Short Answer Questions

1. Write short note on prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. Differentiate them briefly.
2. Enumerate various functions of Carbohydrate.
3. Define and differentiate between reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar.
4. What are proteins? Classify them with examples.
5. Discuss the types of lipoproteins
6. Write a note on the functions of cholesterol in the body.
7. Name different RNA and their function.
8. Discuss about structure, function of nucleotides.
9. Describe lock and key model.
10. Discuss the therapeutic and pharmaceutical importance of enzyme.
11. Introduce to vitamins and classify them with chemical nature.
12. Discuss the water-soluble vitamins (Sources, coenzyme form of any one).

13. Describe the mechanism of regulation of blood sugar level.

14. Draw the key reactions of glycolysis pathways.

15. Give the functional importance of potassium.

16. Write down the distribution and functions of water.

17. What do you understand by gene cloning?

18. Write down the functions of kidney function.

19. Write note on abnormal constituents of urine.

20. Write a brief note on Sickle cell anaemia and aplastic anaemia.
Q.NO -1
Write short note on prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. Differentiate
them briefly.
ANSWER
❖ Cells
• Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms. The major
parts of a cell are the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• Cell word was first introduced by Robert Hooke in 1665. he was observing some
slices of bottle cork under microscope.
• Cell biology or cytology is the study of cellular structure and function.
➢ The cells of the living kingdom may be divided into two categories
1. Prokaryotes (Greek: pro – before; karyon –nucleus)
• Prokaryotes have no typical nucleus and subcellular components.
• Bacteria and blue green algae belong to the prokaryotes.
1. Eukaryotes (Greek: Eue - true, karyon - nucleus)
• Eukaryotes have nucleus is covered by nuclear membrane.
• Animals, plants and fungi belong to the eukaryotes
• Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes
• Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of other membrane-bound
organelles (subcellular elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
o Mitochondria
o Lysosomes
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Golgi complexes.
Q.NO -2
Enumerate various functions of Carbohydrate.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE
• They serve as primary source of energy for living beings, e.g., Glucose.
• They serve as structural component, e.g., Cellulose in plants and Chitin in insects.
• Non-digestible carbohydrates like cellulose, serve as dietary fibers.
• It is constituent of nucleic acids RNA and DNA, e.g., Ribose and Deoxyribose sugar.
• They play a vital role in lubrication, cellular intercommunication and immunity.
• Carbohydrates are also involved in detoxification, e.g., Glucuronic acid.
• They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential
amino acids.
• Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compound (Fat, Amino acid).
• Carbohydrate serves as storage form of energy, e.g., glycogen in animal tissue
and starch in plants
Q.NO -3
Define and differentiate between reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar.
ANSWER
REDUCING SUGAR NON-REDUCING SUGAR
Carbohydrate with free aldehyde or free ketone
Free functional groups are not available
group.
A reducing sugar contains a hemiacetal /hemiketal
group which has open chain containing The non-reducing sugar is in acetal or ketal form
Ketone/Aldehyde group.
Exhibit mutarotation Do not exhibit mutarotation
Do form Osazones with phenylhydrazine Do not form Osazones
Reducing sugar reduce cupric ion of copper
sulphate to cuprous ion yellow precipitate of Do not reduce Cupric ion of Benedict solution.
Benedict, Fehling & Barfoed's test

Examples: Maltose, Lactose. Examples: Sucrose, Trehalose, Starch.

Q.NO -4
What are proteins? Classify them with examples.
ANSWER
• Protein word is derived from Greek word, “proteios” which means primary.
• Proteins are nitrogen containing, most abundant organic macromolecules
widely distributed in animals and plants. They perform structural and dynamic
functions in the organisms.
• Proteins are polymers composed of L-α-amino acids join by the peptide bond.
• All naturally occurring amino acids are levorotatory except glycine which is optically
inactive (No chiral carbon).
• The free NH2 Group of the terminal amino acid is called as N - terminal end.
• The free COOH end is called C - terminal end.
2. Classification of protein

• Based on the functions they perform; proteins are classified into the following groups-
1. Structural proteins: Keratin of hair and nails, collagen of bone.
2. Enzymes or catalytic proteins: Hexokinase, pepsin.
3. Transport proteins: Hemoglobin, serum albumin.
4. Hormonal proteins: Insulin, growth hormone.
5. Contractile proteins: Actin, myosin.
6. Storage proteins: Ovalbumin, Glutelin.
7. Genetic proteins: Nucleoproteins.
8. Defence proteins: Snake venoms, Immunoglobulins.
Q.NO -5
Discuss the types of lipoproteins
ANSWER
1. Chylomicrons
• They are synthesized in the intestine and transport exogenous (dietary)
triacylglycerol to various tissues.
• They consist of highest (99%) quantity of lipid and lowest (1%) concentration of
protein.
• The chylomicrons are the least in density and the largest in size, among the
lipoproteins.
2. Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)
• They are produced in liver and intestine and are responsible for the transport of
endogenously synthesized triacylglycerol’s.
 3. Low density lipoproteins (LDL)
• They are formed from VLDL in the blood circulation. They transport cholesterol from
liver to other tissues.
4. High density lipoproteins (HDL)
• They are mostly synthesized in liver.
• Three different fractions of HDL (1, 2 and 3) can be identified by ultracentrifugation.
• HDL particles transport cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver (reverse
cholesterol transport).
5. Free fatty acids - albumin
• Free fatty acids in the circulation are in a bound form to albumin.
• Each molecule of albumin can hold about 20-30 molecules of free fatty acids.
• This lipoprotein cannot be separated by electrophoresis.
Q.NO -6
Write a note on the functions of cholesterol in the body.
ANSWER
• Cholesterol is the most abundant sterol in humans and performs a number of
essential functions. For example: -
• It is a major constituent of the plasma membrane and of plasma lipoproteins.
• It is a precursor of bile salts.
• It is a precursor of steroid hormones that include adrenocortical hormones, sex
hormones, placental hormones etc.
• Also, a precursor of Vitamin D, Cardiac glycosides, Sitosterol of the plant kingdom,
and some alkaloids.
• It is required for the nerve transmission Cholesterol is widely distributed in all cells
of the body but particularly abundant in nervous tissue.
Q.NO -7
Name different RNA and their function.
ANSWER
The primary function of RNA is to create proteins via translation. RNA carries genetic
information that is translated by ribosomes into various proteins necessary for cellular
processes
Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): 5–10%
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): 10–20%
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): 50–80%
• These include heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA),
small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and small cytoplasmic RNA (scRNA).
• The RNAs are synthesized from DNA, and are primarily involved in the process of
protein biosynthesis.
Q.NO -8
Discuss about structure, function of nucleotides.
ANSWER
• A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base (purines and pyrimidines) and pentose
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate group.
• The atoms in the purine ring are numbered as 1 to 9 and for pyrimidine as 1 to 6.
• The carbons of sugars are represented with an associated prime (‘) for
differentiation.
• Thus, the pentose carbons are 1’ to 5’.
• The pentoses are bound to nitrogenous bases by β-N-glycosidic bonds. The N9 of a
purine ring binds with C1(1’) of a pentose sugar to form a covalent bond in the purine
nucleoside.
• In case of pyrimidine nucleosides, the glycosidic linkage is between N1 of a
pyrimidine and C’1 of a pentose.
Q.NO -9
Describe lock and key model.
ANSWER
• This theory was proposed by a German biochemist, Emil Fischer.
• This is in fact the very first model proposed to explain an enzyme catalyzed reaction.
• According to this model, the structure or conformation of the enzyme is rigid.
• The substrate fits to the binding site (now active site) just as a key fit into the proper
lock or a hand into the proper glove. Thus, the active site of an enzyme is a rigid and
pre-shaped template where only a specific substrate can bind.
• This model does not give any scope for the flexible nature of enzymes; hence the
model totally fails to explain many facts of enzymatic reactions, the most important
being the effect of allosteric modulators.
Q.NO -10
Discuss the therapeutic and pharmaceutical importance of enzyme.
ANSWER
• Alanine transaminase (ALT/SGPT): SGPT is elevated in acute hepatitis of viral or toxic origin, jaundice and
cirrhosis of liver (reference 3-40 IU/l).
• Aspartate transaminase (AST/SGOT): SGOT activity in serum is increased in myocardial infarction and also in liver
diseases (reference 4-45 IU/l).
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): It is elevated in certain bone and liver diseases (reference 3-13 KA units/dl). ALP is
useful for the diagnosis of rickets, hyperparathyroidism, carcinoma of bone, and obstructive jaundice.
• Acid phosphatase (ACP): It is increased in the cancer of prostate gland (reference 0.5-4 KA units/dl). The tartrate
labile ACP (reference <1 KA units/dl) is useful for the diagnosis and prognosis of prostate cancers i.e. ACP is a good
tumor marker.
• Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH): LDH is useful for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction, infective hepatitis, leukemia
and muscular dystrophy (serum LDH reference 50-200 IU/l).
• Creatine kinase (CK): It is elevated in myocardial infarction (early detection) and muscular dystrophy (reference 10-
50 IU/l)..
Q.NO -11
Introduce to vitamins and classify them with chemical nature.
ANSWER
• Vitamins may be defined as organic compounds occurring in small quantities in
different natural foods and necessary for growth and maintenance of good health in
human beings.
• Water soluble vitamins cannot be store in human tissue. their excess excretes in
urine.
• Significant amount of fat-soluble vitamin store in adipose tissue and liver.
• On the basis of solubility, vitamins are classified into two categories.
I. Fat soluble vitamins.
II. Water soluble vitamins.

Vitamins, Rings, Chemical Names and Their Active Form

VITAMINS CHEMICAL NAME RINGS ACTIVE FROM
Fat Soluble Vitamins
A Retinoid - ionone ring Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid
D Cholecalciferol Steroidal ring 1,25, dihydroxy cholecalciferol
E Tocopherol Chromane ring -tocopherol
K Phylloquinone Naphthoquinone Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Vitamin K2
Menaquinone (Menaquinone) Vitamin K3 (Menadione)
Menadione
Water Soluble Vitamins
B1 Thiamine Pyrimidine +Thiazole Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)

B2 Riboflavin Isoalloxazine FMN, FAD

B3 Niacin Pyridine-3- carboxylic acid NAD+, NADP+

B5 Pantothenic acid Amide between Coenzyme A (CoA)

Pantoic acid + -alanine

B6 Pyridoxine Pyridine ring Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)

B7 Biotin Imidazole + thiophene Biocytin (bound biotin)

B9 Folic acid Pteridine + PABA+ Glutamic Tetrahydrofolic acid

acid (THF)
B12 Cobalamin 4-Corrin ring Methyl cobalamin
C Ascorbic acid Resemble with hexose Ascorbic acid
Q.NO -12
Discuss the water-soluble vitamins (Sources, coenzyme form of any one).
ANSWER
• The water-soluble vitamins are a heterogeneous group of compounds since they
differ chemically from each other.
• The only common character shared by them is their solubility in water.
• Most of these vitamins are readily excreted in urine and they are not toxic to the
body.
• Water soluble vitamins are not stored in the body in large quantities (Except B12).
For this reason, they must be continuously supplied in the diet.
1.Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
• Thiamine (anti-beri-beri or antineuritic vitamin) is water soluble.
➢ Dietary sources
• Cereals, pulses, oil seeds, nuts and yeast are good sources.
➢ Coenzymes of Vitamin B1
• The alcohol (OH) group of thiamine is esterified with phosphate (2 moles) to form
the coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP or cocarboxylase).
• The pyrophosphate moiety is donated by ATP and the reaction is catalysed by the
enzyme thiamine pyrophosphate transferase.
➢ Biochemical functions
• The enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyses (oxidative decarboxylation) the
irreversible conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
• α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is an enzyme of the citric acid cycle
➢ Daily requirement
• 1-1.5 mg/day (adults) and 0.7-1.2 mg/day (Children).
➢ Deficiency symptoms
• The deficiency of vitamin B1 results in a condition called Beri-beri.
• Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
Q.NO -13
Describe the mechanism of regulation of blood sugar level.
ANSWER
Regulation of Blood Glucose Level (Homeostasis of Blood Glucose)
• Glucose is carbohydrate currency of the body.
• The fasting blood glucose level in a post absorptive state is 70-100 mg/dl (plasma
glucose 80-120 mg/dl). Following the ingestion of a carbohydrate meal, blood glucose
may rise to 120-140 mg/dl.
• Hyperglycemia represents an increase in the blood glucose above the normal level.
• Hypoglycemia represents a decreased blood glucose concentration.
• Glycosuria - Excretion of glucose in urine.
• The concentration of blood glucose is dependent on the quantity of glucose that enters
the circulation from various sources (dietary carbohydrates, glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis etc.) and the amount that is utilized for different metabolic purposes
(glycolysis, glycogenesis, fat synthesis etc.)
Q.NO -14
Draw the key reactions of glycolysis pathways.
ANSWER
Q.NO -15
Give the functional importance of potassium.
ANSWER
➢ Functions

• It maintains acid-base balance.

• It helps in maintaining the normal levels of fluids inside our cell

• It also helps in muscle contraction

• IT activates various cells and nerve function, Cardiac function.

• Conduction of nerve impulses.

• Enzymes like pyruvate kinase require K as a co factor.

Q.NO -16
Write down the distribution and functions of water.
ANSWER - DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
• Water the major component of body constitutes about 60% water.
✓ Men- 55-70%
✓ Women – 45-60%
• Normal human of average weight 70 kg contains 42 liter of water distributed throughout the body.in both
intracellular and extra cellular compartments.
FUNCTION OF WATER
• Water provides the aqueous medium to the organism which is essential for the various biochemical
reactions to occur.
✓ It is a vital component of living cell
✓ Regulate body temperature
✓ Provides aqueous medium essential for various biochemical reactions
✓ Acts as a vehicle for physiological procedures (like absorption and transport).
✓ It acts as a solvent for cellular components
✓ It acts as a carrier for nutrition and waste products.
✓ It regulates electrolyte balance and osmotic pressure.
✓ It lubricates joints and membranes (like pleura and peritoneum).
Q.NO -17
What do you understand by gene cloning?
ANSWER
CLONING
• In this method, nucleus from one cell is removed and is transferred to an unfertilized
egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.
• Cloning can be done in the following two ways:
I. Reproductive Cloning - In this method, the egg cell after a few divisions is transferred
to a uterus for its development into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of
the original nucleus.
II. Therapeutic Cloning: In this method, the egg is placed in a petri dish for its
development into embryonic stem cells that are potential for treating several ailments.
Q.NO -18
Write down the functions of kidney function.
ANSWER
Function of kidney
• Kidney one of the essential organ of our body performing
large variety of functions some of its major functions are:
✓ Urine formation (described below)
✓ Regulation of water electrolytes and acid base balance
✓ Removal of metabolic wastes
✓ Retention and reabsorption of various vitals like glucose
amino acids that are biochemically important
✓ Acts as endocrine gland and secretes various hormones
such as Erythropoietin, Calcitriol and Renin
Q.NO -19
Write note on abnormal constituents of urine.
ANSWER
Q.NO -20
Write a brief note on Sickle cell anaemia
ANSWER
A. Sickle cell anaemia
• It is a hereditary disease. It occurs due to the presence of an abnormal hemoglobin
called HbS.
• It differs from the normal hemoglobin (HbA) by the presence of valine instead of
glutamic acid in the beta chain of globin. RBCS containing HbS on deoxygenation assume
a sickle or crescent shape.
• These abnormal RBCs cannot pass through small blood capillaries. So, they block these
capillaries. This results in loss of blood supply to vital organs and thus damaging it.
• Sickle cell patients have a marked susceptibility for infections.