, as the organism grows, it divides into two new organisms e.g.,
Amoeba. Hence, growth and reproduction are synonymous to each other.
• In the majority of higher plants and animals' growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive events.
Growth
Growth is of two types
(i) Intrinsic growth: This growth is from inside of the body of living organisms.
(ii) Extrinsic growth: This growth is from outside i.e. accumulation of material on any body surface. Non-
living exhibits this type of growth.
• Non-living objects may also demonstrate growth like an increase in body mass (which can be taken as a
criterion of growth). But non-living objects show only extrinsic growth i.e., an increase in the mass of the
body from outside e.g. Sand dunes, mountains, etc.
• Growth is observed in both living and nonliving beings, hence, cannot be taken as a defining property of
living organisms.
Reproduction
• Reproduction is the biological process that helps in the formation of new individuals from the parent of its own kind.
• Types of reproduction - asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, always one parent gives rise to new organisms of its own kind i.e.,
uniparental reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction can be of either type like fission ( binary and multiple), formation of spores, fragmentation, and vegetative
propagation or multiplication. Fungi multiply by spores produced asexually, budding is common in yeast and Hydra, true regeneration in
Planaria and fragmentation is observed in fungi, filamentous algae, and protonema of mosses.
• In single-celled organisms like bacteria, unicellular alga, and Amoeba, growth and reproduction run parallel to each other.
• Non-living objects are incapable of reproducing or replicating by themselves.
• Some living organisms do not reproduce at all, e.g., worker bees, mules, infertile human couples, etc.
• Hence, reproduction can be characteristic but cannot be a defining property of living organisms.
Metabolism
• Metabolism is the sum of all anabolic and catabolic chemical reactions. Chemical reactions which occur in any living organism.
• Metabolism involves the exchange of matter and energy between an organism and its environment and the transformation of matter and energy.
• Though all the living organisms differ from each other greatly still metabolic reactions are unusually similar in all of them.
• No non-living object exhibits metabolism.
• Metabolic reactions can be easily demonstrated outside the body in cell-free systems.
• An isolated metabolic reaction(s) in a test tube (in vitro) is neither living nor non-living. These isolated reactions can not be regarded as living
things, but they are definitely living reactions because they are similar to the reactions performed in our bodies.
• Hence, metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without an exception. So, metabolism is considered as defining feature of an
organism.
 Cellular Organization
• Cell is the basic unit of life. Cell is made up of different biomolecules having specific organization and performing different metabolic
reactions this peculiar organization is known as cellular organisation.
• Body organization of all living organisms consists of cells, tissues and their biological products.
• All living organisms are composed of cells. Some are composed of a single cell and are called unicellular organisms while other like us,
composed of many cells, are called multicellular organisms.
• Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence and performing essential functions of life.
• Anything less than a complete structure of a cell, does not ensure independent living. Hence, cell is the fundamental, structural and
functional unit of all living organisms. Question:
• In this way the cellular organisation is proved to be defining property of all living organisms. Coma patient is-
(a) Living
(b) Non-living
Consciousness (c) Suspended life
(d) cannot be explained.
• Ability to sense the surrounding environments and respond to these environmental stimuli is called consciousness.
• Consciousness is the most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organisms.
• We sense these physical, chemical or biological stimuli through our sense organs.
• Plants also sense and respond to external factors like light, water, temperature, other organisms, pollutants etc.
• All organisms from the prokaryotes to complex eukaryotes show consciousness to environmental cues.
• Some common examples of consciousness can be seen in organisms, like – Plants performs flowering in a particular season
(photoperiodism), Some animals perform breeding in a particular season only (seasonal breeders), and all organisms handle the chemicals
entering their bodies etc.
• When human is concerned a very high level of consciousness is found in human because of our very well-developed nervous system and
supreme level of skill of communication which is called self-consciousness.
• Human is very fast to respond towards the external stimuli and even it can think or predict about possible changes of surroundings also so it
can prepare itself according to the surrounding situations. Further human can even change its surrounding situations upto a limit so this
topmost or climax level of consciousness is regarded as self-consciousness, which can not be seen elsewhere.
 Consciousness
• Self-consciousness is thought to be present only in human.
• The brain-dead coma patient who is supported by machines has consciousness, so it is living but it does not have self consciousness
because it has lost the co-ordination of organs of different body parts.
• All the living phenomena are due to underlying interactions between different components of an individual or organ or tissue or cell.
• Living organisms are self replicating, evolving, and self-regulating interactive system capable of responding to external stimuli. Adaptations
and homeostasis are also very important characters of livings.
• All the organisms have been evolved by a very long and complex process of evolution, so they all are related to each other by sharing of
some common genetic material but upto varying degrees. This sharing may be less or more among different cases.
DIVERSITY
• Different types of animals, plants, and microorganisms are present on earth and considered as the biodiversity of the Earth.
• The estimated scientific number of species that are known and described ranges between 1.7-1.8 million approximately (about 1.2 million
animal species and over 0.5 million species of plants).
• Largest animal group – insects, highly diverse, and maximum of these thrive in tropical rain forests and tropical oceans.
• Maximum diversity is found in tropical rain forests.
• Second maximum diversity is found in coral reefs (They are rocks of CaCO3 in oceans).
TAXONOMY
• The branch of science (Biology) which deals with the study of principles and procedures of classification is called taxonomy.
• The Greek term ‘taxonomy’ was coined by A.P. de Candolle in his book "Theories elementaire de la botanique" (Theory of elementary
botany)
• Linnaeus is considered as ‘Father of Taxonomy’.
Taxonomy includes study of following points
(i) Identification : A process by which an organism is recognised from the other already known organisms and is assigned to a particular
taxonomic group is called identification.
(ii) Nomenclature : Naming of organisms according to international scientific rules is called nomenclature.
(iii) Classification : A process by which any organism is grouped into convenient categories based on some easily observable characters.
NOTE: To study all above points, characters of organisms are necessary to be used, so use of characters for description of organisms is called
characterisation.

Types of Taxonomy
(i) Cytotaxonomy: The use of cytological characters in classification or in solving taxonomic problems is called cytotaxonomy. Cytotaxonomy
is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure and behaviour.
(ii) Chemotaxonomy: The uses of chemical characters of plants in classification or in solving taxonomic problems are called chemotaxonomy
or chemical taxonomy. It is based on the chemical constituents of organisms.
The basic chemical compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoids, tannins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, fatty acids,
amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
 SYSTEMATICS
• The word ‘systematics’ is derived from Latin word ‘systema’ which means systematic arrangement of organisms.
• It was first used by Carolus Linnaeus. According to him, “systematics is the discipline of biology which deals with the kind and
diversity of all organisms and the existing relationships amongst them.” Linnaeus used "Systema Naturae" as a title of his publication.
• The branch of Biology that deals with the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms.
• New systematics or Biosystematics or Neo Systematics is based upon all characters i.e., morphological, cytological, ecological,
biochemical, etc.
• The term ‘new systematics’ was coined by Julian Huxley.
• Basic unit of classification is population or sub-species for the new systematics.
• Systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature and classification with study of evolutionary relationships
between organisms.

Taxonomy
Discipline of classifying organisms into
taxa.
Taxonomy includes following
processes: Characterization,
Identification, Nomenclature,
Classification.
Systematics
Broad field of biology that studies the
diversification of species
Systematics deals with study of
diversity of living being, it includes
Characterization, Identification,
Nomenclature, Classification and
Evolutionary relationship (Phylogeny).

Unit of Taxonomy is Species Unit of systematics is Population

Term given by A.P.De Candolle Term given by Linnaeus
 Nomenclature
There is a need to standardize the naming of living organisms, so the universal naming system is developed as under.
Trinomial system-
• Proposed by Huxley and Strickland.
• According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names.
i. Generic name
ii. Specific name
iii. Third name is a sub-species for animals, or the third name is of variety for plants.
• When any species has large variations then a trinomial system is used. Based on dissimilarities, the species is classified into sub-species.
e.g., Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Binomial System -
• Carolus Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first time on a large scale and proposed scientific nomenclature for all plants and
animals. Linnaeus is the founder of the binomial system.
• Linnaeus proposed scientific nomenclature of plants in his book "Species Plantarum". It was published on 1 May 1753; hence this was the
initiation of binomial system for plants. So, any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
• Linnaeus proposed scientific nomenclature of animals in his book "Systema Naturae" (10th edition).
• This 10th edition of Systema Naturae was published on 1 August 1758. So, the initiation of the binomial system for animals is believed to
have started on 1 August 1758.
• Collection of rules regarding scientific nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN.
• ICBN : "International Code of Botanical Nomenclature“ ICBN was accepted in 1961.
• ICZN = International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
• ICNB = International Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria
• ICVN= International Code of Viral Nomenclature
• ICNCP = International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
Main Rules of ICBN :-
Nomenclature
• According to binomial system, name of any species or scientific name or biological name consists of two words -
(a) Generic name - Name of genus
(b) Specific epithet –

• In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid but tautonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN- International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature) (Tautonyms - The name in which generic name and specific epithet are same)

• First letter of generic name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific epithet should be in small letter. e.g. Mangifera indica
• When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific epithet should be separately underlined. But during printing the name
should be italicized.
• Name of scientist (who proposed or described nomenclature) should be written in short (abbreviated) form after the specific epithet. e.g.
Mangifera indica Linn.
• Name of scientist is neither underlined nor italicized but written in Roman letters (simple alphabets).
• Scientific names should be derived from Latin (usually) or Greek languages.
• Type specimen (herbarium sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in herbarium.
The table shows common and scientific Common Names Scientific names Generic names Specific epithet
names of different common plants and Human Homo sapiens Homo Sapiens
animals
Lion Panthera leo Panthera leo
Dog Canis familiaris Canis familiaris
Onion Allium cepa Allium cepa
Wheat Triticum aestivum Triticum aestivum
Brinjal Solanum melongena Solanum melongena
Rose Rosa indica Rosa indica
Pigeon Columba livia Columba livia
CLASSIFICATION

The method of placing organisms into groups (category) on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities in a systemic way is called
classification.
Need for Classification :
• Vast number of plants and animals' species are present.
• Diversity in the form, structure and complexity of organisms.
• It is impossible to study all the organisms on individual basis or separately.
• For the ease of studying, ranks or categories are created to place the organisms.
• To understand the inter-relationship among different groups of organisms.
Classical Taxonomy is based on observable morphological characters.
The modern taxonomy deals with several characters for the classification of organisms like -
i. External and internal structure along with the structure of cell.
ii. Development process.
iii. Ecological information of organisms.
1. Which of the following shows extrinsic QUESTIONS
growth? 6. Sensitivity is the 11. Select incorrect statement w.r.t growth
A. Snow mountain A. Ability to grow A. Increase in the body mass is criterion for
B. Bacteria B. Ability to reproduce growth in non-living objects
C. Euglena C. Ability to detect changes in the environment B. Animals grow upto a certain age
D. Spirogyra D. Ability to capture sunlight C. Grow in plants is definite always
2. Growth in living organism occurs by 7. Which is not a feature of all living organisms? D. In living organisms, growth is from inside
A. Division of cells A. Metabolism
B. Increase in mass of the living structure B. Cellular organisation
C. Accumulation of materials by external C. Self-consciousness
agency D. Consciousness
D. Both A & B 8. Identification is the process of
3. Amoeba reproduce by A. Naming living Organism
A. Regeneration B. Recognising the characteristics features of an
B. Fragmentation organism
C. Fission C. Categorising living organism
D. Budding D. Discovering new species of plants and animals
4. Metabolic reaction involves 9. International code of zoological nomenclature
A. Synthesis of biomolecules only set rules for scientific naming of
B. Breakdown of some biomolecules only A. Plants
C. All physical changes which occurs in objects B. Fungi
around us C. Animals
D. All chemical reactions which occurs inside D. Virus
an organism 10. Naming accepted universally
5. When green plants capture sunlight and A. Vernacular names
utilise it to synthesize glucose, the reactions B. Zoological nomenclature
involved during this process are said to be C. Binomial nomenclature
A. Catabolic reactions D. Greek language
B. Anabolic reactions
C. Decomposition reactions
D. Chain reaction
 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
• Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each step represents a rank or category.
Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the taxonomic category, and all categories together
constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.
• Taxonomic hierarchy - Descending or ascending arrangement of taxonomic categories is known as taxonomic hierarchy
• Each step represents a rank or category. Where the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement.
• Remember, Groups represent category, Category further denotes rank. Each rank or taxon, in fact, represents a unit of
classification.
• The taxon is group of similar organisms that belong to a category.
• Higher taxonomic category- The number of organisms in it is more with fewer number of common characters. With few
characteristics in common tracing the relationships to other taxa of the same level become tedious.
• There are 7 main taxonomic categories. They are obligate or broad categories.
• However, taxonomists have also developed sub-categories or extra categories to facilitate various taxa, like sub-division, sub
order etc.
• All insects possess three pairs of jointed legs and so can be given a common rank or category at some level i.e.class Insecta.
• Mammals represent animals with hair on the skin, external ears, mammary glands etc. so at some level these can be placed in
the same category i.e. class Mammalia. Suffix for taxa (Taxon)
• But Dog, mammals, animals are all taxa but of different categories like species, class and kingdom,respectively.
• Note :-
Species :-
• Smallest taxonomic category. It is basic unit of classification.
• Taxonomic groups/categories are distinct biological entities and are not merely morphological aggregates.
There is no suffix for Genus, Species and Kingdom
 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
Species
• It is lowest and the basic category of classification.
• It is a group of individuals with similar morphological, anatomical, biochemical, and cytological characters.
• Individual of species naturally interbreed and produce fertile offsprings.
• Concept of Species
• Biological concept of species was given by Ernst Mayr.
• Species is the fundamental unit of classification.
• A species is a group of similar organisms (structurally and functionally) which share a common gene pool and can naturally interbreed to produce fertile
offsprings in a natural environment.
• This concept of species is based upon reproductive isolation and called biological concept.
Exception to Biological Concept of Species:-
Some important interspecific hybrids
Sterile Hybrid (under natural conditions).
Mule = Produced by a cross between male donkey and female horse (Mare).
Hinny = Produced by a cross between male horse (Stallion) and female donkey.
Fertile Hybrid (under captive conditions).
Tigon = Produce by cross between male tiger and female lion
Liger = Produced by a cross between male lion and female tiger
○ Some examples of species:
• Pisum sativum – Pea
• Mangifera indica – Mango
• Solanum tuberosum – Potato
• Solanum melongena – Brinjal
• Panthera leo – Lion
• Panthera tigris – Tiger
• Homo sapiens – Human being
Here, sativum, indica, tuberosum, leo, sapiens represent the specific epithet,
while Pisum, Mangifera, Solanum, Panthera and Homo represent genera.
 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
Genus :
Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to species of other genera.
We can say that genera are aggregates of closely related species.
Each genus may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different organisms but having morphological similarities.
For example, Solanum tuberosum (Potato), Solanum melongena (Brinjal) and Solanum nigrum (Makoi) are three different but related species, hence they all
belong to the same genus Solanum.
Family :
Family has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and species.
Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species.
For example, three different genera Solanum, Petunia and Datura are placed in the family Solanaceae.
Order :
Order being a higher category is the assemblage of related families which exhibit a few similar character. For example, convolvulaceae and solanaceae are
related and included in the order polymoniales and are mainly characterised by floral characters. Order has less number of similarities as compared to
family, genus and species. Order and other higher taxonomic categories are identified on the basis of aggregates of characters.
Class :
A class includes organisms of related orders having less similarities than orders. For example, Sapindales and Polymoniales are related, so they are included
in one class Dicotyledonae.
Division :
Division includes all organisms belonging to different classes having a few common characters.
Note :
• As we go higher from species to kingdom, number of common characters decreases.
• Lower the taxa, more are the characterstics that the members within the taxon share.
• Higher the category, greater is the difficulty of determining the relationship to other taxa at the same level.
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
• Studies of various plant species, animal species and other organisms are of great importance in agriculture, forestry,etc.
• Such aids are helpful in knowing our bioresources and their diversity.
• For accurate studies we require correct classification and identification of organisms.
• Identification of organisms requires intensive laboratory and field studies by skilled people.
• The collection of actual specimens of plant and animal species is essential and is the prime source of taxonomic studies. These are also
fundamental to studies and essential for training in systematics.
• It is used for classification of an organism, and the information gathered is also stored along with the specimens.
• The specimens are even preserved for future studies.
Some of these Taxonomic aids are:
I. Herbarium
II. Botanical gardens
III. Zoological parks
IV. Museums
V. Keys
VI. Flora, manuals, monographs, and catalogues.
 TAXONOMICAL AIDs
➢ Word ‘Herbarium was initially used to refer to a book on medicinal plants.
➢ Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708) first applied the term ‘Herbarium to “a collection of mounted, pressed plant specimens, systematically
arranged, providing a record of botanical diversity and the world it inhabits.”
➢ The store house of collected dead, dried, pressed, and preserved plant specimens on herbarium sheets is known as Herbarium.
➢ These sheets are arranged in the sequence of an accepted classification system.
➢ These specimens, along with their description on herbarium sheets, become a store house or repository for future use. The herbarium sheet
contains a label on the righthand side at lower corner.
➢ Label provides information about date and place of collection, English, local and botanical names, family, collector’s name etc.
➢ Standard size of herbarium sheet is 11.5 × 16.5 inches.
➢ Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems in taxonomical studies.
The herbarium technique involves the following steps:
(a) Collection
(b) Drying
(c) Poisoning
(d) Mounting and stitching
(e) Labelling and Deposition
(f) Storage
Significance of an herbarium.
❑ To confirm the identity of a plant i.e., helpful in taxonomy.
❑ Documenting different specimen concepts.
❑ Providing locality data of local flora for field trips
❑ Checking plant characteristics (genetic and seasonal) and variation (morphology)
❑ Allowing documentation of flowering and fruiting times and juvenile forms of plants (taxonomy, systematics, ecology, phenology)
❑ Documenting similar and different habitats of plants i.e., helpful in studying ecology.
❑ Locating wild varieties of different species.
❑ Serving as a repository for voucher specimens (ecology, environmental impact studies, etc.)
Note: -The herbarium sheets are arranged according to the Bentham and Hooker system of classification
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Specimen
When a plant (whole or any of its parts) and animal (whole or skeleton) selected to serve as a reference point for taxonomic studies then it is called a specimen.
Types of Specimen: -
Holotype: The single specimen is chosen by the original author at the time the species name and description were published.
Isotype: A duplicate specimen of the holotype.
Syntype: Any two or more specimens listed in the original description of a taxon when a holotype was not designated.
Isotype: A duplicate of a syntype.
Neotype: A specimen chosen by a later researcher to serve in place of a holotype when the initial collected specimens or holotype has been destroyed.

Holotype
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Botanical Gardens
• These specialised gardens have collections of diversity of living plants.
• Plant species are grown for identification purposes and each plant is labelled indicating its botanical or scientific name and its family.
• Botanical gardens are also used for ex-situ conservation of plant species.
• Plant breeding experiments are also carried out at botanical gardens.
Importance of Botanical Gardens
1) It is a place where a variety of endangered flora are conserved.
2) It helps in taxonomic study and research.
3) It provides the public with information about local and exotic species of plants.
4) Rare species and genetic diversity are conserved and propagated in a botanical garden
Few Important Botanical Garden: -
• Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore (Karnataka)
• Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose, Indian Botanic Garden, Shibpur, Kolkata (The Great Banyan (Ficus benghalensis), largest tree in the world is
the main attraction. It occupies 4 acres of land and is more than 250 years old.
• Government Botanical Garden, Ooty (Tamil Nadu) , It’s a pioneer in introducing vegetables, spices condiments and aromatic plants in India. (
Cinchona and Eucalyptus species are cultivated and taken care of), Situated in Nilgiri Hills at an altitude of 2,200 meters
• The Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England.
• NBRI – National Botanical Research Institute is in Lucknow.
• Lloyd Botanical Garden – Darjeeling.
 Botanical Gardens The Royal Botanical Garden, Kew,
Indian Botanic Garden, England
Shibpur, Kolkata

Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore (Karnataka)

Lloyd Botanical Garden – Darjeeling.

Government Botanical Garden, Ooty

(Tamil Nadu
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Zoological Parks
• Zoo or Zoological Gardens (parks) are protected areas or enclosed spaces where live wild animals are kept, under human care. This enables
us to learn their food habits and behaviour.
• Objectives are public exhibitions to understand wildlife, recreation, education, ex-situ conservation and breeding of rare fauna.
• National Zoological Park (Delhi) is one of the finest Zoos in Asia.
Important Zoological Parks of India are:
1. National Zoological Park –Delhi
2. Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park –Pune, Maharastra
3. Nandankanan Zoological Park – Bhubaneswar, Orissa
4. Indira Gandhi Zoological Park –Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
5. Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park –Darjeeling, West Bengal
6. Amirthi Zoological Park –Vellore, Tamil Nadu
7. Nehru Zoological Park –Hyderabad, Telangana
8. Sakkarbaug Zoological Gardens –Junagadh, Gujrat National Zoological Park –Delhi
9. Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park –Tirupati, Andhra pradesh
10. Jawaharlal Nehru Zoological Park –Bokaro, Jharkhand
11. Arignar Anna Zoological Park –Vandalur, Tamil Nadu
12. Kaziranga National Park, Assam and Manas National Park (Having Highest Indian Rhino density) in Assam, India
Note- Yellowstone National Park is the first national park in the world.
 Nandankanan Zoological Park – Bhubaneswar, Orissa
Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park –Pune, Maharastra

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park –Visakhapatnam, Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park –Darjeeling, West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh
 Nehru Zoological Park –Hyderabad, Telangana

Amirthi Zoological Park –Vellore, Tamil Nadu

Sakkarbaug Zoological Gardens –Junagadh, Gujrat

Arignar Anna Zoological Park –Vandalur, Tamil Nadu

Jawaharlal Nehru Zoological Park –Bokaro,

Jharkhand
Yellowstone National Park
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Museums
○ These have collections of preserved plants and animals for study and reference.
○ Specimens are preserved in jars or containers in preservative solution.
○ Dry specimens – Dried plants or plant parts and animal specimens
○ Insect boxes- To keep the insects preserved after collecting, killing and pinning.
○ Larger animals are usually stuffed and preserved.
• These often have collections of skeletons of animals too
Some Important Museums:
○ Natural History Museum, London (England)
○ National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), Delhi
Keys
• Analytical in nature and are artificial taxonomical aid.
• It is used for identification of both plants and animals based on the similarities and dissimilarities.
• In keys, we use couplet ( a pair of characters) contrasting characters (dissimilarities).
• It represents the choice made between two opposite options.
• This results in acceptance of only one and rejection of the other.
• Each statement in the key is called a lead.
• separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category such as family, genus and species for identification purposes.
Types of Key:
1. Indented Key (Yoked Key):
The key contains a sequence of choices between two or more characteristics.
By careful selection of character at each subdivision the exact name of the organism can be arrived at.
2. Bracketed Key:
The key uses contrasting characters, but they are not separated by intervening subdividing characters. Here, each character is given a
number in brackets
 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Flora, Manuals, Monographs and Catalogues
• Flora: Specific for a studied area which contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area.
The index is provided for the plant species found in a particular area with detailed description.
Some important floras are given below:
1. Flora of British India by J.D. Hooker.
2. Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari.
• Manuals: The complete listing and description of the plants growing in a particular area.
Manuals are useful in providing information for identification of names of species found in an area
• Monographs: Contain information on any one taxon. e.g., The Genus Pinus by N.T. Mirov.
• Catalogues: This includes the alphabetical arrangements of species describing their features.
Thanks!
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