SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY

General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600

Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

ACADEMIC PAPER NO.1

TOPIC: The Interplay Between Structural Racism and Urban Crime Rates: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis
STUDENT: JENNIFER F. GUITBA
FACILITATOR: Marie Joy M. Capdos, PhD
COURSE: PHDCJM2 - Seminar on Multicultural Issues and Urban Crimes
DATE: February 4, 2024

OBJECTIVE:
This academic paper seeks to explore the intricate relationship between structural racism
and urban crime rates. By employing a multi-dimensional analysis that incorporates historical,
socio-economic, and institutional factors, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive
understanding of how racism influences crime patterns in urban settings. Through an
examination of empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks, this paper will shed light on the
mechanisms through which racism contributes to the perpetuation of crime and provides
insights into potential strategies for reducing urban crime rates.

INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Explore the relationship between structural racism and urban crime rates.
2. Use a multi-dimensional approach, considering historical, socio-economic, and
institutional factors.
3. Collect empirical evidence to examine the impact of racism on crime patterns in urban
settings.
4. Apply relevant theories to understand how racism contributes to crime.
5. Provide insights and strategies to reduce urban crime rates influenced by racism.

I. Introduction:
Understanding the relationship between racism and crime rates in urban areas is
essential for comprehending the multifaceted dynamics that contribute to criminal behavior
within marginalized communities. Racism, as a systemic form of discrimination, perpetuates
social and economic disparities that disproportionately affect minority groups. These disparities,
such as unequal access to education, employment opportunities, and quality housing, create
environments where individuals may feel marginalized and excluded from mainstream society.
As a result, some individuals may resort to illegal activities as a means of survival or to address
the injustices they face.
Thus, exploring how racism affects crime rates in cities is incredibly important for several
key reasons. Firstly, it helps us uncover and address the unfair treatment that marginalized
communities face. By understanding how racism makes crime worse, we can work towards
making our society fairer and more just for everyone. Secondly, understanding this relationship
gives us important clues about how to prevent crime. We can develop specific plans and
programs that target the root causes of crime, like poverty and discrimination. Thirdly, this
guides policymakers in making decisions that promote fairness and inclusivity. By recognizing
the impact of racism, they can create policies that dismantle unfair systems and support those
who are most affected.
Moreover, studying this issue helps build trust between communities and law
enforcement. When people understand why crime happens and feel empowered to make
change, they can work together with police to create safer neighborhoods. Additionally,
addressing the health effects of racism and crime is crucial. By focusing on mental and physical
well-being in affected communities, we can work towards creating healthier and safer
environments for everyone. In summary, examining how racism influences urban crime rates is
vital for promoting social justice, enhancing public safety, and empowering communities to
create positive change.

II. Literature Review:

Research consistently demonstrates the presence of racial bias within the criminal
justice system. This bias manifests in various forms, including racial profiling, discriminatory
policing practices, and disparities in arrests and sentencing. For example, studies have shown
that individuals from minority backgrounds are more likely to be stopped, searched, and

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arrested by law enforcement officers compared to their white counterparts, even when
controlling for factors such as crime rates and neighborhood characteristics (Lofstrom, M.,
Hayes, J., Martin, B., & Premkumar, D., 2021). These disparities erode trust between minority
communities and law enforcement agencies, hindering efforts to effectively address crime and
maintain public safety.
Likewise, structural racism further worsens these inequalities by perpetuating systems
and institutions that systematically disadvantage certain racial and ethnic groups. For instance,
historical practices such as redlining have led to segregated housing patterns, limited economic
opportunities, and unequal access to resources in many urban areas. These structural barriers
create cycles of poverty and crime, wherein individuals from marginalized communities face
limited opportunities for socioeconomic advancement and are more likely to be involved in
criminal activities (Charles, C. Z., 2003).
Furthermore, the public health implications of racism and crime are significant. Research
has shown that experiencing racism can have detrimental effects on individuals' mental and
physical well-being, contributing to stress, anxiety, and other adverse health outcomes
(Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., &
Gee, G., 2015). Additionally, in the study of Foell, A., Pitzer, K. A., Nebbitt, V., Lombe, M., Yu,
M., Villodas, M. L., & Newransky, C. (2021), found out that living in neighborhoods
characterized by high crime rates can further exacerbate these health disparities, as individuals
may face increased exposure to violence and trauma.
To address these complex issues, evidence-based policymaking informed by research
on the impact of racism on urban crime rates is essential. Policymakers must work
collaboratively with communities, law enforcement agencies, and other stakeholders to develop
comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of crime, dismantle systemic
inequalities, and promote social justice. By investing in initiatives aimed at improving
educational opportunities, creating economic empowerment programs, and reforming the
criminal justice system, policymakers can foster safer, more equitable urban environments
where all individuals have the opportunity to thrive, regardless of race or ethnicity.

III. Historical Context:

Historical roots of racism and segregation in urban areas are deeply embedded and
multifaceted, shaped by centuries of societal attitudes, policies, and practices. America’s racially
segregated neighborhoods are not the result of natural development or market forces, but rather
stem from deliberate plans, policies, and practices of racial exclusion and disinvestment
targeting Black communities. These policies systematically denied Black people access to well-
resourced neighborhoods and left their communities with failing schools, inadequate services,
and high levels of crime.
First is slavery and colonialism which played a pivotal role in shaping modern systems of
oppression and inequality. European colonial powers exploited African labor and natural
resources, laying the groundwork for modern systems of oppression and inequality. The
transatlantic slave trade began in the 16th century, driven by the demand for cheap labor in the
emerging colonies of the Americas. The European colonization of the Americas created a labor
shortage, which was filled by enslaved Africans. Initially, African slavery was less prevalent in
the Americas compared to indigenous slavery, but the rapid depopulation of native peoples due
to disease and conflict increased the demand for African labor.
Moreover, as cited from the Library of Congress, the Jim Crow Laws which were
enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, used to legally sanctioned racial segregation
in public facilities, transportation, housing, and education. Likewise, Redlining and Housing
Discrimination which began in the early 20th century, government-sponsored redlining and
discriminatory lending practices systematically denied mortgage loans and insurance to Black
Americans, concentrating poverty and segregation in urban neighborhoods (Chetty, R. &
Hendren, N., 2018).
Also, the Urban renewal projects and the construction of interstate highways often
targeted predominantly Black neighborhoods for destruction and displacement, further
exacerbating segregation and declining urban communities. While the White Flight and
Suburbanization, during the post-World War II period, where many white families moved out of
urban areas into newly developed suburbs, facilitated by government policies such as the
Federal Housing Administration's loan programs, which were often inaccessible to Black
Americans.

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 SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY
General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

Furthermore, the implementation of harsh drug enforcement policies and the war on
drugs disproportionately affected Black communities, leading to mass incarceration and further
destabilizing urban neighborhoods (Charles, C. Z., 2003).
These historical factors, among others, have contributed to the persistent cycle of racism
and segregation in urban areas, shaping the socio-economic landscape and perpetuating
inequalities for generations. Addressing these deep-rooted issues requires a comprehensive
understanding of historical injustices and concerted efforts to dismantle systemic racism and
promote equitable policies and opportunities for all residents of urban communities
IV. Socio-economic Factors:
The examination of socio-economic disparities faced by racial and ethnic minority groups
in urban areas reveals a complex interplay of factors contributing to their marginalization. These
groups often experience disproportionate levels of poverty, unemployment, and limited access
to resources compared to their white counterparts. This disparity is rooted in historical and
systemic factors such as discrimination, institutionalized racism, and unequal access to
education and employment opportunities.
Research indicates that racial segregation, enduring concentrated poverty, and long-
term socioeconomic inequalities are interconnected issues in the United States. Scholars like
Patrick Sharkey, Robert Sampson, and Raj Chetty have highlighted the detrimental effects of
urban poverty and segregation on communities, particularly impacting Black Americans. Studies
show that a significant proportion of Black Americans are stuck in high-poverty neighborhoods,
leading to generational barriers and lower incomes in adulthood compared to white individuals.
Moreover, socioeconomic biases in urban mixing patterns further exacerbate
segregation and isolation among minority groups. Research demonstrates that despite similar
travel patterns across different socioeconomic classes, minority groups have lower exposure to
wealthier or white populations, perpetuating segregation beyond residential neighborhoods into
mobility and social interactions.
Addressing these disparities requires a multifaceted approach that includes community-
led strategies for economic improvement, enhancing public services like education and
healthcare, reducing crime, improving transportation access, and promoting local
entrepreneurship. Additionally, policies must tackle structural racism, promote diversity, and
create opportunities for families living in persistently poor neighborhoods to move to areas with
greater resources and opportunities.
Understanding the complex relationship between race, socioeconomic status, health
outcomes, and mobility patterns is crucial for developing effective interventions to combat urban
inequality and segregation. By addressing these interconnected issues through targeted policies
and community empowerment initiatives, progress can be made towards creating more
equitable and inclusive urban environments for all residents.

V. Institutional Factors:
The role of institutional racism in perpetuating urban crime rates is multifaceted and
deeply rooted in historical and structural factors. Institutional racism refers to the systems,
ideologies, and processes that operate at a socio-ecological level and can adapt to changing
sociopolitical contexts.
The enduring impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence is a significant
issue that perpetuates crime rates in cities. Structural racism, defined as the institutions,
ideologies, and processes that operate at a socio-ecological level, has been associated with
higher rates of crime and violence in urban areas. Studies have shown that the distribution of
urban violence is linked to historical forms of structural racism, with neighborhoods experiencing
high rates of crime and disorder as a legacy of social and economic inequalities
In cities like Philadelphia, the concentration of urban poverty and social deprivation
among Black communities has been intensified by segregation forged through the housing
market. The 1937 Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) map zoned Philadelphia based on
a hierarchical system that perpetuated racial discrimination and led to the concentration of
poverty in specific areas. This historical context has contributed to the enduring impact of
structural racism on urban violence in Philadelphia
Research has also highlighted the association between structural racism and racial
disparities in firearm homicide rates. Studies have demonstrated striking geographic differences
across counties in the magnitude of structural racism, with higher values generally observed in
the Midwest and Northeast regions. Structural racism has been significantly associated with

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 SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY
General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

higher Black firearm homicide rates, lower White homicide rates, and a higher Black-White
racial disparity in firearm homicide rates (Jacoby, S. F., Dong, B., Beard, J. H., Wiebe, D. J., &
Morrison, C. N., 2018).
Furthermore, regardless of socioeconomic status, Black communities face higher gun
homicide rates compared to mostly white neighborhoods at the same socioeconomic level.
Reasons for this disparity include institutional racism, underinvestment, racial wealth gaps, and
lack of resources and opportunities in majority-Black neighborhoods. Residential segregation by
race continues to put Black individuals at a higher risk of gun homicide, highlighting the
persistent impact of historical redlining and structural racism on firearm violence in urban areas
(Siegel, M., Rieders, M., Rieders, H., Moumneh, J., Asfour, J., Oh, J., & Oh, S., 2023).
Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies that tackle systemic racism,
promote equity in resource allocation, invest in marginalized communities, and implement
policies that address historical injustices to create safer and more inclusive urban environments
for all residents.
Analysis of biased policing practices, racial profiling, and disproportionate law
enforcement in marginalized communities reveals systemic injustices that perpetuate urban
crime rates. These practices disproportionately target racial and ethnic minorities, contributing to
mistrust, alienation, and social unrest within these communities. Biased policing practices, such
as racial profiling, involve the targeting of individuals based on their race or ethnicity rather than
on evidence of criminal activity. This discriminatory approach can lead to the harassment,
intimidation, and unjust treatment of minority individuals by law enforcement officers. Racial
profiling undermines community trust in law enforcement and perpetuates feelings of injustice
and resentment, ultimately hindering crime prevention and resolution efforts.
Disproportionate law enforcement in marginalized communities exacerbates existing
inequalities and perpetuates cycles of poverty and crime. These communities often experience
heightened police presence, aggressive policing tactics, and harsher sentencing for minor
offenses, leading to the overrepresentation of minority individuals in the criminal justice system.
Unequal access to justice further marginalizes these communities and undermines the
principles of fairness and equality under the law.
The enduring impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence is evident in
the concentration of poverty and social deprivation among Black communities in cities like
Philadelphia. Historical practices such as redlining and discriminatory housing policies have
perpetuated racial segregation and concentrated poverty in specific neighborhoods, creating
environments where crime and violence thrive. Structural racism, characterized by
institutionalized inequalities and systemic barriers, perpetuates socio-economic disparities and
exacerbates urban violence.
Research has shown a correlation between structural racism and racial disparities in
firearm homicide rates, with higher rates observed in areas with greater levels of structural
racism. Residential segregation by race continues to expose Black individuals to higher risks of
gun homicide, highlighting the persistent impact of historical injustices and structural racism on
urban violence (Siegel, M., Rieders, M., Rieders, H., Moumneh, J., Asfour, J., Oh, J., & Oh, S.,
2023).
Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies that tackle systemic racism,
promote equity in resource allocation, and invest in marginalized communities. Policy reforms,
community policing initiatives, anti-bias training for law enforcement officers, and efforts to
address socio-economic inequalities are essential to creating safer and more inclusive urban
environments for all residents. Additionally, acknowledging and addressing the legacy of
historical injustices is crucial for promoting reconciliation and healing in affected communities.
VI. Empirical Analysis:
The relationship between racism and urban crime rates, shedding light on the complex
dynamics at play. Studies have delved into the race-crime relationship, revealing disparities in
arrest rates between racial groups. Research indicates that non-White arrest rates are higher
than White arrest rates for various crimes, as illustrated by data from the FBI's Uniform Crime
Reporting program (Piquero, A. R., & Brame, R. W., 2008).
The overrepresentation of Blacks in official crime statistics has sparked debates within
the criminology field. One hypothesis, known as the "differential involvement hypothesis,"
suggests that Blacks are more involved in criminal activities that lead to official processing by
the criminal justice system. However, structural explanations and neighborhood effects also play
a crucial role in shaping these disparities.

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

In Philadelphia, historical forms of structural racism have influenced the distribution of

urban violence. Segregation, driven by the housing market, has intensified social and economic
deprivation among Black communities, leading to higher rates of crime and violence in certain
neighborhoods. The isolation of Black city residents due to segregation has negative
consequences, including associations with health conditions like violent injuries and deaths
(Jacoby, S. F., Dong, B., Beard, J. H., Wiebe, D. J., & Morrison, C. N., 2018).
Moreover, studies have developed tools to measure structural racism at different levels,
such as at the county level for the non-Hispanic Black population. These measures have
revealed significant geographic differences across counties in the magnitude of structural
racism, with higher values observed in certain regions. Structural racism has been linked to
higher Black firearm homicide rates, lower White homicide rates, and a greater Black-White
racial disparity in firearm homicide rates (Siegel, M., Rieders, M., Rieders, H., Moumneh, J.,
Asfour, J., Oh, J., & Oh, S., 2023).
Overall, empirical data underscores the enduring impact of historical and structural
racism on urban violence and crime rates. Understanding these relationships is crucial for
developing targeted interventions that address systemic inequalities and promote safer and
more equitable urban environments for all residents.

VII. Theoretical Frameworks:

Several theoretical frameworks can be applied to understand how racism influences
urban crime rates. Strain theory, social disorganization theory, and critical race theory offer
insights into the mechanisms through which racism contributes to crime in urban settings.
Strain Theory: According to strain theory, individuals experience strain or pressure when
they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means. Racism can
create economic and social disparities that limit opportunities for marginalized communities,
particularly racial minorities. Discriminatory practices in education, employment, and housing
can exacerbate these strains, leading some individuals to turn to criminal activities as a means
of achieving their goals. For example, racial discrimination in hiring practices may push
individuals into underground economies or illegal activities to support themselves and their
families.
Social Disorganization Theory: Social disorganization theory focuses on the breakdown
of social institutions and the resulting lack of social control within communities. Racism and
discrimination can contribute to social disorganization by creating divisions and barriers within
communities. Discriminatory practices in housing and education can lead to residential
segregation and the concentration of poverty in certain neighborhoods. These areas often lack
resources and social cohesion, making them more susceptible to crime. Additionally, mistrust
and alienation between law enforcement and marginalized communities can further weaken
social control mechanisms, allowing crime to flourish (Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F.
X., 2012)
Critical Race Theory (CRT): Critical race theory examines how racism is ingrained in
societal structures and institutions. CRT posits that racism is not just individual prejudice but
also systemic and institutionalized. In the context of urban crime rates, CRT highlights how
historical and structural racism perpetuates inequalities that contribute to crime. For example,
discriminatory housing policies like redlining have led to the spatial concentration of poverty and
limited access to quality education and employment opportunities for racial minorities. These
systemic inequalities create environments where crime rates are higher due to economic
deprivation and social marginalization (Sampson, R., Wilson, W. J., Katz, H., 2018).
By applying these theoretical frameworks, we can understand the causal pathways
between racism and crime in urban settings. Racism creates structural inequalities and social
disorganization within communities, leading to strains on individuals and limited opportunities for
socioeconomic advancement. These factors increase the likelihood of criminal behavior as
individuals seek alternative means of achieving their goals. Moreover, racism undermines trust
in institutions and fosters alienation, weakening social control mechanisms and exacerbating
crime rates in marginalized communities.

VIII. Implications and Policy Recommendations:

The relationship between racism and urban crime rates has significant ramifications for
policy and practice. Here are some key implications:

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
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1. Policy Reforms: Policymakers need to implement reforms that address systemic racism
and its impact on urban crime. This includes measures to combat racial profiling and
biased policing practices, such as implementing anti-bias training for law enforcement
officers and establishing oversight mechanisms to hold officers accountable for
discriminatory behavior.
2. Community Policing Initiatives: Investing in community policing initiatives can help
build trust between law enforcement and marginalized communities. These initiatives
involve officers working closely with residents to address local concerns and develop
strategies to prevent crime collaboratively. By fostering positive relationships and
improving communication, community policing can help reduce tensions and increase
cooperation between law enforcement and communities.
3. Equity in Resource Allocation: Policies should prioritize equitable resource allocation
to address disparities in education, employment, housing, and social services. This
includes investing in affordable housing, quality education, job training programs, and
mental health services in marginalized communities. By addressing root causes of crime
such as poverty and lack of opportunity, these initiatives can help reduce crime rates
and improve community well-being.
4. Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities: Efforts to address socio-economic
inequalities are crucial for reducing urban crime rates. This includes policies to increase
access to economic opportunities, improve educational attainment, and provide support
for low-income families. By promoting economic stability and social mobility, these
interventions can mitigate the impact of racism and create more inclusive and resilient
communities.
5. Acknowledging Historical Injustices: Acknowledging and addressing the legacy of
historical injustices is essential for promoting reconciliation and healing in affected
communities. This may involve initiatives such as reparations, truth and reconciliation
processes, and educational programs to raise awareness about past injustices and their
ongoing impact on marginalized communities.
Overall, addressing racism and urban crime requires a complex approach that tackles
systemic inequalities, promotes community empowerment, and fosters collaboration between
stakeholders. By implementing evidence-based policies and practices, policymakers can work
towards creating safer, more equitable, and inclusive urban environments for all residents.

IX. Conclusion:
Biased policing practices, notably racial profiling, significantly target racial and ethnic
minorities, amplifying mistrust and estrangement within marginalized communities. This
disproportionate law enforcement intensifies existing disparities and sustains cycles of poverty
and criminality. Embedded within historical and structural racism, including discriminatory
housing policies and institutionalized injustices, are factors perpetuating socio-economic divides
and fueling urban violence. Extensive research underscores the correlation between structural
racism and racial disparities in firearm homicide rates, underscoring the enduring repercussions
of past injustices on urban safety and stability.
Moreover, comprehending the influence of racism on urban crime rates holds significant
importance for multiple reasons. Firstly, it illuminates the fundamental origins of crime within
marginalized communities, emphasizing the systemic injustices that sustain urban violence.
Secondly, it underscores the imperative of confronting structural inequalities and advocating for
equitable resource distribution to mitigate crime and enhance community welfare. Lastly, it
guides policy formulation and implementation by furnishing evidence-based perspectives on
efficient approaches for combatting racism and diminishing crime rates in urban environments.
The study's outcomes carry substantial implications for forthcoming research endeavors,
emphasizing the necessity of tackling racism as a strategy to diminish crime: Future
investigations ought to delve deeper into the causal connections between racism and crime,
elucidating the mechanisms by which systemic injustices sustain urban violence. Furthermore,
ongoing research should focus on identifying effective strategies for combatting racism within
policing, law enforcement, and broader societal institutions, aiming to foster community trust
and lower crime rates. Prioritizing anti-racism initiatives in policy and practice is crucial for
cultivating safer, more inclusive, and equitable urban environments conducive to the well-being
of all residents.

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 SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY
General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

In conclusion, understanding the impact of racism on urban crime rates is crucial for
addressing systemic injustices and promoting community well-being. By recognizing the role of
racism in perpetuating crime and implementing evidence-based strategies to address structural
inequalities, policymakers can work towards creating safer and more just urban environments
for everyone.

X. References:
Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2012). Racial Discrimination, Ethnic-Racial
Socialization, and Crime: A Micro-sociological Model of Risk and Resilience. American
sociological review, 77(4), 648–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648

Charles, C. Z. (2003). The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation. Annual Review of

Sociology. Vol. 29: 167–207. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100002.

Chetty, R. & Hendren, N. (2018). “The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility

I: Childhood Exposure Effects.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 133, no. 3: 1,107–162.
https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjy007.

Foell, A., Pitzer, K. A., Nebbitt, V., Lombe, M., Yu, M., Villodas, M. L., & Newransky, C. (2021).
Exposure to community violence and depressive symptoms: Examining community, family, and
peer effects among public housing youth. Health & place, 69, 102579.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102579

Gibbons, F. X., Fleischli, M. E., Gerrard, M., Simons, R. L., Weng, C. Y., & Gibson, L. P. (2020).
The impact of early racial discrimination on illegal behavior, arrest, and incarceration among
African Americans. The American psychologist, 75(7), 952–968.
https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000533

Jacoby, S. F., Dong, B., Beard, J. H., Wiebe, D. J., & Morrison, C. N. (2018). The enduring
impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence in Philadelphia. Social science &
medicine (1982), 199, 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.038

Krivo, L. J., Lyons, C. J., & Vélez, M. B. (2021). The U.S. Racial Structure and Ethno-Racial
Inequality in Urban Neighborhood Crime, 2010–2013. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 7(3),
350-368. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649220948551

Library of Congress (n.d.). Jim Crow and Segregation | Classroom Materials at the Library of
Congress. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/jim-crow-segregation/

Lofstrom, M., Hayes, J., Martin, B., & Premkumar, D., (2021). Racial Disparities in Law
Enforcement Stops. Public Policy Institute of California. https://www.ppic.org/publication/racial-
disparities-in-law-enforcement-stops/

Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., &
Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
PloS one, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511

Piquero, A. R., & Brame, R. W. (2008). Assessing the Race-Crime and Ethnicity-Crime
Relationship in a Sample of Serious Adolescent Delinquents. Crime and delinquency, 54(3),
390–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128707307219
Sampson, R., Wilson, W. J., Katz, H. (2018). "Reassessing “Toward a Theory of
Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality”." Du Bois Rev. 15, no. 1: 13-34. DOI: 10.1017/
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Shihadeh, E. S. & Shrum, W. (2004). Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race
Effect?. Sociological Spectrum, 24:4, 507-533, DOI: 10.1080/02732170490459502

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 SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY
General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

Siegel, M., Rieders, M., Rieders, H., Moumneh, J., Asfour, J., Oh, J., & Oh, S. (2023).
Measuring Structural Racism and Its Association with Racial Disparities in Firearm Homicide.
Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 10(6), 3115–3130.
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Turner, M. A., Santos, R., Levy, D. K., Wissoker, D., Aranda, C., & Pitingolo, R. (2013). Housing
Discrimination Against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012. Washington, DC: US Department of
Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.

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