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‫‪Manufacturing processes‬‬

‫‪Casting‬‬
‫‪Forming‬‬
‫‪Welding‬‬
‫‪Cutting‬‬
‫‪2017-2018‬‬

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‫‪1‬‬
 Casting Processes
Metal Casting

Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast
metal products. The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major
sectors of our economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks,
aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and homes. Figure 1 some metal
cast parts.
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape
to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal
object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the
mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this process,
intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by
any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured,
is made of some heat resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists
the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also
be used to cast products.

Figure 1: Metal Cast parts

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 Advantages

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of

its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate
shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other operations,
such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or
eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-
ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in
weight can be achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and
inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the
ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand

casting processes are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting
processes have been developed which can take into consideration the aspects
of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die
casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process,
and shell molding process.

2.The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.

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Casting Terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which

the mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in
the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag –
lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek –
intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold
cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks
that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on
the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to
the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked,
which is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the
castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold
into which the molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring
basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of
metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from
the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold
cavity.
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11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity
to take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the
castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Figure 2: Mold Section showing some casting terms

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Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are five basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Pattern making
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning

Pattern making

The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold.. Such
as molding sand, around the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its
imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal to
become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe
fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these
cavities.

Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has
its own advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials
used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster and
rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should
be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and
humidity
7. Available at low cost

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 Core making:

Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity
to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the
core and mold cavity surface is what eventually becomes the casting.

There are seven requirements for core:

1. Green Strength: In the green condition, there must be adequate

strength for handling
2. In the hardened state, it must be strong enough to handle the forces of
casting
3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
4. Friability: As the casting or molding cools, the core must be weak
enough to break down as the material shrinks. Moreover, they must
be easy to remove during shakeout.
5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by
hot metal during casting or molding.
6. A smooth surface finish.
7. Minimum generation of gases during metal pouring

Figure 3: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

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Molding

 The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding
board.
 The drag is placed on the board .
 Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a
non sticky layer.
 Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers;
then the drag is completely filled.
 The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand
rammers. The ramming must be proper. it must neither be too hard or
soft.
 After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a
straight bar known as a strike rod.
 With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full
depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of
gases during pouring and solidification.
 The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board
exposing the pattern.
 Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the
help of locating pins. The cope flask on the drag is located aligning
again with the help of pins
 The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.
 A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small
distance from the pattern. Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an
appropriate place.
 The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in
the same manner as performed in the drag.
 The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is
scooped out at the top to pour the liquid metal.
 Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in
the form of paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners
which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
 The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring

8
 Figure 4: making mold

Melting and Pouring

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting.

Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and
the molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the molds are
filled.

Cleaning

Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and
excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to
improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of
fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is remove. Inspection of the casting
for defects and general quality is perf formed.

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Pattern Allowances

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional

characteristics of the casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain
allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the finished component
drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made. The
selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and
avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and core
boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage allowance

After solidification of the metal from further cooling (room temp.)

dimensions of the patterns increases. Therefore, pattern size is bigger than
that of the finished cast products. This is known as shrinkage allowance It
depends on:
a. Dimensions of casting
b. Design and intricacy of casting
c. Resistance of moll to shrinkage.
d. Molding materials used
e. Method of molding used
f. Pouring temp of the molten metal

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Draft allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical
surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without
tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by
the molder. Figure5 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance being
removed from the pattern. In this case, till the pattern is completely lifted
out, its sides will remain in contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending
to break it. Figure 5 (b) is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft
allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting commences, all of its
surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus the pattern can be
removed without damaging the mold cavity.

Figure 5 (a) Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges

Figure 5 (b) Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges

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Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general
inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The
amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side of the pattern to
be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of molding; and pattern
material. Table 1 provides

a general guide lines for the draft allowance.

Table 1: Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Pattern material Height of the given Draft angle Draft angle

surface (inch)
(External surface) (Internal surface)
1 3.00 3.00

1 to 2 1.50 2.50

Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50

4 to 8 0.75 1.00

8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00

1 to 2 1.00 2.00

Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00

4 to 8 0.50 1.00

8 to 32 0.50 0.75

Machining or Finish Allowance

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and
therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface
finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent
machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the pattern

12
dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is
affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or
machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The amount of
machining allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the casting;
the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish
required. The machining allowances recommended for different metal is
given in Table 2

Table 2: Machining Allowances of Various Metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Up to 12 0.12

Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20

20 to 40 0.25
Up to 6 0.12

Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25

20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09

Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12

12 to 40 0.16

Exercise 1

The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern.

Assuming only machining allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern.
All Dimensions are in Inches

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Solution 2

The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch
and from 12 inch to 20 inch is 0.20 inch (Table 3)

For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch

For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch

For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch

For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch

The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in Figure below

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings are distorted, during solidification, due to their typical

shape. For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc.
it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical legs to look
slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or

14
L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after
distortion will have its sides vertical (Figure 6).The distortion in casting may
occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are due to unequal
cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure
taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:

i. Modification of casting design

ii. Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion
affect
iii. Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or
distortion allowance (inverse reflection)

Figure 6: Distortions in Casting

Rapping Allowance

Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around
the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its
removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the
original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase.
15
There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly
dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative
allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to
the parting plane.

Die-casting is a manufacturing process for producing metal parts by forcing

molten metal under high pressure into a die cavity. These die or mold
cavities are created with hardened tool steel that have been previously
machined to the net shape or near net shape of the die cast parts. This
process allows products to be made with high degree of accuracy and
repeatability. The die casting process also produce fine details such as
textured surfaces or names without requiring further processing.

The ability of producing high detailed and high accuracy parts make die
casting a suitable choice for mass produced product. The moment you wake
up you are surrounded products that are produced by the die casting process.
The die casting process usually produce parts using primarily non-ferrous
metals, such as zinc, copper, aluminum and magnesium. Over the years,
many different alloys have been developed to meet certain type of needs and
requirements of each application.

Type of die casting processes

The die casting process can be further divided into two different categories:

 Hot Chamber Die Casting

 Cold Chamber Die Casting

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Hot-chamber die-casting: also known as gooseneck machines, rely upon a
pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston
of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the
"gooseneck". The pneumatic- or hydraulic-powered piston then forces this
metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this system
include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the
convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages
of this system are that it is limited to use with low-melting point metals and
that aluminum cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in
the molten pool. Therefore, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with
zinc magnesium and lead-based alloys.

Figure 7: Hot-chamber die-casting

Cold Chamber Die Casting: These are used when the casting alloy cannot
be used in hot-chamber machines; these include aluminum, zinc alloys with
a large composition of aluminum, magnesium and copper. The process for
these machines start with melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a
precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine
where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This
shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston.
17
 Disadvantages of this process is slower production cycles. The molten metal
in the cold chamber can cool down even before injection. Lastly, the molten
metal in the cold chamber is more exposed to oxidation and other
contaminants especially if the production floor does not have strict quality
control.

Figure 8: Cold-chamber die-casting

Other methods of Casting

Centrifugal casting or is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled

cylinders. It is used to cast such materials as metal, glass, and concrete. It is noted for the
high quality of the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their metallurgy and
crystal structure. Unlike most other casting techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used to
manufacture stock materials in standard sizes for further machining, rather than shaped parts
tailored to particular end-use

Advantages of centrifugal casting

Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.

 Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.
 Eliminates the need for cores.
18
 Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
 Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent.
 Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
 Size limits are up to 6 m (20 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length.
 Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0 in).
 Surface finish are excellent.

Figure 9 a: centrifugal casting

Figure 9 b: centrifugal casting

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The lost Wax

1-The process begins with the preparation of models manufactured from wax or plastic

2-These models are made by injecting the model material into the main mold base, which is
.carefully manufactured by skilled workers in the mold industry

3-The formation or processing of the cluster (tree) by combining several models together by
welding wax with a group of estuaries equipped with the main downstream

4-The molds are placed in vertical position

5-Immerse the tree or cluster models in a mixture of ceramic, and repeat this process several
times until we get the thickness required from the special packaging layer

6-Equips the mold by bringing the cluster and placed on it's own risqué and then pour the
mold material on it form a solid, after the coating with a layer of packaging thickness of 3 to
.6 millimeters

7-Rays containing molds shall be placed in an inverted position in heating furnaces to allow
.the models to melt and fall out of the mold

8-.The metal is then poured into the mold by churning

9-After the Solidifing of the metal, break the molds and remove the castings and remove the
.nucleus with a rush of water or wash it with caustic soda

10-The final process is to remove the collection of estuaries from castings using saws or
grinding stones.

20
Figure 10: Lost wax casting
21
 Forging
Forging is a process in which material is shaped by the application of
localized compressive forces exerted manually or with power hammers,
presses or special forging machines. The process may be carried out on
materials in either hot or cold state. When forging is done cold, processes are
given special names. Therefore, the term forging usually implies hot forging
carried out at temperatures which are above the recrystallization
temperature of the material.

Forging is an effective method of producing many useful shapes. The

process is generally used to produce discrete parts. Typical forged parts
include rivets, bolts, crane hooks, connecting rods, gears, turbine shafts,
hand tools, railroads, and a variety of structural components used to
manufacture machinery. The forged parts have good strength and toughness;
they can be used reliably for highly stressed and critical applications.

A variety of forging processes have been developed that can be used for
either producing a single piece or mass – produce hundreds of identical
parts. Some common forging processes are:

1. Open – die hammer forging

2. Impression – die drop forging
3. Press Forging
4. Upset Forging
5. Swaging
6. Rotary Forging
7. Roll forging

Open – Die Hummer Forging.

It is the simplest forging process, which is quite flexible but not suitable for
large-scale production. It is a slow process. The resulting size and shape of
the forging are dependent on the skill of the operator.

22
 Figure1: Open – Die Hummer Forging

Open die forging does not confine the flow of metal, Fig 2.1. The operator
obtains the desired shape of forging by manipulating the work material
between blows. Use may be made of some specially shaped tools or a simple
shaped die between the work piece and the hammer or anvil to assist in
shaping the required sections (round, concave, or convex), making holes, or
performing cut – off operations. This process is most often used to make
near – final shape of the part so that some further operation done on the job
produces the final shape.

Forging Force. In open die forging operation, the forging force F, to be

applied on a solid cylindrical component can be determined from the
relation.

Where s f is the flow stress of the material, µ is the coefficient of friction,

and d and h are the diameter and height of the work piece, respectively.

23
Example. Using open-die forging operation, a solid cylindrical piece of 304
stainless steel having 100 mm die x 72 mm height is reduced in the height to
60 mm at room temperature. Assuming the coefficient of friction as 0.22 and
the flow stress for this material at the required true strain as 1000 MPa,
calculate the forging force at the end of stroke.

Solution . Initial diameter = 100 mm

Initial height = 72 mm

Final height = 60 mm

If final diameter is d, (100)2 x 72 = d2 x 60

i.e. d =110 mm

Die Drop Forging (Closed – Die Forging)

The process uses shaped dies to control the flow of metal. The heated metal
is positioned in the lower cavity and on it one or more blows are struck by
the upper die. This hammering makes the metal to flow and fill the die
cavity completely. Excess metal is squeezed out around the periphery of the
cavity to form flash. On completion of forging, the flash is trimmed off with
the help of a trimming die.

Most impression – die sets contain several cavities. The work material is
given final desired shape in stages as it is deformed in successive cavities in
the die set. The shape of the cavities cause the metal to flow in desired
direction, thereby imparting desired fibre structure to the component.

Figure2: Closed – Die Forging

24
*Coining:

It is a closed – die forging process used mainly for minting coins and
making of jewelry. In order to produce fine details on the work material the
pressures required are as large as five or six times the strength of the
material. Lubricants are not employed in this process because they can get
entrapped in the die cavities and, being incompressible, prevent the full
reproduction of fine details of the die.

Figure3: Coining

*Auto – Forging:

This is a modified form of impression – die forging, used mainly for non –
ferrous metals. In this a cast preform, as removed from the mold while hot,
is finish – forged in a die. The flash formed during die forging is trimmed
later in the usual manner. As the four steps of the process – casting, transfer
from mold to the forging die, forging, and trimming are in most applications
completely mechanized,.

Figure4: Auto – Forging

25
Press Forging
Press forging, which is mostly used for forging of large sections of metal,
uses hydraulic press to obtain slow and squeezing action instead of a series
of blows as in drop forging. The continuous action of the hydraulic press
helps to obtain uniform deformation throughout the entire depth of the work
piece. Therefore, the impressions obtained in press forging are cleaner.

Press forgings generally need smaller draft than drop forgings and have
greater dimensional accuracy. Dies are generally heated during press forging
to reduce heat loss, promote more uniform metal flow and production of
finer details.

Hydraulic presses are available in the capacity range of 5 MN to 500 MN but

10 MN to 100MN capacity presses are more common.

Figure5: Press Forging

26
Upset Forging
Upset forging involves increasing the cross – section of a material at the
expense of its corresponding length. Upset – forging was initially developed
for making bolt heads in a continuous manner, but presently it is the most
widely used of all forging processes. Parts can be upset – forged from bars
or rods up to 200 mm in diameter in both hot and cold condition. Examples
of upset forged parts are fasteners, valves, nails, and couplings.

The process uses split dies with one or several cavities in the die. Upon
separation of split die, the heated bar is moved from one cavity to the next.
The split dies are then forced together to grip the and a heading tool (or ram)
advances axially against the bar, upsetting it to completely fill the die cavity.
Upon completion of upsetting process the heading tool comes back and the
movable split die releases the stock.

Figure6: Upset Forging

27
Swaging Forging In this process, the diameter of a rod or a tube is
reduced by forcing it into a confining die. A set of reciprocation dies
provides radial blows to cause the metal to flow inward and acquire the form
of the die cavity. The die movements may be of in – and – out type or rotary.
The latter type is obtained with the help of a set of rollers in a cage, in a
similar action as in a roller bearing. The work piece is held stationary and
the dies rotate, the dies strike the work piece at a rate as high as 10 - 20
strokes per second.

Screwdriver blades and soldering iron tips are typical examples of swaged
products. Figure7 shows these and other products made by swaging

(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel. Wall thickness is more in the die
gap

(b) Swaging with a mandrel. The final wall thickness of the tube
depends on the mandrel diameter
(c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by
swaging on shaped mandrels

Figure7: Swaging Forging

28
 Figure8: Typical parts made by swaging.

The process is quite versatile. The maximum diameter of work piece that can
be swaged is limited to about 150 mm; work pieces as small as 0.5 mm
diameter have been swaged. The production rate can be as high as 30 parts
per minute depending upon the complexity of the part shape and the part
handling means adopted.

The parts produced by swaging have tolerance in the range ± 0.05 mm to ±

0.5 mm and improved mechanical properties. Use of lubricants helps in
obtaining better work surface finish and longer die life. Materials, such as
tungsten and molybdenum are generally swaged at elevated temperatures as
they have low ductility at room temperature. Hot swaging is also used to
form long or steep tapers, and for large reductions.

In tube swaging, the tube thickness and / or internal dia of tube can be
controlled with the use of internal mandrels. For small – diameter tubing, a
thin rod can be used as a mandrel; even internally shaped tubes can be
swaged by using shaped mandrels.

29
Roll Forging
This process is used to reduce the thickness of round or flat bar with the
corresponding increase in length. Examples of products produced by this
process include leaf springs, axles, and levers.

The process is carried out on a rolling mill that has two semi – cylindrical
rolls that are slightly eccentric to the axis of rotation. Each roll has a series
of shaped grooves on it. When the rolls are in open position, the heated bar
stock is placed between the rolls. With the rotation of rolls through half a
revolution, the bar is progressively squeezed and shaped. The bar is then
inserted between the next set of smaller grooves and the process is repeated
till the desired shape and size are achieved

Figure9: Roll Forging

Rotary Forging
is a two-die forging process that deforms only a small portion of the work
piece at a time in a continuous manner. Unfortunately, the term rotary
forging is sometimes used that is to describe the process more commonly
referred to as radial forging, causing some confusion in terminology. Radial
forging is a hot- or cold forming process that uses two or more radially
moving anvils or dies to produce solid or tubular components with constant
or varying cross sections along their lengths.

30
 Figure10: Rotary Forging

Examples of die motion in rotary forging. (a) Upper die has both translational and
rotational motion, while lower die rotates. (b) Upper die has translational, rotational, and
orbital (rocking) motion; lower die is stationary. (c) Upper die has orbital (rocking)
motion only; lower die has translational motion.

COLD AND HOT WORKING OF METALS

Cold Working:
Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is
known as cold working. It is generally performed at room temperature. In
some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may be used to provide increased
ductility and reduced strength. Cold working offers a number of distinct
advantages, and for this reason various cold-working processes have become
extremely important. Significant advances in recent years have extended the
use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to continue.

In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are

1. No heating is required

2. Better surface finish is obtained

3. Better dimensional control is achieved therefore; no secondary machining

is generally needed.

31
4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.

5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.

6. Directional properties can be imparted.

7. Pollution problems are almost negligible.

Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:

1. Higher forces are required for deformation.

2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.

3. Less ductility is available.

4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.

5. Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).

6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced.

Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale

production of parts because of the cost of the required equipment and
tooling.

Hot Working:
Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the
recrystallization temperature, is called hot working. Under the action of heat
and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain higher energy level, the
new crystals start forming. This is called recrystallization. When this
happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously carried out
mechanical working no longer exist, instead new crystals which are strain-
free are formed.

In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical

since any extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain
growth, leading to poor mechanical properties of material.

32
 In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working are:

1. No strain hardening
2. Lesser forces are required for deformation
3. Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more
deformation is possible.
4. Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical
properties of material
5. Equipment of lesser power is needed
6. No residual stresses in the material.

Some disadvantages associated in the hot working of metals are:

1. Heat energy is needed

2. Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
3. Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
4. Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
5. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome
6. Lower life of tooling and equipment.

Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the cross-

section of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series of,
drawing die(s). There are many applications for wire drawing, including
electrical wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural components, springs,
paper clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical instruments. Although
similar in process, drawing is different from extrusion, because in drawing
the wire is pulled, rather than pushed, through the die. Drawing is usually
performed at room temperature, thus classified as a working process, but it
may be performed at elevated temperatures for large wires to reduce forces

33
 Figure10: Wire drawing on a continuous draw block. The rotating draw
block provides a continuous pull on the incoming wire.

. The preparation treatment for steel wire consists of:

 Cleaning. This may be done by acid pickling, rinsing, and drying. Or,
it may be done by mechanical flexing.

 Neutralization. Any remaining acid on the raw material is neutralized

by immersing it in a lime bath. The corrosion-protected material is
also given a thin layer of lubricant.

To begin the drawing process, one end of coil is reduced in cross section up
to some length and fed through the drawing die, and gripped. A wire
drawing die is generally made of tungsten carbide and has the configuration
shown in Fig for drawing very fine wire, diamond die is preferred.

Small diameter wire is generally drawn on tandem machines which consists

of a series of dies, each held in a water – cooled die block. Each die reduces
the cross section by a small amount so as to avoid excessive strain in the
wire. Intermediate annealing of material between different states of wire
may also be done, if required.

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Wire drawing terms:

Where Do , Df , Lo and Lf are the original and final diameter and length.
Ao and Af are original and final cross sectional area.

For a single cold – drawing pass, the percent area reduction that can be done
depends upon many factors. These include the type of material, its size,
initial metallurgical condition, the final size and mechanical properties
desired, die design and lubrication efficiency. The percent of area reduction
per pass can range from near zero to 50%.

Figure11: Wire Drawing Mold

Where:
σ = stress of drawing (N/mm2)
Y = Yield stress ( N/mm2)
= Angle of half of the mold
α
μ = Coefficient of friction.
35
A1 =the area before drawing(mm2)
A2 =the area after drawing(mm2)
Angle of half of the mold can be calculated from the following
equation:

D1= the diameter before drawing

D2= the diameter after drawing

The force can also be calculated from the following equation

*Example1: Find the necessary force (F) to pull a wire from an alloy
(aluminum - copper) from diameter 0.6 cm (D1) to diameter 0.2 cm (D2)
Note that the coefficient of friction μ is equal to 0.5 and the yield stress Y is
380 MPa?

**Example2:For the Wire Drawing Process, Determine (D1) if the diameter

of wire after the process (D2) is 10 mm , yield stress (Y) is (400 M N/m2 ),
stress of drawing (σ)
is (800 MN/m2), half angle of mold (α) is (5̊) and coefficient of friction (μ)
is (0.5)

**Example3:For the wire drawing process determine necessary force (F) if

the diameter of wire before and after the process is (0.6,0.2) cm
respectively، yield stress is (360 M N/m2 ) and coefficient of friction
(μ) is (0.5). Explain the solution with drawing

36
Tube drawing is a process to size a tube by shrinking a large diameter
tube into a smaller one, by drawing the tube through a die. This process
produces high-quality tubing with precise dimensions, good surface finish,
and the added strength of cold working. For this reason this process is
established for many materials, namely metalworking but also glass.
Because it is so versatile, tube drawing is suitable for both large- and small-
scale production. The large-scale production of glass typically uses a one
step process where glass is directly drawn into a tube from a melting tank.
There are five types of tube drawing: tube sinking, mandrel drawing,
stationary mandrel, moving mandrel, and floating mandrel. A mandrel is
used in many of the types to prevent buckling or wrinkling in the work
piece.

Figure12: Types of tube drawing

Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal

blank is radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a
punch It is thus a shape transformation process with material retention. The
process is considered "deep" drawing when the depth of the drawn part
exceeds its diameter. This is achieved by redrawing the part through a series
of dies. The flange region (sheet metal in the die shoulder area) experiences
a radial drawing stress and a tangential compressive stress due to the
material retention property. These compressive stresses (hoop stresses) result
in flange wrinkles (wrinkles of the first order). Wrinkles can be prevented by
using a blank holder, the function of which is to facilitate controlled material
flow into the die radius.
37
 Figure13: Deep drawing processes

The force required for compression in deep drawing can be calculated from
the following equation:

DP= Piston diameter (mm)

T= Working thickness (mm)

D°= Working diameter (mm)
= Stress of press (N/mm2)
Example
Determine (Fmax) in the Deep Drawing Processes if The diameter of the
piston (Dp) is (100mm), diameter of plate (Do) is (150mm), thickness of
plate (T) is (2 mm) and compressive stress (σ) is(500 N/mm2).

38
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-
sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-
section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing
processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work
materials that are brittle, because the material only
encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an
excellent surface finish.

a-Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most

common extrusion process. It works by placing the billet in a heavy walled
container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw. There is a
reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them
separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that the force required
to extrude the billet is greater than that needed in the indirect extrusion
process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet
to travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force
required is at the beginning of process and slowly decreases as the billet is
used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases because the billet
is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the
billet (called the butt end) is not used for this reason.
b-Indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and
container move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place
by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container length. The maximum
length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the
stem. Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are
eliminated. This leads to the following advantages

 A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger

billets, increasing speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller
cross-sections
 There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no
heat formed from friction
 The container liner will last longer due to less wear
 The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse-
grained peripherals zones are less likely.
The disadvantages are

39
 Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of
the extrusion. These defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or
the aesthetics are important. In order to get around this the billets may be
wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.
 This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-
sectional area is limited by the maximum size of the stem

Figure14: Extrusion processes

c-Impact extrusion: is a manufacturing process similar
to extrusion and drawing by which products are made with a metal slug. The
slug is pressed at a high velocity with extreme force into a die/mold by a
punch.

Figure15: Impact extrusion

This method is used to produce toothpaste tubes and pharmaceuticals and the
production rate is high for two piston per second.

40
41
Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process that generates heat
through mechanical friction between work pieces in relative motion to one
another, with the addition of a lateral force called "upset" to plastically
displace and fuse the materials. Because no melting occurs, friction welding
is not a fusion welding process in the traditional sense, but more of a forge
welding technique. Friction welding is used with metals
and thermoplastics in a wide variety of aviation and automotive applications

Figure1: Friction welding

42
Ultrasonic Welding is a plastics welding process, in which two work pieces
are bonded as a result of a pressure exerted to the welded parts combined
with application of high frequency acoustic vibration (ultrasonic).
Ultrasonic vibration transmitted by a metal tool (horn, sonotrode) causes
oscillating flexing of the material and friction between the parts, which
results in a closer contact between the two surfaces with simultaneous local
heating of the contact area. The plastic melts in the contact area, the polymer
molecules are cross-linked, forming a strong joint.

Figure2: Ultrasonic Welding

Diffusion Welding

43
Two workpieces at different concentrations are placed between two presses.
The presses are unique for each combination of the workpieces, with the
result that a new design is required if product design changes.
The heat equivalent to about 50-70% of the materials melting point is then
supplied to the system, increasing the mobility of the atoms of the two
materials.
The presses are then pressed together, causing the atoms to start diffusing
between the materials at the contact area. The diffusion takes place due to
the workpieces being of different concentrations, while the heat and pressure
only make the process easier. The pressure is therefore used to get the
materials contacting surfaces as close as possible so that atoms can more
easily diffuse. When the desired proportion of atoms are diffused, the heat
and pressure are removed and the bonding processing is completed

Figure3: Diffusion Welding

44
Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state (solid-
phase) process where welding is accomplished by accelerating one of the
components at extremely high velocity through the use
of chemical explosives. This process is most commonly utilized to
clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer of corrosion resistant material
(e.g., stainless steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due to the nature
of this process, producible geometries are very limited. Typical geometries
produced include plates, tubing and tube sheets.
.

Figure4: Explosion welding

Electric resistance welding (ERW) refers to a group of welding processes

such as spot and seam welding that produce coalescence of faying
surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance
of material combined with the time and the force used to hold the materials
together during welding. Some factors influencing heat or welding
temperatures are the proportions of the workpieces, the metal coating or the
lack of coating, the electrode materials, electrode geometry, electrode
pressing force, electrical current and length of welding time. Small pools of
molten metal are formed at the point of most electrical resistance (the
connecting or "faying" surfaces) as an electrical current (100–100,000 A) is
passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are
efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are limited to
relatively thin materials and the equipment cost can be high (although in
production situations the cost per weld may be low)

45
 Figure5: Electric resistance welding

Electron-beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which

a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to two materials to be joined.
The work pieces melt and flow together as the kinetic energy of the electrons
is transformed into heat upon impact. EBW is often performed
under vacuum conditions to prevent dissipation of the electron beam.
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple
pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated
heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The
process is frequently used in high volume applications using automation,
such as in the automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or penetration
mode welding.

46
 Figure6: Laser beam welding
Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using
electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when
cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses
a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use
either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some
type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual,
semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the
19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding
during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the
fabrication of steel structures and vehicles

47
 Figure7: Arc welding
Benefits of coating
1-The stability of the electric arc.
2- Improving metal transmission from the electrode to the operator.
3-To generate protective gases to prevent metal welding from atmospheric
oxidation.
4- To form a cover of slag on the surface of molten weld metal.
5- To supply welding with the desired spherical elements.
6-To facilitate the clean separation of slag from the metal after solidify .

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas

tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The electric arc is formed between
an electrode (which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten) and
the work piece. The key difference from GTAW is that in PAW, by
positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be
separated from the shielding gas envelope. Is a distinct state of matter that
can be described as an ionized gas in which the electrons are free and
unrelated to the atom or molecule If the substance is found in nature in three
cases: solid, liquid and gas, plasma can be classified as the fourth state on
which the substance can be found. In contrast to gases, plasma has its own
48
properties. When the heat is heated or subjected to a high electromagnetic
field that ejects the electron away from the nucleus, it produces positive and
negative charge more freely called ions. This condition is obtained by
passing an appropriate gas such as argon or a mixture of ark, hydrogen or
nitrogen through an electric arc Strait Under these conditions gas ionization
and For plasma from the nucleus, the plasma jet temperature can reach
35,000 ° C.
orbits.

Figure8: Plasma arc welding

MIG welding
In this method, the electrode is used as a bare wire. The arc protection is
covered by gas and the wire is supplied continuously and automatically from
the pulley. The wire moves through the nut hole before forming an electric
arc with the operator and the wire diameters ranging from 0.8 to 6 , 5 mm
depending on the thickness of the parts to be welded and the rate of metal
deposition required. The choice of gas or gas mixture depends on the type of
metal to be sold. Inert gas is used for welding aluminum alloys and stainless
steel. CO2 gas is generally used in low and medium carbon steel welding.

49
This welding method is highly productive, does not require expensive
machines and can be easily transferred to welding machines, which makes
this method very well known in construction. Inert gas and other welding
agents such as used wire play an important role. The protective gas, cost and
workability are considered

Figure9: MIG welding

TIG welding
Is an arc welding process, its temperature is generated by an electric arc
produced between the tungsten pole and the workpiece. This type of welding
uses inert gas, which drives the gas from a compressed gas cylinder to the
welding area through the torch. The aim of this gas is to isolate the welding
area from the air.
Tungsten welding is used in the aircraft industry, widely used in the
aerospace industry, as well as in the manufacture of bicycles (welding of
small thin-walled pipes) and is used for maintenance and repairs.
The electrodes used in the welding of the tungsten arc differ considerably
from those used in other welding processes. They are not used as filler
metal. The electrodes used in welding the tungsten arc are made of pure
tungsten metal, which is a very harsh type of metal and is gray or gray,
which is very heat resistant. This is not affected by the heat of the bow.
During welding, the color turns red, yet it maintains its severity. There is a
pure tungsten pole that reaches its purity to about 99.5%.
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and
non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The
50
process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing
processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding,
allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is
comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related
process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create
a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated

Figure10: TIG welding

Advantages:
1-The pole is not consumable so another metal is used for stuffing.
2. Fit for few thicknesses.
3 - gives the welds of high accuracy and quality.
4. Low productivity.
Disadvantages:
1- The material cost of its equipment is very high.
2- It must always be maintained.
3-Difficulty moving from place to place.
4- Requires high-priced gases

51
 Difference between mig and tig welding

MIG WELDING TIG WELDING

1. This welding is known as metal 1. This is known as tungsten inert

inert gas welding. gas welding.

2. Metal rod is used as electrode 2. Tungsten rod is used as

and work piece used as another electrode.
electrode.

3. Less Difficulty moving from place 3.Difficulty moving from place to

to place. place

4. Continuous feed electrode wire is 4. Welding rods are used which are
used which are fast feeding. slow feeding

5. MIG is comparatively faster than 5. TIG is a slow welding process.

TIG.

6. MIG can weld materials such as
mild steel, stainless steel and
aluminum. A range of material
thicknesses can be welded from
thin gauge sheet metal right up to
heavier structural plates.
7. It can weld up to 40 mm thick
metal sheet.
6. TIG weld things like kitchen
sinks and tool boxes. Pipe welding
and other heavier tasks can also be
performed, you just need to have a
unit that is capable of putting out
the amount of power that you
need.
7. Metal thickness is limited about
5 mm.

8. MIG requires consumable 8. It used non consumable

metallic electrode. tungsten
electrode
9. CO2 gas is generally used 9. Requires high-priced gases such as
argon, hilum.

10. DC with reverse polarity is 10. It can use both A.C and D.C.
used.

52
 Gas Welding Process:
Gas welding is a fusion process in which fusion is obtained by completely
melting the joint. The heat required for heating and melting the parent and
filler metal is obtained by the combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen.

Fuel gas used in welding can be acetylene, propane, hydrogen, butane and
natural gas. Of these, acetylene is by far the most widely used because the
temperatures obtained by combustion of acetylene are much higher than
those obtained by combustion of other gases.
Oxy-acetylene flame temperature, for example, is of the order of 3500°C
compared to 3000°C for oxy-hydrogen or epoxy butane flame and 2800°C
for natural gas flame. The medium of combustion of fuel gases is generally
oxygen though sometimes compressed air is also used. Use of air, leads to
reduced thermal efficiency, lower welding speed and poorer quality of the
welds. The choice of gases for gas welding is thus restricted to choice of
correct fuel gas for the desired welding speed and quality of weld.
Oxy-acetylene gas welding process is widely used commercially for welding
of ferrous and non-ferrous metals particularly for thin sections up to 6 mm
thick. The process is also useful for a large amount of repair work. Typical
applications of the process include fabrication of ventilation and air-
conditioning ducts and repair of vehicles. The process is also indispensable
in early stages of the installation of a new plant. Oxyhydrogen gas welding is
used for welding thin sheets of steel and low melting temperature materials.
Oxyfuel gas welding:
Any fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. This flame is used
as the source of heat to melt the metals at the joint.
Fuels are:
 Oxygen,
 Acetylene,
 Hydrogen,
 Methyl acetylene Propadiene.

53
Figure11:Gas Welding Process

Figure12: Types of films

54