CE366 Chapter 2 Site Investigations Section 2

METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division
CE 366 CLASS NOTES

CHAPTER 2: SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Part 1: Geophysical Investigations - Lecture Notes: Pages 53-55
Part 2: Drilling and Sampling - Lecture Notes: Pages 14-26, 44-46
Part 3: In-Situ Tests - Lecture Notes: Pages 26-44, 46-53
What to expect? The Site Investigation Program

Site Investigation Program
Geophysical Boreholes and Geotechnical

Investigations Sampling In-situ Tests
Documentation for a proper Geotechnical

Database and the Geotechnical Report
Purpose of Geotechnical Site Investigations:

The elements of a site investigation depend heavily on the
project but generally should provide the following:
✓ Type of foundation required (shallow or deep).

✓ Allowable load capacity of the foundation.
✓ Sufficient data/laboratory tests to make settlement
predictions.
✓ Groundwater table location
✓ Identification of construction problems (sheeting and
dewatering or rock excavation)
✓ Adjacent structures.
✓ Environmental problems.
Step 1: Site Reconnaissance

Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
− topographical maps;
− old city maps describing the previous use of the site;
− geological maps and descriptions;
− engineering geological maps;
− hydrogeological maps and descriptions;
− geotechnical maps;
− aerial photos and previous photo interpretations;
− aero-geophysical investigations;
− previous investigations at the site and in the surroundings;
− previous experiences from the area;
− local climatic conditions.
And visual inspection…

Geopyhsical Methods
Geophysical methods were originally developed for mining and geological
engineering and recently some of them are applied to geotechnical engineering
problems to some extent. Geotechnical geophysical surveys may be performed on
the ground surface, within boreholes, and from the water and air.
Geophysical surveys used by geotechnical engineers have four main objectives:
1. Subsurface characterization and measurement of geological features: bedrock

depth, rock type, layer boundaries, water table, groundwater flow, locating
fractures, weak zones, faults, expansive clays, etc.
2. In- situ determination of certain limited engineering properties of soils:
stiffness, density, electrical resistivity, porosity, etc.;
3. Detection of buried man-made objects: landfill boundaries, underground
storage tanks and pipes, etc.;
4. Evaluate the site’s behavior in a seismic event: determination of dynamic soil
properties such as the shear wave velocity, shear modulus, damping ratio, etc.
Geotechnical Investigations - Geopyhsical Methods

Geophysical
Performed from: Measured property Geotechnical Application
Method
Electrical resistivity Resistivity of earth materials Define subsurface layering, locate
Surface by electrodes
surveys using electrical current cavities and ground water table
Seismic refraction Surface with the help of impulsive Travel times waves from the Determine the depths of soil layers
surveys energy source and geophones energy source to geophones and their dynamic properties
Surface wave Determine the shear-wave

Surface with the help of impulsive
surveys (SASW and Travel times of surface waves velocity–depth model with
energy source and receivers
MASW) interpreted layer boundaries
Direct seismic
Opened boreholes (one or more Wave propagation velocities Determine the soil profile,
surveys (up-hole,
boreholes are necessary from the energy source to the densities and dynamic properties
down-hole, cross-
depending on the type of the test) receiver. of the soil layers.
hole)
Dielectric constant,
High frequency electromagnetic
magnetic Provide a subsurface profile,
Ground penetrating (EM) pulses from the antenna at
permeability, located buried objects, boulders
radar the ground surface and penetrating
conductivity and EM and soil rock interface
receiver
velocity
Determine the detailed soil profile,
Seismic Cone A receiver is added to the CPT The shear wave velocity in
static soil properties such as
Penetration Test equipment and energy source is addition to the cone resistance
bearing capacity and shear wave
(SCPT) located at the surface (qc) and side friction (fs)
velocity profile.
Geopyhsical Methods - Electrical resistivity surveys
Defines subsurface layering,

locates cavities and ground water
table.
Geopyhsical Methods - Seismic refraction surveys
• Determines the depths of soil layers and

their dynamic properties.
• To measure the properties of the deeper
soil layers, seismic source should be
enlarged.
• Not a single solution for the velocity
profile; therefore, inversion of the
results requires expertize.
Geopyhsical Methods - Surface wave surveys (SASW and MASW)

Geopyhsical Methods - Direct seismic surveys (up-hole, down-hole,

cross-hole)
• Not non-invasive:
requires boreholes
• Either the source or the
Geopyhsical Methods - Ground penetrating radar
• Provides a subsurface profile,

locates buried objects, boulders
and soil rock interface.
• Not frequently used in
geotechnical engineering.
Geopyhsical Methods - Seismic Cone Penetration12 Test
(SCPT or Seismo-cone)
The standard
cone is supported
by the receiver.
Source
Determines the detailed soil profile, static

soil properties such as bearing capacity
and shear wave velocity profile.
Geotechnical Investigations - Geopyhsical Methods

The main advantage of geophysical surveys is to gather continuous information
about subsurface over large areas much less expensively.
Geotechnical geophysics can be used to select borehole locations and can provide
reliable information about the nature and variability of the subsurface between
existing boreholes.
Other advantages of geotechnical geophysics are related to site accessibility,

portability, noninvasiveness, and operator safety.
However, geotechnical geophysics is not a substitute for boring and direct

physical testing.
These methods do not directly measure the parameters normally desired by the
geotechnical engineer.
Geotechnical Investigations
Step 2: Subsurface Investigations
✓ Test Pits - holes dug with a backhoe
Please note:
✓ Shafts and Headings This step includes:
- Drilling boreholes
✓ Borings - Extracting samples
- Testing
❑ Solid Flight
❑ Hollow Stem
Sampling methods
❑ Rotary Wash
and samplers
❑ Percussion Drilling
❑ Rock Coring
Trial (test) pits: Removal of soil by back-shovel of a mechanical
excavator
• Simple and reliable

• Soil conditions may be examined visually
Advantages • Sampling is relatively easy
• Suitable for all soil types including those
containing cobbles and boulders
• Limited to a maximum depth of 4-5m

• If below the water table, dewatering is
Disadvantages
necessary, cost…
• Safety…
Shafts and Headings: Deep pits or shafts, usually advanced by
hand excavation and supported by timbering.
Please note:
Cost is very high and justified only for big projects like dams only if the
ground conditions can not be investigated by other methods!
Auger Borings:
Attached to the rotary rig
Augers act as
screw
conveyors to
bring the soil
to the surface
– the soil
coming to the
surface
Generally
should be
mounted on
inspected
vehicles
Mechanical Augers:
Hollow stem augers: Solid stem augers:
sampling is possible frequent withdrawal
Borehole diameter: 75- 300 mm
Depth: Up to 50 m is possible
by continuous flight augers.
Can not be used for soils with

boulders and rock.
No water circulation is
necessary
Most suitable for boring depths

of 10-15 m
Hand Augers: Used to excavate boreholes up to 5 m.
Rotated and pressed by a T-

handle
Borehole diameter: up to 200 mm

Used only if the sides need no
support and big particles are absent
Wash Borings: A casing of 2-3m is driven into the ground.
Soil inside the casing is removed by

the water jet and mechanical energy
Replaced by sampler during sampling
Rotary drilling:
No casing or water pressure
Cutting bit is advanced in the
soil by rotation
Can be used in sand, clay,
rock…
Boreholes with diameters of

50-200 mm
Water or drilling mud is forced down to the

borehole and brings the cuttings to the surface
Percussion Drilling:
A heavy bit (200-1000 kg) is raised
and dropped to crush-grind the soil.
Chopped soil particles brought up by
water circulation
An alternative for hard soil and rocks

May affect nearby structures
Borings – how many?
✓ # of borings project dependent
✓ For a building, will typically start with corners and in the middle…
✓ Based on what is found, more borings can be drilled as needed to define
to obtain additional data.
areas of concern or
Borings✓Layout
– how deep?depends on footprint too…
✓Spacing:
✓ Depth depends7-8 m in erratic
on anticipated soilandprofile,
soil conditions foundationup type.to
✓ We want to be sure that we sample all soil layers potentially influenced
150 m in uniform soil profile.
by the foundation system
✓ Borings must reach stable layers if possible and penetrate all unstable
soil layers.
✓ If the structure is on deep soft soil, the borings must extend to a depth
where consolidation effects are negligible.
Borings – how deep?
✓ Bedrocks and occasional boulders
must be verified in borings by
approximately 3m drilling in rock.
✓ Depth > 1-2 times the least dimension
of the loaded area
✓ Depth > 10m (rule of thumb).
✓ De Beer’s rule
✓ All these rules are subject to critics
since they are not site-specific. They
do not consider compressibility,
type and system of the structure.
Step 3 – Sampling: Boring operations are stopped
frequently (at 1.5-2m intervals) for sampling.
Two types of soil samples are obtained:

Disturbed samples Undisturbed samples
Used for soil classification Used for strength and

Obtained using thick walled deformation tests
split spoon tubes Obtained using thin walled
shelby tubes
Split spoon sampler: The split spoon sampler is a tube split into two equal halves
lengthwise. The two halves are locked together during the sampling activities and
released to retrieve the samples. At bottom end of the sampler sits a driving shoe.
This is what cuts into the soil and provides the sample that goes up into the tube. At
the other end of the tube is a coupling that allows it to connect to the drilling rod.
Once a sample is taken, the operator removes the ends from the tube. This allows
the tube to “split” open.
Shelby tube sampler: Shelby tube samplers are thin-walled, hollow steel tubes, which
are driven into the ground to extract a relatively undisturbed soil sample. The tube is
pushed/driven into the soil. After driving the Shelby tube, sampler is turned to shear the soil
at base of the hole. After taking out the sampler from the hole, the head and shoe of the
sampler is removed. The top and bottom of the sampler are carefully waxed, capped and
labeled for identification.
Area ratio is important:
<10% is ideal.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDpdugVY_Ug
Rock coring: When rock layers are encountered, rock core samples are taken and
the depth of recovery should be properly recorded. The rock samplers is usually
called the core barrel which usually have a single tube.
Two parameters obtained based on core samples:

-Recovery ratio (RR)
-Rock quality designation (RQD)
Recovery ratio = length
of rock recovered/length
of rock cored
These parameters are

useful to measure the rock
fracturing and good
indicators of stability.
In-situ Tests
Quality of the laboratory test results on undisturbed samples depends on the quality
of the sample. Sample disturbance can be significant, especially in sands.
Advantages:
• Less
expensive
• Results are
available
immediately
Disadvantages:
• No sample
is obtained
• Not in
controlled
laboratory
environment
In-situ Tests: SPT
Stop the test if more than 50 blows are required for any intervals or if more than 100
total blows are required. This is noted as refusal in the boring log.
In-situ Tests: SPT Truck
https://youtu.be/9cUOBSF8bMg
In-situ Tests: SPT

SPT: Energy Ratio Correction

Hammer Efficiency,
Country Hammer Type Hammer Release Mechanism
ER
Argentina Donut Cathead 0.45
Brazil Pin Weight Hand Dropped 0.72
China Automatic Trip 0.60
China Donut Hand Dropped 0.55
China Donut Cathead 0.50
Colombia Donut Cathead 0.50
Japan Donut Tombi trigger 0.78 - 0.85
Japan Donut Cathead 2 turns + special release 0.65 - 0.67
UK Automatic Trip 0.73
USA Safety 2 turns on cathead 0.55 - 0.60
USA Donut 2 turns on cathead 0.45
Venezuella Donut Cathead 0.43
Turkey* Donut Cathead 2 turns 0.45
Resistance of the soil is measured by the number of blow counts in the last 30 cm.
E.g. 10, 14, 16 will lead to N=30 (raw SPT N value)
SPT Corrections
Factor Equipment Variables Correction
Borehole diameter 65 - 1.00
factor, CB
150 mm 1.05 N1 = N  C N
200 mm 1.15
N1,60 = N  C N  C E  C R  C B  CS
Sampling method factor, Standard sampler 1.00 PA
CN =
CS
 v
Sampler without liner 1.20
ER
CE =
Rod length factor, CR 3 m to 0.75 60
4 m to 0.85
CN is the overburden
6 m to 0.95
correction: deep test will have
10 m to 30 m 1.00
higher N values than shallow
> 30 m <1.00
tests in the same soil due to the
effect of overlying soil. (see
Page 31 - 30)
SPT Correlations in the Class Notes (sands)
SPT Correlations in the Class Notes (clays)
Standard Consistency
penetration Unconfined compression
number, N60 strength, qu (kN/m2)
0-2 Very soft 0-25
2-5 Soft 25-50
5-10 Medium stiff 50-100
10-20 Stiff 100-200
20-30 Very stiff 200-400
>30 Hard > 400
SPT Correlations in the Class Notes
Stiffness of granular and stiff (overconsolidated) cohesive soils

based on N60 values are approximately given as follows (Stroud
1989):
E ' (MPa) = 2×N60 (overconsolidated sands and gravels)
E ' (MPa) = N60 (normally consolidated sands)
E ' (MPa) = (0.7 – 0.9) × N60 (stiff overconsolidated clays: for

plastic, Ip=50%, and less plastic, Ip=15% clays, respectively)
These values are roughly for the strain levels encountered at

allowable foundation loads. At very small strain values they are
much higher.
Cone Penetration Test: CPT

Mechanical or electrical cones
Mounted on large 3-axle trucks
Vs
fs
❑ Cone tip resistance, qc

❑ Pore pressure, u
❑ Skin friction, fs
❑ Shear Wave velocity, Vs qc
Interpreted plot:
Cone Resistance, q c (MPa) Friction Ratio Estimated Soil Type
0 5 10 15 20 Rf (%)
0.000 0.125 0.250 0.375 0.500
Sleeve Friction, f s (MPa) 0 5 10
0
0.7 Soft CLAY
Loose SAND
1.5
Very Soft
Organic CLAY
5
7.2
Medium Dense
Depth (m)
to dense
10
SAND and GRAVEL
11.2
Dense to very Dense
13.1 SAND and GRAVEL

Stiff to very stiff
15 sandy CLAY
15.4
Very stiff to hard
sandy CLAY
17.9
20
CPT-based Soil Classification Scheme - Robertson (1986)
No soil sample is recovered.

Unreliable in soils with large gravel
content.
1986 Basic Soil Behaviour Type (SBT)

Legend Zone
1 Sensitive, fine grained
2 Organic soils: peat, clay
3 CLAY
4 CLAY – Clay to silty clay
5 SILT mixtures - Clayey silt to silty clay
6 SILT – Sandy silt to clayey silt
7 Fine SAND mixtures – Silty sand to sandy silt
8 SAND – Sand to silty sand
9 SAND – Coarse to medium sand
10 Gravel mixtures – Gravel to gravelly sand
12 [Very compact sand to clayey sand]
11 [Very stiff fine grained/Hard clay silt weak rock]
CPT Correlations in the

Class Notes
Undrained shear strength, cu or su, of cohesive soils may be estimated from

CPT qc end-resistance values, from equation:
𝑞𝑡 −𝜎𝑣
𝑐𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢 =
Nkt
where qt is cone tip resistance and sv is the total stres at that level.
Typically Nkt varies from 10 to 18, with 14 as an average for su(ave). Nkt tends to
increase with increasing plasticity and decrease with increasing soil sensitivity.
Vane Shear Test

Vane Shear Test
Bjerrum (1972) has recommended that, for actual design purposes, the
field vane shear values should be corrected as
cu(corrected) = λ∙cu(field) where λ=correction factor

45
Pressuremeter Test
46
Pressuremeter Test
47
Plate Load Test

Regulations: New Turkish Earthquake Code (2019)
Section 16 is devoted to Geotechnical Engineering parameters and calculations.
Augers
Percussion
Rotary
De Beer’s
Rule
Section 16 is devoted to Geotechnical Engineering parameters and calculations.
Disturbed
samples
Split spoon
sampler
Undisturbed
samples
Shelby
tubes
16A.3.2 – Sınıflandırma Deneyleri: Örselenmiş ve

örselenmemiş örnekler üzerinde, tabakaların zemin 16A.3.3 – Mühendislik Özellikleri Deneyleri: Örselenmemiş
sınıflandırmasına olanak verecek sayıda kıvam limitleri, doğal örnekler üzerinde, tabakaların mühendislik özelliklerini
su içeriği (korunmuş örnekler üzerinde), elek, belirlemeye yönelik olarak mukavemet(tek eksenli basınç,
pipet/hidrometre ve özgül ağırlık deneyleri yapılacaktır. kesme kutusu, üç eksenli basınç-UU/CU) deneyleri yapılacak,
Örselenmemiş örnekler üzerinde doğal su içeriği ve birim proje gereksinimlerine uygun olarak drenajlı ve drenajsız
hacim ağırlığı tayini deneyleri de yapılacaktır. Sorunlu kayma mukavemeti parametreleri belirlenecektir. Ayrıca,
zeminlerde (sıvılaşma, şişme, göçme, yumuşama, hassas oturma hesaplarına yönelik parametrelerin belirlenmesi için,
killer vb.) ilk 15 m'den alınan tüm örnekler üzerinde killi zeminlerden alınmış örselenmemiş örnekler üzerinde
sınıflandırma deneyleri (pipet/hidrometre dahil) yapılacaktır. ödometre-konsolidasyon deneyleri yapılacaktır.
Suitability of Soils (Eurocode 1997-2)

Geotechnical Laboratory Tests

Number of tests (according to Eurocode)
1. The necessary number of specimens to be tested shall be established depending on

the homogeneity of the ground, the quality and amount of comparable experience
with the ground and the geotechnical category of the problem.
2. To allow for difficult soil, damaged specimens and other factors, additional test
specimens should be made available, whenever possible.
3. Depending on the test type, a minimum number of specimens should be
investigated.
4. The minimum number of tests may be reduced if the geotechnical design does
not need to be optimized and uses conservative values of the soil parameters, or if
comparable experience or combination with field information applies.
NOTE : A recommended minimum number for some test types can be taken from the
tables in Annexes L to W (except Annexes O and T). The annexes can also be used to
check whether the extent of the testing was sufficient.
Geotechnical Laboratory Tests

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METU Civil Engineering Department Geotechnical Engineering Division

CE 366 CLASS NOTES

What to expect? The Site Investigation Program

Geophysical Boreholes and Geotechnical

Documentation for a proper Geotechnical

Purpose of Geotechnical Site Investigations:

✓ Type of foundation required (shallow or deep).

Step 1: Site Reconnaissance

And visual inspection…

Geophysical surveys used by geotechnical engineers have four main objectives:

1. Subsurface characterization and measurement of geological features: bedrock

Geotechnical Investigations - Geopyhsical Methods

Surface wave Determine the shear-wave

Geopyhsical Methods - Electrical resistivity surveys

Defines subsurface layering,

Geopyhsical Methods - Seismic refraction surveys

• Determines the depths of soil layers and

Geopyhsical Methods - Surface wave surveys (SASW and MASW)

Geopyhsical Methods - Direct seismic surveys (up-hole, down-hole,

Geopyhsical Methods - Ground penetrating radar

• Provides a subsurface profile,

Determines the detailed soil profile, static

Geotechnical Investigations - Geopyhsical Methods

Other advantages of geotechnical geophysics are related to site accessibility,

However, geotechnical geophysics is not a substitute for boring and direct

• Simple and reliable

• Limited to a maximum depth of 4-5m

Can not be used for soils with

Most suitable for boring depths

Rotated and pressed by a T-

Borehole diameter: up to 200 mm

Soil inside the casing is removed by

Boreholes with diameters of

Water or drilling mud is forced down to the

An alternative for hard soil and rocks

Two types of soil samples are obtained:

Used for soil classification Used for strength and

Two parameters obtained based on core samples:

These parameters are

In-situ Tests: SPT

In-situ Tests: SPT Truck

In-situ Tests: SPT

SPT: Energy Ratio Correction

Stiffness of granular and stiff (overconsolidated) cohesive soils

E ' (MPa) = 2×N60 (overconsolidated sands and gravels)

E ' (MPa) = N60 (normally consolidated sands)

E ' (MPa) = (0.7 – 0.9) × N60 (stiff overconsolidated clays: for

These values are roughly for the strain levels encountered at

Cone Penetration Test: CPT

❑ Cone tip resistance, qc

13.1 SAND and GRAVEL

CPT-based Soil Classification Scheme - Robertson (1986)

No soil sample is recovered.

1986 Basic Soil Behaviour Type (SBT)

CPT Correlations in the

Undrained shear strength, cu or su, of cohesive soils may be estimated from

Vane Shear Test

Vane Shear Test

cu(corrected) = λ∙cu(field) where λ=correction factor