Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-11135-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The potential of REEs in the Eppawala Phosphate Deposit, Sri Lanka:

REE enrichment, mineralization, and economic significance
Nadeera Batapola1 · Nalin Ratnayake1 · Bandara Abeysinghe1 · Ranjith Premasiri1 · Nimila Dushyantha2 ·
I. M. Saman K. Ilankoon3 · Rohana Chandrajith4 · Sudath Rohitha1 · Kithsiri Dissanayake1 ·
Pannipitiye Dharmaratne1 · Amila Sandaruwan Ratnayake2 · Pubudi Dilshara1

Received: 10 December 2022 / Accepted: 19 August 2023 / Published online: 7 September 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The significant role in high-tech and green technologies, recent outstripping demand, and constrained global supply of rare
earth elements (REEs) have led to the exploration of phosphate deposits worldwide as a sustainable source for the recovery
of REEs as by-products. In this context, the Eppawala Phosphate Deposit (EPD) in Sri Lanka can be considered a potential
source for recovering REEs as a by-product. The REE geochemistry and mineralogy of sixty representative samples from
the weathered regolith (primary apatite crystals and secondary phosphate matrix) and the carbonatite source rock at the
EPD were analyzed. The average total REE content (∑REE) in the weathered regolith ranged from 2500 to 6092 ppm, with
higher enrichment of light REEs than heavy REEs. The weathered regolith was highly enriched in REEs compared to the
parent carbonatite due to residual enrichment of apatite with calcite and dolomite dissolution. Furthermore, REE immo-
bilization during matrix formation results from the retention of REEs in fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite. Mineralogical
analyses revealed that the major REE ore minerals in the EPD are apatite group minerals. Despite the relatively low REE
grade (~ 0.48% total rare earth oxide) compared to the other phosphate deposits in the world, this deposit is significantly
enriched in critical and highly demanded REEs, such as Nd (54,468 tonnes), Pr (17,994 tonnes), and Tb (2,897 tonnes).
Therefore, with upgraded extraction techniques, the EPD could become a potential source of REEs that could contribute to
maintaining a sustainable REE supply chain in the future.

Keywords Apatite · Phosphate rock · Rare earth elements · Sustainability · Weathering

Introduction rare earth elements (LREEs) from lanthanum (La) to gado-

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are a group of 17 metallic ele-
ments consisting of scandium (Sc), yttrium (Y), and 15 lan-
thanides. They are categorized into two major groups—light
* Nadeera Batapola
nadee92madhubhashani@gmail.com
1
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, University
of Moratuwa, Moratuwa 10400, Sri Lanka
2
Department of Applied Earth Sciences, Faculty of Applied
Sciences, Uva Wellassa University, Passaara Road,
Badulla 90000, Sri Lanka
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, School
of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon
Selatan, 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University
of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 20400, Sri Lanka
linium (Gd) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) from
terbium (Tb) to lutetium (Lu) and Y (Migaszewski and
Gałuszka 2015; Voncken 2016; Balaram 2019). REEs are
indispensable for a wide range of applications from elec-
tronics, catalysts, and automotive to high-end technological
uses in medical and military defense systems (Charalam-
pides et al. 2015; Dushyantha et al. 2020). Recently, the
economic importance of REEs increased exponentially due
to their significant role in clean energy technologies, such as
wind power turbines, electric vehicles, and solar panels (U.S.
Department of Energy 2011; Gielen and Lyons 2022). A
drastic increase in global REE demand is thus expected over
the coming decades (USGS 2021), indicating a simultaneous
scale-up of REE production to accommodate the burgeoning
demand. On top of that, the current global supply is becom-
ing constrained by factors, such as uneven resource distri-
bution, environmental impacts, and geo-political concerns

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(Ilankoon et al. 2022). Therefore, the existing sources of
REE supply are certainly inadequate, requiring new and
alternative sources to cater to the future REE demand. In
this context, exploration for new sustainable REE resources
worldwide is of utmost importance to maintain a stable REE
supply chain (Batapola et al. 2020).
Currently, carbonatites (e.g., Bayan Obo and Maoniuping
in China, Mountain Pass in the USA, and Manavalakurichi
in India), alkaline igneous rocks (e.g., Lovozero and Khibiny
in Russia and Weishan Lake in China), placers (e.g., Odisha
and Chavara in India), laterites (e.g., Mt Weld in Australia),
and Ion Adsorption Clays (IACs) (e.g., Longnan and Gan-
zhou in China) are the primary geological resources used
in REE production (Barakos et al. 2016; Li et al. 2017; Liu
et al. 2023). Among them, carbonatites and IACs are the
dominant contributors to the global REE supply chain (Liu
et al. 2023). Moreover, there is widespread concern about
reusing REE-containing industrial wastes, such as electronic
waste, mine tailings, red mud, coal waste, and phospho-
gypsum and different low-grade secondary REE resources
(Binnemans et al. 2013; Dushyantha et al. 2020, 2021b).
Although REEs are produced as major products in many
global REE deposits, they can potentially be recovered as
by-products from different types of deposits (Pereira et al.
2019). Despite this potential, REE recovery as by-products
from the existing mining operations has been overlooked
with only a few exceptions, including Bayan Obo in China,
the world’s largest source of REEs as by-products of iron
and niobium production (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006) and
Eco Ridge deposit where REEs are recovered as by-products
of uranium mining (Simandl 2014). Similarly, phosphate
deposits can be considered as prospective sources to recover
REEs as by-products during the phosphate fertilizer produc-
tion flow (Chen and Graedel 2015; Khoshnoodi and Ziapour
2022). For example, the annual amount of phosphate rock
mined from typical phosphorite could contain more than
70,000 tonnes of REEs (Simandl 2014). It can reduce the
sole dependence on virgin REE production and ensure a sus-
tainable and reliable supply for the next few decades (Chen
and Graedel 2015).
The Eppawala phosphate deposit (EPD) is the only eco-
nomically valuable phosphate deposit in Sri Lanka mined
by Lanka Phosphate Ltd with an average annual phosphate
production of 50,000 tonnes. Mined phosphate from the
EPD is currently employed to produce phosphate fertilizers
(Lanka Phosphate Ltd 2020) while there is no process to
extract REEs from Eppawala phosphate. Hence, significant
amounts of REEs and actinides, such as Th are released into
agricultural lands which hinders the complete resource uti-
lization of the EPD while gradually degrading agricultural
soils (Tirado and Allsopp 2012; Ramos et al. 2016). Moreo-
ver, the fertilizer produced from the EPD is only applied for
perennial crops in the country due to their low solubility
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
(Lanka Phosphate Ltd 2020) and there is a nation’s necessity
of producing a highly soluble form of phosphate fertilizers
for short-term crops like paddy cultivation (Udawatte et al.
2020). Therefore, EPD must be developed into a stage where
a highly soluble form of phosphate fertilizer can be produced
while REEs are extracted as a by-product during the process.
The exploitation of any mineral resource requires a com-
prehensive investigation of its geochemistry and mineralogy.
Although a few geochemical and petrological studies have
previously been carried out using both the fresh carbonatites
and regolith of the EPD (Pitawala et al. 2003; Pitawala and
Lottermoser 2012; Hewawasam 2013; Chandrakumara et al.
2021), it has not been adequately explored for the potential
of REEs despite its economic significance in the recovery
of REEs as a by-product. In addition, mobilization, frac-
tionation, and enrichment of REEs in the EPD are poorly
understood, thus it emphasizes the need for investigating
these processes to assess the economic potential of the EPD
and its significance as an unconventional REE source in the
local and global supply chain. Therefore, the present work
is focused on the exploration of REE enrichment, miner-
alization, geochemistry, and the economic significance of
the EPD.
Geological setting
The underlying carbonatites at the EPD belong to the
Wanni Complex of the Precambrian basement of Sri Lanka
(Fig. 1a). The Wanni Complex consists of igneous rocks
and high-grade metamorphic rocks that include granitoid
gneisses, migmatites, granites, metasediments (garnet-
cordierite gneisses, metaquartzites, and marbles), and
charnockites (Cooray 1994; Pitawala et al. 2003; Pitawala
and Lottermoser 2012). The Eppawala carbonatites intrude
high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Wanni Complex and
form a series of steeply dipping dyke-like carbonatite bod-
ies with a thickness of 1–100 m and varying strike exten-
sions (up to 100 m) (Fig. 1b). Fresh carbonatite outcrops are
rare in the EPD due to their tendency to weather. However,
weathered carbonatite exposures are evident in the EPD as
discontinuous rounded or oval-shaped patches and boulders
(< 5 m) with a prominent N-S orientation (Pitawala and
Lottermoser 2012). Most of the carbonatite occurrences are
found within the granitic gneiss along or near the axis of a
synform, whereas a few carbonatite bodies occur in the core
of an antiform in the east of the Eppawala area (Fig. 1b)
(Pitawala et al. 2003).
The genesis of the Eppawala carbonatites has been
highly debated over the years with a few theories of igne-
ous versus sedimentary (metamorphosed limestone) origins
(Manthilake et al. 2008; Dushyantha et al. 2017). However,
many researchers have proposed an igneous origin based
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
Fig. 1  a) Simplified geological map of Sri Lanka showing the location of the EPD (Cooray 1994); b) simplified geological map of the EPD
(GSMB 2001)
on mineral chemistry, trace elements, and REE abundance
in the Eppawala carbonatites (Dahanayake and Subasinghe
1989; Manthilake et al. 2008; Pitawala and Lottermoser
2012). Furthermore, it has been argued that carbonatite
magmas at Eppawala were emplaced either before or after
the regional metamorphic event at 650–550 Ma (Weerakoon
et al. 2001; Manthilake et al. 2008). In contrast, Wang et al
(2021) inferred that the Eppawala carbonatite magmas origi-
nated from a mixture of basement gneisses and marbles with
a formation age of ca. 475 Ma.
The Eppawala carbonatite bodies contain mainly calcite
(> 65%), dolomite (20%), apatite (5–10%), and olivine (5%)
(Manthilake et al. 2008). The most common silicate mineral
is forsterite, whereas ilmenite and magnetite are present as
the most common iron-bearing minerals in the Eppawala
carbonatites. In addition, phlogopite, magnesite, enstatite,
tremolite, and spinel occur as minor or accessory miner-
als (Pitawala et al. 2003; Pitawala and Lottermoser 2012).
Apatite occurs as individual yellowish-green crystals or
aggregates embedded in the Eppawala carbonatites. These
apatite crystals are diverse in shape and size, where large
grains (10–20 cm) are euhedral, and microscopic grains are
subrounded or well-rounded in shape. In addition, apatite
grains comprise inclusions of calcite, dolomite, monazite,
and pyrite (Manthilake et al. 2008).
A phosphate-rich regolith overlies the parent carbonatite
rock at the EPD as a result of the chemical weathering of
the carbonatite bedrock (Dinalankara 1995; Chandraku-
mara et al. 2021). During the initial stages of carbonatite
Page 3 of 18 446
weathering, carbonate minerals are partially or completely
dissolved while weathering-resistant apatite, iron oxide, and
silicate minerals remain at the lower levels of the regolith
as residual minerals (Chandrakumara et al. 2021). How-
ever, upon intense weathering conditions, the weathering-
resistant primary minerals are also dissolved and recrystal-
lized to form secondary supergene phosphates (Dinalankara
1995; Dushyantha et al. 2019). This phosphate-rich regolith
extends over two sites: northern (~ 0.05 ­km2) and southern
(~ 0.03 ­km2) areas. The northern area comprises a thicker
weathering profile than the southern site (40–120 m) (Dinal-
ankara 1995) overlying the carbonatite bedrock located more
than 60 m below the current mining levels. The regolith in
the northern area developed under karstic conditions does
not exhibit distinguished weathering zones (Chandrakumara
et al. 2021). However, two major weathering zones can be
identified in the northern site: (1) leached zone containing
primary apatite crystals embedded in a firm, consolidated
secondary matrix and (2) top weathered zone comprising
loosely bound primary apatite crystals in a soft, brownish
soil like matrix (Fig. 2a) (Hewawasam 2013; Dushyantha
2018). However, a thin weathered regolith (10–20 m) over-
lies the parent carbonatite rock in the southern area, where
most of the excavated sites have been left out after reaching
the bedrock. In contrast to the northern regolith, the karstic
conditions in the southern regolith are minimal, and weath-
ering profiles here exhibit several distinctive weathering
zones; (1) fresh to partially weathered carbonatite zone, (2)
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446 Page 4 of 18 Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446

Fig. 2  Schematic diagrams showing the zonation of the a) northern weathered regolith. Adapted from (Hewawasam 2013); b) southern weath-
ered regolith. Adapted from (Chandrakumara et al. 2021); and c) photographs of a primary apatite crystal and a secondary phosphate matrix

alloteritic- saprolite zone, (3) intensively leached zone, and
(4) lateritic zone (Fig. 2b) (Chandrakumara et al. 2021).
In the weathered regolith at the EPD, there are two
types of components: primary apatite crystals and sec-
ondary phosphate matrix (Fig. 2c), which are currently
employed to produce phosphate fertilizers. Mineralogy
of the apatite crystals is variable and shows chloro-fluor-
hydroxylapatite as the major mineral, whereas fluorapatite
was present as the minor component. In contrast, chloro-
fluor-hydroxylapatite and fluorapatite were only found in
the coarser fraction of the secondary phosphate matrix,
while the finer fraction comprised secondary minerals,
such as crandallite, millisite, wavellite, goethite, gibbsite,
kaolinite, and quartz (Hewawasam 2013).
Materials and methods
Sample collection and preparation
The sampling locations (EP1-EP18: northern regolith;
EP19-EP30: southern regolith) at the EPD are shown in
Fig. 3. Sixty samples were obtained from the EPD: apa-
tite crystals (n = 28; apatite crystals were not found in

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446 Page 5 of 18 446

Fig. 3  Study area and the distribution of sampling locations in both northern and southern sites at the EPD

EP12 and EP17 sampling locations), secondary phosphate of the northern and southern regolith of EPD. Carbonatite
matrix (n = 30), and carbonatite rock (n = 2) covering 30 samples were obtained from exposed outcrops at locations
sampling locations. Apatite crystals and secondary phos- EP11 and EP19 locations in the respective northern and
phate matrix samples were collected from the leached zone southern regions.

13
446 Page 6 of 18
All the collected samples were first crushed into smaller
parts, pulverized using a laboratory Tema mill, and then
sieved through 63 µm to obtain the pulverized fraction.
The retained fraction on the sieve is again powdered and
sieved through 63 µm and several cycles of powdering
and sieving were carried out for each sample to decrease
its particle size (i.e., comminution) to less than 63 µm. A
powdered sample (< 63 µm) can ease the digestion pro-
cess due to the increased surface area of the sample (De
Zorzi et al. 2005). Finally, representative samples of the
powdered fractions were obtained using the coning and
quartering method.
Experimental procedures
REE analysis
A 0.5 g of each representative sample was weighed into
a Teflon crucible and treated with ­HNO3, HCl, and ­H2O2
in a 3:1:1 ratio (reverse aqua-regia). Then, the mixture
was heated using a hot plate at 120–130 0C for 3 h. After
digestion, 1 ml of the sample was filtered through 0.45 µm
syringe filters and diluted to 10 ml with ultrapure water. It
was further diluted 1:1 to analyze REE concentrations (Y
and the 15 lanthanides – from La to Lu, excluding prome-
thium) by Thermo ICapQ Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometer (ICP-MS) (Soil and Plant Analysis Labora-
tory at University of Wisconsin 2005; Krzeszowska et al.
2019) at the analytical laboratory of the Department of Earth
Resources Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
using multi-elemental ICP-MS standards. The range of ana-
lytical uncertainty during ICP-MS analysis was from − 0.3
to + 0.3%.
Major oxide analysis
The major oxide contents of eight samples of selected apa-
tite crystals (EP4, EP6, EP8, and EP11), secondary phos-
phate matrix (EP8, EP11, EP12), and carbonatite (EP19)
samples were determined by the X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
analysis at the analytical laboratory of the Geological Sur-
vey and Mines Bureau (GSMB), Sri Lanka. After mixing
and grinding 9.0 g of each representative sample with 2.7 g
of grinding pellets in an agate mortar, 40 mm pellets were
prepared by pressing the mixture into a pellet die using a
pressure of 15 T. The prepared pellets were then analyzed
through a GEO-QUANT analytical package of S8-Tiger
Wavelength Dispersive XRF-Spectrometer. The accuracy
was checked using international reference samples, namely,
JLk-1, JSd-1, and JSd-2, whereas precision was checked by
replicate analysis (Dushyantha et al. 2019). The range of
analytical uncertainty during XRF analysis was from − 0.01
to + 0.01%.
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Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
Mineralogical analysis
The mineralogy of both apatite crystals and secondary phos-
phate matrix in the EPD were determined by powder X-ray
diffraction (PXRD) at the Department of Applied Earth
Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Uva Wellassa Uni-
versity, Badulla, Sri Lanka. Apatite crystals and secondary
phosphate matrix samples collected from the location EP3
were selected (where the highest REE content was observed)
for the PXRD analysis. A 5.0 g of each representative sam-
ple (as mentioned in Sect. "Sample collection and prepara-
tion") of apatite crystals and secondary phosphate matrix
was analyzed using a BRUKER D8 ADVANCE ECO X-ray
diffractometer under standard operating conditions. Fur-
thermore, the mineralogy of apatite crystals (EP11, EP20),
secondary phosphate matrix (EP11, EP20), and carbonatite
(EP19) were investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) at the Department of Materials Science and Engi-
neering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. The
selected samples (< 63 µm) were analyzed for mineralogy
through a Carl Zeiss EVO 18 Research SEM coupled with
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) with 20 kV
accelerating voltage and 5 nA beam current.
Calculation of geochemical gains or losses
of elements
The geochemical gains or losses of analyzed major elements
and REEs were measured as the percentage change in the
proportion of each element in the weathered product and the
parent rock (Nesbitt 1979) as follows:
Percentage change of ratio = 100[(Ri − Rp )∕Rp ] (1)
Ri and R
­ p represent the proportions of elements in the
weathered samples and fresh bedrock, respectively, assum-
ing a negligible volume change during weathering (Nahon
and Merino 1996; Menéndez et al. 2019).
Results
REE concentrations and distribution in the EPD
The average total REE (ƩREE) concentration in apatite
crystals in the EPD was 4071 ppm (Table 1). In addition,
the average total LREE (ƩLREE) and total HREE (ƩHREE)
contents of apatite crystals were 3611 ppm and 460 ppm,
respectively. ƩREE concentration levels similar to apatite
crystals were observed in the secondary phosphate matrix
(avg. ƩREE = 4063 ppm). The average ƩLREE and ƩHREE
contents of the secondary phosphate matrix were 3566 ppm
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446 Page 7 of 18 446

Table 1  REEs, Th, and U concentrations (ppm) of apatite crystals, secondary phosphate matrix, and carbonatite rocks in the EPD
Element Apatite ­crystalsa (n = 28) Secondary phosphate Matrix Carbonatite Carbonatite (Pitawala et al. 2003)
(n = 30) (n = 2) (n = 7)
Avg Std. Dev Example (EP3) Avg Std. Dev Example (EP3) EP11 EP19 Avg Std. Dev Examples
EPP-C-4 KD-3–1D

La 853.8 136.5 1056 850.7 100.5 1100 185.4 134.9 101.5 35.26 92.70 105.0
Ce 1565 370.1 2733 1507 244.1 1870 290.4 218.3 224.6 81.54 214.0 247.0
Pr 252.3 37.30 335.3 257.4 29.53 325.7 55.22 36.53 30.47 10.83 30.70 34.90
Nd 748.6 182.1 1333 731.7 124.4 922.7 256.3 184.2 121.1 40.42 121.0 140.0
Sm 156.0 26.35 196.1 175.1 25.42 233.3 40.73 31.32 21.34 5.37 20.60 24.60
Eu 35.72 6.63 45.20 44.08 8.14 58.10 9.31 8.30 4.66 1.34 4.60 5.40
Gd 165.1 35.16 285.3 160.3 25.18 167.9 48.68 33.88 15.00 2.43 13.20 16.00
Tb 41.50 6.17 57.60 41.44 4.65 53.60 9.35 6.94 1.66 0.22 1.40 1.70
Dy 50.66 8.18 66.10 59.57 10.42 78.50 13.63 12.17 8.39 0.98 6.90 8.40
Ho 8.74 1.53 11.80 10.90 2.17 14.60 2.42 2.39 1.54 0.18 1.20 1.50
Er 56.14 9.31 84.50 60.78 6.65 75.40 13.44 11.01 4.33 0.98 3.00 3.80
Tm 2.78 0.48 4.00 3.71 0.91 5.20 0.89 0.95 0.56 0.09 0.40 0.50
Yb 21.29 3.64 32.90 26.27 4.61 33.30 5.87 5.79 3.36 0.52 2.30 3.00
Lu 2.25 0.39 3.40 3.12 0.83 4.20 0.69 0.79 0.56 0.07 0.40 0.50
Y 111.4 35.94 242.7 131.3 30.79 177.5 27.03 54.96 53.61 8.80 38.50 48.60
Th 100.7 17.40 83.90 75.80 17.57 75.10 26.93 1.14 0.76 0.59 0.10 0.70
U 10.13 2.80 6.30 8.82 1.87 8.50 1.14 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.10 0.10
ƩLREE 3611 685.6 5698 3566 457.0 4509 837.3 613.6 503.7 173.0 483.6 556.0
ƩHREE 459.8 89.55 788.2 497.4 60.19 610.2 122.0 128.9 89.00 12.40 67.30 84.00
ƩREE 4071 771.0 6486 4063 496.1 5120 959.3 742.5 592.7 176.3 550.9 640.9
ƩLREE/ƩHREE 7.87 0.48 7.20 7.22 0.80 7.40 6.90 4.80 5.71 1.82 7.19 6.63
(La/Yb)N 27.53 2.08 21.76 22.71 3.51 22.40 21.50 15.80 21.13 7.42 27.38 23.78
Eu/Eu* 0.39 0.05 0.33 0.46 0.08 0.51 0.36 0.42 0.44 0.06 0.48 0.47
Ce/Ce* 0.46 0.08 0.63 0.44 0.07 0.43 0.39 0.14 0.55 0.01 0.55 0.56

(La/Yb)N = ­(LaN)/ ­(YbN), Eu/Eu* = ­EuN/(SmN × ­GdN)1/2, Ce/Ce* = ­CeN/(LaN × ­PrN)1/2, where subscript N denotes the normalization by chondrite
values from (McDonough and Sun 1995)
a
Apatite Crystals were not found in the sampling locations EP12 and EP17

and 497 ppm, respectively. However, fresh carbonatite of
the EPD showed rather low ƩREE contents; 959 ppm in
the northern carbonatite and 742.5 ppm in the southern
carbonatite. Similarly, the ƩLREE and ƩHREE contents of
Eppawala carbonatite were lower than that of apatite crystals
and secondary phosphate matrix (i.e., northern carbonatite:
ƩLREE = 837 ppm, ƩHREE = 122 ppm; southern carbon-
atite: ƩLREE = 614 ppm, ƩHREE = 129 ppm). In contrast,
the published data (Pitawala et al. 2003) reported rather low
REE concentrations in the Eppawala carbonatites compared
to the present study (ƩREE = 593 ppm; ƩLREE = 504 ppm;
ƩHREE = 89.0 ppm). The average ratio of ƩLREE/ƩHREE
in apatite crystals was approximately 7.9, whereas the
secondary phosphate matrix had a ratio of 7.2 (Table 1),
indicating the higher enrichment of LREEs in the EPD
compared to HREEs. Furthermore, the average normal-
ized La and Ytterbium (Yb) ratio [(La/Yb)N] of the apatite
crystals was approximately 27.5, while it was 22.7 for the
secondary phosphate matrix. These values suggest a strong
fractionation of LREEs than HREEs. Similarly, Eppawala
fresh carbonatites showed a higher LREE enrichment than
the HREEs (ƩLREE/ƩHREE ratio = 6.9 (northern carbon-
atite) and 4.8 (southern carbonatite)) and a strong fractiona-
tion [(La/Yb)N ratio = 21.5 (northern carbonatite) and 15.8
(southern carbonatite)]. The published data (Pitawala et al.
2003) of Eppawala fresh carbonatites also displayed a higher
LREE enrichment over HREEs (avg. ƩLREE/ƩHREE = 5.7)
with a strong fractionation (avg. (La/Yb)N = 21.1) (Table 1).
Figure 4 illustrates the chondrite normalized REE dis-
tribution plots of apatite crystals, secondary phosphate
matrix, and carbonatite rock in the EPD. It is observed
that apatite crystals, secondary phosphate matrix, and car-
bonatite rock followed similar REE distribution patterns.
However, REE contents of the Eppawala carbonatites were

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446 Page 8 of 18 Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446

Fig. 4  Chondrite-normalized
REE distribution patterns of
apatite crystals, secondary
phosphate matrix, and carbon-
atite in the EPD. Reference
REE contents in the carbonatite
are taken from Pitawala et al.
2003; Manthilake et al. 2008,
and Chondrite values are from
McDonough and Sun 1995

ten times lower than that of apatite crystals and second-
ary phosphate matrix. Furthermore, the LREE distribu-
tion of the Eppawala carbonatite rock in the present study
almost followed the patterns of Pitawala et al. (2003)
and Manthilake et al. (2008), while the HREE contents
of the carbonatite rock in the present study were higher.
The individual REE content trends in both apatite crys-
tals and secondary phosphate matrix followed a decreas-
ing order of Cerium (Ce) > La > Nd > Pr > Gd > Sm >
Y > Er > Dy > Tb > Eu > Yb > Ho > Tm > Lu (Table 1)
with the highest Ce concentrations (1565 ppm for apatite
crystals, 1507 ppm for secondary phosphate matrix) and
lowest Lu concentrations (2.2 ppm forapatite crystals and
3.1 ppm forsecondary phosphate matrix). Eu anomalies
(Eu/Eu*) of apatite crystals and secondary phosphate
matrix ranged from 0.30 to 0.47 and from 0.29 to 0.65,
respectively, whereas Ce anomalies (Ce/Ce*) of apatite
crystals and secondary phosphate matrix were in the range
of 0.37–0.63 and 0.40–0.62, respectively (Table 1). Since
all samples of both apatite crystals and the secondary
phosphate matrix components showed Eu/Eu* and Ce/Ce*
values less than unity, the leached zone of the EPD is char-
acterized with negative Eu and Ce anomalies. Eppawala
fresh carbonatites also have negative Eu and Ce anomalies
(Eu/Eu* = 0.36 (northern carbonatite) and 0.42 (southern
carbonatite), and Ce/Ce* = 0.39 (northern carbonatite) and
0.14 (southern carbonatite)).

Fig. 5  PXRD patterns of a) apatite crystals and b) secondary phosphate matrix samples from location EP3 at the EPD

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
Mineralogy in the EPD
The PXRD investigation revealed the presence of only apa-
tite group minerals in both apatite crystals and the secondary
phosphate matrix of the EPD (Fig. 5). Apatite crystals con-
tained apatite, chlorapatite, fluorapatite, and hydroxylapa-
tite (Fig. 5a), whereas only fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite
were observed in the secondary phosphate matrix (Fig. 5b).
The fewer amounts of minerals identified in the secondary
phosphate matrix compared to the apatite crystals may be
due to the lower crystallinity of the secondary phosphate
Fig. 6  SEM–EDS results of apatite crystals (a), secondary phosphate matrix (b) samples from location EP3, and carbonatite rock (c) samples
from location EP19. The scale of all the SEM images is 10 µm
Page 9 of 18 446
matrix. The broader diffraction peaks in Fig. 5b indicate the
poor crystallinity in the secondary phosphate matrix (Díaz-
Acha et al. 2019; Ali et al. 2022). Furthermore, the miner-
alogical results of apatite crystals in the present study are
consistent with the previous literature (Pitawala et al. 2003;
Hewawasam 2013).
In contrast, the PXRD mineralogical results of the sec-
ondary phosphate matrix in this study are not consistent with
those of Hewawasam (2013). This is due to the difference in
the analyzed secondary matrix in the two studies, in which
Hewawasam (2013) studied the secondary phosphate matrix
13
446 Page 10 of 18
of the top weathered zone, while the secondary phosphate
matrix of the leached zone was investigated in the current
study. As the weathering progresses from the parent car-
bonatite rock to unconsolidated topsoil, ions such as ­Ca2+
and ­PO43− tend to leach out from the apatite structure and
can react with either existing clay minerals or Ca-, Al- and
K-rich meteoric water. This will lead to the formation of
non-apatitic phosphate minerals such as millisite and cran-
dallite in the top weathering profiles. Furthermore, leaching
could be intense in the top weathered zone resulting com-
plete removal of ­PO43− ions from the structure, which even-
tually forms clay minerals like gibbsite. Moreover, succes-
sive weathering can alter several minerals such as pyroxene,
hematite, and oligoclase to form goethite and clay minerals
like kaolinite. Therefore, mineralogical changes can occur in
different weathering profiles at the EPD (Hewawasam 2013).
Figure 6 shows the SEM–EDS results of apatite crys-
tals, secondary phosphate matrix, and the EPD carbonatite
rock, which were used to identify the mineral phases present
at the micro-scale. The SEM–EDS observations of apatite
crystals showed high-intensity peaks of Ca, P, and O, and
peaks of Cl, F, and Si with considerable intensity (Fig. 6a).
This confirms the presence of apatite group minerals ­(Ca5
­[PO4]3[F, Cl, OH]) in the apatite crystals of the EPD, which
is consistent with the PXRD results. In Fig. 6b, Al and Fe
peaks were also observed in addition to high-intensity Ca,
P, and O peaks, suggesting the presence of minerals, such as
gibbsite (Al(OH3)) and goethite (FeO(OH)) in the secondary
phosphate matrix of the EPD (Gamaletsos et al. 2019). The
mineralogical results of the present study are compatible
with Hewawasam (2013), given that the latter study also
identified gibbsite and goethite in the secondary phosphate
matrix. High-intensity peaks of Ca and O with Mg peaks
of considerable intensity (Fig. 6c) suggested the presence
of calcite and dolomite in the carbonatite rock at the EPD
(Gamaletsos et al. 2019).
Major oxide geochemistry
Table 2 summarizes the major oxide contents of the selected
apatite crystals, secondary phosphate matrix, and carbonatite
rock in the EPD compared to published data. Based on the
results of the current study, apatite crystals displayed high
contents of CaO (51.8–54.3 wt%) and ­P2O5 (38.6–40.5 wt%),
low concentrations of ­SiO2 (1.20–1.96 wt%) and ­Al2O3
(0.22–1.65 wt%), and negligible contents of other major
oxides (< 1 wt%) (Table 2). In contrast, the secondary phos-
phate matrix showed high contents of S ­ iO2 (1.13–8.54 wt%),
­Al2O3 (1.34–4.56 wt%), and F ­ e2O3 (1.90–2.76 wt%) besides
the high concentrations of CaO and P ­ 2O5. In the carbonatite
rock, CaO and MgO were enriched while S ­ iO2 was present
in a minute concentration, and other oxides including P ­ 2O 5
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
were depleted. According to Table 2, the previous literature
(Dahanayake 1995; Pitawala et al. 2003; Manthilake et al.
2008) has reported similar major oxide compositions for the
EPD and it validates the results obtained in the present study.
Redistribution of REEs and major elements
in the weathered regolith
Figure 7a illustrates the REE redistribution during the for-
mation of the weathered regolith in the EPD. In apatite
crystals and the secondary phosphate matrix of the north-
ern regolith, all REEs exhibited similar levels of enrich-
ments (about 200–400%). However, an increase in HREEs,
Sm, and Eu concentrations was observed in the secondary
phosphate matrix of the northern regolith. In contrast, a
slightly different trend of REE distribution was evident in
the southern regolith (about 100–600% gains), where LREEs
were more enriched compared to HREEs. However, HREEs
(except Y), Sm, and Eu contents were highly retained in
the secondary phosphate matrix of the southern regolith.
In general, REEs were significantly enriched in the regolith
during weathering.
Geochemical gains and losses (percentage change of ratios)
of major elements in the weathered profile relative to the car-
bonatite rock revealed a significant compositional change
during weathering (Fig. 7b). P was highly concentrated in
apatite crystals and secondary phosphate matrix while most
other elements had negligible enrichments or depletions in
the weathered regolith. Ca, K, Na, Si, Mn, and Fe showed
only a moderate reduction, while Mg showed a pronounced
depletion. Although there was a negligible enrichment of tita-
nium in apatite crystals, it was moderately concentrated in the
secondary phosphate matrix. In addition, Al is enriched in the
weathering profile of EPD with significant enrichment in the
secondary phosphate matrix.
Discussion
Weathering and supergene enrichment of REEs
at the EPD
Several factors have been identified to influence REE
mobilization and redistribution during the formation of
regolith-hosted REE deposits under tropical climate con-
ditions (Xiong et al. 2018; Li et al. 2020). Mostly, the key
factors are mineral dissolution, supergene mineral precipi-
tation, adsorption, and hillslope processes, such as erosion,
infiltration, throughflow (i.e., the lateral unsaturated flow
of water in the soil zone), and baseflow (i.e., seepage of
groundwater into streams) (Laveuf and Cornu 2009; Jowitt
et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2022). The results of the present study
 Table 2  Major oxide contents (wt%) in primary apatite crystals, secondary phosphate matrix, and carbonatite rock of the EPD with comparison to published data
Major Present study Published data
oxides
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446

(wt%) Primary apatite crystals (n = 4) Secondary phosphate matrix Car- Primary apatite ­crystalsa (n = 5) Secondary phosphate ­matrixa Carbonatite rocks (n = 7)
(n = 3) bonatite (Manthilake et al. 2008) (n = 2) (Dahanayake 1995) (Pitawala et al. 2003)
Rocks
Avg Std. Dev Example Avg Std. Dev Example EP19 Avg Std. Dev Example (AC- Avg Std. Dev Example (M1) Avg Std. Dev Example
(EP6) (EP11) 2) (P-DAN-
1)

SiO2 1.51 0.31 1.23 3.89 3.31 2.01 2.03 2.18 0.20 2.39 0.30 0.15 0.15 0.23 0.15 0.09
TiO2 0.06 0.01 0.06 1.19 1.41 0.29 0.03 Bdl Bdl Bdl 0.73 0.30 1.03 Bdl Bdl Bdl
Al2O3 0.96 0.52 0.22 2.55 1.43 1.34 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.05 4.08 2.63 1.45 0.05 0.04 Bdl
MnO 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.15 0.09 0.23 0.07 0.01 0.08
MgO 0.29 0.06 0.30 0.22 0.05 0.20 10.60 0.28 0.06 0.17 0.13 0.06 0.18 4.53 2.71 3.63
CaO 53.25 1.02 54.10 48.20 4.79 50.70 41.90 55.22 1.37 53.70 44.30 0.40 43.90 50.10 2.48 51.86
Na2O 0.27 0.10 0.17 0.19 0.02 0.16 0.07 Bdl Bdl Bdl 0.17 0.04 0.20 0.03 0.01 0.03
K2O 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.02 Bdl Bdl Bdl 0.01 0.00 0.01 Bdl Bdl Bdl
P2O5 39.70 0.76 40.30 37.83 1.92 38.00 0.21 41.30 1.31 42.20 34.80 1.60 33.20 1.69 3.63 0.18
Fe2O3 0.93 0.49 1.76 2.41 0.37 2.56 0.23 – – – 7.04 4.86 11.90 0.73 0.31 0.43
FeO – – – – – – – 0.07 0.01 0.05 – – – – – –
CIA 60.05 12.42 39.02 84.18 4.54 80.01 20.69 – – – – – – – – –

Bdl: below the detection limit, CIA: chemical index of alteration

a
The names of samples are not given in Dahanayake 1995 and Manthilake et al. 2008, thus herein they are numbered as [M1, M2], and [AC-1, AC-2, AC-3, AC-4, AC-5], respectively

13
Page 11 of 18 446
446 Page 12 of 18
Fig. 7  Geochemical plots of
the relative losses and gains
(percentage change of ratios,
Eq. (1)) of a) REEs and b)
major elements in the weathered
regolith relative to carbonatite
parent rock
have revealed strong REE enrichments in the weathered
regolith at the EPD (200 to 400% change in the northern
regolith and 100–600% in the southern one) compared to the
parent carbonatite rock (Fig. 7a). Although this significant
enrichment of REEs in the weathered profile of the EPD
infers an REE mobilization, weathering-resistant primary
apatite group minerals cannot mobilize REEs from the bed-
rock to the phosphate-rich regolith. Therefore, REE enrich-
ment at this incipient weathering stage could be mainly due
to the strong apatite residual enrichment (about 6–16 fold)
in the weathered regolith resulting from the dissolution of
major rock-forming minerals like calcite and dolomite (Li
et al. 2020). This apatite enrichment accompanied by the
decomposition of calcite and dolomite during weathering is
conspicuous when comparing the significant enrichment of
­P2O5 and the depletion of CaO and MgO (Fig. 7b). However,
13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
similar chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns of
the regolith and carbonatite bedrock (Fig. 4) indicate an in-
situ formation of the apatite crystals and secondary phos-
phate matrix (Schilling et al. 2014).
In contrast, similar levels of REE enrichments were
observed in the apatite crystals and secondary phosphate
matrix of the EPD (Fig. 4), suggesting an immobilization
of REEs during the formation of the secondary phosphate
matrix in the leached zone through the dissolution of apatite
crystals. According to Minařı́k et al. (1998), REEs can be
immobilized and fixed in the weathering products due to
the mechanisms of retention in weathering resistant primary
minerals, incorporation in newly formed crystalline or amor-
phous phases, and adsorption by clay minerals. Considering
the presence of primary (fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite)
and secondary (gibbsite and goethite) minerals (Figs. 5b and
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
6b), REEs are possibly immobilized in the secondary phos-
phate matrix of the EPD through the following processes:
(1) retention in apatite group minerals like fluorapatite
and hydroxylapatite or (2) incorporation in newly formed
secondary mineral phases, such as gibbsite and goethite.
Furthermore, the lateral distribution of REEs did not vary
markedly within the EPD (Table 1) as the deposit is located
in flatter terrain with lesser precipitation compared to other
areas in the country, resulting in low rates of surface erosion,
which prevents the lateral distribution of REEs (Hewawasam
2013; Tematio et al. 2017; Dushyantha et al. 2021a).
A strong fractionation of LREEs to HREEs was evident
in the weathered profiles at the EPD (Fig. 4). Since this frac-
tionation was also observed in the carbonatite parent rock
in less magnitude, it should be inherited from magmatic
REE fractionation (Jowitt et al. 2017). LREE to HREE frac-
tionation started from the parent carbonatite rock continues
through the weathering process with increased enrichments
in the weathered profiles, such as at Mt Weld (Lottermoser
1990) and in southeastern Bahia in Brazil (Marker and de
Oliveira 1994). During the process of weathering, HREEs
are preferentially released to groundwater and rivers as they
form stronger complexes with ligands in solutions than
LREEs (e.g., high susceptibility of HREEs to form com-
plexes with carbonate ions in groundwater) (Compton et al.
2003), resulting in higher LREE enrichment in each litho-
logical section from bottom to top, while HREEs depleted
gradually (Minařı́k et al. 1998; Jowitt et al. 2017).
The present study elucidates negative Ce and Eu anoma-
lies in both the weathered regolith and the parent carbon-
atite rock of the EPD (Fig. 4, Table 1). It has been reported
that the REE behavior during weathering is complex due to
the occurrence of REE leaching, residual enrichment, and
negative and positive Ce anomaly. However, the origin of
negative Ce anomaly in REE deposits is rarely discussed
(Zhukova et al. 2021). Since fresh carbonatite rock in gen-
eral associated with REE deposits does not contain any Ce
anomaly, the carbonatite rock that we studied may contain
oxidized zones as in some other carbonatite complexes in the
world, such as Bear Lodge carbonatite complex, Wyoming,
where Ce/Ce* is 0.57 and Chuktukon carbonatite com-
plex, Russia, where Ce/Ce* is 0.5 (Andersen et al. 2017;
Zhukova et al. 2021). The evident negative Ce anomalies
in both apatite crystals and secondary phosphate matrix
may have resulted from REE mineral alteration through the
interaction with a superficial oxidizing fluid (mostly mete-
oric) or precipitation of ­Ce3+ as fluorocarbonate minerals
in the regolith (Reinhardt et al. 2018). The concentration
of Eu in tropical laterites during the stages of weathering
is generally controlled by the parent properties, contents of
organic matter, and clay minerals (Yang et al. 2000). How-
ever, the pronounced negative Eu anomaly in the primary
apatite crystals may be due to the extraction of E­ u2+ through
Page 13 of 18 446
a high-temperature aqueous fluid evolved from the magma,
and subsequent dissolution and recrystallization of apatite
crystals may have caused the evident negative Eu anomaly
in the secondary phosphate matrix (Bühn et al. 2001).
Minerals controlling REE distribution
As delineated by Laveuf and Cornu (2009), the primary
sinks of REEs in regolith-hosted REE deposits are REE-
bearing minerals, such as monazite, bastnaesite, xenotime,
and parisite. In addition, some secondary minerals, such as
Fe- and Mn-oxides or hydroxides, phosphates, and clay min-
erals, along with certain rock-forming mineral relicts like
zircon, garnet, and titanite, are considered carriers for REEs
(Laveuf and Cornu 2009).
Based on the correlation analysis between REE contents
and major oxides (Table 3), ƩREE and ƩLREE contents in
apatite crystals show significant positive correlations with
­P2O5 and CaO, whereas ƩHREE content correlates only
with ­P2O5. In contrast, the correlations of ƩREE, ƩLREE,
and ƩHREE contents with ­P2O5 and CaO in the secondary
phosphate matrix is highly positive (with r value closer to 1).
Besides that, no other significant correlations were evident
between REEs and major oxides in the EPD. The signifi-
cant positive correlation of REEs, particularly LREEs with
­P2O5 and CaO in apatite crystals indicates that REEs are
mostly present in the form of apatite group minerals, such
as chlorapatite, fluorapatite, and hydroxylapatite (Fig. 5a).
Furthermore, highly positive correlations of REEs with P ­ 2O5
and CaO in the secondary phosphate matrix indicate that
fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite could be the potential car-
riers of REEs in the secondary phosphate matrix (Decrée
et al. 2020; Zhukova et al. 2021).
Therefore, as discussed in Sect. Weathering and super-
gene enrichment of REEs at the EPD, the immobilization
of REEs during the formation of the secondary phosphate
matrix may be caused by the retention of REEs in weath-
ering-resistant fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite minerals
(Minařı́k et al. 1998; Jowitt et al. 2017). Apatite group min-
erals have long been known as significant carriers of REEs
in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks (Holmden
et al. 1996; Pan and Fleet 2002). Moreover, the ability of
apatite to accommodate REEs has been well demonstrated
by the formation of natural and synthetic apatite (Pan and
Fleet 2002). It has been shown that REEs are incorporated
­ a2+ with R
in apatite by substituting C ­ EE3+. Four major types
of charge-compensating mechanisms have been proposed for
this substitution as follows (Chen et al. 2002):
REE3+ + X2− = Ca2+ + F− (2)
REE3+ + M+ = 2Ca2+ (3)
13
446 Page 14 of 18 Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446

Table 3  The Pearson’s coefficients of correlation (r) matrix between ƩREE, ƩLREE, and ƩHREE contents and major oxide contents in primary apatite crystals and secondary phosphate matrix

Fe2O3

− 0.93 1
P2O5

− 0.71 − 0.71 1
K2O

0.40
1
Na2O

− 0.78 0.40
− 0.88 1
− 0.88 1
CaO

− 0.94 − 0.92 − 0.84 − 0.83 − 0.96 0.96

− 0.99 − 0.99 − 0.96 − 0.62 − 1.00 1
MgO

0.86
0.86

0.80
1
MnO

0.64

0.19
0.19

0.98
1
Al2O3

0.40
0.96

0.98
0.98

0.59
Fig. 8  A comparison of the REE abundances in the EPD with the
1

median abundances of phosphate rocks (black dots) in the world.

TiO2

0.99
0.55
0.99

0.92
0.92

0.72
Adapted from Chen and Graedel 2015
1
P2O5 Fe2O3 ƩREE ƩLREE ƩHREE SiO2

0.99
0.99
0.98
0.59

0.90
0.90

0.76
1
Secondary Phosphate Matrix

REE3+ + SiO4−
4
= Ca2+ + PO3−
4 (4)
− 0.68
− 0.99
− 0.99
− 0.99
− 0.94

− 0.85
− 0.85

− 0.82
0.99

0.97
1

2REE3+ + (vacancy) = 3Ca2+ (5)

− 0.99 − 0.99
− 0.99 − 0.99
− 0.98 − 0.98
− 0.94 − 0.93
− 0.70 − 0.70

− 0.84 − 0.83
− 0.84 − 0.83

− 0.84 − 0.84
0.99

0.98
1
1

0.99

0.98

Economic Potential of the EPD

1
1
1

According to the comparison of REE abundance in the

− 0.42 − 0.42 0.33

EPD with the median abundances of REEs of the phos-

− 0.99 − 0.99 1

phate rocks in the world (Fig. 8), most REEs in the

K2O

EPD (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Er, and Yb) had
1

higher abundances compared to their median values in

Na2O

− 0.99 0.99

phosphate rocks (PR), while the rest (Dy, Ho, Tm, Lu,
− 0.99 1

and Y) fell within the same or lower range as of their

CaO

0.34

medians. Among the highly enriched REEs in the EPD,

− 0.99 − 0.53 − 0.86 − 0.62 − 0.48 1

− 0.99 − 0.52 − 0.86 − 0.63 − 0.49 1

LREEs shared a large percentage, while only HREEs,

MgO

0.47
0.38

0.05

such as Tb and Er showed significant enrichments. The

1

r > 0.5: significant positive correlation (highlighted in bold)

United States Department of Energy has identified five

MnO

0.96

0.60
0.52

− 0.77 0.17

REEs as critical rare earth elements (CREEs), namely Nd,

1
Al2O3

Eu, Tb, Dy, and Y for both short and long terms, based
0.38
− 0.28 0.36

0.90
0.89
1

on their role in renewable energy as well as the supply

risk. In addition, Pr is also considered critical since it
TiO2

0.18
0.00

0.47
0.54

− 0.39 0.22
1

acts as a substitution for Nd in permanent magnets used

in renewable energy components (e.g., electric vehicles
ƩREE ƩLREE ƩHREE SiO2

0.51
0.88
0.59
0.46

0.99
0.99
1

and direct drive wind turbines) (Rare Element Resources

− 0.49

− 0.47
− 0.90
− 0.98

− 0.51
− 0.42
Primary Apatite Crystals

2016). Therefore, Tb, Nd, Pr, and Eu enrichment in the

0.50
0.37

0.51
0.14

EPD highlights the economic importance of the EPD as a

1
− 0.61 − 0.62

− 0.53 − 0.54
− 0.95 − 0.95
− 0.98 − 0.98

− 0.62 − 0.63
− 0.54 − 0.55

source for these CREEs. Considering the average grades

0.63
0.98

0.19

0.64
0.10

of these elements and the reserve of 60 million tonnes in

1

the EPD (Hewawasam 2013; Dushyantha 2018), Tb, Nd,

0.62
ƩHREE 0.99

0.21

0.63
0.11
of the EPD

Pr, and Eu contents could be roughly estimated as 2897

1
ƩLREE 1

, 54,468 , 17,994 , and 2508 tonnes, respectively. Due to

ƩREE

Al2O3

Fe2O3
Na2O
MnO
MgO

P2O5
TiO2
SiO2

CaO

K2O

13
Environmental Earth Sciences (2023) 82:446
the criticality of these REEs, the current prices of Tb, Nd,
Pr, and Eu oxides in the global market are at a spike with
USD1,849,000, 101,532, 94,432, and 27,690 per tonne,
respectively (Shanghai Metals Market 2022). Therefore,
the EPD could be considered as a possible source for these
CREEs, especially Nd and Pr. However, detailed explora-
tion works along with economic viability studies must be
carried out to assess the actual potential of these CREEs.
Based on the present work, the average total rare earth
oxide (TREO) grades in the apatite crystals and secondary
phosphate matrix of the EPD were obtained as 0.49 wt%
TREO and 0.48 wt% TREO, respectively. Moreover, the
average light rare earth oxide (LREO) and heavy rare earth
oxide (HREO) grades of the apatite crystals and secondary
phosphate matrix were 0.43 wt% LREO, 0.06 wt% HREO,
and 0.42 wt% LREO, 0.06 wt% HREO, respectively. Table 4
presents the REO contents in several phosphate deposits
disseminated across the world. Out of them, some are in
the production stage, while others are still in the incipient
stages. In comparison to the phosphate deposits shown in
Table 4, REE reserve at the EPD could be considered as low
grade, however, it is still higher relative to a few phosphate
deposits, such as Zhijin in China, Florida in the USA, and
Gloserheia in Norway.
Therefore, the EPD might be significant as a diverse
source for REEs in Sri Lanka, especially for CREEs that are
rarer and less concentrated but highly demanded and priced
due to their importance in permanent magnets for renew-
able energy development. Moreover, considering an average
TREO grade of 0.48%, the average REE reserve at the EPD
is estimated at approximately 0.29 million tonnes of TREO.
Furthermore, average LREE and HREE reserves at the EPD
are about 0.26 million tonnes of LREO (using an average
grade of 0.43% LREO) and 0.03 million tonnes of HREO
(using an average grade of 0.06% HREO), respectively.
The outstripping REE demand over supply along with
future developments in extractive metallurgy will promote
even low-grade REE sources to become economically viable
in the domestic and global REE market (Jowitt et al. 2017;
Table 4  A comparison of rare earth oxide contents (wt%) in the EPD with respective to different phosphate rocks in the world
Phosphate deposit Country REO (wt%)
Eppawala phosphate deposit Sri Lanka 0.31–0.76
Kola Russia 0.80–1.00
Khibiny Russia 0.35–4.00
Zhijin China 0.05–0.13
Florida USA 0.06–0.29
Kiirunavaara Sweden 0.07–0.83
Southern Mongolia Mongolia 1.36–6.15
Gloserheia (Forland) Norway 0.06–0.36
Page 15 of 18 446
Rötzer and Schmidt 2018). In this regard, the EPD could
be a strategic target for future REE supply considering its
ability to recover REEs as a by-product. Moreover, radioac-
tive element contents of both apatite crystals (Th = 100 ppm,
U = 10.1 ppm) and secondary matrix (Th = 75.8 ppm,
U = 8.8 ppm) in the EPD are much lower than that of other
types of REE deposits, such as placer deposits (e.g., Odi-
sha—10.2 wt% ­ThO2, 0.3 wt% ­UO3 and Chavara —5.8 wt%
Th, 0.3 wt% U in India) (Singh 2020), making the EPD a
sustainable REE source not only economically but also envi-
ronmentally and sociologically.
Conclusions
The explored phosphate-rich regolith of the EPD
showed high concentrations of REEs (apatite crystals:
ƩREE 4071 ppm; secondary phosphate matrix: ƩREE
4063 ppm) with significant enrichment of LREEs over
HREEs (ƩLREE/ƩHREE ratio > 7). REEs are highly con-
centrated in the weathered regolith compared to the parent
carbonatite rock, mainly due to the enrichment of residual
apatite during weathering with the dissolution of carbonate
minerals, such as calcite and dolomite. However, the appar-
ent geochemical consistency between apatite crystals and
secondary phosphate matrix in the leached zone of the EPD
may be due to the retention of weathering-resistant apatite
minerals like fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite. Pearson’s
coefficients of correlation analysis between REEs and major
oxides showed that apatite group minerals such as chlorapa-
tite, fluorapatite, and hydroxylapatite are the primary REE
ore minerals in the EPD, in which REEs are incorporated
through the substitution of ­Ca2+ by ­REE3+.
According to the rough estimations, the EPD has a TREO
grade of 0.48% with an REO reserve of 0.29 million tonnes.
Furthermore, the EPD could be considered a potential
source of Tb, Nd, Pr, and Eu due to their high enrichment in
the deposit and their criticality in the global REE market. In
addition, the comparison of REO grades between the EPD
Mineralogy (reserves) References
Chlorapatite, fluorapatite, and hydroxylapatite This study
Igneous apatite, REE-carbonates (11.50 Mt REO) Zielinski et al. (1993)
– Zaitsev et al. (2015)
1.45 Mt REO Nie et al. (2013)
REE-francolite Zhang (2014)
Monazite and xenotime inclusions Harlov et al. (2002)
Magnetite-apatite (0.30 Mt REO) Kim et al. (2016)
Monazite and xenotime inclusions Åmli (1975)
13
446 Page 16 of 18
and other phosphate deposits in the world indicated a sub-
economic potential of REEs to be exploited as by-products
of phosphate mining at the EPD. Therefore, future devel-
opments of simultaneous REE extraction with phosphate
production at the EPD are essential, which will contribute
to the global REE supply chain in the future.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the financial
support provided by the Accelerating Higher Education and Develop-
ment (AHEAD) Operation of the Ministry of Higher Education of Sri
Lanka funded by the World Bank (AHEAD/DOR/6026-LK/8743-LK).
Moreover, the authors acknowledge PXRD, SEM, and XRD analysis
facilities provided by the Department of Applied Earth Sciences, Fac-
ulty of Applied Sciences, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka;
the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engi-
neering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka; and the Geo-
logical Survey and Mines Bureau, Pitakotte, Sri Lanka, respectively.
Author contributions Conception and design of study: NR, BA, RP,
SR, PD. Acquisition of data: NB, ND, SR. Analysis and/or interpreta-
tion of data: NB, ND, IMSKI, RC, KD, ASR. Drafting the manuscript:
NB, ND, NR, BA, RP, IMSKI, RC, ASR. Revising the manuscript
critically for important intellectual content: All the authors have con-
tributed significantly to improve the final draft.
Funding This work was supported by the Accelerating Higher Educa-
tion and Development (AHEAD) Operation of the Ministry of Higher
Education of Sri Lanka funded by the World Bank (Grant number:
AHEAD/DOR/6026-LK/8743-LK).
Data availability Data is available on request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-fi-
nancial interests to disclose.
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