Biology Class 11 Syllabus

Unit Title Marks

1. Diversity of Living Organisms 7

2. Structural Organization in Plants & Animals 11

3. Cell: Structure and Function 15

4. Plant Physiology 17

Human Physiology (A) - Section for OTBA

5. *10+10
Human Physiology (B)

Total 70

Unit 2: Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants

 Chapter-5: Morphology of Flowering Plants

 Chapter-6: Anatomy of Flowering Plants

 Chapter-7: Structural Organisation in Animals

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 Chapter-7: Structural
Organization in Animals

 Introduction.

 Animal Tissues .

 Organ and Organ System

 Earthworm.

 Cockroach.

 Frogs.

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 UDAY PRATAP SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Introduction:
 Cells are the smallest units of the body that are alive and all living organisms are
composed of cells.
 Tissue are a group of cells working together to perform a same function.
 All the structures of the body are composed of a combination of these tissues.
 As these tissues come together to form organs and perform a specific function.

Animal Tissues:
Collection of organized cells that work towards a specific function to a complete organ can be
known as a tissue. There are 4 types of main animal tissues inside our bodies.

Animal Tissues

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Neural tissue

Epithelial tissue:
 Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets.
 This tissue is specialised to form the covering or lining of all internal and external body
surfaces.
 Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces on the interior of the body is known
as endothelium.
 The cells are compactly packed with little intercellular matrix.

Function: protection, absorption, secretion.

Type:

Epithelial tissue

Simple epithelium Compound epithelium

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

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 UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Simple epithelium:
 Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells.
 It functions as a lining of cavities of body, ducts and tubes.

Squamous: Cuboidal Columnar

Squamous epithelium is Cuboidal epithelium is Columnar epithelium is

made of a single thin layer
of flattened cells with
irregular boundaries.
Occurrences:
Walls of blood vessels
and air sacs of lungs.
Functions: forming a
diffusion boundary.
composed of a single layer
of cube -like cells.
Occurrences:
Ducts of glands and tubular
parts of nephrons in kidneys
Functions: are secretion
and absorption.
composed of a single layer
of tall and slender cells.
Their nuclei are located at
the base.
Occurrences: Lining of
stomach and intestine
Functions: Help in secretion
and absorption.

Cilia bearing cell called

 Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialized for secretion and are called
glandular epithelium. Columnar epithelium with goblet cells is called glandular
epithelium.

 On the basis of the mode of secretions, glands are divided into two categories namely exocrine and
endocrine glands.

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 UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)

Mob no: 8013040613

Simple Epithelium
1. Single layer of epithelical cells resting on a
basement membrane are called as simple
epithelium.
2. They are present in secretory and absorptive
surface.
3. It is not protective as it can't resist the
damages due to mechanical or chemical
abrasions.
4. Squamous, cubical, columnar epithelium etc.
Compound Epithelium
1. It consists of more than one layer. The inner
most layer of cells are arranged on basement
membrane.
2. They are not involved in secretory or
absorptive functions.
3. Because of multi layered structure they help
in protection of tissues below them.
4. They may be transitional or stratified i.e.
stratified squamous epithelium.

Compound Epithelium:
It is made up of many layers of cells. The cells and innermost layers are living and divide
mitotically to replace the outermost dead cells.

Function:
It protects the underlying tissue from mechanical pressure, friction and injury.

Types:
1. Stratified squamous cornified :
The outermost cells become dead and hard due to deposition of scleroprotein keratin. The
innermost dividing layer, stratum germinativum replaces the outermost lost cells, e.g.
skin, hair, horn, hoof and nail.

2. Stratified squamous non- keratinized:

Here the superficial cells are not keratinized, e.g. buccal cavity, pharynx, vagina, cervix,
anal canal etc.
3. Stratified cuboidal:
The cells of outermost layer are cubical in shape, e.g. Graafian follicle.

4. Stratified columnar:
The outermost cells are columnar cells are columnar in shape, e.g. part of urethra,
epiglottis, etc.

5. Stratified ciliated:

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 The outermost cells bears cilia, e.g. larynx.

UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Epithelial junction

Tight junction Adhering junctions Gap junctions

Tight junction:
An intercellular junction between epithelial cells in which the outer layers of the cell membranes f
use, reducing the ability of larger molecules and water to pass between the cells.

Cytoskeleton:
A network of fibrous proteins

Adhering junctions: that governs the shape and mo

vement ofa biological cell

These junctions join the actin cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane to form adhesive contacts
between cells or between cells and extracellular matrix.
Gap junctions:
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 Gap junctions are a specialized intercellular connection between cells. They directly connect the
cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly
pass through a regulated gate between cells.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Connective Tissue:
Connective Tissue

Proper Specialized

Loose connective tissue Dense connective tissue Bone Blood Cartilage

Areolar Adipose Reticular Regular Elastic Irregular

Loose connective tissue: Primarily distinguished by the loose arrangement of its

fibers.
Areolar tissue:
 Present beneath the skin.
 It serves as a support framework for epithelium.
 It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres), macrophages and mast
cells.

Adipose tissue:
 It is another type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath the skin.
 The cells of this tissue are specialised to store fats.

Dense connective tissue: Fibers & Fibroblast compactly packed.

Dense regular:
 Orientation of fibres shows a regular pattern is called dense regular.
 Collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
 It found in deep dermis of the skin.
 Tendon shows a very regular arrangement of fibers & Attached muscles to bon.
 Ligament has a less regular arrangement of fibers & Bone to bone.
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 Dense irregular tissues:
 Collagen fibres & fibroblasts are present in differently.
 It found in deep dermis of the skin.

Specialized connective tissue:

Cartilage:
 Cartilage is an important structural component of the body. It is a firm tissue but is softer
and much more flexible than bone. Cartilage is a connective tissue found in many areas
of the body including: Joints between bones.
 Example: Elbows, knees and ankles.
UDAY PRATAP SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Bone:
 One of the structures composing the skeleton of a vertebrate.the hard connective tissue fo
rming the substance of the skeleton of most vertebrates composed of a collagen
rich organic matriximpregnated with calcium, phosphate, and other minerals.
 It is the main tissue that provides structural frame to the body. Bones support and protect softer tissues
and organs.

Blood: It is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood
cells (WBC) and platelets. It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various
substances.

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 UDAY PRATAP SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Muscle Tissue: We know that living organisms can participate in locomotion and movement.
Muscle tissue has a ability to relax and contrast and so bring about movement and mechanical work in
various parts of the body. There are other movements in the body too which are necessary for the survival
of the organism such as the heart beat and the movements of the alimentary canal.

Muscle Tissue

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 Smooth muscle tissue Skeletal muscle tissue Cardiac (heart) muscle tissue

Smooth muscle tissue:

 Smooth muscle tissue is made up of thin-elongated muscle cells, fibres. The smooth muscle
fibres tapers or pointed at both ends. Cell junctions hold them together. They are bundled
together in a connective tissue sheath. They are involuntary in nature.

 Occurrences: Present in wall of blood vessels, stomach and intestine.

Functions:
 Smooth muscle controls involuntary movements such as the contraction of the smooth muscle
tissue in the walls of the stomach and intestines
 The muscle of the arteries contracts and relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and the flow of
blood.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Skeletal muscle tissue:
 It is attached to bones by tendons, is associated with the body's voluntary movements. Skeletal
muscle is striated muscle. Muscle cells are unbranched and multinucleated. A number of muscle
fibres are bundled together in parallel fashion.
Functions:
 Skeletal muscles function in pairs to bring about the co-ordinated movements of the limbs, trunk,
jaws, eyeballs, etc.
 Skeletal muscles are directly involved in the breathing process.

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 Cardiac (heart) muscle tissue:
 Your heart is made of cardiac muscle. This type of muscle only exists in your heart. Unlike other
types of muscle, cardiac muscle never gets tired. It works automatically and constantly without
ever pausing to rest. Cardiac muscle contracts to squeeze blood out of your heart, and relaxes to
fill your heart with blood.
Functions:
 Cardiac muscle tissue plays the most important role in the contraction of the atria and ventricles
of the heart.
 It causes the rhythmical beating of the heart, circulating the blood and its contents throughout the
body as a consequence.

Neural tissues:
Neural tissues exert greatest control over body’s response to changing condition. Neurons are the units of
nervous tissues. Neuroglial cells non-conducting and protects and support neurons. Neuroglia makes up
more than one-half the volume of neural tissue. Electrical impulse is conducted through the plasma
membrane of neuron.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Organ and organ system:
The basic tissues organize to form organs which in turn associate to form organ systems in the
multicellular organisms.
For example our heart consists of all the four types of tissues: Epithelial, connective, muscular
and neural.

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 Earthworm:
Earthworm is a reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate. It lives in the upper layer of moist soil. The
common Indian earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus.

Taxonomy of the earthworm:

 Scientific name: Lumbrucis terrestris
 Phylum: Annelida
 Family: Lambricicdae

Morphology:
 Earthworm has long cylindrical body.
 The body divided into more than 100 equal segments called metamere.
 Mid-dorsal dark line indicates the dorsal blood vessel.
 The ventral surface is distinguished by genital openings.
 Anterior end consists of the mouth and prostomium.
 The first segment is called peristomium, which contain the mouth.
 In matured worm, segments 14-16 are covered by dark band of glandular tissue
called clitellum.
 Body divisible into: Preclitellar, Clitellar, Postclitellar.

External apertures:
Four pairs of spermathecal aperture 5th – 9th segments:
 A single female genital pore is present in the mid-ventral line of aperture 14th segment.
 A pair of male genital apertures in 18th segment.
 Numerous nephridial pores on the skin of each segment.
 There are row of S- shaped Setae in each segment except 1st and last and clitellum segment.
 Setae have principal role in locomotion.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Anatomy:
Body wall:
 Body wall externally covered by thin non-cellular cuticle.
 Body wall contains epidermis below cuticle.
 Epidermis is made of single layer of columnar epithelium with secretory glands.
 Two layers of muscles (circular and longitudinal).

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 Digestive system:
Alimentary canal is a straight tube between 1st and last segment.

Mouth present in the 1st segment

Mouth opens into buccal cavity 1-3 segments

Buccal cavity leads into muscular pharynx in 4th segment

Narrow esophagus at 5-7 segments

Muscular gizzard in 8-9 segments helps in grinding of ingested food.

Stomach extended from 9-14 segments

Calciferous gland present in the stomach, neutralize the acidic nature of humic acid present in
the humus

Intestine starts from 15th segment and continues till last segment

A pair of Intestinal caecae present in the 26th segment

Presence of internal median fold of dorsal wall of intestine called typhlosole between 26-35
segments.

Typhlosole increases the surface area for absorption.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Blood vascular system:
 Blood vascular system is closed type.
 Blood vascular system consists of: Blood vessels, Capillaries, Heart.
 Blood glands present on 4th, 5th and 6th segments.
 The blood glands produce blood cells and haemoglobin. Blood cells are phagocytic in
nature. Exchange of gases occurs through moist body surface into the blood stream.
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 Respiration:
 Earthworm have lack specialized breathing devices.
 Gaseous exchange takes place through moist surface of skin.
 Transport of respiratory gases takes place in haemoglobin.

Excretory system:
Excretory organs are segmentally arranged coiled tubules called nephridia.
There are three types of nephridia:
Nephridia
Septal nephridia: Present on both side of inter segmental septa of segment 15 to
last segment. They opened into the intestine.

Integumentary nephridia: Attached to the lining of the body wall from 3th to
last segment. Open into the body surface.

Pharyngeal nephridia: Present in three pairs in 4th, 5th and 6th segment.
Function: Nephridia regulate the volume and composition of body fluids. A nephridium is a
ciliated funnel like structure called nephrostome, connected with a tubular part.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Nervous system:
 The nervous system in the worm is difficult to study.
 The nervous system is composed of a ventral pair of nerve cord.
 Ganglia are arranged in each segment on this paired nerve cord.

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  The nerve cord in the anterior region (3rd and 4th segments) bifurcates and encircles the
pharynx to join the cerebral ganglia. This forms a dorsal nerve ring.
Sensory System:
 There is no eye in the earthworm. But light and touch sensitive receptor cells are present,
Chemoreceptor are also present. The sense receptors are present on the anterior part of
the body.

Reproductive system:
Earthworm is hermaphrodite.
Male Reproductive System:
 There are two pairs of testes present in the 10th and 11th segments.
 The vasa deferentia run up to the 18th segment; where they join the prostatic duct.
 Two pairs of accessory glands are present in the 17th and 19th segments.
 The common prostate and spermatic duct opens to the exterior by a pair of male genital
pores.
 The male genital pores are present on the ventro-lateral side of the 18th segment.
 Four pairs of sperm thecae are located in 6th to 9th segments.
 During copulation, spermatozoa are stored in the spermathecae.

Female Reproductive System:

 One pair of ovaries is attached at the inter-segmental septum of the 12th and 13th
segments.
 Ovarian funnels are present beneath the ovaries.
 The ovarian funnels continue into oviduct.
 They join together and open on the ventral side as a single median female genital pore on
the 14th segment.
Fertilization & Development:
 During mating, a mutual exchange of sperms occurs between two worms. Male &
Female are fertilized in the cocoons. Fertilized eggs are deposited in cocoons. After
about 3 weeks, each cocoon produces two to twenty baby worms. The average number of
baby worms from a cocoon is four. Development is direct.
UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Economic Importance:
 Earthworms are called ‘Friends of Farmers’. They burrow in the soil and make it porous.
24
  It helps in respiration and penetration of developing plant roots.
 Earthworms are also used as bait in fishing.

Cockroach:
Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals. They are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places
throughout the world. They have become residents of human homes and thus are serious pests and vectors of
several diseases.

Taxonomy of the earthworm:

 Scientific name: Periplaneta americana.
 Phylum: Arthropoda
 Family: Bllatidae

Morphology:
 Adults cockroach about 34-53 cm long with wings that extended beyond the tip of the
abdomen.
 Entire body is covered by external chitinous exoskeleton (Minerals or hardened proteins).
 Each segment has hardened plates called sclerites (dorsal tergites, ventral sternites).
 Successive sclerites are joined by flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
 Segmented body distinguished into head, thorax and abdomen.

Head:
Head is formed by fusion of six segments, with flexible neck. The head bears a pair of
compound eye, a pair of antennae. Antennae have sensory receptors. Head bears appendages
meant for biting and chewing types of mouth parts.
The mouth parts consist of:
 A labrum (upper lip).
 A pair of mandibles.
 A pair of maxillae.
 A labium (lower lip).
UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Thorax:
 Thorax consists of three parts – prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
 Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
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  First pair of wings arises from mesothorax and second pair from metathorax.
 The hind wings are transparent, membranous meant for flying.
Abdomen:
 The abdomen consists of 10 segments.
 In female the 7th segment is boat shaped and along with 9th and 10th segment it forms
the broad or genital pouch.
 Genital pouch contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collateral glands.
 In male the genital pouch bounded dorsally by 9th and 10th terga and ventrally by the 9th
sternum.
 Male bears a pair of anal style, absent in female.
 Anal cerci present in both sexes in 10th segment.

Anatomy:
Digestive system:
 The alimentary canal is long and somewhat coiled divisible into three main parts namely
foregut, midgut and hindgut.
 Foregut (stomadaeum) is differentiated into five parts: Buccal chamber, pharynx,
oesophagus, crop and gizzard.
 Gizzard is muscular and internally provided with six cutical teeth which crushes the food.
 A stomodaeal valve is present between gizzard and mesenteron.
 Midgut (mesenteron or ventriculus) is short, tubular lined with glandular endoderm.
 At anterior end of mesenteron there are eight blind glandular hepatic caecae which
secrete digestive enzymes.
 Hindgut (proctodaeum) comprises ileum, colon and rectum.
 The wall of rectum is provided with six rectal papillae. They help in the absorption of
water and salts.
 Cockroach is omnivorous feeds on all sorts of organic debris.
 The digestive enzymes of saliva are mainly zymase and amylase.
 Absorption of digested food takes place in mesenteron.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Blood vascular system:
The circulatory system of Periplaneta is of open type as the blood or haemolymph flows freely
within the body cavity or haemocoel. There is a heart & aorta but no capillaries & veins.
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 Circulatory system consists of haemocoel, heart &haemolymph.

Haemocoel:
Body cavity of cockroach is known as haemocoel as it remains filled with haemolymph (blood).
The coelom is divided into 3 main sinuses by a dorsal & ventral horizontal diaphragm:-
 Pericardial sinus (surrounding the heart & aorta).
 Perivisceral sinus (surrounding the various visceral organs)
 Perineural sinus (surrounding the ventral nerve cord).

Heart:
The heart of cockroach is an elongated muscular tube. It consists of 13 segmentally arranged
funnel shaped chambers. In between the 2 chambers a pair of ostia is present.

Haemolymph:
The haemolymph or blood of cockroach consists of clear colourless plasma & haemocytes. The
haemocytes remain suspended into the plasma.

Mechanism:
The circulation of the blood is controlled by the contraction & relaxation of the alary muscles. In
fact the alary muscles control the opening & closer of Ostia.

Respiratory system:
 The respiratory system consists of a network of trachea.
 Trachea opens to outside of body surface by 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles on
lateral side of the body.
 Trachea gives rise to branching tubes called tracheal tubes which subdivided into
tracheoles.
 Opening of spiracles regulated by valves.
 Movement of air takes place by diffusion and directly to the body cell.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Excretion:
 Excretion is performed by malpighian tubules.
 Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells.
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  They absorb nitrogenous wastes from the haemocoel and converted into uric acid and
poured into the hindgut.
 Hence cockroach is uricotelic in nature.
 Nephrocytes and uricose glands also assist in excretion.

Nervous system:
It consists of Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System, Sympathetic or Visceral
System

Central Nervous System:

 It consists of brain or supra oesophageal ganglion.
 From the sub esophageal ganglion passes backwards into the thorax, a double ventral
nerve-cord, which bears three ganglia in the thorax and six in the abdomen.

Peripheral Nervous System:

 It consists of nerves, which are given off from the ganglia so as to innervate all the parts
of the body.

Sympathetic or Stomatogastric Visceral Nervous System:

 It consists of a frontal ganglion, which is situated on the dorasl side of the oesophagus in
the head.
 The frontal ganglion is jointed with the central nervous system by nerves, which connect
the circumoesophageal commissures.

UDAY PRATAP SINGH

M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Sensory structures:
 Thigmoreceptors: They are receptors of touch. Thigmoreceptors are present on body, antenna,
maxillary palps and legs.
 Olfactory receptors: They receive various smells. Olfactory receptors are present on antenna
and palps.
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  Gustatory receptors: They are for sense of taste. Gustatory receptors are present on maxilla
and labial palps.
 Thermoreceptors: Detect changes in temperature, present on the pads between the first four
tarsals.
 Auditory receptors: for hearing, present on the anal cerci respond to air or earth borne
vibrations.

Reproductive system:
 Cockroaches are dioecious and sex organs are well developed.
 Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes lying one on each in 4th and 6th
segments:
 Vas deferens arises from each testis, opens into ejaculatory duct through seminal vesicle.
 Ejaculatory duct opens into the male gonopore situated ventral to anus.
 Accessory reproductive gland called mushroom gland present on 6th-7th segment.
 External genitalia represented by male gonopophysis or phallomere.
 Sperms are sorted in the seminal vesicles and are glued together in the form of bundles
called spermatophores which are discharged during copulation.
 The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries present in 2nd – 6th
abdominal segments.
 Each ovary is formed a group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles, containing chain of
developing ova.
 Oviduct of each ovary fused to form single median oviduct or vagina, which opens into
genital chamber.
 A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which opens into genital chamber.
 Sperms are transferred through spermatophores.
 The fertilized eggs are called oothecae.
 Ootheca is dark reddish to blackish brown capsule about 3/8” long.
 On average, female produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs.
 Development is pourometabolous i.e development through nymphal stages.
 The nymph grows by molting about 13 times to reach the adult form.
FEMALE
MALE

UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Frog:
Frog belongs to class Amphibia, Most common species in India is Rana tigrina, they are cold blooded animal, the
body temperature varies according to environmental temperature, ability to change the body colour according to the
environment and they undergo hibernation (summer sleep) and aestivation (winter sleep).

24
 Taxonomy of the earthworm:
 Scientific name: Lithobates catesbianus
 Class: Amphibia
 Family: Ranidae

Frogs Toads
Eyes can look in all directions Eyes tend to face forward

Lay their eggs in clumps, singly, or in floating films Lay their eggs in long strands

Slim bodies and long legs for leaping Fat bodies and short legs for hopping

Long tongues with good aim Short tongues with excellent aim

No separate toxic glands Toxic Parotoid Glands on back of head

Live close to and in water Live on land

Smooth or slimy skin Dry and warty skin

Small upper teeth only No teeth

Morphology:
 The skin is smooth and moist, slippery due to mucus.
 Dorsal body is olive green with dark irregular spots.
 Ventral side of the body is uniformly pale yellow coloured.
 The frog never drinks water and absorb it through skin (hygroscopic).
 Body divisible into head and trunk. Neck is absent.
 On either side of the eyes a membranous tympanum (represents the external ear), to
receive the sound waves.
 Forelimbs and hind limbs helps in swimming, leaping and burrowing.
 Fore limb have four digit and hind limb stronger and has five digits.
 Frog exhibit sexual dimorphism.
 Male frog distinguished from female frog:
 Having sound producing vocal sac.
 Copulatory pad or amplexury pad (Adhesive flap help in male which help in sexual
reproduction) on the first digit of the fore limb.

UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

24
 Digestive system:
 Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
 Alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivorous.
 Mouth opens into buccal cavity that leads into oesophagus through pharynx.
 Oesophagus is a short tube that opens into the stomach, which inturn continues as the
intestine, rectum and finally opens outside by the cloaca.
 Liver secrete bile that stored in the gall bladder.
 Pancreas a digestive gland produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes.
 Food is captured by bilobed tongue.
 Digestion of food takes place by the action of HCl and gastric juice secreted from the
walls of the stomach.
 Partially digested food in the stomach is called chyme.
 Chyme passed from stomach to intestine, the duodenum.
 The duodenum receives the bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juice from pancreas
through a common bile duct.
 Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates and proteins.
 Final digestion takes place in intestine.
 Digested food is absorbed by intestinal villi and microvilli.
 The undigested food removed to outside through cloaca.

UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
24
 M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613
Respiratory system:
 In water frog respire through skin (cutaneous respiration)
 Exchange of respiratory gases takes place through diffusion.
 In land it respires through buccal cavity, skin and lungs.
 Respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration.
 During aestivation and hibernation it respires through skin.

Circulatory system:
 The blood vascular system includes heart, blood vessel and blood.
 The lymphatic system includes lymph, lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels.
 Heart is three chambered with two atria and one ventricle.
 Heart is covered by a membrane called pericardium.
 A triangular sinus venosus opens into right atrium. It receives the deoxygenated blood
through vena cava.
 The ventricle opens into conus atreriosus on the ventral side of the heart.
 Form the conus atreriosus the blood circulated to different part of the body by arterial
system.
 Blood collected from the body to the heart by venous system.
 Special venous connection between liver and intestine is called hepatic portal system.
 Venous connection between lower part of the body and kidney is called renal portal
system.
 The blood is composed of plasma and cells.
 The blood cells are; erythrocytes (RBC), leucocytes (WBC) and Thrombocytes
(Platelets).
 RBC is nucleated and contains hemoglobin.

Excretory system:
 The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder.
 Each kidney composed of several uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
 The ureter arises from the kidney act as urinogenital duct which opens into cloaca in
male.
 In female the ureters and oviduct open separately into the cloaca.
 Thin walled urinary bladder located ventral to rectum, opens to the cloaca.
 The frog excretes nitrogenous waste in the form of urea, hence ureotelic.

Control and coordination system:

 It includes both nervous and endocrine system.
 Chemical coordination is carried out by hormones secreted by endocrine glands.
 Endocrine glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body,
pancreas, adrenal and gonads.

UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
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 M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Frog has a highly developed nervous system and the nervous system of a frog is divisible into
 Central nervous system.
 Peripheral nervous system.
 Autonomic nervous system.
There are 10 pairs of cranial nerves arises from the brain.

Central Nervous System of a Frog:

Brain spinal cord
Brain is contained in a bony structure known as brain box or cranium and protects it from the
external shocks.

The frog's brain is divisible into three parts namely:

Fore brain: It consists of olfactory lobes, a pair of cerebral hemispheres, and unpaired
diencephalon. Olfactory lobe of frog's brain controls the sense of smell.

Mid-brain: The mid-brain o fthe frog is consists of a pair of optic lobes. Optic lobes are
invloved in the frog's vision.

Hind-brain: Hind-brain o fthe frog consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata.

Cerebellum helps to maintain the balance and equilibrium of the frog. Medulla oblongata helps
in the regulation of respiration, digestion, and other automatic functions. Cerebellum also
controls the muscular coordination and posture.

Sense organs:
 Frog has different types of sense organs;
 Organs of touch (sensory papillae)
 Taste (taste buds)
 Smell (nasal epithelium)
 Vision (eye)
 Hearing (tympanum with internal ear)
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 UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

Male reproductive system:

 Consists of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes, attached to the upper part of kidneys,
by mesorchium.
 Vasa efferentia are 10-12 in number arises from the testes.
 They enter into the kidney and opens into Bidder’s canal.
 Bidder’s canal communicates with the urinogenital duct that comes out of the kidneys
and opens into the cloaca.
 The cloaca is a small median chamber that is used to pass faecal matter, urine and sperms
to the exterior.

Female reproductive system:

 Includes a pair of ovaries present near the kidneys.
 A pair of oviduct arising from ovaries opens into the cloaca separately.
 A mature female lays 2500 to 3000 ova at a time.
 Fertilization is external i.e. in water
 Development is indirect involved a larval stage called tadpole larva.
 Tadpole larva metamorphoses into adult frog.

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 UDAY PRATAP
SINGH
M. PHARM (WBUT)
Mob no: 8013040613

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