EXAM GUIDE

2022 EDITION
UNDERSTANDING
POLITICAL THEORY
BA Hons Semester 1

• Past year’s Question papers

• Chapter wise Key points

• Model Answers to important

Questions

• 3 sets of Sample Question

Papers

• Answer Writing Tips

By the Author of
POL SC HELP
 FEW WORDS ABOUT THE GUIDE

DEAR STUDENTS…WELCOME BACK !

This guide is intended to be the best companion for your semester exams.
What it contains?
• Past three year’s paper (taken from DU)
• Key points on all themes of the CBCS Syllabus
o Note: key points include all what you need to remember for
objective and short answers
• Answer templates to past year’s and other important questions
• 3 sets of sample question papers with Answer hints.
• Answer writing tips
How to use the Guide for the best results?
• First, watch the videos on the theme/topic from POL SC HELP- at least 4-
5 times, first in normal speed, later on with faster speed and selectively.
Final watching shouldn’t take more than 5 min.
• Second, read the key points on the theme/topic very carefully. In fact, even
if you only remember the key points, you can write answers in the exam.
• If in your college/university, objective and short answer questions are
asked, key points will be the most important resource.
• Third, read the answer templates at least 5 times. Again, the final reading
may not take more than 5-10 minutes.
o I have chosen the questions to cover the entire syllabus.
o Note the key phrases repeated in the answers. You should remember
and reproduce them in your answers.
o Also, note the standard words I have used in the answer. Their easier
meaning/synonyms are given in bracket.
• Fourth, read carefully the sample question papers (3 sets). I have given
hints to those questions, too. Read them carefully.
• Finally, read the answer writing tips; use them in the exam

GOOD WISHES!

1
 INDEX
(Where is What?)
CONTENT/SECTION PAGE
NUMBER

PAST 3 YEAR’S QUESTION PAPER 3

THEME WISE KEY POINTS AND ANSWERS TO 7-92

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

• POLITICS: THEORIZING THE ‘POLITICAL’ 8

• APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY: 30

NORMATIVE, EMPIRICAL, AND HISTORICAL

• TRADITIONS OF POLITICAL THEORY: LIBERAL, 44

MARXIST, ANARCHIST AND CONSERVATIVE

• CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES IN POLITICAL 73

THEORY: FEMINIST AND POSTMODERN

• THE IDEA OF POLITICAL COMMUNITY: 85

POLITICAL OBLIGATION
3 SETS OF SAMPLE PAPERS 93

TIPS & TRICKS TO WRITE ESSAY TYPE ANSWERS 97

2
 SECTION 1

Past 3 Year’s
Question Papers
(Taken from DU)

3
 OBE PAPER-2021
Understanding Political Theory

There are Six (6) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. What is politics? Compare and contrast liberal and Marxist view of politics.

2. What is political theory? Explain the importance of empirical approach in the

study of political theory.

3. Trace the evolution of Conservatism. What are the core principles of

Conservatism?

4. Examine various strands of feminism.

5. Analyse the key features of Marxism.

6. Write an essay on political obligation.

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 OBE PAPER-2020
Understanding Political Theory

There are Six (6) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. Do you think, understanding of power is essential for understanding politics?

Give reasons for your answer.

2. Analyse normative and empirical approaches to Political theory.

3. Discuss Marx’s views on alienation. Is it relevant today? Give reasons.

4. What is libertarianism? How is it different from welfare liberalism? Explain.

5. Discuss various schools of feminism.

6. Write an essay on the idea of political community.

5
 2019 PAPER
Understanding Political Theory

There are Eight (8) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. Discuss the concept of political Theory? Discuss its relevance in political

science

2. Explain the difference between Normative and Empirical approaches to the

study of political theory

3. Discuss the various models of Democracy. Which model of Democracy is most

suitable?

4. Describe the Marxist view of politics with special reference to class struggle.

5. Critically examine the concepts of Liberalism

6. Write an essay on the historical and Intellectual evolution of Conservatism

7. Examine the difference between sex and gender from feminist perspective.

8. Write Notes on two of the following:

a) Procedural Democracy and its critique

b) Post-modernism in political theory
c) Relevance of anarchism in 21st Century
d) Participation and representation

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 SECTION 2

Theme Wise
Key Points
and

ANSWERS
Important
Questions

7
 THEME 1: WHAT IS POLITICS: THEORIZING THE
‘POLITICAL’

1. A: Key Points:

Meaning of the ‘political’ or politics:

‘politics’ vs ‘Politics’ vs ‘Political’
• ‘politics’( note small cap p): activities and practices of doing politics- art of politics
• ‘Politics’( note Capital P): Academic study of ‘politics’
• Political: Phenomenon, process, activities related to ‘politics’- adjective
• Political Science: studying, observing, analyzing political phenomenon and
processes to build testable able ‘theory’ and ‘hypothesis’- science of politics
• Politics is both are art & science

Some definition of politics or the ‘Political’:

• politics is about ‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of people whom chance
or choice have brought together’- Oakeshott
• “activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under
which they live” – Andrew Heywood
• “the activity through which human beings attempt to improve their lives and create the
Good society”- Aristotle
• “politics is authoritative allocation of value” -David Easton
• “politics is Who gets what, when, how?” -Harold Lasswell
• How Andrew Haywood further delineated (defined) the scope of politics?
• politics as that which concerns the state
• politics is conduct of public Life
• politics is conflict resolution in public domain
• politics as conflict (among differing interests) in public domain

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 • In essence, politics is all about collective decision making to manage socio-economic
issues pertaining to society/community with an aim to have good life of the community.

Meaning of Political Theory:

• Theory: Originating from the Greek word “theoria”, theory connotes ( means) a
well-focussed mental look taken or deep contemplation on something to grasp or
understand it.
• Theory is generalized statements presented as reliable knowledge
• Theory means a proposition or a set of propositions designed to explain
something with reference to data or inter-relations not directly observed or
not otherwise manifest.
• Theory is a combination of both science and philosophy
• Finally, theory systemize reflective and abstract thought. It represents
a formal idea or set of ideas, stated in certain linguistic propositions, that
is intended to explain some aspect of natural world or social phenomenon.
• Political Theory:
• Coherent set of prepositions (assertions, definitive statements presented as
reliable knowledge) having some explanatory principles on a class of
political phenomenon.
• Political theories are theoretical and linguistic approach to make sense and
understand the political phenomenon.
• By careful observations, reflections, abstract reasoning, and
conceptualisation, the political scientists, theorise the political phenomenon
by way of generalised hypothesis/prepositions.
Some definition of Political Theory:
• “Political Theory is disciplined investigation of political problems” (Sabine , A History
of Political Theory, 1973)
• “a network of concepts and generalizations about political life involving ideas,
assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and key features of government,
state and society and about the political capabilities of human beings”. (David Held-
Political Theory Today, 1991)
• “an explanation of what politics is all about, a general understanding of the political
world, a frame of reference” (Bluhen- ‘Theories of Political System, 1981’)
• “Political theory, by identifying the immediate and the potential problems of the
political life of society, is one of the most important weapons in our struggle for the

9
 advance of humanity.” (Brecht- ‘Political Theory: The Foundations of Twentieth-
Century Political Thought-1959’)
• “a body of thought that seeks to evaluate, explain and predict political phenomena. As
a sub-field of Political Science, it is concerned with political ideas, values and concepts,
and the explanation of prediction of political behaviour.”(Political Science Dictionary)

Why do we need political theory? Its significance:

• It organises systematically reflective thoughts and abstract reasoning, making them
meaningful and applicable to different socio-cultural contexts.
• Help understand and find solutions of ills of socio-political life.
• Enable us to critically analyse social issues and finding their solution by social
reconstruction- redefining social norms, practices, social arrangements, social orders.
• Thus, political theory help improve the idea, institutions, and values related to socio-
political arrangements.
• Help to reconcile agreed meaning of key words and concepts used in describing
political life.

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1. B: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Define Politics. What is political Theory? What are its features?
Similar Question:
Q. Discuss the idea of the ‘Political’ and Political theory.
Ans. Template:

Introduction:
Idea of ‘Political’ or ‘Politics’ may be traced back to 2500 years ago in philosophies
of Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient classical Greek thinkers. In fact, Aristotle, the
author of ‘Politics’, is called father of politics. From the most general definition of
‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of people’ to specific meaning as
‘politics is power’, the idea of politics has been assigned to multiple meanings in its
long journey. Like any political concept the idea of the political itself is essentially a
contested concept. It has not one fixed meaning. In the course of history of human
civilisation, meaning of politics has been evolving and changing. However, most
common meaning of politics is collective decision making to manage socio-economic
issues pertaining to society/community with an aim to have good life of the community.
Theory is systematic reflection on a phenomenon. Theorising the political or politics
is thus an enterprise of developing coherent set of propositions having some
explanatory principles on political phenomenon. Of course, it is only one of many
definitions of political theory. Systematic efforts to understand, describe and explain
decision making in society is another valid definition of political theory.
Whatever may be its definition, theories have common features such as having rational
conceptual structure, explanatory, descriptive, and evaluative capabilities, fair amount
of generality (can be applied to many different situations, places, times), and inter-
disciplinary approach.
Theory can be differentiated from ideologies, cosmology, and political thoughts on the
basis of its defining features. There can be multiple approaches to theorising the
political. Normative- value, and ethics based- and empirical- observation and data
based- however have been two principal approaches to theorizing the political.
In the next part of the answer, I will try to explain different meanings assigned to the idea of
politics and meaning, key features and relevance of political theory.

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Different meanings assigned to the idea of politics:
Generally, politics is defined as institutions and activities aimed at conducting public
life to secure ‘Good life’ for the community. Meaning of Good life is itself contextual.
It is defined by the norms, values, and belief system of the community concerned. State
represents the supreme public institution of a community. Hence, politics pertains to
organisations, activities, and decision-making processes of the State, government
(action arm of the state), its various organs (executive, legislature, judiciary) and
institutions. Aim of politics is fullest development and flourishment of the individuals
as well as to achieve ‘common Good’ of the society/community.
Following are some of the other meanings assigned to the idea of ‘Political’ or
politics.
• Politics is what concerns the State : It denotes state organisations/institutions
where public policies are made and decisions are taken for the society as a whole. Who
control the decision making power in the State, that is, the political parties, elections,
Govt. formations and art of running Govt (statecraft), etc. are also denoted by politics.
• Politics as conduct of public life:
• Process of collective decision making, creating something new working
together, managing public affairs, debate, discussion, deliberation,
reconciliation, etc.
• Politics is about ‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of
people whom chance or choice have brought together’- Oakeshott
• “activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general
rules under which they live” – Andrew Heywood
• “the activity through which human beings attempt to improve their lives
and create the Good society”- Aristotle
• Family, marriage, inter-personal relations, and personal life of
individuals are excluded from politics as they are considered private or
non-public domain. Even civil society and markets are excluded from
the domain of politics.
• But dichotomy of private vs public or personal vs political is denounced
by feminists and post-modernist thinkers. For them personal is Political.
• Politics as debate and conciliation
• Conduct of public life and collective decision making is always based
on dialogue and communication. Politics involve always a dialogue, and
never a monologue (one way communication)
• Hence, debate, conciliation, consensus, and compromise are essential
aspects of politics.

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 • Politics as means of resolving conflicts in public affair:
• Collective decision making is based on debate, conciliation, consensus,
and compromise. Hence, politics is the art of resolving conflict in public
life through speech, dialogue, communication.
• Politics as Conflict:
• Dialectics (Contradictions), antagonism, clash of multiple interests, and
conflicts are natural ingredients of politics.
• In any social arrangements there would be different end/goal, values,
interests, and preferences. This will give rise to conflict in collective
decision-making process.
• In this sense politics is interplay of interests and power. Whoever
holds more power get the collective decisions favouring their interests
and preferences. Politics becomes the means for the powerful to fulfil
their interests in public life.
• In this conflictual view of politics, there would be winners (powerful)
and losers (powerless) in any social arrangement. This will create
conflict in public life. Politics denotes this conflict.
• Politics as authoritative allocation of value (David Easton)
• How whatever is valuable- resources, rewards, honours, offices- are
distributed in a society?
• Who gets what, when, how?( Harold Lasswell). Who decides such
distribution, on what ground?
• Who decides societal norms, values, end/goals? Of course those having
more power. The powerless have to accept them as given, natural or
normal.
• politics as co-creation: For Hannah Arendt, politics is creating together by
speech, dialogue, and communication. In this view of politics, power is not
‘power over’ but ‘power with’. Politics channelise human agencies to do
wonders by social production or co-creation.
• Finally, politics also may mean ability to achieve desired outcome by whatever
means; politics as manifestation of power as dominance, to get one’s interest
fulfilled by influence/force/coercion.

Meaning of Political Theory:

• Coherent set of prepositions (assertions, definitive statements presented as reliable
knowledge) having some explanatory principles on a class of political phenomenon.

13
 • Political theories are theoretical and linguistic approach to make sense and
understand the political phenomenon.
• By careful observations, reflections, abstract reasoning, and conceptualisation, the
political scientists, theorise the political phenomenon by way of generalised
hypothesis/prepositions.
• For example: Marxist theory of history as class struggle. John Rawl’s theory of
Justice, etc.

Features of Political Theory:

• Systematic reflection on political phenomenon with rational, conceptual structure of
reasoning and hypothesising.
• Explanatory, descriptive, interpretive, evaluative, and predictive capabilities.
• Certain level of generality: Applicable and valid in time and space. Thus, political
theory developed in ancient Greek period may be used to understand current political
phenomena in India. However, we may need to take care of the changed context, as the
generality of theories are not unlimited.
• Each theory aspires to understand the truth of the political phenomena objectively. But
they all reflect truth seen from a particular angle, a specific perspective, or frame of
reference. Hence, no political theory can reveal truth objectively.
• Political theories are not speculative. They are backed by observations and empirical
data. Hypothesis are tested for its correctness and consistencies.
• Mix of facts and values: Political theories are mix of normative values ( good life,
common good, rights, duties, liberty, equality, justice, etc) and facts (observations and
empirical data). As per Sabine, political theory contains factors of three kinds- factual,
causal, and valuational.
• They are Inter-disciplinary: Political theories draw knowledge from multiple subject
domains- economy, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.
• Draws ideas from multiples sources, and having no dominant methodology or
approach : Political theory adopts multiple approaches, such as normative, empirical,
historical, etc. Politics may be theorised from different perspectives- liberal, Marxist,
Post-modernist, feminist, etc.

Discussion and Conclusion:

In sum, politics is essentially a contested concept. It denotes multiple meanings. With
time and changing contexts meaning of politics have also changed. Marriages and
family which were considered non-political are now included in politics. From a very

14
specific meaning to win elections to acquire power to run Govt to most general meaning
of conduct of social life, meaning of politics has a wide range. Even in our times the
meaning of politics is evolving. Interplay of interest and power in different arena-
family, community, civil society, subordinations/domination, exclusion/inclusion,
have/have not, multi-culturalism, etc are giving new meanings to politics. New political
trends such as feminism, Sub-altern assertion, green movements, and post-modernism
are expanding the scope and meaning of the political.
Political theory is set of generalised hypothesis/propositions formulated following
systemic rational approach to explain, describe, prescribe, and predict political
phenomena. Political theory surpasses the boundaries of time & space. They may be
used anywhere, anytime with some adjustments for specific contexts.
Political theory can be distinguished from political ideologies, political thoughts,
cosmology, and political philosophy. Ideologies stem out from theory but after a point
reasons are short circuited in ideologies. Cosmologies are highly localised, contextual,
and non-theoretical ideas, worldview, and belief system. Hence, they are different from
theory which is essentially a theoretical ( i.e. text based- linguistic) enterprise. Theory
transcends(surpasses) time and space boundaries and have high degree of generality.
On this basis political theory is different from Political thoughts which are valid in a
given time.
Approaches to its theorizing the political is also evolving. It began with normative
and historical approach with lots of abstract and deductive reasoning. During the logical
positivism in 1930s and behavioural revolution in 1950s, it adopted scientific and
empirical approach. During this period emphasis was on empirical data, observations,
hypothesis testing just like scientific experiments. In the post- behaviourist phase,
beginning 1970s, synthesis of normative and empirical approach evolved. Equal
emphasis to facts and values are now given in theorising the political.

15
Q .2: Examine the relationship between power and politics. Do you think,
approaches to studying power help us in understanding politics? Give
Reasons.
Similar Question:
Q: What is Politics? How do various approaches to studying power help us in understanding
politics?

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Concept of power is central to the idea of politics, no matter which of its various
definitions and meaning we take up. If politics is collective decision making then
power defines who decides for whom, how, and for what purpose. If politics is conduct
of public life, debate, reconciliation then who sets the agenda, control the form and
structure of debate is determined by the power structure of the society. If we take
politics as institutions and activities of state/Govt. then state itself is organisation of
power. Power of coercive force enables the state securing political obligation and
make subject governable. And if politics is authoritative allocation of values, as per
David Easton, then who sets the social norms, values and assign them to different
individuals/groups is nothing but manifestation of power. If we take Harold
Lasswell’s definition of politics as Who gets what, when, how?, power comes into
direct play. Those who have the power decides who gets what, when, how. Thus, in
all the meanings of politics, power is the underlying theme.
So, what is power? In what forms it exists and manifested in politics? Who holds
power? What are the sources of power? All these questions not only help us in
understanding the concept of power but also help us comprehend (understand) the idea
of the ‘political’. Like many other political concepts, power is essentially a contested
concept. There is no universally accepted meaning of power. Neither it manifests itself
in politics in singular way. Political thinkers have approached the concept of power
from various angles and gave its different forms, structure, and meanings.
We may have very simple meaning of power as domination of ‘A’ over ‘B’, given by
Robert Dahl to complex meaning of power as given by Hannah Arendt in which power
is creating something together by speech and communication. In between we have
several approaches to understand the concept of power forwarded by Lukes, Gramsci,
Parsons, Marx, weber, feminist and post-modernist thinkers such as Foucault. Such
wide spectrum of meaning of power is related to very wide meaning of politics itself.

16
In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain in brief different ways in which power
has been defined by some of prominent political thinkers. I will also try to explain How
understanding power help understand the idea of the ‘political’:

Various meanings of Power:

Power as Dominance given by Robert Dahl:
• ‘A’ has power over ‘B’ to the extent that ‘A’ can get ‘B’ to do something which
‘B’ would not have done otherwise.
• This is what most of us understand by power. If one has got power, he/she can
get others to do things even against the will of others.
• Power, in this sense, is influence, domination of one ( individual or group) over
other. The source of such power may be force, wealth, social status, official
position, etc.
• Power is like money in the political life: As given by sociologist Talcott Parsons.
• Power is to politics as money is to economy. One can purchase political
obligations (consent to rule) by spending power.
• Like money, power also circulates in society. Thus, today’s powerful may
become powerless tomorrow.
• 3 dimensions of power by Steven Lukes :
• First dimension: Power as domination in decision making arena. Same as given
by Dahl, and stated above.
• Second dimension or face of power: Power of Agenda setting; as given by
Bachrach & Baratz in their essay 'Two Faces of Power’. Those who have the
power, set the agenda for collective decision making. Second face of power not
only manifests in decisions but also in non-decisions. It is the power to stop or
delay decision on specific issue, which are not in the interest of the powerful.
For example, in village Panchayat, the powerful people (wealthy, high caste)
decide the items on which discussion/debate will happen. The powerless (poor,
lower caste, Dalits) may not have any say in choosing the agenda items.
• Third dimension of power: Given by Steven Lukes in his book ‘Power: A
Radical View’. In this view, power manifests as structural arrangement in which
the powerful shape the perceptions and worldviews of the powerless to
perpetuate domination without any observable conflict. The powerless don’t
even feel that they are being dominated. For example: Caste domination in
which the lower castes felt that it was God’s command to obey the dictates of
the higher caste.

17
 • This is hidden but most insidious (cruel) dimension of power. On the surface
there would be no conflict, violence, as there is no objection by those who are
dominated. The concept of Hegemony given by Gramsci is similar to this third
dimension of power.
• Marxist view: Power as class domination:
• Power as exploitation of labour class by the capitalist class; Private property
and ownership of means of production as sources of power.
• Feminist view:
• Power as gender discrimination and domination of women by men.
• Patriarchy as source of men’s power.
• Power manifests into sexual violence, lower values attached to feminine
attributes and women’s labour, gendered social norms and practices.
• Power as Cultural Hegemony : by Antonio Gramsci :
• Dominant class manufacturing consent through controlling the prevailing ideas,
norms, value, belief system, religion, and various social practices.
• Hegemonic values are perpetuated by mass media, public opinion, norms for
public discourses, and institutions formed by the dominant class to maintain
their hegemony (dominance/supremacy).
• Extractive vs Developmental Power: by C.B. MacPherson :
• Extractive power- Power over, power to get others do something. Negative
power.
• Developmental Power- Ability to fulfils one’s own self-appointed goals,
Creative freedom. Positive power.
• Power as subjection through governable identities: As given by Foucault:
• Power as making a free and autonomous individual a governable subject by
discipline and normalisation, making them governable subjects.
• Mechanism of governmentality produces identity, category, inclusion &
exclusion – for example roll numbers to students, voter ID card, Aaadhar cards,
students, housewives, industrial worker, executives, gender, religion, and caste
identities, etc.
• Normalisation- individual are made to conform to dominant norm. For
example: girls are normalized to conform to prevailing gender norms.
• Mechanism of governmentality are dispersed- school, university, medicine,
biology, psychiatry, legal, sports systems, etc. Hence, power is everywhere; it
is diffused, flowing everywhere like blood capillaries

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 • Power is creating together : Hannah Arendt : Power as positive force.
• Power as creating together in group by communication/speech/dialogue to
realise public goal.
• ‘Power with’ vs ‘power to’ or ‘power over’. Power and violence are opposite to
each other. One cannot exist where other exists.
• Gandhiji also had similar views about political power. Power as transformative
force to create new civilisation.

How understanding power help understand politics?

Power as influence, domination, agenda setting helps us understand politics as
collective decision making. Third facets of power, cultural hegemony denote politics
as manufacturing consent and sustenance of dominance without any overt conflict.
Marxist view on power help understand the class structure of society. Feminist view on
power expands the scope of political from public sphere to personal- family, society,
inter-personal relations. Power as collective and creative action indicate Politics as
collective action for societal common good. And finally, Power as governable identities
interprets politics as manifestation of power of normalisation to make individuals
governable subjects. Thus, understanding different approaches and meaning of power
help us understand the different meaning of politics. This is because power is the soul
of politics. Hence, one definition of politics is that politics is the game of power.

Conclusion:
Concept of power is central to the idea of the political. In majority of the situations
politics is interplay of interest and power. It is game where powerful are able to fulfil
their interests. Politics denotes collective decision making. Those who hold power
prevail in decision making. As Marx said ruling ideas of its time are ideas of the rulers.
Thus, power and politics are linked intimately.
But Power is essentially a contested concept. It has not one fixed meaning. Like politics,
meaning of power is also changing with time. Political thinkers have approached
towards understanding the meaning of power in multiple ways. Thus, we have different
meanings of power, its sources and in ways it manifests in politics. Different approaches
to understand power has been influenced by broad political ideologies of the political
thinkers. Thus, we have very different view of power as seen from Marxist, feminist,
post-modernist, and liberalist perspectives. Different meanings of power help us in
understand different aspects or dimensions of politics. For example, if we consider
negative conception of power as domination then politics itself seems a negative
activity. But if we believe in positive notion of power as co-creation and creative
freedom, then politics becomes positive, moral, and ethical activity. Thus, how we

19
 approach to understand the concept of power may decide our approach to understand
politics.

Q.3: What is politics? Compare and contrast liberal and Marxist view of
politics.
Answer Template:
Note: for the first part refer to answer to question at page xx. Here only the
second part is answered.
liberal Vs Marxist view of politics:
On many counts liberal and Marxist view of politics seems to be at poles apart. This is
because these mainstream political ideologies hold very different view of individual,
society, social structure, and socio-economic arrangements. They assign very different
meanings to normative political values of equality, liberty, justice, and rights. Since
politics is all about collective decisions, managing social arrangements, institutions,
reconciliation, and conflict resolutions in societies composed of individuals, naturally
liberal and Marxist view of politics will be very different.
Liberalism takes somewhat positive view of individual. They believe in reason,
rationality, and enterprise of individual agency. Individual is master of his fate and
destiny. He is independent and autonomous. Individuals have the freedom to choose
their life goals as well as means or paths to achieve them. As free moral agents,
Individuals are end in themselves; they cannot be used as means to achieve societal
end/goal.
Holding such view of individuals and their relation to collectives/society, liberalism
view politics in terms of individual liberty, rights, and equality. Political arrangements,
such as state and Government are created by individuals to protect and enjoy their
natural rights of life, liberty, and property. Hence, in liberal view state/society should
not interfere in individual’s private life. Classical liberalism considers state as necessary
evil, required to maintain peace & order and defend the national territories. Liberalism,
in its classical form, prefers minimalist or nightwatchman state.
In contrast, Marxism takes very different view of Individual, society, social structure,
and therefore of politics and political institutions. Individuals are not free and
autonomous. Their identity, consciousness, and life choices all are determined by their
material conditions of life. Individual’s position in class structure of society and their
status in relation of production determine their fate and life choices. There would be
world of difference between individuals belonging to capitalist and those belonging to
labour class.

20
 Marxism believes in economic determinism, that is, economic structure - the mode and
forces of production- form base or foundation of the society over which superstructure
– politics, laws, culture, art, language, etc- is situated. The economic base determines
the societal superstructure. Thus, political and legal system, art & craft, language and
literature, etc. all are determined by the mode and forces of production.
Thus, Marxism views socio-political order, power relations, and social exploitation and
domination from the lens of economic structure of the society. In Marxist view, politics,
including state and its institutions, is part of the superstructure, which is controlled or
determined by the economic base or structure of the society. The class which dominates
the economic structure also control the state and its institutions. Thus, State, in Marxist
view, has only relative autonomy. It works for the interest of the capitalist class.
Individuals, in Marxist view, struggle for their freedom but the capitalist social structure
does not allow them freedom & autonomy. Individuals in either of the classes- capitalist
or labour- face alienation, the feeling of disaffection and estrangement (separation).
Human emancipation is possible only in the stateless and classless society. This is the
vision of classless, stateless communist society in which each individual contributes to
the social production process as freely as per his ability, without any compulsion,
constrain, coercion and relate to fellow man as equal. And in which each one
contributes as per one’s ability and get as per one’s need.
From above summarisation of Marxist and liberal view of politics it is obvious that they
are poles apart. One (liberalism) view politics as social means to secure rights and
liberty of individuals whereas the other (Marxism) view politics merely as tool of
dominance of the class which control the economic structure or base of society.

Following table list out the differences between Liberal and Marxist view of
politics.

Difference Liberalism Marxism

point

Nature of Individuals have God or nature gifted
Individual sense of reason and ability of
perfectibility, that is, they can
continuously improve their moral
goodness to become perfect human
being
Identity, consciousness, and life
choices of individuals are
determined by his material
condition of life.

21
Individual Individual is master of his fate and Individuals are not free and
autonomy destiny. He is independent and autonomous. Their fate is
autonomous. determined by their class
membership which determine their
relation of production, social status
and life choices.

Individual Individuals are prior to society/state; Community/society is like organic

vs Society hence state cannot not take away or whole. Individuals are its integral
undermine natural rights of individuals. part.
Individuals are end in themselves. They Individuals realize their human
cannot be treated as means/medium for essence only by contributing in
societal or state purposes/goals. social production process.
Thus, liberalism gives primacy to Thus, Marxism gives primacy to
Individuals over collectives/society. community over individuals.

Rights vs Liberalism gives preference to Marxism gives more weightage to

Common Individual Rights over societal common societal common good over rights
Good Good. of individuals.

How they Politics and political institution are
view social arrangements created by
politics individuals to protect and enjoy their
natural rights.
Politics- state and its institution-
are part of societal superstructure,
which is controlled by the
economic structure or base of the
society.
The class which dominates the
Base, control the superstructure
and therefore use the politics for
furthering their interests.

State Classical liberalism view state as Marxism view state as political

necessary evil. It prefers minimalist or institution working for the interests
nightwatchmen state. of the capitalist class.
Modern liberalism allows wide ranges Thus, classical Marxism takes
of functions to state to bring about instrumentalist view of state.
distributive justice State is considered to have only
limited autonomy from the
economic structure or base of the
society.

22
Socio- Meliorism: there is no perfect
political society/state/political arrangement.
changes Social institutions and political
arrangements can be continuously
improved by human efforts.
Believes in changes through social
revolution. Through proletariat
revolution a transitional socialist
community would be established.
This will give way to the stateless
and classless communist society.

Property Right to property is non-negotiable. Marxism considers private

Rights Individuals have absolute and property as root of all evils in the
unalienable right to property earned by capitalist social order.
their labour and enterprise. State has no It wants society having no concept
right to take away individual’s property of private property. Each one gets
in the name of distributive justice or for from the common property as per
any other purpose. one’s need.

Realization Liberalism has been realized in almost Marxism has also been realized in
on ground all cultures all over the world in form of many nations all over the world
liberal Democracy and free market inform of communist or socialist
economy. form of Government and economy.
But after the demise of USSR, its
presence has shrunk.

Conclusion:
Liberalism and Marxism takes almost opposite views on nature of individuals, their
autonomy, freedom of life choices, their relation with the collectives and socio-political
arrangements. Because of such opposing views they seem to be poles apart. Hence,
politics is viewed very differently in liberal and Marxist ideologies.
Liberalism view politics and political institutions as the means to achieve end/goal of
individuals. Political institutions, such as State and Government, are the creation of
individuals for protecting and enjoying their natural rights. Marxists, on the other hand
view politics itself being determined and controlled by economic structure of the
society. The class which owns the means of production and therefore dominate the
economic structure of society control the politics and political institutions for their own
interests.
The contrast is, therefore, evident between these mainstream political ideologies. This
was manifested as long ideological battle in form of the cold war. Liberalism of course
won that ideological battle. But Marxism continues to challenge the hegemony of

23
 liberalism even as the post-cold war world has been swept away by the neo-liberal
globalisation.

Q.4: What is theory? How can we theorise the ‘political’?

Introduction:
Theory is reflective thought. Theory is systematic reflection on a phenomenon under
study. It is a formal idea or set of ideas, stated in certain linguistic propositions
(postulates, hypothesis), that is intended to explain some aspect of natural world or
social phenomenon. Theorising the political or politics is thus an enterprise of
developing coherent set of propositions having some explanatory principles on political
phenomenon. Of course, it is only one of many definitions of political theory.
systematic efforts to understand, describe and explain decision making in society is
another valid definition of political theory.
Whatever may be its definition, theories have common features such as having rational
conceptual structure, explanatory, descriptive, and evaluative capabilities, fair amount
of generality (can be applied to many different situations, places, times), and inter-
disciplinary approach. Theory can be differentiated from ideologies, cosmology, and
political thoughts on the basis of its defining features.
Ideologies stem out from theory but after a point reasons are short circuited in
ideologies. Cosmologies are highly localised, contextual, and non-theoretical ideas,
worldview, and belief system. Hence, they are different from theory which is essentially
a theoretical ( i.e. text based- linguistic) enterprise. Theory transcends(surpasses) time
and space boundaries and have high degree of generality. On this basis political theory
is different from Political thoughts which are valid in a given time.
There can be multiple approaches to theorising the political. Some of the common
approaches to theorise the political is Normative, Empirical, and Historical.

Normative Approach:
• Normative Political Theory are closer to political philosophy. It involves, in the
words of Isiah Berlin, application of moral notions in the sphere of political
relations. In normative Political Theory the existing socio-political
arrangements are compared with the standard universal moral principles to
judge whether it is good or bad. Normative theory also reflects upon the ideal
social arrangement as per the standard social norms and moral precepts. Hence,
it is very clear that normative political theory is value judgemental. It is
evaluative, prescriptive and not merely descriptive. Its intention is to improve
upon the socio-political arrangement within the parameters of universal moral
precepts.

24
Empirical Approach:
• In contrast to the normative approach, the empirical approach to political theory
is fact based, experimental, and using scientific methods of testing hypothesis
in different situations to arrive at testable political hypothesis. In empirical
political theory, values and social norms are not given primacy and it is more
oriented towards describing the socio-political arrangement ‘as it is’ (not how
it should or ought to be). Empirical approach attempts to establish causal
connections between the political phenomena. It does not endeavour( attempt)
to prescribe or aim towards ideal political arrangement. Hence, the difference
between normative and empirical political theory is clearly defined.

Historical Approach:
• In the Historical approach of theorising the political, the political thinker uses
history as genetic process of evolution of political phenomena. For example,
Karl Marx used history of mode of production to build his theory of historical
materialism. Before him, Hegel used historical approach to give his theory of
evolution of idea or spirit through a dialectical process. In this approach the
political thinker uses historical events as a test case to add historical depth to
theoretical reflections on the political problems of his own time. History of
political events, if analysed properly, can help evaluate contemporary socio-
political order, both analytically and normatively.

Each approach has different methods of enquiry, research, and theory building
process.
• For example, normative approach adopts deductive method of theorising. In
this method, the political scientist/philosopher deduct a hypothesis from his
knowledge, deep insight, abstract reasoning, intuition, and experience.
Thereafter, he tests that hypothesis for internal consistency of moral arguments,
formal logic and analytic philosophy, abstract reasoning, and finally measuring
conclusion against their own moral intuitions. After such rigorous testing, the
hypothesis is presented in form of coherent sets of prepositions. This becomes
political theory.
• In the empirical approach, first, facts collection, observation, scientific surveys
on the political phenomenon under study are done. After classifying,
categorising, and analysing the collected data and observations, causal patterns
are found. On this basis hypothesis are constructed. Finally, hypothesis are
rigorously tested, in multiple situations/setting, with available facts and proofs

25
 in scientific way. The tested hypothesis becomes political theory. This is called
inductive method.
• In the historical approach, historical evolution of the phenomenon under study
are analysed carefully. Historical approach may also use the methods of
comparative politics. By comparing two or more historical trajectories of major
political phenomenon, or selected slices of national historical trajectories as the
units of comparison, the political thinker develops causal relationship about
specific political phenomenon (for example: revolutions), draws
generalizations, develop and test hypothesis. While testing the hypothesis either
normative or empirical method may be adopted. For example: comparative
analysis of the French, Russian and Chinese Revolutions, by Skocpol to develop
his theory of revolution and political transformation.

Conclusion:
In sum, Theory is systematic reflection on a phenomenon under study. Political theory
is defined as coherent set of prepositions having some explanatory principles on a class
of political phenomenon. Approach denotes a certain way of dealing with a situation or
problem. In the context of theorizing the political, approaches consist of criteria for
selecting problems and relevant data. A mode of analysis which provides a set of tools
and develops concepts for the study and comprehension of any political phenomena.
Most popular approaches to political theory are Normative-value, and ethics based,
Empirical- observation and data based, and Historical- analysis of historical evolution
of the phenomenon.
Each approach has its own sets of methods for data collection, construction of
hypothesis and its testing. Basically, normative approach adopts deductive method of
enquiry, in which ‘a priori’ hypothesis is constructed and then tested with evidences
and intellectual tools at the disposal of the political philosopher. Whereas in the
empirical approach inductive method of research is adopted. Under the inductive
method, hypothesis are generalisation of the pattern and causal relationships observed
through the collected data and observations. Finally, the hypothesis is tested by using
scientific methods in multiple scenarios/settings. Historical approach may use either
inductive or deductive methods. But in most of the cases deductive method is used as
it is closer to the normative approach.

26
Q.5: What is political theory? What is its relevance?
Similar Question:
Q. What is political theory? Why should we study Political Theory?

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Theory is generalized statements presented as reliable knowledge. Originating from the
Greek word “theoria”, theory connotes ( means) a well-focused mental look taken or
deep contemplation on something to grasp or understand it.
Political theory is systemic enquiry of socio-political arrangements to find patterns,
causes, problems, and solutions. As per Sabine political theory is disciplined
investigation of political problems. Bluhen defined political theory as an explanation of
what politics is all about, a general understanding of the political world, a frame of
reference. To Arnold Brecht, political theory, by identifying the immediate and the
potential problems of the political life of society, is one of the most important weapons
in our struggle for the advance of humanity. Political Science Dictionary defines
political theory as a body of thought that seeks to evaluate, explain and predict political
phenomena; as a sub-field of Political Science, it is concerned with political ideas,
values and concepts, and the explanation of prediction of political behaviour.
On the basis of above definitions, we may conclude that political theory is Systematic
reflection in form of logically consistent proposition on a class of political phenomenon.
It is generally based on facts/observations, has explanatory and predictive capabilities,
and involves generalisations and value judgement.
Aim of political theory is to have best possible socio-political arrangements which help
achieve the twin goal of virtuous and fulfilled individual life and societal common
Good. Hence, political theory has great significance for human life. It helps us
understand the political phenomena, ills of existing political order, and probable
solutions. For example, Rawl’s theory of justice reveal the weaknesses, in terms of
glaring inequality and unfair distribution of resources/honours, of liberal capitalist
order. The theory also offer solution to cure the ailment.
Following are some of crucial roles, functions, and significance of political theory, for which
they are relevant for both individual and social life.

27
They provide a standard against which we compare the given socio-political
arrangement:
• For example, Gandhiji gave the theory of ‘Swaraj’. This helped us in comparing the
aims and ideals of Indian national movement and vision of an independent India.
• Marx gave the theory of history as change in mode of production and class struggle.
This was used to compare the capitalist socio-political arrangements with the
communist society as envisioned in Marxist theory of history.
• Hegel’s theory of dialectical idealism was used by successive generations for
understanding the evolution of idea and institutions in modern era.

Help understand and find solutions of ills of social life

• As explained in the introduction, political theory reveals what is wrong with existing
socio-political order. Best example is again the Marxist theory of capitalism. It revealed
the exploitative and unjust relations of production between the capitalist and labour
class. In fact, Marxist theory of capitalism is best ever critical evaluation of capitalist
socio-political order.
• Not only political theory diagnoses the social ailments but also prescribe solution. Marx
offered socialism/communism as the solution to the problem of capitalist order.
Political theory are responses of great political minds on the dialogue and debate on social
problems and issues of their times:
• Each political theory contributes towards finding solutions to social problems,
especially problems of social arrangements, distribution of resources/honours, peace &
order, etc.
• Theories are responses and contribution of the political thinker on the ongoing
debate/dialogue of his time on the issues tackled in the theory.
Political theory enables us to critically analyse social issues and finding their solution by
social reconstruction.
• Political theory shows us the way to form new society, new civilisation by removing
the ailments in existing social order.
• Gandhiji’s theory of Swaraj was vision of a new civilisation. Marx gave the vision of
classless society. John Rawl’s theory of Justice showed the way to achieve justice as
fairness in distribution of resources, political offices, and rewards to make a just social
order.
Help to reconcile agreed meaning of key words/concepts used in describing social life
• In political science, meaning of words such as liberty, equality, justice, authority,
power, democracy, etc are not fixed as in natural science.

28
 • Political theory helps in arriving at the agreed meaning of these normative political
values expressed in words. This helps constructive and meaningful dialogue and debate
among thinkers having different political believes and ideologies.
• For example, Isiah Berlin’s theory of positive and negative liberty help in arriving at a
common meaning of Liberty and its two dimensions.
• Thus, political theory help clarify the meaning of political concepts and normative
political values.
Help understand and appreciate other’s point of view, mutual respect, and tolerance.
• Tradition of political theory encourages a dignified debate between supporters of
different point of views on socio-political issues.
• Different theories are like vision of truth from different angles or perspective. They
show that truth is not one but is multi-faceted, multi-dimensional.
• Different political theories on same social issue encourages people to appreciate other’s
point of view. It encourages tolerance to views different from one held by someone. It
encourages finding truth by constructive dialogue, discussion, deliberation.
• Because of such nature of political theory, political science is considered as most
democratic of academic discipline.

Conclusion:
Political Theory are systematic reflection on Socio Political arrangements. They have
the capability to describe, explain, reveal causal relationships, prescribe better social
order, and predict the future social arrangements.
Hence, by its nature, political theories are very much relevant for both individual as
well as social life anytime, anywhere in world. Political Theory does many functions
which help better organise our socio-political life. Like good physician they diagnose
the social ailments(disease) and also prescribe the solutions to get rid of them. They
help inculcate the spirit of constructive debate, dialogue, and deliberations to find
solutions to social problems. They also encourage tolerance for other’s point of view.
They help understand the true nature of truth which is not one but multifaceted and
multi-dimensional. They help to reconcile agreed meaning of key words/concepts used
in describing social life. Hence, political theories are valuable intellectual tools to make
our life better by having best possible socio-political arrangements.

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 THEME 2: APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY:
NORMATIVE, EMPIRICAL, AND HISTORICAL

2. A: Key Points:
3 major approaches to political theory:
• Normative Approach: Normative Political Theory are closer to political
philosophy. It involves, in the words of Isiah Berlin, application of moral notions
in the sphere of political relations. In normative Political Theory the existing socio-
political arrangements are compared with the standard or ideal based on universal
moral principles to judge whether it is good or bad. Obviously Normative
theorisation is value judgemental. It is closer to rationalist approach to knowledge,
wherein the political thinker uses his/her intuition, abstract reasoning, and
reflections which may be á priority, and transcendental, beyond the sense
experiences.
• Empirical Approach: In contrast to the normative approach, the empirical
approach to political theory is fact & observation based, experimental, and using
scientific methods of testing hypothesis in different situations to arrive at testable
hypothesis. In empirical political theory, values and social norms are not given
primacy and it is more oriented towards describing the socio-political arrangement
‘as it is’ (not how it should or ought to be) and trying to establish causal connections
between the political phenomena. Thus, empirical approach takes political theory
closer to political science, and away from political philosophy.
• Historical Approach: In the Historical approach of theorising the political, the
political thinker uses history as genetic process of evolution of political phenomena.
In this approach the political thinker uses historical events as a resource to add
historical depth to theoretical reflections on the political problems of his own time.

Debate on the demise of political theory:

• Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, political theory has been closer to political
philosophy with lots of normativism inbuilt into it.
• But beginning 1930s under the influence of logical positivism and 1950s during
the behavioural revolution, many critics started to question excess normativism
in theorising the political. They advocated for scientific enquiry of political
phenomena, same as in natural science. It was an attempt to take takes political
theory closer to political science, and away from political philosophy.

30
• This gave rise to Empirical approach to political theory. Many critics even
declared demise or death of political philosophy (normative political theory).
David Easton, in 1953 wrote ‘The Decline of Modern Political Theory’. He gave
4 factors- Historicism, Moral Relativism, Hyper Factualism, and Confusion
between Science and Theory- for decline of political theory. In 1956, Peter
Laslett declared death of political philosophy. Reimer, during 1950s, claimed
that political theory in doghouse. Many other thinkers expressed similar views.
• But soon, by 1970s, the balance was restored. Once gain it was David Easton
who led the way for restoration of political theory. He asserted that in politics
we cannot shed (remove) our values in the way we remove our coats. He gave
Post-behaviouralism and its 7 core themes. Thinkers like Leo Strauss
emphasised importance of norms and values in politics. Thereafter, both facts
(empiricism) and norms, values(normativism) were considered equally
important in political theory.
• Thinkers who declared or supported demise of Political theory:
o David Easton
o Peter Laslett
o Reimer
o Robert Dahl
o S M Lipset
o Alfred Cobban- ‘The Decline of Political Theory (1993)’
o Dante Germino- ‘Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political theory(
1967)’
o Daniel Bell- ‘The End of Ideology (1960)’
• Thinkers who supported resurgence of Political theory
o Isiah Berlin
o Leo Strauss
o George H. Sabine
o Hannah Arendt
o Eric Vogelin
o David Easton- yes !
o Oakeshott, John Rawls, Robert Nozick, Herbert Marcuse

31
2. B: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Differentiate between the Normative and Empirical approaches to

political theory.
Ans. Template:
INTRODUCTION:
Political theory since beginning has been a normative philosophical enterprise.
Normativism here means evaluating existing social arrangements to standard or ideal
based on norms and values. All well-known classical political theories, such as idea of
an ideal state by Plato, theory of justice by Aristotle, etc. were developed by great
philosophers using normative approach. Even in modern times, theories of all great
political thinkers such as Social contract theories of Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,
Utilitarianism of J.S.Mills, and theory of Justice by John Rawls have strong normative
orientation. Taking moral and ethical approach, all these thinkers/philosophers inquired
upon the existing socio-political arrangements, institution, and practices to evaluate
them and prescribe the alternatives to improve upon the political arrangements under
study.
However, advent of modernism led by Enlightenment movement and its focus on
science, reason, rationality had profound effect on all aspects of human life. Despite
this, normativism continued to be the preferred approach in theory building in social
sciences till mid of 20th century. But thereafter on the wake of behavioural revolution
and growing importance of logical positivism, theorizing in social science went much
closer to theorizing in natural science. Both started same approach of scientific data
collection, observation of behaviours of political actors, hypothesis testing in different
settings (just like testing in laboratories) and developing scientifically and empirically
testable hypothesis. This was called empirical approach to theorizing the political.
Not only theory building became more factual, scientific, and empirical (experimental),
but also the normative approach was ridiculed as unscientific and speculative. Post-
World War II, popularity for scientific theory, which can be tested empirically for
falsifiability, rose substantially. Karl Popper, a prominent supporter of empiricism,
declared that only those theories which can be falsified upon testing are scientific.
Behaviourism and Logical positivism further encouraged empiricism. Critics started
questioning the validity of the normative approach. Normative theory was criticized for
its abstractness, idealism, and value judgments. Many critics even announced the
demise of normative political theory.

32
 However, since 1970s the empirical wave faded (declined). Overemphasis on facts,
data, observations, quantifications, and value neutrality were critically scrutinized.
Importance of values, ethics, and norms in studying politics re-gained ground. Scholars
like Leo Strauss declared value-fact distinction in political science as futile and dubious
(doubtful). David Easton gave 7 credo ( themes) of post-behaviouralism. He asserted
that in politics we cannot shed (remove) our values in the way we remove our coats.
Many other thinkers, such as Isiah Berlin, George H. Sabine, Hannah Arendt, Eric
Vogelin, etc supported resurgence of political theory. All this led to acceptance of
judicious synthesis of empiricism and normativism, that is facts and value/norms, in the
enterprise of theorising of ‘the political’.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain both the normative and empirical approach
to highlight the differences between them. Pros and cons of each of these approaches shall also
be stated separately.

Normative approach to theory building in politics:

• Application of moral notions in the sphere of political relations: Norm, ethic, and
values are used to set standards and evaluate the given socio-political arrangements.
Aim is to achieve the ideal state of social arrangements and political phenomenon under
study. Thus, it scrutinizes existing political arrangements and prescribe alternative
arrangements
• Thus, it is concerned with ‘ought to’ (that is what should be?), prescriptive, and
evaluative. All these involve value judgement.
• ‘a priori’, and deductive approach of theorising. A hypothesis is proposed based on
intuition, rational reflection, and logic of the theorist who then test it rigorously by
abstract reasoning, internal consistency, and analytic philosophy. Finally, conclusions
are measured against moral intuitions of the thinker. This is a top down or deductive
method of theorizing.
• Substantive question: issue of distributive justice and its implication for individual
freedom and liberty are the prime questions taken up for study. Ideal state, basis for
political obligation, legitimacy of the ruler, Individual freedom, Liberty, and justice are
other subjects of enquiry. All these themes are related to foundational moral principles.
• Foundational issue of moral philosophy- The approach also examines rational and
objective basis to morality; is morality a human artefact? Or is it the product of
convention or community traditions? Such questions are examined and interpreted by
normative approach.
• 3 approaches to normative theorising:
Utilitarianism: developed by Jeremy Bentham and J.S.Mill. The principle states
that morality in public decision-making demands that the decision brings greatest
happiness to greatest number of people.

33
 Deontological: Developed by Immanuel Kant, great German political thinker of
18th century. Not only the end but means to achieve the end should also be moral
and ethical.
Communitarianism: an ideology which emphasizes the responsibility of the
individual to the Common Good of the community. Individuals are considered
integral part of the community which is considered an organic whole.
• Methods of the Normative approach:
• Internal consistency of moral arguments
• Formal logic and analytic philosophy
• Social anthropology and history: to check empirical premises
• Abstract reasoning, intuition, philosophical speculation
• Thinkers judging/testing conclusion against their own moral intuitions

Pros and cons of Normative approach:

• In favour: Set standard of conduct in public sphere. It provides logically rigorous and
factually informed moral options. Debates on moral/ethical grounds lead to good life
of community. It not only describes but prescribe alternative political
methods/approach to improve upon the political situation. Thus, normative theories are
transformative and have the ability to solve social problems.

• Criticism: Such theories are not empirically verifiable. They may not be tested for
falsifiability. They involve value judgement. Moral relativism questions the use of
universal moral principles in normative theorisation. Normative theories are idealistic,
utopic. Instead of based on facts, observations, and sense experience, they are based on
‘’a priori “(decided before) conception of good or bad. Such theories are true only in
the context of values, norms of time/place of theorising, that is they are contextual not
universal. Finally, normative theories are considered speculative, not a scientific
enterprise.

Empirical Approach to Theorising the Politics:

• Seeks to discover and describe facts- as it is -of political life through factual
observations, data gathering, finding patterns and causal relationship and testing
hypothesis scientifically in multiple settings.
• Two pillars of Empirical approach:

34
 • Behaviourism: scientific observation of behaviour of different actors in a
political situation under study.
• Logical Positivism: only those propositions which are verifiable through
empirical facts or direct sense observations are meaningful.
• Thus, Empirical Theory is concerned with situation which can be observed by our
direct sense experience and verifiable by repeated observations.
• Largely descriptive, fact based and value-neutral.
• ‘Post priory’ and Inductive: Bottom-up approach. Observable facts and data are
gathered and analysed to build hypothesis which are repeatedly tested empirically for
falsifiability. Finally, set of scientifically testable hypothesis are presented as
propositions. Thus it adopts an inductive method of enquiry.
• Focus on quantitative analysis: facts, data, observations, testing.
• Adopts methods common to theorising in natural sciences
• Empirical Theory takes political theory closer to political science away from political
philosophy.

Pros and cons of empirical approach:

• In favour: It is fact based, objective, and scientific. Hypothesis can be tested and can
be falsified. They are value neutral, hence can be applied across time and space. It gives
true picture of the actual political situation. It broadened the scope of political theory
by including voting behaviour, party system, civil society, etc.
• Criticism: For many, its claim of value neutrality is myth. Taking out values, morality,
ethics from study of political behaviour will make political theory status quoist. Theory
will lose its problem solving and transformative capabilities. The approach couldn’t
frame credible theories to avoid political crisis such as two world wars. Obsession with
hard facts & data made political theory lose its dynamism, ethical bearing, and
transformative vision.

Differences between Normative and Empirical Approach:

On the basis of above discussion, following differences between two approaches are
evident:

Normative Approach Empirical Approach

Prescriptive- ‘ought to’, should be Descriptive – ‘As it is’

35
 Evaluative, interpretative, qualitative, Realistic, quantitative
Idealistic

Emphasis on norms, values, ethics Value neutral, factual

Less emphasis on observations and data More focus on observations, empirical

data gathering

Scope: Institutional, formal, legal Scope: informal process of politics-

voting behaviour, elections, policy
making, etc

Dominated by moral Philosophy and Adopts modern scientific methods

history

Propositions not empirically verifiable Propositions/hypothesis can be

empirically tested and falsified.

Aim to improve conduct of public life Aim to understand the human

behaviour in public life

Prominent Political Thinkers: Plato, Prominent Political Thinkers:

Rousseau, Locke, Hobbes, Immanuel David Easton, Karl Popper,
Kant, John Rawls Wittgenstein, Robert Dahl

Conclusion:
Since beginning political theory building were done by great philosophers using
normative approach. This trend continued till about mid of 20th century. But under
the behavioural revolution and rising popularity of logical positivism gave rise to
empirical or fact and observation-based approach to political theory. Soon empirical
and normative approach were presented as two poles, as rivals.
Not only differences between these two approaches were highlighted but normative
approach was criticized and mocked for not being fact based, objective, verifiable,
and scientific. Empirical approach was considered modern, objective, and scientific,

36
 whereas the normative approach was condemned as idealistic, utopic, speculative,
non-scientific, and value judgemental. However, soon the balance was restored.
Consensus view now is that both facts and values are important for political theory
building. Dichotomy of facts and value was artificial. Since 1970s, synthesis and
integration of both approaches are now enriching the enterprise of political theory
building. John Rawl’s theory of justice in 1970s declared this new era of political
theory building.

Q.2: What is normative political theory? Provide its explanation with special
reference to communitarianism.
Similar Question:
Q. Discuss the various strands of normative political theory.
Answer Template

Introduction:
Normative Political Theory are closer to political philosophy. It involves, in the words
of Isiah Berlin, application of moral notions in the sphere of political relations. In
normative Political Theory the existing socio-political arrangements are compared with
the standard or ideal based on universal moral principles to judge whether it is good or
bad. Normative theory also reflects upon the ideal social arrangement as per the
standard social norms and moral precepts. Hence, it is very clear that normative
Political Theory is value judgemental. It is evaluative, prescriptive and not merely
descriptive. Its intention is to improve upon the socio-political arrangement within the
parameters of universal moral precepts.
Since beginning, enterprise of theorising the political had adopted normative approach.
Great political philosophers, such as Plato, Aristotle, St Augustine, Thomas Aquinas,
etc. built their theories by using normative approach. In fact, normative political theory
was same as political philosophy and the political thinkers were same as philosophers.
In normative approach politics is not separated from social norms, values, and ethics.
Same moral laws applicable to other human interactions are applicable to politics, too.
Both the politics and religion have common set of universal moral laws. Hence, in
ancient times, religion was not clearly separated from politics. For example, in ancient
political thoughts, the concept of ‘Dharma’ and ‘Danda’(denoting politics/statecraft)
were not clearly separated. Theory of state, kingship, and ‘Rajadharma’, etc in
Manusmriti and Mahabharata were normative political theories.
Normative political theory is contrasted with the Empirical political theory, which is
fact based, experimental, and using scientific methods of testing hypothesis in different
situations to arrive at testable political hypothesis. In empirical political theory, values
and social norms are not given primacy and it is more oriented towards describing the

37
 socio-political arrangement ‘as it is’ (not how it should or ought to be) and trying to
establish causal connections between the political phenomena. It does not endeavour to
prescribe or aim towards ideal political arrangement. Hence, the difference between
normative and empirical political theory is clearly defined.
If we further analyse the normative political theory three different strands are clearly
noticeable. These are utilitarianism, deontological liberalism, and
communitarianism. In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain in brief the
three strands of normative political theory.

3 strands of normative political theory:

1. Utilitarianism:
• Utilitarianism is normative moral/ethical theory, developed by late 18th century
English political Philosopher Jeremy Bentham, according to which an act is
morally right if it tends to promote happiness or pleasure and wrong if it tends
to produce unhappiness or pain—not just for the performer of the action but also
for everyone else affected by it.
• As per Utilitarianism socio-economic and political decisions should be taken on
the principle of greatest happiness of the greatest number(GHP Principle). It
means that collective decisions are morally right if overall they produce
maximum amount of pleasure, when we add pleasures and pains of all those
affected by the decision.
• For example, for building a factory if 200 people are displaced causing pains to
them but 1000 people get employment causing happiness/pleasure to them, then
the decision to displace 200 people for the factory is morally correct.
• Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism or teleological principle, that is, it
believes that actions should be judged on the basis of their
consequences/result/outcome and not the means adopted to achieve the
result/end.
• Utilitarianism is criticized on many counts. Gandhiji called it immoral.
Sacrificing the happiness of 49 persons for happiness of 51 is questionable.
Critics also question equating pleasure/pain of different persons having very
different contexts, its measurement of all kinds of pleasure on the same utility
scale, and not differentiating morally good and bad acts. Thus, pleasure by
watching bull’s fight is treated equally valuable as pleasure by reading classical
novel.

38
2. Deontological Liberalism:
• Influenced by the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, the great German
political thinker of 18th century.
• Deontology is just opposite to teleology. It believes that The rules and motives
of our actions( to achieve end/goal) should also be consistent with universal
moral principles
• Thus, as per deontology not only the end or the purpose but also the ‘means’
adopted to achieve them should be moral and ethical.
• Many prominent thinkers in the 1970s such as John Rawls, Robert Nozick,
Ronald Dworkin, etc followed the deontological normative principle while
theorizing the political.
• Deontology considers individual as an end in itself and therefore does not allow
individuals to be used as a means or purpose to achieve societal goals as in
utilitarianism.
• Deontology also denotes the ethics of right and duty. It considers right of
individual as sacrosanct which cannot be sacrificed for achieving so called
societal common good.
• Thus, in a nutshell deontological normative theory is more towards
individualism, protecting the rights of individual and opposing any teleological
approach such as utilitarianism in which to achieve the societal good, rights of
some individuals are sacrificed.

3. Communitarianism:

• Political philosophy which gives importance to social traditions and social

context for moral and political reasoning, socially situated nature of the
individual self, and value of community for virtuous and fulfilled life of
individuals.
• It gained prominence in 1980s by the writings of few American political
philosophers- Michael Sandel, Alasdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor,
Michael Walzer, etc. In recent times C.B. Macpherson, and Hannah Arendt
are considered in the camp of communitarian normative theory.
• These thinkers were critical of modern liberalism, based on Rawl’s theory
of Justice (1971), and Libertarianism (Nozick & Hayek).
• Excessive individualism leading to atomized society, isolation, loss of
identity, social crimes, resource exploitation, and meaning-lessness and

39
 norm lessness of materialistic culture, etc were main concern of the
communitarians.
• Communitarian normative theory attempt to maintain balance between
individual’s right and societal common Good, between Common and
Private good, between Individual autonomy/freedom and social order.
• Communitarianism is different from Communism, Socialism and does not
support totalitarian, and autocratic States- it favours democracy, flourishing
communities acting as 3rd force between State and market, good and
virtuous individual life conforming to shared self-understanding of common
good.
• Role of state: State should nurture communities, social order to help citizen
live good life conforming to ‘common good’ and shared self-understanding
of good life
• Idea of situated self: Individual is embedded or situated and partially
constituted and defined by social roles and community attachments.
• Choice vs discovery of ‘end’: End/goal/purpose of individuals is socially
determined with ultimate aim to achieve common good; individuals do not
choose them; they discover them through social interaction.
• Normative values, such as rights, justice, equality, etc. are defined in context
of the community. Hence, their meanings and ways to realize them varies
across communities.
• ‘Rights’ vs ‘Good’:
o Rights brings with them social responsibility- balance between
individual right and common good of the society.
o Rights are not absolute or universal, they are contextual- meaning of
Right is socially constructed and hence relative to the values, belief,
culture, and traditions of the community/society.
o Individual rights get their meaning and utility only in healthy social
order
o Rights can be traded off to promote the societal ‘Common Good’ ;
for example individual privacy can be sacrificed for protecting
national security
o It favours Positive conception of Rights and Freedom, that is, values
those rights and freedom which enable individuals perform good and
worthy acts.

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Conclusion:
Different strands of normative Political Theory denote the dimensions of moral
principles applicable to understanding and improving socio-political arrangements. The
utilitarianism is teleological in approach, that is, it give precedence to ‘end’/
result/outcome over the means to achieve the ends. Whereas the deontological approach
gives equal importance to morally correct means. Communitarianism gives preference
to societal common good over individual rights. All the three strands have nurtured the
enterprise of normative theory building in Political Science.
Initially, utilitarianism was the preferred normative approach. But beginning 1970s
deontological liberalism became the most popular approach of normative theory.
Theory of justice by John Rawl and Robert Nozick made this approach acceptable
worldwide.
Communitarianism has very powerful idea and is having linkage to classical normative
theory of Greek era; but it has lagged behind in popularity to deontological
normativism. However, of late, it is posing formidable challenge to the deontological
liberalism. With the advent of postmodernism, feminism, and green political
movement, communitarian normative theory is gaining more and more ground.

Q.3: Write a short note on Historical Approach to Political Theory

Answer Template:
In the Historical approach of theorising the political, the political thinker uses history
as genetic process of evolution of political phenomena. For example, Karl Marx used
history of mode of production to build his theory of historical materialism. Before him,
Hegel used historical approach to give his theory of evolution of of idea or spirit through
a dialectical process. Machiavelli also used the historical approach to theorise about
statecraft- how the prince should maintain his state? In modern era Joseph Oakeshott,
Theda Skocpol, G.H.Sabine, etc. have used historical approach in their writings. In
Indian political thought, Vivekananda used historical approach to theorise about cycle
of caste rule. Ram Manohar Lohia used this approach to give theory of ‘ wheels of
history’-cycle of caste and class.
In this approach the political thinker uses historical events as a resource to add historical
depth to theoretical reflections on the political problems of his own time. History of
political events, if analysed properly, can help evaluate contemporary socio-political
order, both analytically and normatively. Genealogy as a technique of enquiry is closely
associated with the Historical approach. In Genealogy, the thinker goes back in history
to trace the evolution of meaning of a particular term or discourse. For example,

41
 genealogy may be used to trace the evolution of the different meanings of Justice since
beginning of human civilisation.
Historical approach may also be used in theory building by using methods of
comparative politics. By comparing two or more historical trajectories of major
political phenomenon, or selected slices of national historical trajectories as the units
of comparison, the political thinker develops causal relationship about specific political
phenomenon (for example: revolutions), draws generalizations, develop and test
hypothesis. For example: comparative analysis of the French, Russian and Chinese
Revolutions, by Skocpol to develop his theory of revolution and political
transformation.
Following are the main characteristics or features of the historical approach to political
theory:
• Genealogical (pertaining to heredity- genetic evolution)– treating history as a
genetic process as to understand how a political phenomenon evolved over time.
• Since history is specific to a particular place, society, nation, it is difficult to
develop universal theory using this approach.
• More importance to role of individual agency in making history. Hence, this
approach gives more weightage to individual human agency than societal
structure and institutions.
• Studying past to understand the causes of political phenomenon in present.
Thus, this approach links present political phenomena to past social traditions,
norms, and practices. This helps understand the logic of current political
phenomena. For example, to understand the emotional issue of right to use Guns
in USA can be understood by analysing the historical process of making of
American nation and role of right to use Gun/firepower in that.
• This approach also helps us interpreting classical text. Reading the text in its
historical context reveal the intended meaning of the text.
Scope: Following are the types of political phenomena undertaken for theorising using
historical approach:
• major political events, socio-political crisis – revolution, nation-state,
wars, social norms, socio-political order, evolution of specific terms,
discourse, etc.
Drawbacks: Following are the minuses of historical approach to political theory:
• Building theory by analysing few historical cases: It is difficult to take up
many historical events due to extensive content and limitation of personal
experience, time, and energy of the political thinker. Hence, the theory depends
on specifically chosen few historical events. For example: Marx only picked up
history of western Europe to build his theory of historical materialism.

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 • Superficial comparison, prejudiced analysis, non-scientific- speculative
• Almost all European political thinkers discarded non-European history
calling Non-European societies without any proper history. This made
their theories Eurocentric.
• For developing theory, the thinker may selectively pick historical events
supporting his own intuition/thoughts. For example, Machiavelli seems
to have used historical events selectively to prove his hypothesis.
• Comparing with historical perspective may lose sight of socio-cultural
contexts.
• History of different societies/nation evolve in socio-cultural contexts
specific to those society/nation. Comparing historical events of different
societies/nations may give erroneous conclusion. For example,
comparing French and Russian revolution without taking into account
their socio-cultural context would lead to wrong conclusion about theory
of political revolution.

Some of prominent political thinkers who used historical approach to build their
theories are:
• Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Oakeshott, Skocpol, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,
Marx, Laski.
• Indian political thinkers Ram Manohar Lohia (Wheels of History), Gandhiji
(Hind Swaraj), Vivekananda ( cycle of caste rule) also used historical
approaches to build their political theory.

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 THEME 3 : TRADITIONS OF POLITICAL THEORY:
LIBERAL, MARXIST, ANARCHIST AND CONSERVATIVE

3. A: Key Points:
Liberalism:
• Liberalism is set of political ideologues around core theme of individual
autonomy and liberty. Individuals under liberal belief are considered to be
independent, autonomous, rational, and self-interested.
• It gives preference to individual over community/society. It believes that in
social decision-making, interest/preferences of individuals must be taken into
account.
• Liberalism believe that society/state are created by individuals for protection of
their natural rights of life, liberty, property. These natural rights are ‘a priory’
(exists before) Society/state. Hence, they cannot be taken away by Society/state
• John Locke, the great English political philosopher of 17 century, is considered
philosophical father of liberalism. Hobbes being the philosophical grandfather.
• Prominent liberal thinkers: Hobbes, Locke, Adam Smith, Thomas Paine,
Immanuel Kant (classical liberalism) : Friedrich Hayak, Milton Friedman,
Robert Nozick ( neo-liberal or libertarian); .J.S.Mills, John Rawls, T.H.Green,
Hobhouse, J.Laski, R.H. Tawany ( modern, positive, or welfare liberalism)

Marxism:
• Based on the theories and ideas developed by Karl Marx (1818 – 1883), one
of the greatest German political philosopher and Frederick Engels, a German
political Philosopher settled in England.
• Essence of Marxism is Dialectical Historical Materialism and how this is
creating class division, conflict and alienation in capitalist society.
• Economic structure and relationship of production determine identity,
consciousness and politics: Material condition of life determine our
consciousness, idea, identity. We perceive our identity, status, and role in the
society from our relations of production. Whether one controls the means of
production (capitalist class) or sell his labour power (labour class) determine
his/her identity, role, status.

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 • Base and superstructure: Economic structure, that is, the mode and forces of
production form base or foundation of the society over which superstructure –
politics, laws, culture, art, language, media etc- are situated. The economic base
determines the societal superstructure. Thus, political and legal system, art &
craft, language and literature, etc. all are determined by the mode and forces of
production.
• Relative autonomy of state: State, being part of the superstructure, has only
limited autonomy from the economic structure or the ‘Base’. Marxism view
state as political organisation for protecting and furthering the interests of the
capitalist class. This is the instrumental view of the state.
• Class lens: Marxism views socio-political order, power relations, and social
exploitation and domination from the lens of class struggle in the society.
• Theory of Alienation: Capitalist mode of production and resultant social
arrangements alienate (separate) workers from their product of labour, from the
act of production, from species-being (from essence of being human), and from
fellow human being, from himself ( from his essence of being human).
• Theory of Surplus Labour Value: Capitalist Class does not pay a part of
values generated by labour-power; which is called profit, but for Marx, it was
theft.
• Prominent Marxist Thinkers: Apart from Marx and Engels, Lenin, Mao
Zedong, Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Rosa Luxemburg, M. N. Roy (India)

Anarchism:
• Anarchism is a political ideology proposing absence of any kind of formal
authority in managing individual and social affairs.
• Anarchism believes in the moral goodness of individuals. They take positive
view of human nature. To them, humans are capable of living with other humans
without coercive political authorities.
• It believes in organization of society on a voluntary, cooperative basis without
recourse to force, violence, or compulsion.
• Anarchism rejects the notion of power as dominance of one over other. For
them, power is ability to create together, as also conceptualized by Hannah
Arendt.
• Anarchism considers nation-state as violent organization based on force and
coercive power. They believe in the moral capabilities of individuals to live in
harmony with others without the force and coercion of modern nation-state. In

45
 fact, in Anarchist ideologies, state is unnecessary evil. It is not required for
individual or social life.
• Thus, political meaning of anarchism is opposite to its literal meaning. It is not
chaos, lawlessness, and disorder. It is peace, order, and harmony without any
force and compulsion of formal authority.
• Prominent Anarchist Thinkers: William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,
Mikhail Bakunin, Leo Tolstoy (pacific anarchism), F.A. Hayek (libertarian
anarchism), Gandhiji (Enlightened Anarchism)

Conservatism:
• A pragmatic political philosophy, branching out from classical liberalism,
respecting established ideas, institutions, social orders, and traditions.
• Conservatism resists radical changes established social norms, practices and
traditions. They believe in small-step or gradual changes.
• Believe in hierarchy, order, and authority
• In economic sphere, conservatism is quite close to liberalism. It favours free
enterprise, private ownership, Property rights, low taxation, etc.
• It takes somewhat negative view of human nature. To conservatists, human
nature is imperfect. Hence, State is required for social order, and preserving
ideas, institutions and traditions.
• Organic society: Society as organic whole, of which individuals are integral
part.
• Instead of idealism, conservatism believes in Pragmatism. They discount grand
ideologies such as Marxism. They believe in gradual change.
• Prominent conservative thinkers: Edmund Burke (organic view of society),
Michael Oakeshott, David Hume (unconditional political obligation), even
Hobbes and Locke, father of liberalism, may be considered as conservatists.

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3. B: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: What is Liberalism? What are basic differences between classical and
modern Liberalism? Also discuss some of the challenges to Liberalism.
Ans. Template:

Introduction:
Liberalism is set of political ideologues around core theme of individual
autonomy and liberty. Individuals under liberal belief are considered to be
independent, autonomous, rational, and self-interested. It gives preference to
individual over community/society. In social decision-making
interest/preferences of individuals must be taken into account. Liberalism believe
that society/state are created by individuals for protection of their natural rights
of life, liberty, property. As these natural rights existed before emergence of state,
society/state cannot take away these rights from the individuals.
Out of all contemporary mainstream political ideologues (socialism, communism,
fascism, liberalism), liberalism has the oldest history. It evolved in Europe during
the protestant or reformation movement during 16th century. Idea of autonomous
individual having direct communication to God without any intermediary of
church gave birth to liberalism. Subsequently, authority of kings and feudal lords
were questioned on the moral ground of individual autonomy. Enlightenment
movement, which gave primacy to reason and rationality, further strengthened
the liberal ideology.
Hobbes, Locke, and Kant may be considered as ‘Trinity’ of liberal ideologies.
Each of them, during 17th, 18th century, gave the social contract theory, essence
of which was that individuals created society/state through a social contract to
live life of peace and order. But individuals retain the rights of life, liberty, and
property and society/state cannot take them away. Locke, who is considered
father of liberalism, declared these rights (life, liberty, property) as natural or God
given rights to individuals. Kant asserted that individuals are ‘end’ in themselves.
They cannot be used as means for fulfilling societal end/goal. J.S. Mills, later on,
pronounced that individual should have freedom of thought, expression, belief
and complete autonomy on his action till it does not harm others. These ideas
became core to liberalism which gained momentum through French and
American revolutions; both of them took up the idea of liberty and equality.
Liberalism helped the emerging Bourgeois class to break free of Monarchs and
feudal lords and establish liberal democracy which helped them become the chief
political arrangement in the modern period.

47
 Liberalism is not only the oldest political ideology it is also the most potent,
prevalent, and resilient (hardy, strong) one. Representative procedural
democracy- the most widespread form of government today- is backed by
liberalism and hence rightly called liberal democracy. Capitalism, free market,
voluntary transactions, and contracts, core of present global economic system,
have liberalism as its theoretical base. In social realm liberal way of life – reason,
nationality, tolerance, equality, and liberty- have been adopted by almost all
contemporary societies.
In fact, only socialism/communism based on Marxist ideology could challenge
the Juggernaut of liberalism. But after the demise of communism with fall of
USSR in 1990s, liberalism became the prime ideology guiding the socio-political-
economic life around the globe. Francis Fukuyama, an American political thinker,
even declared this as end of history and endpoint of humanity's sociocultural
evolution. But such assertions may not be correct.
Also, of late, liberalism has been facing growing challenges from new mode of
populist, nationalist, and emotive politics. In the later part of the answer, some of
these challenges shall be discussed.
In the next part of the answer, I will try to explain in brief the core thoughts of liberalism and
differences between the classical and modern (social or welfare) liberalism. Also, challenges
faced by liberalism shall be discussed.

Core Thoughts of Liberalism:

• Individual Autonomy:
• Individual is master of his fate and destiny. In his acts he is not answerable to
any authority till his acts does not harm others.
• Individual has to right to free will. He is free to think and act on them till the act
is not harming others. No one, not even the society/state can enforce its will on
individuals.
• Individuals are end in themselves. They cannot be treated as means/medium
for societal or state purposes/goals.
• Nature of individual:
• Individuals have God or nature gifted sense of reason and ability of
perfectibility, that is, they can continuously improve their moral goodness to
become perfect human being.
• Each individual has right to choose his conception of good life:

48
 • Individuals are reasoned, rational, and self-interested. They are capable of
deciding what is good life for them. Society/state has no right to tell individuals
what way they should live life.
• Moral Primacy of individual against claims of society, state, or any organised
authority
• Rights of liberty, life, property are natural, inviolable (sacrosanct), and prior (coming
before) to society and state. Society/state cannot take away these rights.
• Egalitarian: Each individual has equal moral worth. Hence, they have equal rights.
• Universalism: moral unity of human being. Human beings, anywhere in world, are
essentially one. Humanity is unbroken chain. Hence human rights are universal. Rights
to individuals cannot be cut in the name of specific culture, and social norms and
traditions.
• Meliorism: there is no perfect society/state/political arrangement. Social institutions
and political arrangements can be continuously improved by human efforts.
• Property Rights: Right to property is non-negotiable. Individuals have absolute right
on their mind and body and whatsoever they earn by just means using their faculties
(mind, body). State has no right to take way individual’s property in the name of
distributive justice or for any other purpose.

CLASSICAL VS MODERN LIBERALISM:

These two main strands of liberalism vary on the differing views of role of state vis –
a- vis individual autonomy. Classical liberalism grants minimal role to state; just to
maintain law and order to protect rights of life, liberty, property, dispense justice, and
defence. Thus, in classical liberalism, state is necessary evil. Modern liberalism, on
the other hand, allows greater role of state in ensuring distributive justice. Taxing rich
to provide benefits to poor was accepted by modern liberal thinkers such as John Rawl
and J.S.Mills. Thus, modern liberalism allows for a welfare state and social democracy.
Following table depict the differences in these two strands of liberalism.

Point of Classical liberalism Modern (positive or

difference welfare) Liberalism

Role of state Minimal- state necessary evil Wider role-a kind of welfare state

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 Universality Universal unity of human, Accepts multi-culturalism, group
universal human rights rights, identity
Greater allowance for socio-
cultural contexts

Nature of Negative Liberty: Freedom More towards Positive Liberty-

Liberty from constraints freedom to have capability to do
desired things

Property rights Non-negotiable; fundamental Accepts principles of distributive

right justice; state may form policies for
greatest advantage of poorest one.

Govt/state should not infringe

this right in the name of
justice.

Prominent Classical liberalism: John J.S.Mills- Ethical Utilitarianism,

Thinkers Locke- natural rights, Adam champion of liberty- harm
Smith, Thomas Paine principle
John Rawls- theory of justice
T.H.Green: Welfare state
Neo-liberalists Hobhouse, J.Laski, R.H.
(Libertarians): Friedrich Tawany
Hayak, Milton Friedman,
Robert Nozick

Contemporary challenges faced by liberalism:

Inherent Contradictions: Of late, Liberalism has been facing many dilemmas and
challenges due to its inherent contradictions. Since liberalism evolved as political
ideology in 17th century through the writings of Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Mills,
etc. it suffered from dilemmas, dichotomies, and contradictions. Hobbes created the
contradiction of egoistic individualism and absolutism; Locke made property rights
sacrosanct. This created dichotomy of propertied and property-less class, which
subsequently was picked up Karl Marx as major social ailment of the capitalist social
order.

50
Issues with Liberal democracy and free market economy: Liberalism became the
ideology behind liberal representative democracy and free market capitalism.
Challenges and limitations of both representative democracy and capitalism were
linked to deficiencies or minuses of liberalism as political thought. Many criticized
liberal democracy as nominal or notional democracy. J.S.Mill derided it by calling it
two-step shifted democracy. Many charged it as elite rule in the name of democracy.
Capitalism was criticized as inherently exploitative and oppressive system in which a
small propertied capitalist class exploits the property less labour class.
Dichotomy of Public vs Private: Feminist thinkers pointed the dichotomy of private
and public in liberalism. They pointed out the hypocrisy in liberal thought which talked
about rights, justice, and equality but denied these to women in marriages and family.
Liberalism kept women confined to private domain. Standard of morality and
normative values were kept different for private and public/political domains.
Liberalism is also associated with colonialism, racism, and cultural hegemony. Most
of the colonizing nations were guided by liberalism. Liberal thinkers tried to justify
colonialism as civilizing mission- white man’s burden to civilize the barbaric people of
colonies. Even after de-colonization, racism, cultural hegemony, and xenophobia
continued in so called liberal nations. These social ailments were manifestations of the
hypocrisy and contradictions of liberalism.
Inability to bring global peace: Immanuel Kant gave the concept of perpetual peace,
which was later on developed as ‘Democratic Peace Theory’ within the liberal doctrine.
But this theory was busted when two devastating world wars took place largely among
democratic nations. This harmed the reputation of liberalism as harbinger of peace and
cooperation.
Liberalism was based on negative concept of liberty and rights. It supported limited
state which does little interference in socio-economic matters. Liberalism gave
preference to individual rights over societal common good. This was criticized as
undermining community life. Liberalism created atomistic and possessive
individualism, nuclear family, and anomie social life.
Formal equality of opportunity: Liberalism supported formal equality of opportunity.
This was criticized as lip service to equality. Equality of opportunity in liberal nation
means unequal are treated equals. Hence, liberalism was criticized for merely talking
of normative values of liberty, right, and equality without believing in their substantive
forms.
Unequal and unjust neo-liberal globalization: In contemporary times, liberalism is
linked to globalization. Many consider globalization as worldwide expansion of neo-
liberal ideologies in politics and economy. Globalization has increased the inequality
of wealth & income distribution at global level. It has increased the gap between the
‘have’ and ‘have nots. Liberalism as the supporting ideology of globalization has to
take the criticism associated with unequal and unjust globalization.

51
 Liberal values imposed on other cultures: In recent times, liberalism’s focus on
human rights, human security, and human development is criticized for using these
values as instruments for domination of western liberal world over the culturally diverse
3rd world. In the name of human rights USA has waged wars, de-stabilized legitimate
Governments, and imposed economic sanctions. Liberal developed nations have used
development and modernization as tools for their imperial aspirations.
Global Justice: Liberalism’s inability to expand the concept of justice to global level
also dented its reputation. Great liberal thinker, such as, John Rawl also failed to
appreciate the concept of global justice. It also gave only lip service to the idea of
cosmopolitanism. Still, in liberal thought, rich nations are not duty bound to share their
spoils/richness with poor nations. Rawl’s difference principle is not applicable at global
level.
Eurocentrism: Since beginning, liberal thinkers considered social values and norms of
western culture as normal, standard, and ideal. To them, non-European societies lacked
proper history and civilisation. In fact, liberalism justified colonialism as ‘civilisation
mission’. In contemporary times also, as stated above, liberalism try to impose norms
and values of western culture on other cultures, especially of the 3rd world.
Because of all the above-mentioned negatives and minuses, of late liberalism, despite
being the sole dominant political ideology, is facing stiff challenge in contemporary
times. This is giving rise to passionate and militant nationalism, and populism. These
emerging political trends draw inspiration from political thoughts of Plato, Rousseau,
and Hegel. In contrast to liberalism, the nationalist and populist regimes promote
positive liberty, positive rights (tilted towards societal common good),
communitarianism, and cultural relativism. Growing popularity of such populist
regimes world over is evidence of stiff challenges faced by liberalism in contemporary
world.

Conclusion:
Liberalism has been the oldest as well as most enduring political doctrine
followed in the modern era. In fact, except Socialism/Communism almost all other
political ideologies, such as conservatism, social democracies, anarchism,
feminism, etc., share some common roots to liberal ideology. Liberal Democracy,
welfare state, capitalism and free market economy, and social life based on liberty,
equality, and justice, the dominant practices in political, economic, and social
affairs in world today are all linked to liberalism. In sum, liberalism is the prime
political ideology of the contemporary political life anywhere in world.
Its core themes are individual autonomy, liberty, and limited power to society/state
vis-à-vis individuals. It believes in the rational faculty of individuals who can
decide on their own conception of ‘Good Life’. Society/state are to follow the wills

52
 of individuals and not to impose its will on the individuals. Right to life, liberty,
and property are natural rights and state/society cannot take way these rights.
However, with changing times and contexts liberalism adopted many new values
which made it most acceptable ideologies across various cultures and political
arrangements. Toleration, justice as fairness, acceptance of group identities, and
multi-culturalism are some of the values now part of the liberal doctrine. Its ability
to internalize new values and ideas makes it more resilient and acceptable despite
growing challenges from cultural relativism, nationalistic and populist politics.

Q.2: Write short note on different strands of Liberalism.

Liberalism, as a political ideology, came into the fore during 17th century Europe. It
was a strong counter to feudal political system that placed authority in the hands of
churches, feudal lords, monarchs, and Emperors. Its central theme was the freedom and
autonomy of individuals rather than central authorities. Individuals have natural rights
of life, liberty, and property, which no central authorities can take away. Society or state
cannot decide what is good or desirable goals for the individuals. Individuals are free
to decide their own conception of good life.
Liberalism was the political dimension of rising influence of Bourgeoise class
(professionals, traders, entrepreneurs) in western Europe. Liberalism denoted the end
of feudal social order and rise of the capitalism. The reformation movement, scientific
and industrial revolution, Enlightenment, etc. were the engines of Liberalism. It became
the political arm of the capitalist social order.
Liberalism was brought into the mainstream of political ideologies by the writings of a
number of original thinkers such as Adam Smith, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Thomas
Paine, Immanuel Kant, etc. French and American revolution firmly established
Liberalism as the main political ideology of the modern era. Liberal democracy and
capitalism-free market economy became its political and economic pillars.
Above is the account of Classical Liberalism. Modern Liberalism (also called
positive or welfare Liberalism) and Conservatism emerged from Classical Liberalism
in the early 20th century. Social or modern Liberalism focused on having the
government still manage much of the economy, but with more social freedoms. It gave
more role to state in management of economic and social affairs. Modern Liberalism
supported progressive taxation (more tax to rich), distributive justice, and welfare state.
Conservatism focused on the state/government upholding traditional social norms, but
allowing economic freedoms—especially regarding the use of free markets. It
supported low taxes. Thus, conservatism agreed with classical Liberalism on economic
matters but differed on social norms, traditions, which were sacrosanct in conservative

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 ideologies. It believed in collective wisdom, society as organic whole, and gradual
social changes.
Libertarianism is a strong form of Classical Liberalism that believes that individuals
should be left alone—without much influence from state/government, and that personal
responsibility is the most powerful ingredient of success in human life. Strong
Libertarians believe the government should stay out of both social and economic issues.
Stronger form of Libertarianism comes very close to Anarchism. It negates any kind of
authority over individuals. Libertarians believes that markets and not state should
decide economic issues. Thus, it believes in free self-regulated market replacing State.
It also opposes progressive taxation and any attempt on part of the state/govt to re-
distribute income and wealth (distributive Justice). Thus, in a nutshell, Libertarianism
is extreme individualism.
The difference between Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism is that Classical
Libertarianism was a reaction against theocratic (dominance of religion in politics),
monarchies, oppressive aristocratic rule, and feudal social structure, whereas
Libertarianism is more of a reaction to a bloated and overreaching government and
welfare state.
The difference between Classical Liberalism and modern Liberalism is that
Classical Liberalism wanted to reduce the role of state/govt and focus on individual
freedoms, while modern Liberalism is aggressive progressivism that advocates for the
use of the government to accelerate progress towards fairness and equality, that is,
distributive justice and welfare state.

Q.3: Write a short note on challenges to liberalism as political ideology.

(note: answer to this question is also included in answer to question at page 44)
Answer Template

Challenges to Liberalism:
Despite Liberalism becoming the most widely accepted, and most resilient (robust)
political ideology across the globe, it faces many challenges mainly due to some
inherent contradictions. Some of the challenges are:
o Eurocentrism: Since beginning, liberal thinkers considered social values and
norms of western culture as normal, standard, and ideal. To them, non-European
societies lacked proper history and civilisation. In fact, liberalism justified
colonialism as ‘civilisation mission’. In contemporary times also liberalism try to
impose norms and values of western culture on other cultures, especially of the 3rd
world.

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In recent times, liberalism’s focus on human rights, human security, and human
development is criticized for using these values as instruments for domination of
western liberal world over the culturally diverse 3rd world. In the name of human
rights USA has waged wars, de-stabilized legitimate Governments, and imposed
economic sanctions. Liberal developed nations have used development and
modernization as tools for their imperial aspirations
o Possessive Individualism: As MacPherson said, Liberalism promote
Possessive Individualism, perverted form of individualism which is based on
unlimited freedom to material possession. This is giving rise to competitive,
atomistic, and conflictual social order. Excess material possession of few stand side
by side of vast majority struggling to meet their basic needs.
o Equality in political/public vs inequality in personal/private: Liberalism
created dichotomy of public vs private; political vs personal. It granted political
equality and rights but denied equality and rights to women, and poor in
private/personal domain. Hence, many (especially feminists) criticize Liberalism to
have equality above and inequality, injustice below. As Mary Wollstonecraft, the
feminist thinker, said, Liberalism has two dimensions of Rights. First dimension is
struggle for equal rights in political domain for the Bourgeois class ( in comparison
to aristocratic class) and second dimension is right of men over women in personal
domain.
o Liberalism changed the meaning of Democracy: Liberal Democracy robbed
the very essence of Democracy as self-rule or govt by the people, for the people, of
the people. The representative Democracy is only a nominal Democracy, as stated
by Gandhiji. Mills called it two-step shifted Democracy. Not the people, but a
minority of people’s representative govern on the name of people. As Rousseau
said, People are free only at the time of voting, thereafter they become passive
onlooker and are ruled by others. Many criticize liberal Democracy as elite rule in
the name of Democracy.
o Liberalism gave rise to political organisation of territorial nation-state.
Many critics, such as Gandhiji and Tagore, consider modern nation-state as
mechanical, soulless, amoral, violent organisation of power.
o Liberalism supports negative form of Liberty, equality, and Rights. Liberty
means absence of constraints. Equality is simple equality of opportunities. Rights
is legal and mechanical. Critics of Liberalism prefer positive conception of these
normative political values. They point out the hypocrisies of Liberalism which
protect liberty and rights of privileges/entitled minority leaving vast majority- poor
masses to struggle for their basic needs. As Isiah Berlin said, for those who are
hungry and spend nights on footpaths negative liberty and right are meaningless.
o Capitalism is economic face of liberalism. As Marx revealed, capitalist social
order is exploitative, inequal, and unjust. Liberalism’s excessive faith in market is

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 making social life mechanical and materialistic. Market mediated social relations
are based on calculation of economic or materialistic gains/loss.
o Failure to realize Global Justice: Liberalism’s inability to expand the concept
of justice to global level also dented its reputation. Great liberal thinker, such as,
John Rawl also failed to appreciate the concept of global justice. It also gave only
lip service to the idea of cosmopolitanism. Still, in liberal thought, rich nations are
not duty bound to share their spoils/richness with poor nations. Rawl’s difference
principle is not applicable at global level.
o Unequal and unjust neo-liberal globalization: In contemporary times,
liberalism is linked to globalization. Many consider globalization as worldwide
expansion of neo-liberal ideologies in politics and economy. Globalization has
increased the inequality of wealth & income distribution at global level. It has
increased the gap between the ‘have’ and ‘have nots. Liberalism as the supporting
ideology of globalization has to take the criticism associated with unequal and
unjust globalization.
o Inability to bring global peace: Immanuel Kant gave the concept of perpetual
peace, which was later on developed as ‘Democratic Peace Theory’ within the
liberal doctrine. But this theory was busted when two devastating world wars took
place largely among democratic nations. Liberalism is also criticized for its linkage
with two world wars. Most of the nations involved in the war were adherents of
liberal ideologies. This harmed the reputation of liberalism as harbinger of peace
and cooperation.
o Liberalism is also linked to Colonialism and imperialism. Many critics view
Colonialism and imperialism as expansion of capitalism in search of new markets,
sources of cheap labour and raw materials. In fact, liberalism justified colonialism
as ‘civilisation mission’ and ‘White man’s burden’ to help their backward brethren
of 3rd World.

Because of all the above-mentioned negatives and minuses, of late liberalism, despite
being the sole dominant political ideology, is facing stiff challenge in contemporary
times. This is giving rise to passionate and militant nationalism, and populism. These
emerging political trends draw inspiration from political thoughts of Plato, Rousseau,
and Hegel. In contrast to liberalism, the nationalist and populist regimes promote
positive liberty, positive rights (tilted towards societal common good),
communitarianism, and cultural relativism. Growing popularity of such populist
regimes world over is evidence of stiff challenges faced by liberalism in contemporary
world.

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Q.4: Evaluate Foundational Principles of Marxism. Is Marxism relevant in
contemporary times? Give reasons
Answer Template:
Introduction:
Essence of Marxism is Dialectical Materialism and how this is creating social structure
ridden with class division, conflict and alienation in capitalist society. Marxism believe
that material condition of life determines our consciousness, idea, identity. We perceive
our identity, status, and role in the society from our relations of production. Whether
one controls the means of production (capitalist class) or sell his labour power (labour
class) determine his/her identity, role, status. Economic structure, that is, the mode and
forces of production form base or foundation of the society over which superstructure
– politics, laws, culture, art, language, etc- is situated. The economic base determines
the societal superstructure. Thus, political and legal system, art & craft, language and
literature, etc. all are determined by the mode and forces of production.
State, being part of the superstructure, has only limited autonomy from the economic
structure or the ‘Base’. Marxism view state as political organisation for protecting and
furthering the interests of the capitalist class. This is the instrumental view of the state.
Thus, Marxism views socio-political order, power relations, and social exploitation and
domination from the lens of class and its position in the economic structure of the
society.
Dialectical historical materialism denotes progression (change towards better/higher)
dialectically- by constant struggle between two contradictory elements present in the
mode of production. Mode of production consists of forces of production (factory,
machines, technology, tools) and relation of production- how those producing these
products relate socially-the class system. Marxism views history of human cavillation
as progression through changes in mode of production through class contradiction and
class struggle. Thus, in Marxist view the history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggles.
Another foundational principle of Marxism is the theory of Surplus Labour Value, and
alienation. To Marx, Capitalist Class does not pay a part of values generated by labour-
power; which is called profit, but for Marx, it was theft.
Capitalist mode of production and resultant social arrangements alienate workers from
their product of labour, from the act of production, from fellow human being , and from
species-being (from essence of being human), that is, from himself. This makes the
worker un-free, he feels like bonded labourer.
Finally, Marxism recommends ending class exploitation, alienation, and bondage
through revolutionary changes in social production (mode of production) in which each
individual contribute freely as per his ability, without any compulsion, constrain,

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 coercion and relate to fellow man as equal. This was the vision of classless, stateless
community living in complete freedom in which each one contributes as per one’s
ability and get as per one’s need. To Marx, mere political freedom, by political equality
and rights, will not lead to human freedom.
Above are the foundational principles of Marxism. In the next section of the answer, I
will try to present some critiques of Marxism and also discuss about its relevance in
contemporary world.

Critique of Marxism:
Following are some of the critiques of Marxist ideologies by some prominent modern
political scientists, including some other general criticism.
• Karl Popper ( in his ‘Open Society and Its Enemies’) criticized Marx on several
counts
• His theories not scientific as they couldn’t be falsified- they were like
ideologies, in which reasons are short circuited after a point.
• No universal grand theory, such Marxist historical materialism, can explain
and predict human history.
• His social engineering by violent revolution negated natural and peaceful
piecemeal social progression
• His ideas of socialism/communism undermined individual autonomy
• Isiah Berlin- multiple conception of good life and multiple values may co-exist in
society- Marx negated this by superimposing his way of societal Good and universal
value.
• He left out history of societal progression in Asia, Africa, and other non-
European societies. His theory is highly Eurocentric. He ridiculed mode of
production in India and Asia by terming it ‘Asiatic mode of production’ which
didn’t fit in his theoretical scheme.
• Most of his predictions failed; couldn’t foresee totalitarianism in
Socialism/communism, resilience and quality of improvement of capitalism, power
of democracy and welfare state. To Marx, advanced industrial and capitalist nations
would witness proletariat revolution in the first phase. Against his prediction,
communist revolution happened in Russia and China, both having predominantly
agrarian economy at the time of revolution. Subsequently also, majority of nations
adopting communism had not witnessed advanced industrial development.
• Couldn’t provide finer details of his communist society- like a good physician to
diagnose the illness but poor in prescribing medicines.

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 • To many critics, he dissected the deficiencies and contradictions of 19th century
capitalism; those are of little relevance in today’s globalized world.
• Other criticism: Economic determinism, undermining the ‘superstructure’-
politics, art, culture, utopic radical ideas. Gramsci attempted to rectify this by
placing the civil society in Superstructure and asserting that real game of dominance
is played in the arena of civil society. excessive focus on class undermined other
identities- race, gender, caste, disability, sexuality; etc.

Relevance of Marxism in Contemporary world:

With the disintegration of USSR and demise of communism from Russia and Eastern
Europe many critics declared death of Marxism. But on closer scrutiny we may feel
that Marxism as an idea is even more relevant today then in Marx's time. Marxism as a
political theory has two components. First, a critical dissection of the problems of
capitalist socio-economic order, and second, vision of a post-capitalist
socialist/communist society. Relevance of its first component has remained intact,
rather has increased. However, relevance of its second component
(socialism/communism) might have diminished.
Marxism is the best explanation of capitalism and its contradictions, conflicts, and
crises. Today's world is engulfed by the neoliberal capitalism in the form of
liberalisation, privatisation, and globalisation. Marxist explanation of recurrent crisis in
capitalism because of its inherent contradictions is manifesting in a series of economic
and financial crisis the world faced in last two decades; some of these are the 1997–
98 Asian financial crisis, the dotcom Bubble Burst in year 2010, sub-prime lending
crisis in 2008, financial crisis in 2011 and the recent crisis world over on subsidy in
farming sector.
With the rising unrest among industrial workers, consumerism, and commoditisation,
alienation theory under Marxism is becoming even more relevant today. The alienation
is now spreading to white collar knowledge workers in ICT sector- software, call centre,
BPO, etc.
Contemporary political activists and thinkers all over the world including India got
inspired by Marxist ideas of human emancipation, socio-economic equality, and vision
of a classless society. In India, great political thinkers of modern era from Lohia to
Ambedkar and Gandhi to Nehru all were influenced by Marxism in one way or another.
To Gandhiji, the real division of society is not of caste or religion or any other identity
but it was economic division between have and have-nots. This idea of Gandhiji was
directly influenced by Marxism.
Marxism gives an enduring idea that the real freedom is not political freedom but
freedom in socio-economic matter. When the human will be an equal partner in social

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 production then there would be real freedom, peace, and harmony in the society. For
such timeless idea, Marxism will be relevant always in all time to come.

Q.5: Describe the Marxist concept of alienation and its relevance in the
contemporary world.
Answer Template

Introduction:
Conception of Alienation as a condition of oppression arising from loss of control over
productive activity reflects radical humanism of early Marx. His theory of alienation is
contained mainly in his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Literarily,
Alienation means condition of disaffection, estrangement (separation), and viewing
anything as alien to which one is not able to associate with. If we are not able to relate
positively to anything, we are alienated from that thing.
For Marx, Alienation reflects the human condition in the capitalist mode of production.
Essence of being human is the ability of conscious, rational social production. Product
is extension of man’s existence & identity, his flourishment, release of energy,
cultivation of reason. In fact, the producer see himself in his product.
But exploitative relation of production and oppressive process of production rob all the
pleasure and fulfilment from the producers- the workers. For them their product
becomes alien to them. They cannot relate to their products. Thus, they are alienated
from the product. Not only the workers are alienated from the product, production
process, fellow workers but also he gets alienated from himself, from his sense of being
human. Capitalist mode of production reduces worker as small part of a giant machine-
cog in the wheel. Thus, alienation denotes de-humanization of man as machine.
It is not that only workers face the condition of alienation, capitalist class, too,
experience alienation. Market mediated exchange relationships alienate them from
themselves, their family, and larger social ecosystem. Marx explained how even
marriages, family, and social relationships for capitalist class reduces to being means
to further their economic interest. However, they are able to cope up with feeling of
alienation because of belonging to the dominant class, passion of generating profit and
wealth, and other materialistic possessions and comforts.
In the next section of the answer, I will explain in brief Marx’s conception of alienation and
four types of alienations outlined by him.

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How Capitalist Mode of Production Alienate the Working Class?

• In pre-capitalist mode of production, producer owned and controlled the produce; he

could relate to his produce. Dominant class, the feudal lords, used to take away his
produce politically (tax) or by force/violence. But such political or coercive exploitation
could not alienate the producers from his products. Also, he had social relation
obligation and rights with the dominant class. In case of any emergency, the feudal lord
was expected to help the peasant/worker. In return the peasant was to fulfil his
obligations of subordination and consent to the lord.
• Thus, in pre-capitalist mode of production, the producers were integral part of the
productive system and also had some control over the production process. They also
had social bond with their exploiters, the dominant class.
• Because of this, the producers were neither alienated from their produce/product nor
from the production process. They had antagonist relation with the dominant class, but
they were not alienated.
• In capitalism, worker has no social bond of obligation with the capitalist class; he is
free to sell his labour to anyone; except paying market determined wages, capitalist
class has no obligation to labour class.
• Labourer sell his labour power at market rate to the capitalist. Thereafter, his labour
power and products produced from those labour power are owned by the capitalist.
• In capitalist mode of production, labourer/worker becomes a commodity, as his labour-
power is purchased at exchange value of labour. Also, he loses ownership of his labour
and products produced by embodying his labour.
• Thus, capitalist owns the labour, extract more value from it than he paid (use value of
labour more than its exchange value), do not pay part of the labour and keep them as
profit. Therefore, exploitation of labour is done economically.
• Because division of labour, specialisation, worker loses sense of his product. For
example, a worker in car assembly line fitting a part of the car cannot relate with the
car in which his labour is embodied. He becomes alienated from his product.
• Alienation from his product increases because most of the time the worker is not able
to afford to purchase his own product at exchange rate. He is no longer able to see
himself in his product. The product becomes alien, unknown to him.
• Producing for someone else, on other’s terms & condition, oppressive production
process on which he has little control, all these de-humanize the labour. The man
becomes machine- cog in the wheel. This condition alienate worker from the production
process.

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 • Labourer becomes commodity, exchangeable, easily displaced, compete with fellow
workers to get job. This alienates workers from fellow workers.
• Thus, capitalist mode of production alienates workers from his product, production
process, fellow workers, and from himself.

4 Types of Alienation outlined by Marx:

Following are the four types of alienation identified and outlined by Marx:

1. Alienation from product of labour

• Product belongs not to the worker but to the employer- the capitalist class.
• Worker produces small part of product, cannot relate with the whole product.
• Cannot afford to own the product made by him.
• All this alienate worker from his product.
2. Alienation from the act of production, labour process
• worker feels free and of his own only in eating, drinking, sleeping, which are
functions common to all animals.
• Productive work at the work place, which is essence of his human function,
becomes forced labour, bondage and is experienced by the worker as suffering.
3. Alienation from species-being (Gattungswesen in German)
• De-humanization of the worker- man becoming machine
• Capitalist production system denies them something which is their due as
human beings
4. Alienation of man from man
• Market mediated Human relation
• All relation for instrumental value, people as object, as means to gain economic
benefits.
• This alienates worker from his fellow workers, from his relatives, and ultimately
from himself.

Relevance of the concept of Alienation in the contemporary world:

Perhaps the concept of Alienation is more relevant today than it was during Marx’s
times. After demise of USSR, capitalism has engulfed the entire globe. No other

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 alternative economic system is there to check its spread. Even the erstwhile communist
bloc nations have adopted capitalism and free market economy.
Globalisation toady is nothing but worldwide spread of neo-liberal capitalist system.
Consumerism and commodity fetishism is affecting our life. What MacPherson called
‘the possessive individualism’, has made human life more and more materialistic.
Income inequality is rising. Gap between the ‘have’- capitalist and ‘have not’-labour is
widening.
In this scenario, the labour class, which now include white collar workers such as IT
engineer, software professional, e-commerce workers, etc. are facing alienation with
even greater intensity. Normlessness, aloofness, feeling of void, and loss of purpose is
commonplace phenomena among today’s young work force. This is reflected in rising
trend of alcoholism, and suicide among the younger generation of workers in industry,
e-commerce, service sector. This is what sociologist Emile Durkheim termed as
ánomie’- atomistic, normless, value less industrial life.
Alienation is essentially the theory of loss of freedom and sense of being human. Both
these feelings are on rise today in every walk of life. Even the farming sector is facing
the condition of alienation. Capitalism has made a deep inroad into farming sector.
Under the contract farming system, farmers feel bondage like industrial worker.
Exploitation of farmers by the traders, middlemen, and agri-factories (such as sugar
mills) are increasing alienation in them. Rising suicide among farmers may be
manifestation of the alienation in farming sector.
We can experience alienation in almost all life situations in today’s capitalist and
globalised world. Even students are feeling alienated from their course curriculum.
Education, instead of becoming enjoyable pursuit of knowledge, is becoming
mechanical rote learning to compete in the capitalist job market. Hence, the concept of
alienation is very much relevant in in the contemporary world.

Conclusion:
The theory of alienation represents the radical humanism in the thoughts of early Marx.
His ultimate aim was freedom of human from the bondage of social arrangements
arising from his material condition of life. Alienation outlined by Marx is one of the
major social ailments in the capitalist society. later on, Emile Durkheim explained the
similar social problem by his concept of ‘anomie’- a sense of loss of value and
normlessness.
Alienation to Marx is a social problem in which the worker/producer is not able to relate
to his product, the production process, his fellow workers, and to himself. It is loss of
the sense of being human. The worker is dehumanized in the capitalist mode of
production.

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 The alienation also indicates market mediated social relation and materialistic human
relationship which convert the society into assemblage of self-interested rational
economic being. To Marx, unless there is fraternity, social solidarity, equality, and
dignity in social production process, human emancipation is not possible. Alienation
represented bondage, oppression, and unfreedom inherent in capitalist mode of
production, which inhibit (stop) human emancipation.

Q.6: Elaborate on the principles and themes of Anarchism. What is the

relevance of anarchism in the contemporary world?
Answer Template
Introduction:
Anarchism is a Political ideology proposing absence of any kind of formal authority in
managing individual and social affairs. It believes in organization of society on a
voluntary, cooperative basis without recourse to force, violence, or compulsion.
Anarchism considers nation-state as violent organization based on force and coercive
power. They believe in the moral capabilities of individuals to live in harmony with
others without the force and coercion of modern nation-state. In fact, in Anarchist
ideologies, state is unnecessary evil. It is not required for individual or social life.
Thus, political meaning of anarchism is opposite to its literal meaning. It is not chaos,
lawlessness, and disorder. It is peace, order, and harmony without any force and
compulsion of formal authority. Anarchism reject the notion of power as dominance of
one over other. For them, power is ability to create together, as also conceptualized by
Hannah Arendt.
Anarchism has been a very enticing and attractive political idea since beginning of
human civilization. Its vision of socio-political arrangements without any formal
authority, such as state have attracted attention of political thinkers of all ideological
spectrum- from extreme left (communism), to extreme right (libertarianism). This is
because anarchism denotes maximum liberty to individual self. It is the vision of
political community in which individuals are not subject to any force, compulsory laws,
policing, regulation, etc. It is the vision of classless, stateless, authority less society.
Many great political thinkers have supported anarchism in their political thoughts.
Marxist idea of class less, stateless communist society is a kind of anarchism.
Gandhiji’s idea of Swaraj was called enlightened anarchy, in which morally and
spiritually evolved individuals are able to manage community life without the formal
authority of nation-state. Gandhiji also believed that modern nation-state is violent,
soulless, and immoral political organization. Leo Tolstoy, the great Russian writer, was
a pacific(peaceful) anarchist. Extreme right ideologies of libertarianism which believes

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 in supremacy of market to regulate socio-economic relations and reject the need of state
is also part of anarchist doctrine.

Core theme of Anarchism:

• Virtuous Human nature
• Believes in moral goodness in human nature. Humans are able to manage
individual and social life without the force/coercion of formal authority
• State an unnecessary evil
• Modern State and its instructions represent coercive power & violence
• State limit individual freedom, inhibit exercise of free will, and imposes its own
will on individuals.
• Abolition of all formal hierarchical authority
• All formal hierarchical authorities are based on force, power, coercion.
• They all limit human freedom and free will.
• Accepts rational authority of experts
• No harm in obeying the rational authority of experts, philosopher guides,
morally evolved leaders.

• Moral authority of collective decision

• Collective decisions through consensus, equal participation, and on sound moral
ground.

Different Strands of political Anarchism:

• Philosophical
• No individual obligation or duty to obey state
• Individuals as free soul not obliged to offer political obligation to state/govt.
• Socialist
• Socio-economic equality and justice
• Rejects private property and capitalism
• Mutualism- helping each other, fraternity, social solidarity.
• Syndicalist
• Trade and labour union based society
• Peaceful- Pacific Anarchism
• State as organised violence

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 • Social order based on peace, love, non-violence
• Tolstoy- law of love; Gandhiji- Hind Swaraj- communities of community like
oceanic circle in which individual is in the Centre; much less dependence on
state/govt- Enlightened Anarchism.
• Libertarian
• Free self-regulated market replaces state
• Extreme individualism
• Other strands: revolutionary, social, Green, Eco, Anarcho-feminism, religious,
national, analytical, Anarcho-Primitivism, etc

Criticism or Minuses of the Anarchist Ideologies

• Optimistic view of human nature
• Does not supported by historical evidence
• Human mostly behave in self-interested, competitive, and egoist manner.
• Utopic
• Could not be realized in large communities
• More like utopic bliss
• Idealism, not realistic.
• Divergent strands
• From extreme right to extreme left political spectrum
• Ideology lacks coherence, fragmented.

Conclusion:
Anarchism is of course idealism. It is very difficult to realise this idea in real world
situations. Its faith in the moral goodness of individual contradicts self-interested and
selfish behaviour of individuals in real life. This may be the reason that despite its
enduring charm of providing maximum freedom to individuals, it has remained utopic.
It couldn’t be realised, except in small experimental communities, anywhere in world.
But this does not discount its relevance in today’s world.
The rising trend of conflict and violence among nation-state make this idea even more
charming. As Gandhiji envisioned through his idea of Swaraj the community of morally
regenerated individuals can manage their socio-political affairs without the authority of
nation-state. He gave the vision of Gram Swaraj where in the village community would
be self-reliant, independent, autonomous Republic. Gandhiji's India would have been
composed of such autonomous village Republics in a form of ‘oceanic circles’ in which

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each larger circle is composed of many village communities making them all as an
integrated whole. Such communities of community sustain each other without any need
for coercive power of the state.
Therefore, the idea of managing socio-political arrangement without the force,
coercion, and violence of any formal authority like state it is still relevant. But humans
will have to find some practical ways to realise the vision contained in Anarchism. That
may require and new civilization based on moral goodness, altruism, and benevolence
of individuals and not the self-interested possessive individualism on which current
political arrangement of nation-state is based.

Q.7: Write an essay on historical and Intellectual evolution of

Conservatism. Also bring out its salient features and differences
between Conservatism and Liberalism.

Answer Template
Conservatism, as a political ideology, developed as a branch of classical
Liberalism in late 18th century. Like liberalism it believed in natural rights of
life, liberty, and property. Supported capitalism and free market economy.
Conservatism, like liberalism, advocated for minimalist state which interfere
least in the market operations. But on socio-cultural issues it adopted
conservative or traditionalist approach. Conservatism believed in upholding
traditional social norms, age old social customs, and cultural traditions.
Conservatism resists radical changes in established social norms, practices and
traditions. It rather favours small-step or gradual changes and improvements in
social orders. It believes in hierarchy, order, and well-established authorities.
In economic sphere, through conservatism is quite close to classical liberalism.
It favours free enterprise, private ownership, property rights, low taxation, etc.
It takes somewhat negative view of human nature. To conservatists, human
nature is imperfect. It is sinful, fickle, and emotive. Hence, centralised social
authority, such as state is required for maintaining social order, and preserving
ideas, institutions and traditions. It views society as organic whole, of which
individuals are integral part.
In a nutshell, in economic matters conservatism is quite liberal, supporting free
enterprise, private ownership, low taxation but on socio-cultural fronts it holds
conservative ideas.

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Brief account of historical and Intellectual evolution of Conservatism:
Conservatism evolved as a branch of liberalism, in late 18th century, from the
thoughts and writings of Irish British Philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke’s
‘Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)’, which was written to criticize
the French revolution contained the foundational principles of Conservatism.
Burke was critical of the revolution and wholesale changes brought about in
French society by it. Burke’s prediction that the social upheavals brought in by
the revolution might result into tyranny and totalitarianism turned correct. For
Burke, we not only inherit property but also the language, manners and morals,
social norms, and traditions. In his conservative view, political power is not a
license to rebuild society according to some abstract, untested scheme;
state/Government, as trustee of socio-cultural inheritance, are supposed to
maintain the social traditions and social order. Hence, Burke rightly can be
called philosophical father of Conservatism.
After Burke, French diplomat Joseph de Maistre, in early 19th century, gave his
extreme brand of conservatism, known as Latin conservatism. Maistre’s
writings were an important source of conservative thought in Spain, Italy, and
France in the first half of the 19th century.
Metternich, Austrian statesman and diplomat, was a dominating figure at the
Congress of Vienna, peace conference which gave ‘the concert of Europe’ in
1815 after the Napoleonic wars, was a noted Conservatist thinker. The concert
of Europe’ was based on conservative principles- traditionalism, legitimism
(hereditary monarchy as the only lawful rule); and restoration of monarchy. But
the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 dealt successive blows to Monarchy, and in
turn to Conservatism.
Rising numbers of middle working class and their less support to Monarchy and
traditional aristocracy forced Conservatism to search another attractive
ideology. Nationalism became that enticing ideology used by successive
Conservatist thinkers and regimes. Unification of Italy and Germany further
strengthened the nationalistic sentiments, which in turn supported
Conservatism. By the end of the 19th century, conservative parties throughout
Europe had adopted the nationalist strategy. But this also led to first world war.
In Britain, during 17th and 18th centuries, Conservatism was defended by the
Tories, a Parliamentary faction representing feudal lords, established merchant
classes, and the clergy. Subsequently, Tories became the Conservative party.
In USA, due to absence of any Monarchy and established aristocracy,
Conservatism could not develop separate ideology from liberalism. However,

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 slowly the Republican party took over many tenets of Conservatism in its vision
and policies.
After WWII, in mainland Europe, especially in Germany, Christian democratic
party became the chief flag bearer of Conservatism. In addition to preservation
of social customs and traditions, it added social welfarism and nationalism as
its core theme. This made them popular among masses, the poor people. In
many countries Conservatism polity acquired aggressive nationalism and
populism- the politics of ‘son of the soil’, against immigration, focussing on
local or true people, etc.
After demise of fascism, after WWII, and Socialism, after dissolution of USSR,
liberalism became the undisputed champion political ideology; victory of
liberalism was announcing as ‘end of the history’ by Francis Fukuyama. But
today liberalism is facing stiff challenge from its ‘half-brother’ Conservatism
which is making deeper inroads into polity of many countries as right-wing
populist politics. The combination of cultural nationalism, social welfare, and
protection of local dominant culture, tradition, and customs is becoming too
popular and potent for liberalism. Undoubtedly, Conservatism as political
ideology today is more popular and having more governing regimes than
liberalism.

Core themes of conservative ideology:

• Imperfect and imperfectible ( cannot be perfected) Human nature
o Humans are inherently immoral, sinful, fickle, and fearful. Hence, they
always seek safety, security and what is familiar, ready always to
sacrifice liberty for social order.
• Central authority and hierarchy required for social order
o To maintain social order central authority and hierarchy are required.
o Important role of state in maintaining social order and age-old customs,
and traditions.
o States are like trustee of inherited culture and social traditions. It is not
supposed to change age old customs, norms, and traditions by imposing
its own abstract ideas/vision.
• Preserving ideas, institutions and tradition
o Social traditions, norms, and practices are collective wisdom of
thousands of years of civilisation; hence they are like treasure trove.
Must be preserved.

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 o Each generation, as trustee of inherited culture and traditions, has the
moral responsibility to carry forward the age-old social customs and
traditions.
o Hence believes in established social hierarchies, order, and authority.

• Only gradual and calibrated change

o Radical change harmful for established social order. Such rapid change
may have unintended consequences for both individual as well as social
life.
o Hence, it believes in gradual change; this is what Karl Popper said’
’piecemeal social engineering’.
• Organic society
o Society is like living organism. Individuals are like its basic building
blocks, integral part.
o Just like organism, society need to maintain both internal and external
equilibrium.
o the individuals cannot exist outside society, they are 'rooted' in society,
and 'belong' to it.
• Accept inequality and class division as natural
o Like organism, society has parts/limbs having different sizes, roles,
functions. They are neither equal nor the same.
o Unity in diversity. Natural societies would be hierarchical and socially
differentiated.
o Artificially levelling wealth/income will rob liberty and would harm the
social fabric of society.
• Liberty as wilful social obligation, duty
o Conservatism view liberty differently than liberalism. Liberty is not
'leaving the individual alone to do whatsoever one desires', but is one
where there is willing acceptance of social obligations and ties.
o liberty is primarily 'doing one's duty to best of one’s ability and without
comparing about duties of others. It is similar to Justice as defined by
Plato.
o Will obedience of social norms, traditions, customs truly liberate
individuals. This is similar to how Rousseau and Kant defined liberty.

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 • Pragmatism
o Reject idealism. Support realist and pragmatic political ideologies.
• Anti-grand ideologies
o Reject grand theories and narratives such as Marx’s theory of historical
materialism.
o Normative political values- liberty, equality, justice, rights- are defined
and valid in the context of a particular society/community; thus,
Conservatism rejects universalism and supports cultural relativism.
o Truth lies in concrete experience than moral preposition. Truth in social
life is historically inherited rather than being an abstract idea.
o Thus, Conservatism supports empiricism and rejects rationalism.
• Strong supporter of private property, free market economy, and low
taxation.
o For conservatives, Property has deep and mystical significance. Property
can be thought of as an extension of an individual's personality. People
'realise' themselves, even see themselves in what they own.
o Conservatism believes in laissez-faire state, that is, state need not
regulate or control market.
o Since it rejects wealth/income distribution, hence Conservatism
advocates low taxation.

Conservatism vs Classical Liberalism:

Since conservatism has branched out of classical Liberalism, it would be interesting to see how
far has it moved from the latter. Before that let us see the commonality between them. Both
consider private property as sacrosanct and support protecting property rights. Both support
free market economy in which state/Government need to interfere least.
Following are the salient differences between the two:

Point of Conservatism Classical Liberalism

Difference

Human Nature Immoral, fickle, fearful, imperfect Somewhat positive views

nature of individual- they need about nature of individual-

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 authority and hierarchy to live safe, sense of reason and ability of
secure life. perfectibility
Individuals are autonomous,
master of their own fate.

Role of state State required for maintaining social State necessary evil
order

Individual vs Society is prior to individuals. Organic Individuals are prior to

Society view of society. Individuals are integral society. Society cannot impose
part ( like limbs) of the society, which its will on Individuals.
is like organic whole.

Rights vs Precedence of Societal common good precedence of induvial rights

Good over rights of individuals over duties and societal
common good.
Rights emanates from social duties.

Social Accept social differentiation and Believes in socio-political

Hierarchy hierarchies- takes them as natural equality

Resistance to Preserving ideas, institutions, social More liberal towards social

social change customs and tradition change, improvements of
ideas, institutions

Grand Rejects grand ideologies, universal Believes in grand ideologies,

ideologies and moral propositions universal moral propositions
theories Believes in small, gradual calibrated
change
Support cultural relativism

Basis of social Prudence, pragmatism, habit, reason, rationality, science,

decisions experience, traditions, better guide to logic, better guide to social
social decision decision

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 THEME 4: CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES IN POLITICAL
THEORY: FEMINIST AND POSTMODERN

4.A: Key Points:

Feminism
• Both a political movement and political ideology. It aims to analyse socio-
political phenomena from the gender lens to reveal gender discrimination,
exploitation and subjection of women, and suggest ways to restore gender
equality and gender justice.

Core ideologies:
• Sex Vs Gender
• Sex is biological but Gender is socio-cultural construct- ‘women are not born
but made’ (Simone de Beavoir)
• False binary notion of masculine and feminine attributes. Attributes associated
with female gender are valued less.
• Sexual division of labour, women’s labour valued less. Domestic labour of
women is not counted in GDP.
• Patriarchy, Capitalism, Aristocracy, caste system, church, organised religion, even
army and other social institutions allowed and helped men to subjugate and oppress
women.
• These structures of male power over female should be overturned
• Prominent Feminist Thinkers: Marry Wollstonecraft (a first generation radical feminist
who questioned false female manners), J.S.Mill ( wrote ‘Subjection of Women),
Simone de Beavoir (radical feminist), Shulamith Firestone(the Dialectic of sex), Kate
Millet( Sexual politics), Sheila Rawbatham (Marxist feminist).
• Feminist movement in four waves: following table list out the different strands of
feminism:

Feminist Important facts Main

wave thinkers/activists-
their contributions

1st wave • Also called Liberal Feminism • Marry

• Timeline: 19th & early 20th century Wollstonecraft:

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 • It demanded Equal rights for women in ‘Vindication of the
public sphere/political rights of women-
• Focus- education, job, equal pay, voting 1792’
rights, property rights, legal rights, • Fanny (Frances)
equality in marriage, family, society Wright
• J.S.Mills:
‘Subjugation of
women-1869’
• Harriet Taylor
• Raja Ram Mohan
Roy
• Pandita Ramabai-
‘the high caste Hindu
women’- 1887

2nd Wave • Also called radical feminism • Simone de Beauvoir:

• Timeline: 1960s-70s ‘the second sex’ –
women are not born
• Questioned socially constructed gender but made-1949
notions of masculinity and femininity,
patriarchy, and reproductive role • Shulamith Firestone:
‘The Dialectic of sex-
• Reshape society and restructure its 1970’
institutions
• Kate Millet: ‘Sexual
• Slogan- ‘Personal is political’; ‘women politics-1971’
are made, not born’
• Germaine
• Universal sisterhood, included Greer- ‘The Female
black/coloured women Eunuch’-1972

3rd • May be called post-modern feminism, eco- • Rebecca Walker-

Wave feminism, transfeminism, etc. ‘Becoming the Third
• Timeline: 1990s-2010 Wave’

• Demanded freedom to control their bodies • Eve Ensler- ‘Vagina

and their lives Monologues’

• Intersectionality- women experience • Amy Richards-

"layers of oppression" – caste, class, ‘Opting In’
colour, gender, race • Naomi Wolf- ‘The
• Fighting classism, racism, sexism by Beauty Myth’.
overturning the notions of gender, race,

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 class, and structure & symbols supporting • Susan Faludi-
them. ‘Backlash’
• Raised issues of violence against women, • Germaine Greer-
women's reproductive rights, sexual ‘The Whole Woman’
liberation, derogatory terms for women, • Carol Ann Duffy-
transgender rights, etc. ‘The World's Wife’

4th Wave • Timeline- since 2012 • Rebecca Solnit-

• Focus: focus on empowerment of women, ‘Men Explain Things
against sexual harassment, body shaming, to Me (2014)’
and rape culture, etc. • Jessica Valenti- ‘Sex
• Use of social media Object: A Memoir
(2016)’
• Me Too movement
• Laura Bates-
‘Everyday
Sexism (2016)’

Marxist Class and private property, and not gender • Friedrich Engles:
or discrimination, are the main issues ‘the origin of family,
Socialist Consider mainstream feminism as capitalist private property, and
Feminism or Bourgeoise feminism- limited to white state-1884’
women • Alexandra Kollontai-
‘Sexual relation and
the class struggle’
• Sheila Rawbatham:
‘Women, resistance,
revolution and
hidden form of
history-1943’
• Martha Nussbaum-
‘Sex and Social
Justice’

Post-modernism:
• Political thoughts guided by the worldview characterized by reaction to established
norms, values, and belief of modernism or age of enlightenment; mainly the belief that
truth doesn’t exist in any objective sense but is created (individually and socially) rather
than discovered.

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• Post-modernist thoughts affected the perspectives of historical, cultural, and linguistic
studies, art, architecture, anthropology, and political science.
Core Post-modernist Themes:
• A radical re-evaluation of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history,
or language
• No objective truth; Truth is subjective, created, and contextual
• Truth is multi-faceted, subjective (depends on the perspective of the
subject-individual searching truth), inter-subjective (truth as formed in
inter-personal social relation through communication, shared meaning-
making).
• Reject the possibility of universal, normative and ethical judgments; all these
norms, values are contextual, contingent upon given situation- time, place.
• Question binary and hierarchy of idea, belief, value system
• Such as good vs bad; masculine vs feminine- multiples shade exist
between such binaries.
• Written texts do not convey objective meaning or notion of truth
• Texts as "sites of conflict" within a given culture or worldview
• Believes in tolerance (appreciate other’s viewpoint/opinion), diversity of ideas,
norms, values, and choice- both in individual and social life.
• Rejects grand or meta-narratives.
• Prominent Post-modernist Thinkers: Jacques Derrida (deconstruction); Michel
Foucault: (power as normalisation of individuals to make them Governable); Friedrich
Nietzsche (Perspectivism: conceptions of truth depend on the perspective of the one
who is observing); Jean Baudrillard (consumerism, gender relations) ; Jean-François
Lyotard (mistrust of the grand narratives).

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4. B: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q1: “the personal is political”. Elaborate the statement in light of feminist

political theory.
Similar Question:
1. Describe in detail the feminist perspective in political theory.
2. Discuss the multiple strands of feminist political thoughts.
Ans Template:

Introduction:
Since beginning, private and public spheres were kept separate during the evolution
of the idea of the political, especially in liberal doctrine. Politics and political
activities were assigned only to the public sphere such as state, city, council,
government, etc. Civil society, family, markets, marriages, kinship, etc. were treated
as private or personal sphere and were kept away from the domain of politics. In this
view inter-personal relation between male and female, gender-based division of
labour in family and society, institution of marriage, patriarchy, etc. were considered
private or personal and hence out of purview of the political.
Liberal political thinkers, in search of ideal political arrangements, provided ideas of
social contract, democracy, liberty, equality, justice; but all these normative political
values were practiced only in public sphere, especially in political life. Private sphere
remained untouched of these reformist values. Feminist movement raised this
dichotomy of public and private, political and personal. In feminist view, claiming
equality in political domain but denying equality to women in personal domain is
plain hypocrisy of the liberal men. Slogan of Personal is political was to break this
false dichotomy of private vs public, and denying gender rights and justice in the
name of this.
First wave of feminist movement beginning late 19th century raised issue of equality
of women in public sphere. This was an extension of liberal political ideology.
However, the second wave of feminism, also called radical feminism, raised more
fundamental issue of nature and scope of the political. For them men’s domination
over women and oppressive nature of gender relation were political in nature.
Patriarchy, rules of marriages, laws of inheritance and child custody, social
construction of gender, sex- gender linkage, and lower values to attributes assigned
to female gender, etc all are part of political relation of female with men. Hence, they
gave the slogan ‘the personal is political’. This idea is now widely accepted and
have resulted into fundamental change in the way women’s issue are viewed

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 politically. This idea also gave way to new laws, equal rights and opportunities to
women in all walks of life, new perspective to study of political concepts, and also
whole lot of gender studies.
In the next part of the answer, I will try to summarise the core feminist ideologues, main strands
of feminist political theory, and their strength and weaknesses of the feminist movement in the
light of the statement “the personal is political”.

Core ideologies of the feminist ideologies:

• Personal is political: As stated above, in feminist view relationship between men and
women is political. Male dominance over female, patriarchal system, sexual violence,
exploitation and helplessness of women all are dimensions of skewed power relation
between men and women and hence are political in nature. Women’s exclusion and
fringe roles in public sphere is extension of their subjugation and sufferings in private
sphere. As Mary Wollstonecraft, the feminist thinker, said, Liberalism has two
dimensions of Rights. First dimension is struggle for equal rights in political domain
for the Bourgeois class ( in comparison to aristocratic class) and second dimension is
right of men over women in personal domain. The same right which the liberal men
desires in political life, he denies them to women in personal or private life.
• Sex Vs Gender distinction: Sex is biological whereas gender is socio-cultural
construct. Attributes such as nurturing, caring, empathy, service, tenderness, beauty,
etc were assigned to female sex; on the other hand, valour, strength, competitiveness,
rationality, achievement, etc were assigned to male sex. Assignments of different
attributes to male and female sex is not natural or biological, rather it is socio-cultural
construct. Not only male and female attributes are differentiated, attributes associated
with female gender were valued less. Even the jobs, such as domestic chores, caring,
etc., done by females are valued less. Feminists reject both the categorisation of
masculine and feminine attributes and their hierarchical relationship.
• Refuting the idea of Biological determinism: Feminists denounce the idea that
biology-genes, hormones, brain size, and other biological attributes determine one’s
behaviour and actions.
• Except lower physical strength, females are equal to man in all respect. Both have same
Gift of God- sense of reason and perfectibility. Men have monopolized
learnings/education denying women cultivating their sense of reason. This made them
intellectually weak and unfit for many public duties.
• Abolishing gender-role stereotypes: Females are assigned child rearing, caring,
services, household chores, and cooking whereas males earn, preserve and protect the

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 family. In feminist view such sexual division of labour is manifestation of male
dominance and exploitation of female.
• Patriarchy, capitalism, aristocracy, church, and even army and other social institutions
are constructed as per men’s world view and allowed men to oppress women.
• All structures of male power and dominance over female should be overturned

Main Strands (Schools) of Feminism:

• Liberal
• First wave feminism- late 19th century
• Core Theme: Equal rights to women within existing framework of liberalism
ideology. They demanded Equal rights for women in public sphere/political
• Extension of liberalism, ameliorative (capability for continuous improvement),
moderate, accepted private-public distinction and traditional role of women as
mother and household management.
• Focus- education, job, equal pay, voting rights, property rights, legal rights,
equality in marriage, family, society
• Chief Exponents: Marry Wollstonecraft, J.S.Mills, Betty Friedan, Carole
Pateman
• Radical
• Second wave feminism: mid twentieth century
• Core theme: Patriarchy is source of men’s power and root cause of women’s
misery
• Gave the slogan ‘Personal is political’ ; ‘’ women are not born but made’’
• Questioned hierarchical arrangement of masculinity and femininity,
reproductive and nurturing, caring role of women. Demanded reshaping society
and restructuring its institutions
• Raised issues of sexual and domestic violence, sexual exploitation of females,
beauty pageant, all forms of use and exploitation of female attributes
• Methods: Consciousness raising groups, Universal sisterhood, included
black/coloured women
• Prominent exponents: Simone de Beauvoir- ‘the second sex’, Shulamith
Firestone- ‘The Dialectic of sex’, Kate millet – ‘Sexual politics’ ;

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• 3rd wave Feminism:
• May be called Post-modern feminism, eco-feminism, transfeminism
• Timeline: 1990s-2010
• Demanded freedom to control their bodies and their lives
• Intersectionality- women experience "layers of oppression" – caste, class,
colour, gender, race
• Fighting classism, racism, sexism by overturning the notions of gender, race,
class, and structure & symbols supporting them.
• Raised issues of violence against women, women's reproductive rights, sexual
liberation, derogatory terms for women, transgender rights, etc.
• Prominent thinkers: Rebecca Walker- ‘Becoming the Third Wave’ ; Eve Ensler-
‘Vagina Monologues’ ; Amy Richards- ‘Opting In’; Naomi Wolf- ‘The Beauty Myth’;
Germaine Greer-‘The Whole Woman’

• 4th Wave Feminism

• Timeline- since 2012
• Focus: focus on empowerment of women, against sexual harassment, body
shaming, and rape culture, etc.
• Use of social media
• Me Too movement
• Prominent thinkers: Rebecca Solnit- ‘Men Explain Things to Me (2014)’ ; Jessica
Valenti- ‘Sex Object: A Memoir (2016)’ ;Laura Bates- ‘Everyday Sexism (2016)’

• SOCIALIST Strand
• Core Theme: Men derive power from systems of Capitalism and private
property and hence these are the root cause of women’s misery
• Class and private property, and not gender discrimination, are the main issues
• Consider mainstream feminism as capitalist or Bourgeoisie feminism- limited
to white women
• Commune living: no sexual division of labour.
• Prominent Thinkers: Friedrich Engels-‘the origin of family, private property,
and state’-, Alexandra Kollontai- ‘Sexual relation and the class struggle’ ; Sheila
Rawbatham: ‘Women, resistance, revolution and hidden form of history-1943’
;Martha Nussbaum-‘Sex and Social Justice’

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 • MANY OTHER STRNADS
• Post-feminist wave; contemporary feminist movement
• Black, Eco, Marxist, anarchist, revolutionary, cultural, multi-cultural, Dalit,
postmodern feminism , Transfeminism, etc
• Intersection of group, race, cultural identities and highly fragmented.

Achievements or Positives of the feminist perspective

• Raised fundamental question of sex-based discrimination and inequality.
• Revealed the sex- gender linkages, broke the dichotomy of Private vs Public- ‘personal
is political’, highlighted patriarchy as sexual politics, etc. changed the way politics is
conceived and practiced.
• The movement brought changes in laws, constitution, socio-political practices, and
greater equality of women at work place, family, and society. Study of all domain of
knowledge included feminist viewpoint on that subject.
• Gender budgeting, gendered view of development, gender justice, and gender equity
became commonplace policy. Gender study originating from the movement produced
invaluable academic and intellectual content for improvements in socio-political
arrangements.

Weaknesses or Minuses of the feminist perspective

• Fragmentation
• Multiple strands of feminism made its highly fragmented. Different strands
talked about different gender issues and different solutions. Unity of purpose
was lost. Aim of the movement became less focussed. Aim became anything
from gender equality to domination of female.
• Disregard to multiple identity
• In many cultures, gender identity intersects with other identities. For example,
in India caste is the primary identity. Problem of high and low caste women are
not same. In USA, colour may be the primary identity which intersects with
gender identity.
• Dis-regarding the identities based on race, colour, caste, class, etc, harmed the
interest of the feminist movement.
• Didn’t engage with men
• Except the liberal feminists, radical and other strands of the feminist movement
didn’t engage with men.

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 • Since, men are in positions of power, without invoking their consciousness,
success of feminist movement is suspect.
• Instead of equality and maintaining balance, advocated turnings every existing norm
upside down.
• Gap in theory and practice.

Conclusion:
Feminism raised most fundamental and difficult questions to the idea of the political.
It blurred the distinction between private and public, personal and political. This way it
extended the scope and dimensions of politics. Hitherto private or personal issues of
male dominance in marriage, family, and inheritance, women exploitation, patriarchy,
sexual division of labour, etc were started to be viewed as manifestation of male-female
power relation and hence included in the domain of the political. The feminist
ideologies and movement brought more sensitivities to women’s problems and became
successful in providing substantive equality to them in all walks of life.
But the movement could not realize their visions fully because of its inherent
weaknesses. It failed to realize the multiple identities which criss-cross the universal
female identity. This led to extreme fragmentation of the feminist theory and
movement. Not engaging with men and trying to upturn every existing socio-political
norm didn’t help its cause. All this obscured the vision of the movement and made it
weak.

Q.2: Write notes on Post-modernism as a critical perspective in Political

Theory.
Answer Template:
Post-modernism is a worldview characterized by reaction to established norms, values,
and belief of modernism or age of enlightenment. Main idea of Post-modernism is the
belief that truth doesn’t exist in any objective sense but is created (by individual, group,
or society) rather than discovered. In post-modernist thought what is claimed as
objective truth is nothing but looking at phenomenon from a particular perspective or
frame of reference. This is same as seven blind men find their truth of an elephant.
Thus, in this view, truth is linked to the subject, the observer and not something separate
from it to be discovered. To them, written texts do not convey objective meaning of
truth. Words in any language are self-referential, that is, they require other words in
that language to understand their meaning. In a nutshell, truth is subjective, created, and
contextual.

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 With such belief about multi-faceted subjective truth, post-modernism demand radical
re-evaluation of modern assumptions about culture, norms and values (liberty, equality,
justice), identity, history, language, etc. They reject the possibility of universal,
normative and ethical judgments. Post-modernist question binary and hierarchy of idea,
belief, value system. For example, binaries of good vs bad, moral vs immoral, peace vs
war, lord vs subject, masculine vs feminine, etc. In all these binaries, as Derrida said,
the first element is privileged, or considered prior to and more authentic, in relation to
the second.
Post-modernism believe in tolerance to other’s point of view as no one is holder of
objective truth. Your truth is yours not mine! It also believes in diversity and plurality
of choice.
Political thinkers adopting post-modernist approach to political theory reject grand
theories or meta-narratives, which are claimed to be universally applicable to all time
and places. They believe in developing theories in the context of a small specific
communities. Post-modern political theories are considered as critical theories, that is,
they are critical of the existing socio-political arrangements, prevailing norms, and
traditions. But they do not offer any grand solution, such as Rawl’s theory of Justice.
Post-colonial thinkers and their theories, feminist theories, de-constructivism, post-
structuralism, critical thinkers, etc. may be included under the post-modernist political
theories.

Criticism or Minuses of the post-modernist approach to political theory:

• Political theories using this approach are a kind of Sophism (hiding truth by sweet talk-
deception) or obscurantism ( hidden, difficult to understand)
• They are Difficult to understand
• Lack explanatory capabilities; they also are not capable of solving problems of
socio-political arrangements and orders.
• Beyond testability and falsifiable, hence, as Karl Popper said, they are
unscientific theories.
• By not believing in any objective truth and universal moral standards, such theories
adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge ( as said by Noam Chomsky).
• Many critics declare post-modernism as reflection of the disappointed revolutionary
generation after 1970s.

Some of prominent political thinkers who used post-modernist approach to

build their theories are:
• Jacques Derrida: deconstructing the language to understand meaning

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• Michel Foucault: Post-structuralist: Power as normalisation of subjects to
make them governable. He also revealed the nexus of knowledge and power,
both creating each other. Knowledge-power creates regime of truth as discourse.
• Friedrich Nietzsche: Perspectivism: conceptions of truth depend on the
perspective of the one who is observing the phenomenon.
• Jean-François Lyotard: mistrust in the grand or meta-narratives, universal
grand theories
• Jean Baudrillard: consumerism, gender relations

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 THEME 5: THE IDEA OF POLITICAL COMMUNITY:
POLITICAL OBLIGATION

5.A: Key Points:

Meaning of political community:

• Political community consists of all the people in a given geographical area under
a common system of government and laws. In other words, members of a given
political system constitute political community.
• Idea of political community is as old as human civilisation. The ideal state
mentioned in Plato’ Republic’ was a political community. Aristotle’s best
practicable state based on laws/constitution was a political community. In
modern period the Social Contract theories further gave shape to the idea of
political community.
• In the social contract theory of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, outcome of the
social contract is the political community or body politic. Individuals enter into
contract with each other and all to form the political community, in which they
vest their will, power, rights. In turn, the political community form govt, which
use the pooled or commonly funded power, to manage the socio-political order
of the community.
• Political community is organisation of power for political purpose. Political
authorities use this pooled or common funded power to maintain peace & order,
defence, and achieve common good of the community.
• In this sense, the political community is different from religious, professional,
and other socio-cultural communities. It is organisation and use of power
coercively for political purpose.
• In sum, political community is territorial, political and legal entity.

Political community vs nation and state:

• Political community is different from nation.
• Nation is an imagined community sharing cultural traditions. Whereas political
community is a territorial and legal entity. For example, Jews were the nation,
yet they were members of many different political communities.

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 • Thus, nation is cultural construct whereas political community is a legal
construct.
• Nation may not have their own sovereign govt. But political community have
their own government/state, which are sovereign.

Political community and state are not same:

• The state is a kind of legal instrument created by the political community for
organisation of power. Political community may survive even if the State collapse.
There are some acts which only political community can do to which is beyond the
purview the state.

Political Obligation:
• In the context of a political community, political obligation means the basis or
grounds on which the members of the political community should obey the laws
and commands of the Govt. or the ruler.
Grounds or basis of political obligation:
• Consent Theory
• By forming the political community, each member of it has consented to obey
the laws and commands of the Govt.
• Moral grounds
• As member of the political community, members have a moral obligation or
duty to obey the Govt. of the day.
• Fairness theory: Duty of Fair Play
• Members have taken benefits and gratitude by being part of a political
community. Hence they should offer political obligation.
• Cooperative social enterprise- such as obeying traffic rules; if one breaks the
rule, all break and the beneficial cooperative scheme will be broken. Hence, all
should obey the rules, law, and commands of the sovereign.
• Prudential or pragmatic reasons
• Utilitarianism: Govt’s laws/actions are morally right if it results into greatest
good to greatest numbers of persons. Hence, they should be obeyed.
• Consequential- avoiding punishment for breaking laws, command of the Govt.

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5. B: ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Write a short note on idea of Political Community. How is it different

from the idea of nation?
Answer Template

Introduction:
Political community, in its a minimal sense, is all the people in a given geographical
area under a common system of government and laws. In other words, members of a
given political system constitute political community. Idea of political community is as
old as human civilisation. The ideal state mentioned in Plato’ Republic’ was a political
community. Aristotle’s best practicable state based on laws/constitution was a political
community. In modern period the Social Contract theories further gave shape to the
idea of political community.
In the social contract theory of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, outcome of the social
contract is the political community or body politic. Individuals enter into contract with
each other and with all to form the political community, in which they vest their will,
power, rights. In turn, the political community form govt, which uses the commonly
funded power, to manage the socio-political order of the community. But the
sovereignty is vested in people represented by the political community.
Thus, Political community is organisation of power for political purpose. Political
authorities use this pooled or common funded power to maintain peace & order,
defence, and achieve common good of the community. In this sense, the political
community is different from religious, professional, and other socio-cultural
communities. It is organisation and use of power coercively for political purpose.
Robert Maclver, a Scottish sociologist, defined political community in 1930 as a
territorially rooted collective whose members hold the government accountable to them
in pursuit of common purpose. This sums up the idea of political community. Political
community of a given territory is the collection of persons within and outside of
government who recognises the government as the legitimate decision maker and for
that they generally comply with its laws and orders and cooperate towards achieving
shared goals. Being member of a political community provide some political rights,
which may not be available to the non-members.

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Features of the political community: Following are some of the distinguished
characteristics or feature of the political community:

• Political community is a legal entity. Its members, office bearers, and the
political community itself are bound by the constitution framed by the people
while forming the political community. As per the Social Contract theory, the
original contract between one and all and between the individual and the
community is the constitution by which all are bound.
• Laws framed by the political community reflect the general will of the members
of the community. The general will prevail over the individual will.
• Rights of individual’s vi-a-vis political community: since individual fund the
power of the political community the question arises as to what extent
individuals will give their rights or power to the community? Generally,
Individual retain some rights which are sacrosanct. For example, in the Social
Contract theory of Locke, the individuals retain the natural rights of life, liberty,
and property.
• Political authorities of the political community use commonly funded power
respecting the general will of the community and in accordance with rules and
principles laid down in the constitution of the political community.
• Stability of political community depends on underlying consensus on shared
purposes, rules protecting rights of its members, political obligations to the govt
by the members, and ways of peacefully resolving conflicts within the
community.
• Legitimacy of Govt.: Government discharge executive and legislative
functions on behalf of the political community. Consent of the members of
political community gives legitimacy to the Govt. But there should be robust
institutions and Judicial system to check abuse of the power by the Govt.
• Political obligation: Each member of the political community is obliged to
obey the laws and commands of the Govt. till they are as per the constitution
and doesn’t infringe upon their natural rights. Basis of political obligation is
consent while entering into the Social Contract to form the political community.
Since, the members of political community have consented to form the govt,
Hence, they are morally bound to offer their political obligation to the Govt.
• Right to dissent: members of the political community have the right to oppose
Govt’s laws and commands on some limited grounds. As per Hobbes, people
may dissent if Govt. fails to protect their lives, or take away their lives
unlawfully. Whereas people may dissent if the Govt takes away or fail to protect
their natural rights of life, liberty, and property, as per John Locke. Gandhiji

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 held the view that people, as member of a political community, have
fundamental right to oppose the unjust laws and commands of the govt.

Political community and state are not same: The state is a kind of legal instrument created
by the political community for organisation of power. Political community may survive even
if the State collapse. There are some acts which only political community can do to which is
beyond the purview the state.
Political community is not same as nation:
• Nation is an imagined community sharing cultural traditions. Whereas political
community is a territorial and legal entity. For example, Jews were the nation, yet they
were members of many different political communities.
• Thus, nation is cultural construct whereas political community is a legal construct.
• Nation may organise themselves into a political community to form nation-state.
• But nation may not have their own sovereign state/govt. But political community have
their own government/state, which are sovereign.
• Thus, within political community multiple nation may be found. For example, the
Roman empire was a political community including many nations. Same was with
Ottoman, Mughal, and many other empires in medieval times.

Q.2: Discuss the idea of political obligation in the context of political

community.
Answer Template

Introduction:
In its most basic sense, Political community is all the people in a given geographical
area under a common system of government and laws. In other words, members of a
given political system constitute political community. Political community is legal
entity. Both its members and political authorities are bound by the laws or constitution
through which the political community was constituted. As per the social contract
theory, Sovereignty is vested in the political community but is actually exercised by the
government, which is formed by the consent of the members of the political community.
Each member of the political community is obliged to obey the laws and commands of
the Govt. till they are as per the constitution and doesn’t infringe upon their natural
rights. This is called political obligation. Basis of political obligation is consent while
entering into the Social Contract to form the political community. Since, the members

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 of political community have consented to form the govt, Hence, they are morally bound
to offer their political obligation to the Govt.
Apart from consent, Moral reasons, duty of Fair Play, prudential or pragmatic reasons
may also be the basis of Political Obligation.
However, members of the political community have the right to oppose Govt’s laws
and commands on some limited grounds. As per Hobbes, people may dissent if Govt.
fails to protect their lives, or take away their lives unlawfully. Whereas people may
dissent if the Govt takes away or fail to protect their natural rights of life, liberty, and
property, as per John Locke. Gandhiji held the view that people, as member of a
political community, have fundamental right to oppose the unjust laws and commands
of the govt.
In sum, political obligation is a limited obligation on part of the members of the political
community to obey the laws and commands of the Govt, to whom they have consented.
But this obligation is limited by good and just laws and fair and impartial orders on part
of the Govt. Hence, the political obligation is limited obligation or duty on part of the
members of a political community.
In the next part of the Answer, I will explain in brief the various grounds on which Govt may
demand political obligation from the members of the political community. Grounds on which
people may oppose the Govt. shall also be discussed.

Grounds of Political Obligation:

1. Consent Theory:
• Given by the modern social contract theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke,
Rousseau
• Members of the political community should obey the law and commands of
state/Govt because they have consented (agreed) to do so
• Two types of consent:
• Express or explicit consent: declare consent.
• Tacit or implicit consent: consent by omission or an important act
which is essential for giving consent; For example, voting to choose
Govt.
• Based on premise that Consent generates moral duty. On this very ground Socrates,
though given option, didn’t leave the political community but preferred to face the
death sentence ordered by the Govt.
• Problems with this theory:
• Have we consented? How to know?

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 • voting and residing in the territory of state are taken as tacit consent but
both are useful acts which cannot be prohibited by state if consent is not
given
• Hypothetical consent, such as in imaginary social contract by our
forefathers, has no moral base

2. Moral theory:
• Political Obligation is duty of justice, on participative of members of a political
community, guided by morality.
• Based on the premises
• Laws are based on societal morality, ethics, fairness, and justice
• Obeying law is guided by our sense of justice and morality
• As a member of political community, we have natural duty to obey law
• By enforcing law, state is enforcing morality
• Arguments against:
• Laws may be unjust or immoral
• Each one has own conception of morality
• Ex: Libertarian conception of morality: absolute right to just acquired
property and hence state action to redistribute wealth is unjust. Whereas
same is just and moral in communist ideology.
• Proponents: Hegel, Rousseau, Kant, Joseph Raj; Opposed by: Robert Nozick

3. Fairness theory of political obligation:

• If we benefitted from mutually beneficial and just scheme of social cooperation, we
are duty bound to obey
• Based on the premises
• Cooperative social Scheme to achieve common purpose of the political
community is just
• Benefits of the social schemes are distributed fairly
• Scheme is success only if everyone cooperates
• Even if scheme is unfair but we received benefit, we are duty bound to obey
• Arguments against:

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 • Benefits without our demand or intention (open unsolicited benefits): no
moral obligation
• Benefits of cooperative scheme vs purchased against tax payment to Govt.
• Proponents: John Rawls, H.A.L. Hart; Opposed by : Robert Nozick

Right to dissent (withholding political obligation) and its grounds:

Following are the grounds of dissent or Civil Disobedience in view of some prominent
thinkers:
• Hobbes : If sate commands killing or physical harm, or deny self-defense, or deny
essential things - food, air, water- to live
• Locke : If sate fails to protect natural rights –life, liberty, property
• T.H.Green: in the event of ‘cruel necessity’- when disobeying state is in larger
interest of the political community and backed by moral conscience.
• Harold Laski: ‘duty to disobey’ if commands of the state/govt. lacks force of utility
and moral adequacy
• John Rawl: if principles of justice are not upheld by the state/govt.
• Gandhiji: People have right to civil disobedience against the unjust laws and
commands.

Conclusion:
political obligation denotes duty or obligation of members of political community to
obey the rules, laws, and command of the govt/sovereign. In system view of politics,
political obligation may be viewed as inputs to the political system. Political obligation
provide legitimacy to the govt/sovereign.
Thinkers have offered many basis or justification for political obligation. They are
Consent Theory, Moral grounds, Fairness theory, Prudential or pragmatic reasons, etc.
However, there is gap in each theory, which are questioned by the critics.
However, obligation of members of political community to obey the rules, laws, and
command of the govt/sovereign is limited by several conditions. It is not an unlimited
warrant to the govt. to do whatsoever it wishes to do. The members of the political
community reserve the right to dissent and withdraw their political obligation.
If the State/govt. fails in its basic duty of maintaining peace & order, and use the
commonly funded powers arbitrarily, unfairly and unjustly, the people or members of
the political community have the right to dissent and not obliged to offer political
obligation to the Govt. Thinkers have mentioned situations in which withdrawing
political obligation is justified.

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 SECTION 2

SAMPLE
PAPERS
(WITH ANSWER
HINTS)
3 SETS
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 SAMPLE PAPER SET 1

Q.1: Discuss the idea of the ‘Political’. How can we theorize the ‘Political’?

(Hint: First part of the question is same as asking ‘discuss the meaning of politics’. refer to
answer at page 11 ( meaning of politics) and page 24 ( How can we theorize the ‘Political’)

Q.2: Explain the difference between Normative and Empirical approaches to the study of
political theory.

(Hint: Straightforward question. refer to answer at page 32)

Q.3: 1. Discuss the core principles of Marxist view of politics? Discuss its relevance in
contemporary times.

(Hint: Straightforward question. refer to answer at page 57)

Q.4. Evaluate the core principles of Liberalism. Also discuss its different strands.

(Hint: refer to answer at page 47; and page 53( different strands of Liberalism )

Q.5: Discuss how Feminism evolved in different strands and waves. What are main
weaknesses of feminist movement?

(Hint: Straightforward question. refer to answer at page 77)

Q.6: What do you mean by political community? Discuss the concept of Political
Obligation in the context of political community.

(Hint: Straightforward question. refer to answer at page 87( political community ) and 89(
political obligation )

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 SAMPLE PAPER SET 2

Q.1: What is politics? Critically examine the power view of politics.

(Hint: refer to answer at page 16)

Q.2: Explain different approaches to political theory. Bring out the main difference
between the Normative and Empirical Approach.

(Hint: refer to answers at page 24(different approaches to theorise the ‘political’) and page
32 ( normative vs empirical))

Q.3: Discuss the Liberal political ideologies. Also discuss challenges it faces in
contemporary times.

(Hint: refer to answers at page 47)

Q.4: Elaborate on core principles of Anarchism. Is it relevant in the contemporary world?

(Hint: refer to answers at page 64)

Q.5: Write a short essay on the post-modernist perspective in political theory.

(Hint: refer to answers at page 82)

Q.6: Discuss the concept of political community. How political community is different
from nation and state?

(Hint: refer to answers at page 87)

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 SAMPLE PAPER SET 3

Q.1: What is political Theory? Discuss its features and significance.

(Hint: refer to answers at pages 12( meaning of political theory and its features)

Q.2: Can political theory be value neutral and scientific? Discuss with reference to debate
over the demise of political theory.

(Hint: you should stress that balance of value and fact is required to build political theory.
How under the influence of behavioural revolution, beginning 1950s, how demise of (
normative) political theory was announced should be highlighted. How quickly the balance
was restored under post-behavioural movement should be stressed upon. refer to key points at
page 31 and answer at page 32)

Q.3. Discuss the difference between classical, modern (social or welfare), and
Libertarianism.

(Hint: refer to answers at page 54)

Q4: Write an essay on the historical and Intellectual evolution of Conservatism

(Hint: refer to answers at page 67)

Q.5: “Sex is biological but gender is a social construct”. Elaborate the statement in light
of feminist political theory.

(Hint: Highlight the feminist assertion that gender is artificial social construct. By nature, man
and women have equal faculties of reason and intellect. But by societal norms and traditions
women are made to behave in a particular manner. refer to answers at page 77)

Q.6: Do we have a political obligation to obey the laws and commands of Govt? Discuss
the various grounds of political obligation.

(Hint: refer to answers at page 89)

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 SECTION 3

ANSWER WRITING TIPS

FOR ESSAY TYPE
QUESTIONS

97
 Scoring Answer Writing Tips

How to Write Best Answers in University Exam?

BA Hons Pol Sc Exam Help

• Yes, one may score better marks by writing strategically. Essay type
answers require different skills than MCQs.

• Structure (Template), organization, flow, and style matter in essay types

of answers. Here are my Tips:

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 First Tips : Analyse Past Year’s papers

Select the topics asked

Topic wise analysis of
repeatedly- select
3-4 year’s question
topics to cover at least
papers shall reveal the
70%- 5-6 questions for
question pattern
sure

• This I have done for you. I have analysed past four year’s paper of DU on
Indian Political Thought. Provided standard answer template on all of those
questions.

• In fact, the questions cover the entire syllabus. Thus, only by reading the
answers in this guide carefully and repeatedly, yes at least 7-8 times, you
will be covering the entire syllabus.

• When exam is very near, you may leave some of themes/topics by an

intelligent guess.

99
 2nd Tips: Make Intelligent Guess !

Yes, by carefully
analysing past papers Do it with
you can guess confidence!
expected questions.

• Yes, you should do it. Examiners set paper by going through past 3-4 year’s
paper.

• They have to meet 2 conditions; 1st the question should be within the
syllabus and 2nd they should be on similar pattern and difficulty level as
asked in earlier years. Hence, the paper setter normally set questions very
similar to one asked earlier.

• They also alternate the theme/topic. Thus, if a topic is asked in 2017, they
repeat that in 2019, and like that.

• Therefore, you can guess! Yes…

100
 3rd Tip: use the question as answer clue!

Answers are
Attentively read Provide standard
expansion of ideas,
question at least 3 Answers to twisted
issues stated in the
times, yes 3 times! questions
questions

• Answers are hidden in the Questions!

• While framing the question, the examiner is thinking about the answer.
Hence, by carefully and on multiple reading you can visualize the answer
hidden in the question.

• And, yes, also read the Hindi translation of the question. Sometime, you
may not know exact meaning of the key word in the question. Hindi
translation may give the meaning. Also, many a times, wording of Hindi
question disclose more about the hidden answer. This is due to translation
issue. Take advantage of questions in two languages.

101
 4th Tips: cleverly organise your answers

Write 1st answer on your best Choose 2nd best topic as last
prepared topic question

Because examiners pay more

Least prepared topics as 2nd attention to your first
and 3rd answers; Why? question, then the last, and
least to middle answers…yes!

• Yes, examiners actually browse through your answer, they don’t read word
by word.

• Also, they assess your standard by your 1st answer. 2nd and 3rd answer
may not change your assessment. They assign you marks in range in
accordance with the bracketing they do in the 1st answer.

• Hence, write your best prepared topic as 1st answer. 2nd best as last, why?
Because examiner try to put some attention while browsing your last
answer. Make use of his attention. He may revise the marks bracket he
decided while reading your 1st answer.

102
 5th Tip : Strategic writing?

How many words per

question? No fixed rule- Use standard answer
Normally, 800-1200 words structure (template)
(4-6 pages)

Numbered or bulleted Sprinkle and underline key

points in ‘Body’ phrases

• How many words to write?

• Actually, it shouldn’t matter. But unfortunately, in our country it does matter.
• Average writing speed is 25 words per minute. In a 180 minute (3 hour) exam, one may
write for about 160 minute, leaving 20 minutes for reading paper and organizing
thoughts. Therefore, in 160 minutes, maximum 4000 words can be written. This comes
to 1000 words per question.
• Write in bigger font, maximum 200 words in one page. Use bullets/number and
indenting. Leave good space between paragraph. They consume space.
• Examiners are used to see answers written in a particular template(structure). Follow
them. Carefully observe how I have tried to write in a fixed structure. I have given a
standard structure in next slide.
• Yes, insert standard phrases in your answer, sprinkle (scatter) them across your
answer. Why? Examiners are interested in seeing the key words/phrases in your answer,
this helps them quickly browsing your answer. If the found them they assume that rest
of your answer is also okay.
• And finally, repeat key phrases. Yes! You may write the key phrase in Introduction,
in body and in the conclusion. Why? Simple, because examiners are compelled to note
the key phrase/concept in your answer even if he is browsing through the answer.
Hence, don’t hesitate to repeat. It pays.
• Take one example; one of the key phrases in political theory is ‘highly contested
concepts’. Examiner will search for such phrases in your answer.

103
 Answer Template: Example: “Write an essay on
core principles of Marxism.”
• Introduction- 20 % of the total words in answer
• Introduce the topic , e.g. Marxism, its core principles
• How it dissect the capitalist society and offer its own solution- communist society.
• Give a hint about your arguments about relevance of Marxist ideologies in today’s
time.
• Body: 60-70 % of the total words in answer
• Elaborate on the core principles of Marxism
• Historical materialism, class struggle, Theory of surplus labour, alienation, etc.
• Then explain his solutions- state-less and class less communist society
• Analysis and Discussion
• Discuss how Marxism was realized in the form of Communist state, how it became totalitarian
state stifling rights of the individuals.
• Provide your own view – crux of your answer- how far Marxism is relevant in view of demise
of USSR, Communist bloc and spread of neo-liberal capitalism in the form of L.P.G.
• Conclusion: 10-20% of the total words in answer
• Summarise key points: Paraphrase introduction
• State your final view and concluding remarks

• Introduction is where you should focus most. Why? Because examiner read first few
lines of Introduction carefully. It is here he is putting you in a bracket or grade for
marking.

• Conclusion is basically introduction in other words. Both give an overview/summary

of the theme, explain a bit about the question asked and give very brief of their final
argument. Difference is in wording. Introduction says I will explain or as explained
below, whereas conclusion say, as I have explained above and so on.

• You can break the body of the answer in two parts. One informative and other
analytical. In the latter part you may critically analyse the statement or theme in context
of the question. You may even merge these two parts into one.

GOOD WISHES!

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