Soil Composition, Genesis

and Development
Dennis A. Apuan, Ph.D.
Faculty, Department of Environmental Science
USTP – Cagayan de Oro Campus
What is Soil?
Soil is a natural and
dynamic body formed on the
land surface and made up of
porous mixture of inorganic
and organic materials whose
composition and properties
influence the growth of
plants.
Fields of specialization in soil
science
1. Soil chemistry
Interactions of solid, liquid,
and gaseous phases or
components of soil
2. Soil mineralogy
Structural chemistry of the
solid components of soil.
.
 Fields of specialization… con’t

3. Soil microbiology
Soil biochemical reaction carried out
primarily by microorganisms
4. Soil physics
characteristics, processes, or reactions
of a soil caused by physical forces
5. Soil fertility
quality of a soil to provide optimum
level of nutrients for plant growth
 Fields of specialization…con’t

6. Soil genesis
– referred to as pedology when
combined with soil classification
– covers factors and processes of
soil formation.
– bridges chemistry, physics,
geology, biology, climatology,
geography, anthropology, and
agriculture.
 Edaphological Approach

Study of soil in relation to

higher plants
-Soil properties vs plant
growth
-Variability of soil productivity
-Methods of conserving and
improving productivity
• Pedological Approach:
-Origin and classification
of soils
-soil as a natural body
Soil components
Approximate composition- SOIL
typical topsoil
SOLID LIQUID GAS
% by
VOLUME 50% 25% 25%

INORGANIC ORGANIC
40% 10%

SAND & SILT CLAY HUMUS

Primary Min. Secondar Colloids. Life
(quartz, feldspar, y Min. of soils
mica, etc. (silicate clays,
hydrous oxide,
colloids)
• Approximate Composition

LIQUID GASES
25% 25%

SOIL SOLUTION SOIL AIR

WATER AND SALTS SOIL AIR ATMOS. AIR
CATIONS ANIONS % %
(Ca 2+ , (HCO3-, RH ~ 100 ~
Mg 2+ , SO4-2, Cl-,
Na+, K+, N2 78.6 78.3
NO3-,
H+, Al 3+ ) O2 20.0 21.0
HPO4-2,
H2PO4- ) CO2 0.5 0.03
Ar 0.9 0.94
 Earth’s Crust
• Soil chemical composition is
derived from the earth’s
mantle
• Earth’s crust: about 16 km
depth
 EARTH’S CRUST-COMPOSITION
(16km deep)
Element % by Ionic % by
or Ion Weight Radius Å1 Volume
O-2 46.6 1.40 93.77
Si4+ 27.7 0.42 0.86
Al3+ 8.1 0.51 0.47
Fe2+ 5.0 0.74 0.43
Ca2+ 3.6 0.99 1.03
Mg2+ 2.1 0.66 0.29
Na+ 2.8 0.95 1.32
K+ 2.6 1.22 1.83
----------------------------------------------------------------
Σ 98.5 ~100
 EARTH’S CRUST-COMPOSITION
(16km deep)
Element % by weight
____________________
Ti 0.50
H 0.14
P 0.11
Mn 0.99
S 0.03
-----------------------------------
1 1Å = 10-8 CM
 Ionic forms of the essential
elements taken up from the soil
Nutrient Chemical Ionic forms
element symbol absorbed by plants
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MACRONUTRIENTS
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+
Phosphorus P H2PO4-, HPO4=,
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca++
Magnesium Mg Mg++
Sulfur S SO4=
 Ionic forms of the essential
elements taken up from the soil
Nutrient Chemical Ionic forms
element symbol absorbed by
plants
-----------------------------------------------------------------
MICRONUTRIENTS
Manganese Mn Mn++
Iron Fe Fe++
Boron B BO3=
Zinc Zn Zn++
Copper Cu Cu++
Molybdenum Mo MoO4=
Chloride Cl Cl-
 Soil is
• The soil profile
• And the soil we pick up to feel
consisting of sand, silt, clay particles
and decomposed organic matter.
Rock: aggregate of one
or more minerals; most
commonly, two or more.
Classification of rock
– Igneous
– Sedimentary
– Metamorphic
 aggregate of one or
Rock -
more minerals; most
commonly, two or more.
Classes of Rocks
IGNEOUS—originate from magma, a hot,
fluid mass or rock melt
SEDIMENTARY—consolidated fragments
of igneous and/or metamorphic rocks
METAMORPHIC—chemically and/or
physically transformed (metamorphism)
igneous or sedimentary rock by means
of heat and/or pressure.
Examples of Igneous Rocks:
1. Granite (quarts, K-feldspar, biotite)
2. Diorite (plagioclase, amphibole, qtz,)
3. Rhyolite (K-feldspar, quartz, biotite)
4. Gabbro (pyroxene, plagioclase,
olivine)
5. Andesite (plagioclase, amphibole, qtz)
6. Basalt (pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine0
7. Obsidian (volcanic glass)
8. Volcanic tuff (fragmental volcanic
rocks)
Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)
2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (claystone) (<1/256mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)
Examples of metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic
Rock
Equivalent
1. Granite ----------- Gneiss
2. Basalt-------------Schists
3. Sandstone----------Quartzite
4. Limestone----------Marble
5. Shale------------- Slate
6. Conglomerate-------Meta-
conglomerate
Mineral: naturally occurring
chemical element or compound
formed as a product of
inorganic processes.

Two groups of minerals -

a. primary minerals

b. secondary minerals
Primary minerals: formed at
temperatures and/or pressure
higher than that normally
encountered at the earth’s
surface (one atmosphere and
<100C). e.g. quartz,
feldspar,mica, amphibole,
apatite, olivine
Components of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Secondary minerals: form
under conditions of
temperature and pressure
found at the earth’s
surface by the weathering
of preexisting minerals.
e.g. clay minerals,limonite,
gibbsite,calcite,dolomite,
gypsum,rock phosphate
Factors Influencing Soil Formation
CLORPT
• Climate
– Primarily precipitation and temperature
• Organisms
– Especially vegetation, microbes, and soil
animals
• Relief
– Slope, aspect, and landscape position
• Parent Material
– Geological or organic precursors to the soil
• Time
1. Parent material-inorganic (rocks and
minerals) and organic material where
soils may originate.
Types of parent material
a. residual-bedrocks such as
igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.
b. transported-loose materials
like sand, silt and clay deposits
where soils developed(alluvium,
colluvium, ash, glacial drift,
dune).
Parent Material--Transported

Agent Deposited in or by Name of

deposit
---------------------------------------------
Water Stream Alluvium
Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
---------------------------------------------
Ice Ice Till, Moraine
Melt water Alluvium,
Lacustrine
---------------------------------------------
Wind Wind Loess (silt)
Dune (sand)
Volcanic ash
---------------------------------------------
Gravity Gravity Colluvium
2. Topography-refers to soil’s
position in the landscape.

Summit
Shoulder

Backslope

Footslope
(1) Summit and (2) Shoulder-develop
horizons the fastest;
(3) Backslope -soil develop slower
because:
a. rainfall will run off this
slope position faster,
b. there will be more soil
erosion,
c. and there will be less
leaching
(4) Footslope -soils will collect sediment
from upslope that can
bury the horizons and
slow down their
development
3. Climate components that strongly
influence soil development:
a. temperature-weathering of rocks
and minerals and biochemical
reaction increases with increasing
temperature.

b. precipitation or rainfall-with more

rainfall, greater weathering and
greater leaching therefore faster
rate of soil development
Difference in the soil profile under
grassland versus forest vegetation
• 5.Time-the length of time for the
soil to form.
• It is approximated by the time
since the site for soil development
became stable (no significant
erosion and deposition).
• Age of a soil is not considered in
years but how much development
the soil has undergone.
Time as a factor of soil
formation
• Catenas
– When soils are developed on the same parent material
and the soils only differ on the basis of drainage due
to variations in relief
• Chronosequence
– A sequence of related soils that differ in certain
properties primarily as a result of time as a soil-
forming process
• Lithosequence
– A group of related soils that differ as a result of
parent material
• Climosequence
– A sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes
in climatic regimes (temperature and precipitation)
• Biosequence
– A group of related soils that differ primarily due to
variation in kinds and numbers of plants and soil
organisms
Major processes in soil-profile
development (after Simonson)
ADDITION-precipitation
w/ ions and solid part.;
organic matter
Ground Surface
TRANSFORMATIONS
Organic matter humus
Primary minerals hydrous oxides; clay; ions, H2SiO4

TRANSFER TRANSFER
Humus,clays, ions, Ions, H4SiO4
H4SiO4

REMOVALS
IONS, H4SiO4
 Processes of Mineral Soil Horizon
Formation
 A. Additions - H2O, organic matter,air,
soil particles, salt
 B. Losses - H2O, organic matter, CO2 ,
nutrients by plant removal
 C. Transformations - Changes to soil
structure, development of clay minerals,
weathering of minerals to elements,
chemical Rx
 D. Translocations - movement from one
horizon to another of O.M. Clay,
Water, Iron, & Nutrients in colloidal
size, (very small particles) - clay films
on peds are evidence of this
translocation = clay (film) coating
 Soil Profile Symbols

• O—Horizon dominated by organic

matter.
• A—Organic-rich, mineral horizon at or
adjacent to the surface.
• E—Mineral horizon of maximum
eluviation.
• B—Mineral horizon of maximum
illuviation and formed beneath an O, A,
or E horizon.
• C—Weathered parent material.
• R—Underlying consolidated bedrock.
 Relative age of soil

Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R

slightly to mod. weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C
mod. to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo--C
high to extremely weathered
 Chemical Weathering

• Chemical weathering produces clays on

which vegetation can grow.
• A mixture of dead vegetation, clay,
rock fragments of sand and silt size
particles produces soil.
 Chemical weathering
1. Hydrolysis –Replacement of the basic ions by
the hydrogen, with consequent collapse and
disintegration of the structure.

KAlSi3O8 + H+ HAlSi3O8 + K+

2. Hydration –association of water molecules or of

hydroxyl groups with minerals, often without actual
decomposition or modification of the mineral itself.
CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (g,l) CaSO4 . 2H2O
 Chemical weathering
3. Oxidation – removal of one or more electrons from an ion
or an atom.
4FeO(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l) 4FeO(OH) (s)
Ferrous ferric
goethite
4. Carbonation – minerals are replaced by carbonates.
Introducing carbon dioxide into water.
CO2(g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) + HCO3 (aq)

5. Solution – dissolving of simple salts as carbonates and

chlorides.
CaCO3 + 2H+ H2CO3 + Ca++