ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS

Africans, Europeans, Asians, Scientists, Believers and others have attempted to solve the
mystery surrounding the origins of mankind. Their explanations have been different and
conflicting in many respects. The mythologies have been put forward in an attempt to explain
man’s existence and theories from different proponents of science. For us to believe or disregard
these explanations, concrete evidence needs to be put forward. There are 3 categories of these
explanations namely;

i) Cultural/ Indigenous explanation

ii) Religious explanation
iii) Scientific/ Theoretical explanation

ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS IN SETSWANA MYTHOLOGY

In the Botswana societies, the origins of human beings can be traced back to Matsieng, their
ancestor. Matsieng was a giant one legged human being who came from the ground and left his
foot prints in the rock around Rasesa near Mochudi. After he came out of the ground there
emerged all animals, plants and vegetation. From him then came all humanity. Batswana have
the following story on their origins;

‘ Long, long ago in the time of Lowe when the rocks were still soft, our ancestor, the
one-legged giant, Matsieng, lived below the ground with his people, cattle and the wild
animals. One day he heard a bird calling above him and, looking up, saw the sky through a
hole. He climbed up through the hole and was followed by his people, cattle and the wild
animals. He left his footmarks in the rock and these can still be seen near Rasesa.’

Batswana use these footmarks as evidence to support their origins.

ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS IN ZULU MYTHOLOGY

“A long, long time ago, there were no people on earth. God (Unkulukulu-the Great-one)
created man from the reed. After God had created mankind, he gave them the sun and the
moon to be light so that they could see. Then God created cattle and gave them saying “Let
them be your food, eat their flesh and their milk.’ The Zulu therefore taught their children that
the source of being is above, and that it is “God who gives life” (adapted from call away 1870)

ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS IN HERERO MYTHOLOGY

1
‘Long ago there was nothing on earth. In the underworld there was a tree of life called
Omonborongo (Motswere). God made a big hole in the tree of life. The first to come was
the man and then the wife. After them came all different animals, plants and insects. They
gave birth to a child and slaughtered it as thanksgiving to their creator, Njambi-Karanga.’
That is why it is common among the Herero to slaughter an animal every time a child is born
(adapted from Baumann, 1964)

MYTHOLOGY OF THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEINGS AMONG THE KUNG OF THE

KGALAGADI

Mankind was created by God called Haishe or Kauna. After making man he gave him the power
of naming all the animals and the trees on earth. Haishe lived on earth and had to two sons Ixoma
and Kauka. All animals could talk and communicate with mankind (adapted from Lee and
Derore 1976). It is important to note that even if the mythology stories do not sound credible,
they are an attempt by society to explain the origin of life within the context of their own culture,
time and society.

RELIGIOUS EXPALNATION TO THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN BEING

Many religions also attempt to explain how human beings came about

CHRISTIANITY
Genesis Chapter 1 verses 26-27
God created everything on earth by word of mouth
And God said “let us make man in our image after our likeness, and let them have
dominion over fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and every creeping thing that
creeps upon earth” so God created man in his image in the image of God he created male
and female.

ISLAMIC
Another major world religion is Islam. The Moslems explain the origin of mankind basing on the
revolution of the prophet Mohammed at Maclinal-on-Nabi.O Mankind! ‘Worship your Lord
who hath created you and those before you, so that you may ward of evil, who hath
appointed earth a resting place for you and the sky a canopy and causeth water to pour
down from the sky thereby producing fruits for you.’ (Adapted from the world’s great
religions vol.2 1957)
N.B. Both the Christian and the Islamic religions attribute to origins of mankind to God similarly
Judaism and other modern African traditional churches attribute the creation of mankind to a
monotheistic God who created all men and gave him dominion over all the animals, plants and
all that exist in this world.

2
JEWISH
Most if not religions attribute the origin of mankind to the work of God who created universe
and everything found in the universe. According to the Bible, the earth was originally without
form, void and very dark. In the darkness was the deep ocean. The spirit of God was moving
over the deep waters. God then commanded that there be light, darkness, earth, heaven and
animals. God then created man and woman in his own image and said o them” be fruitful and
multiply and fill the earth and subdue it and have dominion over fish of the sea and over the
birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth”. All people were created
equal before God. God then placed Adam and Eve, the first people on earth in a Garden of Eden.
The biblical explanations of the origins of humankind precisely locate the Garden of Eden in the
same place where the archeological evidence of the origins of man has been found. That is in the
land between the rivers Gihon and Pishon which are blue and white Nile of modern day East
Africa. OLDUVAL has been single out by the historians as the village where Adam and Eve
lived. The disagreement between the bible and archeological evidence is on dating. According to
archeological evidence the history of man beings is much earlier than the time when Adam and
Eve were created by God. Oral evidence normally has common discrepancy when it comes to
dating. It is not surprising therefore to conclude that the Bible provides us with interesting Jewish
oral traditions about the origins of mankind in East Africa. The ancient Jews in Genesis were the
black people in East Africa. Jesus was a Jew and Christianity is a religion named after Jesus
Christ.

SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The theory of evolution was developed first by Charles Darwin. He argued that animals and
plants evolved gradually from simple forms to what they are today. This process of gradual
change that took place in living things (ie plants and animals) is referred to as evolution. Due to
change in the environment plants and animals developed certain characteristics which helped
them to adapt to the new (changed) environment. The process where by living things change or
acquire certain characteristics that enable them to suit the new environment is called adaptation.
As the environment changes some plants and animals change in order to adapt to it. Those that
could not change would die/disappear or become extinct. This is referred to as survival of the
fittest. Plants and animals that changes as the environment changes survives while those that
could not change disappears. The process where some plants and animals survive because they
adapted to the new/changed environment while those that could not change die away is called
natural selection (ie. Nature select/chooses which animals to die and which ones to survive as
the environment changes.). eg. Giraffes have long necks which allow them to eat leaves from tall
trees. They can therefore survive in an environment of tall trees better than short animals.

In brief evolution means slow genetic changes which occur in all living organisms over a long

3
period of time. All living organisms have small particles in the centre of their cells known as
genes which controls development. It is this genes which slowly changes as a result of natural
selection. Through natural selection species pass on their offspring other characteristics which
help them to adapt to the environment. These changes occur so that the organism can increase its
chances of survival in the changed environment .Plants and animals change from generation to
generation. Through these changes they adapt to their environment. Sometimes the environment
changes and suitably adapted plants and animals find themselves disadvantaged. They either
have to readapt or face extinction.

HUMAN EVOLUTION
Scientists argued that humans probably developed out of earlier hominids (human like
creatures).This hominids family included the ancestors of chimpanzees gorillas and apes.

Over the years as the climate of Africa changed the warm and wet climate was replaced by dry
cool climate .This led to the forest also being replaced by the plains (ie open space of grass land).
Some hominids which were used to living in the forest found new ways to live in the open
grassland. This was probably when the ancestors of man separated from apes ( i e . they slowly
evolved into humans).

Scientist believed that the earth and the living things were not created at once but changed over
time. They believed that humans similar to us today existed 100 000 years ago.

PHASES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

Scientist believed that people we have today evolved from stages of Australopithecus, Homo
Habilis, Homo Erectus, Homo Sapiens and homo sapiens sapiens.

AUSTROLOPITHECUS
-Australopithecus still looked like apes and were much smaller than we are today (i e they
were the size of an eight year old child.)
-They had small brains of 400cc in size.
-They had long arms and short legs as they still spent some time on trees.
-Australopithecus lived in groups or large families and probably spent most of the day
walking upright on the open plains looking for food, but at night climbed onto trees along the
banks of rivers or lakes for protection against lions and other animals.

- They ate mainly fruits, young green plants shoots, nuts, roots, bulbs, and tubers and
sometimes insects and very small animals. They could not talk and did not know how to
make tools or fire.

HOMO HABILIS
1 The Homo Habilis was larger than the Australopithecus and may have measured 500-

4
 600cc in volume.
2 Scientists came to believe that this was our earliest real relative. Homo Habilis means
‘handy man’ because of their ability to make things with their hands. Homo Habilis
began to make very simple stone tools.
3 Homo Habilis lived mainly by feeding fruits and vegetables and they slept on trees at
night.
4 The use of sharp stones may have helped them to scavenge meat from the kills of other
animals, to break open marrow bones, and perhaps to make some tools out of wood with
which they could dig for underground plants.

HOMO ERECTUS
The Homo –Erectus have developed much larger brains which were now 900cc in volume.
1 Homo erectus learnt to make a variety of stone tools which could be used for different
tasks. The tool maker knew in his/her mind the shape he /she wanted to make. One of
these tools is called the hand –axe and these axes were inn fact made to a pattern already
seen in their maker’s mind unlike those which were just chipped pepples and flakes.
These Homo erectus tools came to be known as the Early Stone Age tools.
2 Homo erectus learnt to use fire. At first they probably took burning wood from a bush
fire and kept it burning in camp for as long as possible. This was the time that they
ceased to use trees as places to sleep, because they could now protect themselves with
fire. They also roasted meat with this fire. By 600 000 years ago they knew how to make
fire for themselves.
3 They could not talk as we do today but they may have communicated through gestures
with the hands and head, and perhaps by making some sounds with their mouths.
4 They were able to make plans and carry out those plans with their companions
5 They also hunted large animals but this appears doubtful.
6 They learnt how to chase lions from their killings to take the meat to eat rather than
scavenging meat from their kills.
7 They may also have caught and eaten small animals like young antelopes, tortoises, mice,
birds in the nests and eggs.

HOMO SAPIENS
Homo- sapiens had the brain size as ours today of about 1 400cc. We call them Homo sapiens
and it means ‘wise man’ or knowledgeable man’.

1 Homo sapiens knew how to make fire and a variety of tools. They may have made shelter
to live in.
2 Homo sapiens communicated quite easily among themselves but they could not talk as
we talk today.
3 They chose stones of a type which they knew would produce a very sharp edge. These

5
 stones were chipped to a predetermined pattern which varied depending on the shape
needed for the finished tool. Long, thin blades were made with sharp cutting edges for
different tasks such as for scraping wood and skins, adzes and hammers and small points
which may have been used for drilling holes and as spearheads. We suspect that many of
these small tools were fixed into wooden handles. These are known as the Middle Stone
Age tools.

AFRICA AS THE CRADLE OF MANKIND

Scientists disagree as to where modern people come from. Some believe people originated from
Africa while others believe Europe and Asia are the original places of man. It is important to
note that evidence has been found in Africa and as such we regard Africa as the original place of
mankind.

EVIDENCE WHICH PROVES AFRICA AS THE HOME OF MAN.

1. Archeologists have shown that the earliest fossils of Homo sapiens were found in Africa.
Archeologist have found evidence of human development as demonstrated by fossils
bones in many places but the oldest bones have been found in Africa e.g. the first skull
found in Africa came from Taung in South Africa near Vryburg and it was thought to be
2 million years ago. Other much older bones were found in places like Kenya, Ethiopia
and Tanzania. All these fossils have been ancestral to modern people and this clearly
shows that people evolved in Africa.

2. Archeologists have also found out that the earliest known human blade tools of the
middle stone age were first made in Africa. They believed that Homo sapiens made blade
and flake tools and began to spread to other parts of the world.

3. Science has also put more weight behind the argument through the evidence of Gene
patterns also known as the DNA which has proved Africa as the cradle of mankind. This
is because Scientist research has shown that the Africans are the oldest population
living on earth and therefore logical that other races of Indians, Europeans and Asians
all descend from Africans.

4. Scientists also proved that 200 thousands years ago in Africa, among the population of
the Homo sapiens, one man and one woman started a line of descendants which became
modern people. Some of the descendants of that man and woman began to spread out of
Africa.
5. Many modern scholars believed in a theory of monogenesis which has come to be called
the mother tongue theory in trying to prove Africa as the cradle for mankind. This theory holds
that one original language spoken by a single group of Homo sapiens perhaps as early as 150
thousand years ago gave rise to all languages spoken on earth today. As humans colonized

6
various continents, this original mother tongue diverged through time to form numerous
languages spoken today.

Now, proponents of the multi regional theory have failed to unearth convincing evidence
that human beings evolved in all the continents at the same time. Perhaps we should wait
for more archaeological work to be undertaken and may be concrete and convincing
proves will be found, of which it is doubtful.

THE SPREAD OF HUMANKIND

In the last 2.5 million years ago the increase in the population of the African, Homo sapiens led
to the spread of people from their original home to another land outside Africa. These population
dispersals led to the first appearance of the earliest human population outside Africa. Between
200 000 and 10 000 years ago modern man had to spread to occupy all the habitable regions of
the world. These population dispersals were made possible by the expansion of the ice sheets in
the last stage. These expansions reduced the sea levels to expose land bridges which linked most
major areas and many isolated into one continent land mass.

The modern people occupied habitable regions of the world including Australia and America. It
is evident that between 30 000 and 40 000 years ago black people had already spread to Asia,
Europe, and America. The ancient Homo sapiens who spread outside Africa adopted new
physical characteristics due to environment factors found outside Africa in order to suit the new
environment. Thus after the global period when much of the Northern hemisphere was still
covered with ice , people who were originally black lost their melanin and developed a light
pinkish color, a long nose, long hair adapted to the new conditions of harsh and prolonged
winter periods.

WAY OF LIFE OF PEOPLE OF THE LATE STONE AGE, THE

KHOISAN
THE SAN

7
SOCIAL WAY OF LIFE

>They wore clothes made of animal skin, furs, feathers of wild animals
>They lived in small groups called bands or hunting camps
>They danced sang to celebrate he new and full moon. sometimes they danced for a successful
hunt.
>They were nomads (they went from one place to another) and this made them to build
temporary shelters made from grass (mogwaafatshe), they also lived in caves.
>They were polygamous and they practiced the cutting off the tip of a finger as a ritual to show
how important marriage was. Marriage was respected and only those who have gone through
initation were allowed to get married.It is believed that boys aged 14 and 16 were allowed to get
married.

>San are thought to have believed in a god called Kaggen who created everything and was
represented in body form by praying mantis.
>They danced and sang to celebrate the new and the full moon and when they had the successful
hunt.
>They practiced initiation, where boys were taught how to hunt and track animals. They were
also taught how to use their traditional medicineand distinguish between healing herbs and
poisonous ones. gathering skills.

ECOMONIC WAY OF LIFE

>They were hunters. They hunted wild animals using bows and poisoned arrows, traps, pits and
snares. These animals provide them with animal skin for clothing as well as meat.
>They practiced fishing ie. Those who lived near rivers were fishermen.
>They were traders; they exchanged their goods for iron and tobacco.
>They were gatherers. They gathered wild food such as fruits ,root tubers, caterpillar ,insects,
ostrich eggs etc
POLITICALWAY OF LIFE
>Chieftaincy was not hereditary. They did not have a proper leader . The leader was the first man
to make fire in a new settlement or one who owns a water hole. He was also responsible for
distributing food amongst the camp members.
>The leader could not make important decisions like sentencing one to death. Decisions were
made by elders in a camp.

THE KHOIKHOI

SOCIAL WAY OF LIFE

1 They believed in ancestral spirits
2 They had special customs, called rituals or rites, to show how important their religion and
old stories were.

8
 3 They wore clothes made from animals’ skins but also ox hides.
4 Their camps or village were made up of a circle of huts with fences of brushwood
5 They celebrated marriages after the initiation of boys and girls
6 They paid bride price(bo

ECOMONIC WAY OF LIFE

>They were herdsmen, they owned large flocks of. fat tailed sheep and long horned herds of
cattle.
>They made sleeping mats, beads and copper wire and they used them to trade theses useful
articles by bartering with other indigenous people and Arabs from the eastern coast.
>They obtained milk from their cattle. This was their staple food. Cattle were only slaughtered
during ceremonies like weddings.
>They were hunters and gatherers. Hunting and gathering was done to supplement their diet.

POLITICALWAY OF LIFE
1 They lived in groups led by a chief and these chiefdoms were nomadic
2 The chief had the power to sentence men to death
3 The chief was the kinsman and brought quarrels to an end at meeting of the men of a
camp.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
The period when stone tools were made and used is called the STONE AGE. Later humans
discovered how to mine, smelt and use metals such as copper, tin, gold and iron. Iron was the
most important metal used for making tools. The period when a person made iron tools is called
IRON AGE.

THE STONE AGE IN AFRICA (2.6 MILLION YEARS TO ABOUT 2000 YEARS AGO)
The Stone Age in Africa is divided into three phases:
1 Early Stone Age
2 Middle Stone Age
3 Late Stone Age
Four main types of stone tools were used during the Stone Age: core tools, flake tools, blade
tools and microlith.

THE LATE STONE AGE 25000-2000 YEARS AGO

Late Stone Age people made tools from small flakes. These tools are called MICOLITHS
because they were very small, sometimes less than one centimeter long. These small flakes were
used to make tools such as arrowheads, spears, knives, choppers and scrapers with handles.
Several small flakes would be glued together and then attached to a wooden handle using versin
gum from trees. Sometimes flakes were inserted into a groove made in the wooden handle.

9
Arrowheads were smeared with poison made from plants and insects. The poison weakened the
animal. This made hunting large animals easier and safer.

Apart from microlith tools people also made digging stick. A hole was made through a heavy
round stone. The stone was fixed to a stick to make it heavier. The weight of the stone made
digging easier. The sticks were used for digging roots and tubers.

THE STONE AGE WAY OF LIFE

1. HUNTING AND GATHERING

The early hominids lived in small nomadic groups. They were hunters and gatherers. They
worked together to get enough food for the whole group. Cooperation was important for the
survival because it meant everyone was taken care of. They were also better able to defend
themselves against enemies.

2. FARMING
Towards the end of the late Stone Age, some people began to grow crops and they kept
livestock. The earliest farming communities in Africa were in the Nile Valley.
Archeological evidence suggests that by 10 000BC, people of the Nile Valley were growing
barley and wheat. By 5000BC farming had become the main way of life. People lived in
permanent settlements.

Between 3,000 and 1,000 BC people across the Savannah areas of the west and east Africa were
growing crops such as sorghum and millet. In the tropical rainforest areas people grew crops
such as yams. These people also kept livestock such as sheep and goats.

In southern Africa, crop farming only began with the arrival of the Bantu speaking people from
west central Africa. However they found Late Stone Age people already rearing sheep and cattle.

FROM HUNTING AND GATHERING TO FARMING

About 10,000 years ago, towards the end of the late Stone Age, the hunting and gathering way of
life changed. People began to farm. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats. They
also grew crops like wheat and barley. Farming knowledge developed in different parts of the
world: the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, China, Mexico and the Nile Valley

FROM STONE TO METAL TECHNOLOGY

Human culture changed further, when people discovered how to mine, smelt, and use metals.

10
The first metals used were, copper, tin and gold. These are the soft metals. They were mainly
used to make ornaments and jewellery. Later on iron was used mainly to make tools.

IRON AGE
The earliest Iron Age sits are in the Anatolia in the modern Turkey. Here people called the
Hittites and Chalybles were smelting iron around 2000BC. Between 1500BC and 1000BC, iron
working knowledge spread throughout the Middle East, including Mesopotamia. By 670 BC iron
working knowledge had reached Egypt. From Egypt, it spread to other parts of Africa.

The Iron Age in Southern Africa is generally divided into two main phases.
i) The Early Iron Age –between 200AD and 1100AD
ii) The Later Iron Age – after 1100AD until about 1800AD

THE EARLY IRON AGE IN BOTSWANA

Early Iron Age farmers settled in different areas, several Early Iron Age sites have been found in
Botswana. The map below shows where these sites are and when they were occupied.

TOUTSWEMOGALA
Between 650 AD and AD there developed hilltop villages in Eastern Botswana. The largest
village in Eastern Botswana was on the hill top named Toutswemogala. We do not know what
the people who lived there called themselves, so today we refer to them as the Toutswe people.

The Toutswe people were mixed farmers. They kept cattle, sheep and goats. All villages had a
large livestock had increased greatly. We know this because archeologists have found remains of
large cattle kraals and huge dung heaps.

Toutswe people also grew crops such as sorghum, millet, squash and cowpeas. Granaries
surrounded the kraal. Low and unreliable rainfall made cattle and not crops the main measure of
how wealthy a person was.

Archeologists have found sea shells and glass beads on many Toutswe sites. This suggests that
these people traded with their neighbors. Arabs brought these items of trade across the Indians
Ocean and sold them to people along the eastern coast of Africa. One group sold the beads and
sea shells to another. This is how the Toutswe people would have acquired goods from so far
away.

At first there were only a few scattered small villages. Theses villages were located where people
could find water and fertile soil. By 900AD the population had grown. The number of villages
also increased. The result was greater competition to control farming land water sources.

11
Gradually some chiefs became more powerful and richer than others by taking control of these
natural resources.

The settlement pattern changed. Three large villages were built on hill tops such as
Toutswemogala, Bosutswe and Sung. Surrounding these villages were smaller hill top villages.
On the plan were smaller villages. This settlement pattern suggests that the large hill top villages
belonged to the most powerful chiefs. The smaller hill top villages belonged to the headmen. The
ordinary villagers lived on the plain.

Another change after 900AD was in the style of pottery. It has been suggested that this was due
to the arrival of a new group of people. The pottery was thinner than that which was made during
the early Stone Age. It was grey in color. The pattern around the neck of the pot was neat. Often
the pots were painted or polished in red or black.

Changes in settlement patterns and pottery style marks the period when the early Iron Age was
coming to an end and the later Iron Age was begging in this area.

Around 1250 AD drought and overgrazing appear to have caused the decline of Toutswe
chiefdoms. Archeologists are not sure what happened to the Toutswe people. They have
suggested that probably the people left the area and joined other neigh boring chiefdoms.

DIAGRAM SHOWING AN EARLY IRON AGE

The later Iron Age (1100ADto 1800AD)

The later Iron Age began about 1100 AD. It is a period known for
*The development of bigger settlements
*Increase in trade
*Thinner, painted or polished pottery
*The rise of kingdoms

12
The early Iron Age (200AD to 1100 AD)

The earliest evidence of the iron working knowledge in Zimbabwe comes from a place called
Mabveni. The people who lived there in 100 AD made what archeologists have named Bambata
pottery. The main early Iron Age settlements occurred between 200AD and 400 AD. People in
these settlements mined iron and copper. They made different kinds of pottery.

Gokomere pottery
One style of early Iron Age pottery was first found in Gokomere. This pottery is known as
Gokomere pottery.

By 500AD the Gokomere pottery style spread to the present day Francistown area and as far as
the Shashe River. Gokomere pottery was thick and not well fired. It was grey to light brown in
color. The neck of the pot was decorated with patterns.

What was the lifestyle of the people who made Gokomere pottery like?

*They lived in small widely scattered villages

*They mined iron and copper
*They made iron tools and copper jewelery
*They kept a few cattle, sheep and goats.
*They grew crops such as millet and beans
*They hunted to supplement the food they got from farming
*They made clay pots for cooking and storing water and food.

DIAGRAM OF GOKOMERE POTTERY

GREAT ZIMBABWE
One of the most important kingdoms of the later Iron Age period was Great Zimbabwe. From
about 1200AD until 1450AD, the ancestors of the Shona people of the modern day Zimbabwe
established a large kingdom. The capital of this Shona kingdom was Great Zimbabwe. It was
located near present day Masvingo.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
The king ruled with the help of regional governors. Under the governors were the chiefs and

13
headman. They, as a sign of loyalty, gave tribute in the form of cattle, grain and gold to the king.

SETTLEMENT
It is estimated that about 10,000 people lived in great Zimbabwe. Most of the people lived in
closely spaced mud and thatch houses in the valley. The royal family lived at the centre of the
settlement on a hill. Massive walls surrounded their houses. Walls and the buildings were
constructed using granite stone blocks closely fitted together. No mortar was used. Some of the
walls were 9m high and 5m thick. Many of these walls can still be seen today. Smaller ruins
built in style of Great Zimbabwe are found in Eastern Botswana.

MINING
Copper and gold were obtained from areas north of Great Zimbabwe. Gold also came from the
gold fields in the South. These metals were used to make beads, bangles and ornaments. A lot of
gold was sold to foreign traders. Iron smelting furnaces were located outside the walled
settlement. Archeologists have found many iron tools such as hoes and axes belonging to the
king. These were probably given to him as a tribute.

TRADE
The location of the Great Zimbabwe enabled the king to control trade between the interior and
the east coast. Control of trade made the king rich and powerful. Archeologists have found many
imported items such as ceramics, cloth, sea shells and glass beads.

POTTERY
The pottery used by the royal family was better made and decorated than used by other people. It
was polished so that it looked like metal.

FARMING
The people of Great Zimbabwe were mixed farmers. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep,
and goats. They also grew crops such as millet, sorghum and beans. Cattle were the main form of
wealth.

DECLINE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE

In about 1450AD, the capital of Great Zimbabwe was abandoned. Some oral traditions suggest
that this may have been caused by a declined in trade, overpopulation and environmental
damage. Other kingdoms such as the Mwenemutapa kingdom took over most of the trade. The
land had lost its fertility, the grass had been overgrazed and there was a shortage of wood and
salt.

14
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF TOUTSWEMOGALA

OVERPOPULATION
By 1200AD the Toutswe people have grown large. There were so many people and livestock
kraals making the area to be unable to accommodate the large population of both people and a
animals. Some of the Toutswe people decided to break a way and move to areas not yet known
in order to form their own mini-states. This however led to the decline of Toutswemogala.

OVERGRAZING
Because of the fact that the Toutswe people were agriculturists, the increase in the number of
livestock meant that the land was over used which destroyed the vegetation. Tiling the land
yearly also reduced the fertility of the soil and this made them to abandon the area.

DROUGHT
There was severe drought which struck Toutswemogala which completely destroyed the natural
resources. Crops and livestock no longer supported the large population. The people found the
best solution as moving out to different areas and this led to the decline of Toutswemogala.

DECLINE IN AVERAGE RAINFALL

Between 1300-1500AD there was a de cline in the average rainfall in Toutswemogala and this
forced the people to abandon the area as their agriculture was negatively affected. The decline in
rainfall meant the unreliable food supply and this made people to move out of the area leading to
the collapse of Toutswemogala.

EMERGENCE OF MAPUNGUBWE
During the 12th century a major trading capital was established at Mapungubwe to the East of
Toutswemogala. Mapungubwe was a good position for the development of long distance trade.
This area was also good as people could easily hunt elephants for ivory in the Limpopo Valley.
Mapungubwe was also close to the gold bearing regions of Tati and Zimbabwe plateau. To the
East of Mapungubwe were trade routes down to the Limpopo and Sabi rivers.
Mapungubwe was therefore a wealthy and major trading area and blocked Toutswe trade. The
rich ruling class of Toutswemogala lost their power and Mapungubwe took the entire control.
This led to the collapse of Toutswemogala.

HOW IRON AGE TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCED THE LATE STONE

AGE PEOPLE.

ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
1 Hunting technology improved as metal hunting tools were made and this people began to

15
 hunt big animals and their work became easier.

2 People began to indulge in Agriculture and this Agriculture introduced a whole new life
because the late Stone Age people began to grow their own food instead of entirely
depending on hunting and gathering.

3 Trade among the late Stone Age as well expanded. People began to export more food,
iron tools to the neighboring communities to get things they did not have.

SOCIAL
1 The late Stone Age people began to settle more permanently where they built houses that
could last long because they settled around then fields they cultivated and did not move
frequently like before.

2 Pottery mad also improved since it was made much stronger by baking it. It was even
decorated and the clay pots made were used for wider purposes.

3 The division of labour also expanded. Women initially were gatherers but now with iron
tools they extended their role to the cultivation of crops as well as household. Men who
used to be hunters of wild animals extended their duty to taking care of livestock.

4 There was also division of people according to wealth. This was however brought up by
emphasis on cattle rearing. More cattle rearing, more cattle meant riches and less meant
poor.

5 Due to technology, different system like mafisa, lobola polygamy began to be practiced
as a result of emphasis on cattle e.g. during times of drought and hardship, those without
cattle came to depend on the cattle owners for a supply of food, they herded the cattle
fro exchange of milk and meat.

THE BANTU SPEAKING

The Bantu people are believed to have come from the Benue Cross Region between Nigeria and
Cameroon. The word Bantu refers to people or human beings. It also refers to people who speak
related languages with the same root, suffix. Ntu- designates a person.

Examples
Language Singular Plural
Swahili Mtu Watu
Nguni Muntu Bantu
Shona Munhu Vanhu
Tswana Motho Batho
Duala (Cameroon) Moto Bato
Mongo Bonto Banto

16
The similarity in languages means that one time in the past these people were once one people,
speaking the same language from Benue Cross Region and they migrated East, Central and
Southern Africa.

REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION

The search for land

Initially the Bantu were hunter-gatherers but later adopted arable and pastoral farming. This
meant that the Bantu needed more land than ever before for the growing of crops and grazing of
animals. Because of the needed for more land the Bantu began to migrate into East, Central and
Southern Africa.

Overpopulation
Now that the Bantu practiced mixed farming they were assured of a very secure supply of food.
This led to an increase of population and the people needed new areas to cater for the livestock
and they then expanded the population.

Natural disasters
Natural disasters are also believed to have contributed to the Bantu migration and they include
the outbreak of the deadly diseases like malaria, small pox and nagana which attacked man and
his animals. These forced them move from the affected area to areas free of these diseases. Other
may include disasters such as things as drought or famine. Long drought characterized by crop
failure, withering of pastures and the outbreaks of pests like locusts led to the widespread of
famine which forced them to migrate and escape from these harsh conditions to new and
unaffected areas.

Political disputes
Sometimes there were political misunderstandings among the Bantu people. The problem was
usually caused by the desire to rule or succession dispute between the heirs to the throne. This
would divide people into factions which would defect to other areas once they were defeated in
succession matters.

Trade
This is the other possible reason for the Bantu migrations since they were engaged in trade with
other societies exchanging their surplus goods with those that they did not have. This trade took
place mostly along the Eastern Coast of Africa. The Bantu had to travel long distance to reach
the trading posts in order to exchange their goods effectively. It could be one of the reasons why
they decided to migrate and settle next to other trading partners. Along the coats they
encountered the Arabs and the Portuguese who were looking for indigenous merchandise.

17
CLASSIFICATION OF THE BANTU IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Bantu in Southern Africa are divided into different groups during their migration down
Southwards. Also the division was based on the language spoken by different groups today and
the relationship in the language spoken. These are:
The Nguni- This comprises of Zulu, Xhosa, Thonga, Ndebele, Shangane and Fembu.
Sotho-Tswana- This comprises of Sotho, Tswana and Pedi
Shona- This comprises of Karanga, Kalanga and Zezuru
South-Central Bantu -Ovambo/ Herero- This comprises of Ovambo, OvaHerero, OvaBanderu,
Hambukushu and Subiya
Among the Bantu groups these were the main groups who came to Southern Africa during the
Great Bantu migration.

MIGRATIONS INTO SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Nguni
They moved into the fertile coastal region between the Drankensburg Mountains. The Xhosa
were the first to arrive and went as far as the great Fish River. Many Nguni language groups are
characterized by the click sounds suggesting contact with the San groups which resulted in
intermarriages. The Xhosa were the first Bantu group to be met by the Dutch in the Eastern
Cape.

The Sotho-Tswana
This group entered Southern Africa from the North East and settled in the high veld of South
Africa. The Batswana settled in the area from Orange River in the South West into what is now
Botswana. The Sotho-Tswana can be divided into two groups namely: the Northern Sotho of
Transvaal and the Southern Sotho of Lesotho and Orange Free State.

The Herero
From Central Africa the Ovambo/ Herero moved to the South and to the West and their
movement were slower because they were moving into drier areas of South West Africa. The
Ovambo were both pastoral and arable farmers. As a result they settled in area of higher rainfall
along border of the present day Namibia and Angola. The Herero were pastoralists and they
moved further south and settled in the highlands of South West Africa i.e. the present day
highlands of Namibia.

THE WAYS OF LIFE OF THE BANTU

18
Economic
The economic life of the Bantu was advanced than that of the Khoisan. These people were mixed
farmers and they grew crops such as millet, sorghum, peas and beans. They were also pastoral
farmers and their livestock included cattle, sheep, goats etc.
Cattle provided them with meat and milk and sour but their cattle were hardly killed for meat
while meat in their diet was largely obtained from hunted animals. Livestock was used as a
source of prestige and the basis upon which a man’s wealth was judged. The more livestock a
man had the more respect he got from society and for this reason the Bantu found it important to
keep livestock. Cattle were used for paying bride price and the livestock were also slaughtered
during ceremonies like marriage and death.

Hunting and gathering was also done in small scale and was meant to supplement their diet and
as a result the Bantu had a more se cure and stable food supply then the Khoisan. One another
important economic activity among the Bantu was iron working. Through this activity they were
able to manufacture iron implements such as hoes and spears. The use of iron implements and
tools helped to speed up and increase military implements for use during times of war.
Trade also played an important role in the lives of the Bantu. They exchanged their surplus food
for those that they did not produce. Their trading partners were the Portuguese and the Arabs
along the Eastern and Western coasts of Africa. They offered the traders goods such as ivory,
gold etc. in ex change for goods like cloth, tobacco, glass beads. Etc.
Land played a significant role and it was considered a property of the community and there was
no individual ownership of land. The chief had the power to control land and man who was given
a piece of land could use tit for as long as he wished but the land remained the property of the
community. The Bantu had no definite territorial boundaries and this situation caused problems
when they encountered the Europeans.

Political
The cultivation and rearing of livestock by the Bantu made it necessary for these people to live in
permanent settlements. The stable food supply further encouraged them to live in large
communities. Such communities were characterized by a network of laws and regulations which
were intended to promote peace and stability. The smallest political unit was the clan which
consisted of people claiming a common ancestry and each can has its own headman who was
responsible for solving disputes within his clan. The elderly male members of the clan assisted
him in his duties. There was an important clan within the chief of the clan was chosen.
Chieftainship was hereditary along the patrilinial lines and the chief was responsible for the day
to day administration of the chiefdom and his assistants were a council of advisors. These
advisors were chosen outside the ruling clan with the hope that they would never attempt to
overthrow the chief.
Sometimes the chief would call assemblies of all clan leaders discuss important issues of the

19
tribe. Male members within the chiefdom would attend and the assemblies were known as
“Pitso” among the Basotho. Everyone was free to voice out his/ her views and the chief could
openly be criticized. Although the chief always made the final decisions, he hardly made
decisions that differed sharply with the public’s opinion. The chief therefore had to rule
according to the wishes of the people. An oppressive leader was not tolerated and could be
easily removed. There were other duties that were performed by the chief since he was the
highest judicial officer with the powers to sentence to death when necessary. He could also
command in chief of the armed forces. The position of the chief was demanding and at the same
time respectable.

Social
The most important social in the life of the Bantu was initiation ceremonies. Young men and
women had to under go initiation before they could get married. During initiation ceremonies the
youth were circumcised and were taught tribal history, religion, culture and adult life in general.
The importance of law was also emphasized. These schools prepared the youth for the adult life
and they also served to promote the culture of a tribe.
Soon after the initiation, the graduate got married and cattle were used to pay bride price. Those
graduates formed one regiment and were given a common identifying name. The son of the chief
who was undergoing this initiation was made the leader of the regiment. During was times the
regiment fought and defended the tribe and they also executed other civil duties together.
Ancestors played a very important role in the religion of the Bantu. Sacrifices had to be offered
to the ancestors to appease them. The chief led most of the important religious activities. They
also believed in the rain making ceremonies to ensure success and prosperity of their crops and
cattle. The Bantu believed that there was a god who was above all the beings and the ancestors
served as links between the people and the creator.

THE SHONA OF ZIMBABWE

The Shona people lived in the present day Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is in South Central Africa and
is bounded by Zambezi River to the North and Limpopo River to the South. Zimbabwe shares
the border with Botswana, South Africa and Mozambique. The Shona people are the descendants
of the Bantu migrations who migrated from West Africa and spread into Central and southern
Africa 2000 years ago. The original name of the people known as the Shona is Vakaranga/
Bakalanga. The term Shona is a recent name which was used by the whites and the Ndebele to
describe the Kalanga people of Zimbabwe. The people of Zimbabwe speak a Bantu language
called Shona. The Shona people include the Birwa, Ndau, Phalaborwa and Danda.

Social lifestyle
The Shona people believed in the Supreme Being called Muzunu Murungu or sometimes called
Mwari. The Shona people believed that their god was the creator of all living things as well as

20
dead things. They believed God had the powers to control life and death. They therefore prayed
and worshipped ancestors. The ancestors were consulted through spirit mediums called
Mhondoro. The role of Mhondoro was to warn leaders of unpredictable natural disasters. The
Shona lifestyle was centralized around the family. The Shona respected marriages and the
nuclear family and lived in a compound called Manga.
Polygamous marriage was also practiced. The people made clothes through weaving.
Cooperation was encouraged through Hunwe party work. At the Hunwe people did hard work in
helping others. There was also division of labour according to sex.

Economic
Mixed farming was the main activity in the Shona society. This means that the Shona kept
animals and grew crops. Through farming the Shona raised large herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
Cattle played an important role as they were used to provide milk, meat, and skins for clothing.
They cultivated crops like millet, maize, and sorghum. Grains were used to make porridge and
beer.
Hunting was also one the major economic activities. Trade was also practiced but it was mainly
among the rich ruling class. Iron, copper and gold were mined and hoes, axes and wire were
made. Copper was also for jewellery and as a form of money, these were later traded.

Political
There were chiefs in the Shona society called Mambo and chieftainship was hereditary. The
Mambo was assisted by his ministries and offices that held important positions in the society.
Among the chief’s ministries was the governor of province called Nengomasha. During the
chief’s absence Nengomasha acted on his behalf. There was the captain general of the armed
forces. Captain of all gates of the society was called Mukomohasha. All people joining society
were to report to him on their arrival. There were also the “Abuya” who receive presents brought
to the court. Other officers were body guards, praise singers and musicians.

THE IMPACT OF THE ARRIVAL OF THE BANTU ON THE KHOISAN

Positive impact
1 The Bantu brought the use of iron technology in southern Africa and this means the
Khoisan started to use much stronger and efficient tools e.g. hoes, axes, spearheads and
this meant that their agriculture as well as hunting was done on a larger scale, easily and
efficiently.

2 They also brought new farming methods in southern Africa. The Khoisan initially relied
on hunting and gathering but then they adapted farming and the new methods which of
course meant more food production and the Khoisan began to have more reliable food
supply which improved their life instead of heavily depending on the hand to mouth
lifestyle.

21
 3 New crops such as pumpkins, cowpeas were also introduced by the Bantu when they
arrived in southern Africa. This means that arable farming was improved as the Khoisan
added some food items to their diet and they had reliable food supply where even the
surplus could be traded.

Negative impact/Non-Beneficial
1 One of the negative impact of the bantu on the Khoisan was that the Bantu arrived in
Southern Africa in large numbers and occupied some empty space and when the space
was fully filled, they began to chase away the Khoisan out of their favorable hunting
grounds and pushed them to the most remote and drier parts of the country where food
and animals were scarce. This means the Khoisan lived in poverty.

2 The other negative impact is that a lot of the Khoisan lost their lives when the Bantu
arrived in Southern Africa. When the Bantu occupied the Khoisan land, some of the
Khoisan responded by killing and raiding the Bantu’s cattle. The Bantu on the other hand
responded by hunting down the San, [killing the Khoisan].This was even one of the
Africa saddest stories.

3 In some areas the Bantu absorbed the Khoisan into their societies and forced them to
copy the Bantu way of life. This meant that the Khoisan were forced to lose their culture
which obviously was negative

4 The other non beneficial impact is that some of the Bantu groups absorbed the Khoisan
into them for purposes of defending the Bantu when they fought their enemies. In most
cases during those wars, the Khoisan lost their lives and this was negative as the Khoisan
declined in population.

DUTCH COLONISATION OF THE CAPE IN 1652

COLONISATION - The process of bringing one country under the control of another country.
COLONISE- To take control of an area or country that is not yours, especially using force and
send people from their own country so that you can live there.

COLONY- A country that is governed by people from another powerful country more

SETTLERS: People who got to live in a new country which is not their original one.

The Dutch colonization of the Cape began in 1652 during the 17th century. It was started by the
Dutch East India Company (DEIC) which was led by Jan Van Riebeck. The Cape was occupied

22
by the Khoikhoi before the Dutch came.

REASONS FOR THE DUTCH COLONISATION OF THE CAPE IN 1652

1 The Dutch wanted to establish a half-way station where they could break their long and
tiresome journey.

2 The Dutch realized that the Cape had virgin/fertile soils for the production of fruits and
vegetables.

3 The Dutch wanted to establish a station to supply the passing ships with fresh water, fresh
fruits, fresh vegetables and fresh meat.

4 The Dutch wanted to trade with the locals (Khoikhoi) for livestock in order to have a
reliable supply of meat.

5 The Dutch East India Company could sell their produce to other European powers and
make profit.

INSTRUCTIONS THAT WERE GIVEN TO JAN VAN RIEBECK BY THE DUTCH

EAST COMPANY
1 Jan was instructed to grow some vegetables, wheat and rear cattle to supply the passing
ships.

2 He was also instructed to be in good terms with the Khoikhoi.

3 He was also instructed to build a hospital for the sick.

4 He was also instructed to build a fort (a building build to defend an area against attack)
for the protection against the European rivals.

5 He was also instructed to set up navigation marks for ship (marks that are made for the
routes of the ships)

CHANGES THAT WERE BROUGHT BY THE DUTCH AT THE CAPE

23
 1 The introduction of the slavery: the Khoikhoi provided cheap labour at the Dutch
plantation. At the same time, the Dutch imported slaves from the West Africa in
countries like Madagascar, Indonesia, and Mozambique to provide cheap labour in the
farms.

2 The Dutch forced the Khoikhoi to leave their religion and join the Dutch Reformed
Church.

3 Introduction of the racial discrimination: this is whereby the locals were regarded as
inferior group and the Dutch were regarded as superior.

4 The Dutch introduced a system whereby Trade was controlled by them only.

5 They also introduced the recognition of the Dutch language as the official language at the
cape.

6 They introduced a system whereby more land was given to the Dutch settlers.

7 A lot of Dutch laws were also introduced where the locals were forced to abide by these
laws.

HOW THE CAPE EXPANDED BETWEEN 1652 AND 1800

The main factors that are used to explain the expansion of the cape are:
1 Arrival of the slaves at the Cape

2 Arrival of the free burghers at the Cape(Dutch)

3 Arrival of the French Huguenots

4 The policies of Jan Van Riebeck

5 The policies of Simon Van Der Stel and his son William Van Der Stel

6 Trek Boers

Arrival of the slaves at the cape

The Dutch imported a lot of slaves through the Trans-Atlantic slave trade to provide
cheap labour at the Cape. Most of these slaves were men and some of them took
Khoekhoe women as wives. So there was a natural increase in the slave population as by
1790 the slave population has risen to 25 000 compared to 21 000 white settlers. When
these people arrived at the Cape in large numbers, there was obviously an increase in
population which meant more land was occupied hence the Cape expansion.

24
Arrival of the free burghers at the cape (Dutch)

Free burghers were the Dutch who arrived at the Cape on their own because they heard
that the Cape was a land of opportunity and they were not the members of the Dutch East
India Company. When they arrived at the Cape Jan Van Riebeck excellently welcomed
them and allocated more grazing land of the Khoikhoi to settle in. This meant that more
land was put to use thereby expanding the cape.

Arrival of the French Huguenots

The French Huguenots were the French who ran away from their country due to religious
conflicts and ran away from punishment. They finally ended in the cape in 1688 and 156
of them were given land to settle in. This meant expansion of cape.

The policies of Jan Van Riebeck

One of the policies Jan Van Riebeck was to expand agriculture at the cape. He therefore
released the Dutch East India Company soldiers to become farmers. This led to the
expansion of the cape.

The policies of Simon Van Derstel and his son William Van Derstel

The governorship of Simon Van Derstel and his son William Van Derstel was during the
1680s and 1690s.

Some of the policies of Simon and his son are the:

1 Direct Immigration was encouraged and orphan girls were imported to provide
the free burghers with wives.

2 Emigrates from Northern Europe were given free passage in company ships.

3 Immigrants received a free grant of land which they only paid a small rent.

4 The company also allowed immigrants the extensive grazing rights over
surrounding grassland.

25
ORIGINS OF THE CAPE COLOURED POPULATION

The so called “coloured population” of the cape originated through interbreeding between
Europeans and the Khoikhoi and between Khoikhoi and the slaves.
Many of the early European settlers at the cape were single men and women as their unofficial
wives. Their children were not usually recognized as legitimate and so these children did not
inherit their father’s property.
On the farms there was also inter breeding between male slaves and female Khoikhoi servants.
Gradually they developed a mixed race servile population, part slave and part free. They adopted
the Dutch language of the colonists and began to lose African or Asian cultural identities.
The same applied to the Khoisan labourers who worked on the more remote farms of the Boers
who were on the frontier. They too gradually lost their Khoisan cultural identity and adopted the
language and dress of the Boers. In the ,19th century white people began to use the term “cape
coloured” to refer to this Dutch speaking servile population of slaves, mixed race and Khoikhoi/
Khoisan.

IMPACT OF THE DUTCH ON THE LOCALS

Negative
1 The Khoikhoi lost a lot of their grazing lands to the Dutch settlers. At times the locals
were even squeezed to more isolated and upland areas where they made desperate
attempts at the survival. They therefore lived in poverty as game was scarce.

2 The locals resorted to cattle raiding as they lived in poverty. They were then met by
ruthless Dutch settlers who treated them as animals and killed a lot of them. Precious
lives of the locals were taken.

3 The Dutch as well captured some locals and were usually entered into a life of slavery.
This was of course negative as the locals did not enjoy their human and civil rights.

4 The locals also lost their culture. Having been captured by the Dutch settlers, they had to
adopt the characteristics of the Dutch settlers in terms of dress, religion, pastoral way of
life and language. This meant the locals lived with no identity of their choice.

5 The Khoikhoi even lost a lot of their cattle when they were forced to trade with the Dutch
in the form of cattle. This means they lived in poverty and were even forced by
circumstances to enter into service on Boer farms or become migrant labourers.

26
Positive
1 The Khoikhoi adopted farming methods from the Dutch settlers which benefited them in
the long run where they were able to produce surplus food.

2 With the acquisitions of the new farming crops, the locals again produced surplus food.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE DUTCH EAST INDIAN COMPANY.

Bankruptcy
By the beginning of the 18th century the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt. There was
not able to pay for its debts and this meant that it could no longer smoothly govern the cape. As
such the company had a weak and collapsing government which of course finally collapsed and
they owed 10 million pounds.

Corruption
The company was also not able to smoothly govern the cape because of its well known
corruption practiced by the company officials e.g. the blacks were exploited while the whites
were treated excellently. This means that a lot of workers lost hope in the company which was
followed by the riots and revolts weakening the leading to its collapse.

The expansion of the French and the British East India Company
There was the emergence of these two companies with new and strong governance of the cape.
These companies provided too much competition to the Dutch Company and it’s simply died.

Restriction on trade.
The Dutch east India Company had severe restrictions on trade which finally led to its collapse.
For example the company workers had to produce and sell their products to the company at a
fixed price where they did not make any profit. They were not allowed to grow tobacco. The
workers even had to give the company one tenth of their cattle in return for the grazing rights.
All these restrictions annoyed the workers who lost hope and trust in the company and it’s finally
collapsed.

27
BRITISH AT THE CAPE
Reasons for the British occupation to the cape in 1806
1 The British wanted to establish a half- way station at the cape because the cape was mid-
way their destination so they wanted to break their long journeys.

2 The British once had conflict with French over Holland and the French then successfully
occupied Holland. So the British rushed to occupy the cape in order to block the French
from occupying cape before them.

3 The British especially the London missionary society wanted to stop slavery which was
taking place at the cape.

4 The British again wanted to increase crop production at the cape to have a reliable food
supply.

5 The British even wanted to solve, the great industrial revolution taking place in Europe.
So they found the need to occupy the cape in order to do away with that problem.

CHANGES BROUGHT BY THE BRITISH AT THE CAPE

The British changes at the cape are categorized into two that is, legal changes and administrative
changes.
Legal Changes

Hottentots ordinance was started in 1809(pass law)

This law was introduced in order to control the movement of the blacks. In this ordinance, the
blacks had to register with a particular Boer leader and had to always carry out tags bearing the
names of their Boer leaders. The blacks had to carry out those tags known as “pass” everywhere
they went to and if they were found without their pass they were arrested, beaten and dragged to
go and register.
These laws made the Dutch happy because they had a reliable supply of cheap labour and the
blacks were unhappy because they were exploited and provided cheap labour.

Circuit courts
This law was introduced in order to register cases of ill treatment. The circuit courts were the
mobile courts led by Lord Somerset to investigate and register complaints raised by both blacks
and the missionaries concerning cases of ill treatment. These courts consists 2 judges who moved
from one place to the other looking for any case brought before them. With this law the blacks
were happy because their human and civil rights were protected as they could take their masters
to court. On the other hand the Dutch were very unhappy because they felt insulted by being

28
taken to court by an inferior group of people. The Dutch even nicknamed these courts as “black
courts’ because they felt these courts favored the blacks.
Apprenticeship ordinance-1812
According to this law it was legislated that the black children who were born in farms were
made to work in the Boer farms from the age of 8 years to 18 years that is for a period of 10
years. These children were apprenticed in return for upbringing by their parents’ masters. The
Boers were very happy because this law a reliable supply of cheap labour and the blacks were
very unhappy because their human rights were being exploited.

50th ORDINANCE-1828

It called for equality of all races before the law. This law was introduced as a result of the work
of missionaries especially Dr John Philip. The 50th ordinance cancelled the Hottentots ordinance
and the apprenticeship ordinance and it was mainly introduced to call for equality of all races
before the law. This ordinance restored the rights of the blacks as it granted them free movement
and the right to choose their masters if ever they wanted to work. The Dutch were very annoyed
by the 50th ordinance because they felt insulted by being placed in the same level with the
interior group of people that is the blacks. On the other hand the blacks enjoyed their human
rights.

Emancipation of slavery _1833

Abolition/emancipation of slavery was introduced in 1833 by the missionaries but slavery
officially came to an end in1834. This law meant that no blacks were to be made to provide
cheap labour. This law made the Dutch unhappy because to them it meant a serious shortage of
cheap labour but the blacks enjoyed both civil and human rights.

ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES
(Reforms)
The British intended to make the cape look and sound. The process was known as Anglicization.
The Boers looked at this process with fear and hatred.
1. English language was introduced as the official language at the cape and it was to be
taught in all schools. Afrikaans was totally cancelled.(nullified)

2. English currency (British pound) was introduced to replace the Dutch currency which
was called Rix Dollar.

3. Newspaper had to be only published in English. No newspapers in Afrikaans were to be

published.

4. The new system of English magistrate was introduced and the Old Dutch system was
abolished.

29
 5. There was another change concerning land ownership called land policy. In the past
Boers used land freely use land an abandoned it anytime they wanted so the British then
introduced the policy where the Boer farmers had to permanently own land and had to
pay rent if they wanted to move which was called quit rent. The Boers did not have the
opportunity to exploit the land as they used to and became very bitter. They mow felt
they have had enough about the British and decided to run away from the British
government at the cape.

THE BOER TREK

The Boer Trek is the massive movement of the Boers from the Cape Colony into the
interior of South Africa in the 19th Century.

Causes of the Boer Trek

1 50th ordinance

2 Circuit court

3 Emancipation of slavery

4 All administrative changes

Other causes
1 Rumors

There were widespread rumors at the cape which made the Boers to leave cape. These rumors
included stories like the Boers will soon be forced to join the Anglican Church and will soon be
forced to give away all their land to the blacks, that they will be expected to officially declare
their black wives. All these stories angered the Boers and they decided to leave the cape in that
was called the Boer Trek.

2 Fashion / adventure

Some of the Boers at the cape simply left the cape because they thought it was fashion as
they saw their friends and relatives moving out of the cape.

30
 3 Availability of land in the interior

Some Boers also moved out of the cape because they found that there was a lot of unoccupied
land in the interior. They therefore moved out to settle in that land.

4 Racial prejudice

A lot of Boers also moved into the interior parts of South Africa because they hated being taken
equally with the blacks. They hated mixing with the inferiors and decided to trek out.

5 Issue of queen Adelaide

After the Boer and Xhosa war of 1834 the governor of the cape Benjamin Durban took the
province and gave it to the Boers. The Boers became happy because they thought they fought for
the area. Late the missionaries were critical of Durban’s actions and the province was given back
to the Xhosa. This was a real blow to the Boers and they were convinced that they had to move
out of the cape hence the Boer Trek.

COURSES OF THE BOER TREK (events of the Boer Trek)

The first voortrekker group left the colony towards the end of 1835. This group was led by Louis
Trichardt Jan Van Ransburg, this party of about 100 voortrekker made their way to the
Soutpansberg on the northern edge of the Transvaal Highveld. The area was a good place for
hunting but it was infested with tsetse fly an malaria carrying mosquitoes and as a result Van
Ransburg moved down the Limpopo valley to open up a trade route to the coast. There he
clashed with the local Tsonga and his party was killed.
Louis Trichardt and the rest of the group who were running short of ammunition followed Van
Ransburg’s party in 1838. They felt victim of malaria and only a handful of women and children
made it back by ship to port natal.

In the early 1836 a large group of voortrekker arrived on the Southern Highveld and gathered
near the Rolong settlements of Thaba Nchu. Hendrick Potgieter and Sarel Cilliers the heads of
two wealthy families from the Eastern Cape led by this group are those who clashed with the
Ndebele at the battle of Vegkop in October 1836. Although they successfully defended
themselves the Boers of Vegkop were stranded with no livestock. They were then rescued by
Moroka of Rolong who lent them oxen to pull their wagons to Thaba Nchu. The Rolong them
selves had only recently been driven south of the Vaal by the Ndebele. The Rolong joined with
the Boers in expelling the Ndebele from the Transvaal Highveld in 1837. In 1838 Hendrick
Potgieter and others set up the voortrekker settlement of Potchefstroom and Winburg, north and
south of the middle Vaal.

31
In November 1837, while the Potgieter was still fighting the Ndebele, the majority of
voortrekker were preparing to leave the Highveld and more down into Natal. They elected Piet
Retief as their leader. Retief visited the Zulu capital UMgungundlovu to seek permission from
the Zulu king, Dingane for a settlement in the partly depopulated zone south of the Tugela. The
Zulu regarded the voortrekker as a serious threat to their independence. Dingane tested Retief’s
sincerity by sending him to recapture some Zulu cattle that were stolen by the Tlokwa. Retief
accomplished this task by an act of treachery but in the mean time the voortrekker were already
moving down from the Drankensburg, even before the Zulu king granted permission. It was
probably during the Inxwala ceremony of December- January 1837-38 that the Zulu king finally
decided to wipe out the voortrekker in one swift blow. Retief returned to UMgungundlovu with a
party of 70 voortrekker and handed over the cattle that were stolen to the Zulu king. In the end
the Zulu killed Retief and his companions.

The voortrekker realized that victory over the Zulu was essential if they were ever to establish a
settlement in Natal. In November 1838 a commando of 500 men was assembled under Andrews
Pretorius an experienced commando leader who had recently arrived from the Eastern Cape.
They crossed the Tugela into the Zulu kingdom and formed a laager of wagons at Ncome River.
In 16 December they successfully beat of a mass of attack by a huge Zulu army. Three
thousands Zulu were killed. The voortrekker named the conflict “the battle of Blood River”
because the Ncome ran red with Zulu blood. Pretorius’s commando then marched on Dingane’s
capital, UMgungundlovu but found it deserted. They buried the bones of Retief and his
colleagues before returning to settle between the Tugela and Mzimkulu River in what became
known ‘Natal’.

32
RESULTS OF THE BOER TREK IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Social impact

A lot of blacks in the interior lost their lives, during the Boer Trek for example in the Battle of
Blood River, 3000 Zulus were wiped out by the Boers under Pretorius. This was of course
negative as precious lives of the blacks were lost leading to depopulation of the blacks.

The other result is that of the role of the serviettes by the blacks, in the Boer Trek the Boers took
the blacks in order to be their servants. For example the blacks trekked Boers’ livestock and this
was negative as the blacks did not enjoy their civil rights.

The blacks as well were driven out of their area of residence by the well equipped and dangerous
Boers. A good example is that of the Zulu who were forced to dessert their area due to the
powerful Boers under Andrews Pretorius. This meant that the blacks did not enjoy their rights as
they were forced out of their favorable area of settlement.

Economic

The Boer Trek on the other hand they brought improvement in agricultural set up of the blacks.
The locals were able to acquire skills on farming as well as new crops. This meant that the
agriculture of the blacks improved leading to obviously surplus food.
The Boer Trek still disrupted the agriculture set up with a lot of the blacks being killed, this
means some of the able bodied individuals were nowhere to carry out this agriculture leading to a
complete decline in agric and of course decline in the economy.

Political

In the political result the Boer Trek disrupted the Afrikaans Political Organization. The Boers in
the movements came across the black and drove them out of their areas. The people were then
dispersed all over, some loosing their leaders. This means the black leaders lost their authority.

33
Having created their Boer Republics which some of them incorporated the blacks; these blacks
were permanently negatively affected as the voortrekkers recognized no African or property
rights in their Boer republic. This means the blacks did not enjoy any of their human or civil
rights.

MFECANE
What was Mfecane?
Mfecane was the inter-tribal wars among the Nguni speaking people of Southern Africa in the
19th century.

CAUSES OF MFECANE

OLD SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

i. Madlatule drought of 1802
In 1802 a severe and prolonged drought called Madlatule struck the Nguni speaking people. This
meant that there was a serious competition for the scarce resources as people raided each other
for their cattle and meager store of grains. Still during this time the stronger groups competed for
the control of the only available fertile Pongola Valley. This obviously set up a stage of
hostilities leading to Mfecane upheavals.

ii. Overpopulation
Among the Nguni of Southern Africa population increased due to a reliable supply of food from
agriculture , good pastures and abundant herd of wild animals. People then had to fight for the
scarce available resources especially land. This meant that Mfecane wars started.

iii. The desire to control trade at Delagoa Bay

The Nguni people took part in their long distance trade with the Portuguese at the Delagoa Bay.
The other strong groups of people wanted to this trade it because it meant increase in wealth. The
other groups could not simply overlook the importance of this trade and this meant that conflicts
arose leading to Mfecane wars.

iv. The emergence of the big 3 powerful kingdoms

1 Ngwane of Sobhuza
2 Mthethwa of Dingiswayo
3 Ndwandwe of Zwide
The bitter competitions for the available resources in the Nguni led to the formation of
kingdoms such as Ngwane of Sobhuza, Mthethwa of Dingiswayo, and Ndwandwe of
Zwide. All the 3 raised powerful age regiments and each of them wanted to control all the

34
 important sectors and resources among the Nguni. This created misunderstanding which
led to Mfecane upheavals.

v. Age regiments
As the Nguni states grew in size, the role of the age regiments also grew, they became very
important among the states. Now with each tribe encouraging the importance of age regiments,
other tribes were of course carefree in fighting for the scarce resources. This means that conflicts
easily emerged and Mfecane wars were unavoidable.

NEW SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

[leave space for notes]
The major events of Mfecane

Mfecane started between the Ngwane and Ndwandwe when they were fighting over the
ownership of the rich and fertile soils in the Pongola valley. The Ngwane suffered heavy defeat
and Sobhuza fled to Swaziland.
Having defeated the Ngwane, the Ndwandwe then under the leadership of Zwide organized their
army in preparation to attack the Mthethwa of Dingiswayo. Dingiswayo on the other hand
reformed his army; he introduced a standing army and organized a powerful national army.
Shaka, a brilliant military leader was a commando in Dingiswayo army. In 1818 war broke out
between the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa. The Ndwandwe won the war and Dingiswayo was
killed. The death of Dingiswayo marked the emergence of Shaka Zulu who seized the
opportunity to re-organize the Mthethwa into powerful Zulu kingdom. Shaka prepared to attack
Zwide and the Ndwandwe.

The Ndwandwe of Zwide on the other hand could not allow Shaka to develop so powerful.
Zwide then dispatched some of his warriors led by his son to punish Shaka. Unfortunately Shaka
defeated the Ndwandwe. Zwide then threw the whole army into attacking Shaka and Shaka
realized that he could not defeat the Ndwandwe easily. He used the tactics of retreat and
scorched earth policy which enabled him to defeat the Ndwandwe. Zwide did not stop the fight
until he landed on Sobhuza, his biggest enemy who quickly killed Zwide. The Ndwandwe now
that Zwide was killed split into 3 groups.

With the defeat of Zwide Shaka now ruled over an area that stretched from Tugela River to
Pongola river as well as to as far as Buffalo river. His area became known as “Kwa Zulu” or “the
land of Zulu”. Shaka dominated and terrorized Northern Nguniland and areas around. Shaka’s
terrorism caused some groups to cross over the Drankensburg Mountains causing “scattering
among the Sotho tribes.

35
Impacts of Mfecane in Southern Africa

Negative
> A lot of people lost lives due to starvation, killed in battles. This was negative as people did
not enjoy their living rights.
>A lot of the Nguni groups also lost their properties like land and cattle which were usually
captured during these Mfecane wars. This was obviously negative as people had no supply of
food which means they lived in poverty.
> In some other areas, agriculture stopped altogether. This was due to the fact that some people
were scattered all over, others being killed while a good number lost their land. This obviously
meant decline of agriculture leading to poverty.
> The other negative effect is the complete change in the political pattern of the Nguniland. In
normal set up, the weaker paid tribute to the stronger groups but by the 1830s people were now
concentrated under new political leadership where they were forced to abide by the authority of
the new leaders. This meant they lost their political set up patterns leading to political disorder.

Positive
> Mfecane brought new and excellent ideas on Nation building which transformed small disjoint
clans into large powerful kingdoms. This of course was good as some Nguni people were united
together for a common aim.
>Another positive effect is that there was the introduction of new systems of leadership and
administrative structures. New strategies of survival and security came about due to these
upheavals e.g. the Sotho and the Ngwane used mountain tops for defense purposes. On other
hand Shaka used spears.
>Mfecane wars brought the emergence of great leaders who helped in the creation of History e.g.
Shaka, Mzilikazi, Moshoeshoe came to be known much more because of these wars.
>In some areas, Mfecane brought a sense of cooperation to different ethnic groups. These people
who joined others during the scattering of people began to be willingly associated with the group
they joined and both aimed at achieving their goals through cooperation.

NATION BUILDING

MOSHOESHOE AND BASOTHO KINGDOM

The rise of the Sotho kingdom was one of the positive results of Mfecane. The kingdom founded
by Moshoeshoe who used both diplomacy and warfare to establish and protect the Sotho Nation.

EARLY LIFE AND RISE TO POWER

Moshoeshoe was the son of Makhabane, a headman of the Mokoteli clan which had broken away
from its main Kwena chiefdom. He was born in 1786. Moshoemoshe showed qualities of

36
leadership at an early age. He also met a certain Motlotli, a great traveler who was a wise man.
This man advised Moshoeshoe to be just in dealing with his people and avoid war where
possible. This advice greatly influenced Moshoeshoe in dealing with his people and enemies as
leaders of his nation. When he came to power in 1820, Moshoeshoe became one of the leaders to
recognize defensive advantages of flat topped mountain.

He gathered men of his age and established a fortress on the foot hills of Butha-Buthe. He
fortified narrow passages on the mountain by stone walls beside which were look out huts at
strategic positions. From these points his soldiers could see the enemy from a distance and thus
prepare themselves accordingly. The mountain advantage proved itself when Moshoeshoe’s
Mokoteli were attacked by Batlokwa in 1821 during the Battle of the Pots. Even if the Tlokwa
collected a number of Sotho cattle they however failed to defeat Basotho.
However between 1822 Butha-Buthe suffered numerous attacks from the Tlokwa, Ngwane and
Hlubi. He thus decided to abandon Butha-Buthe after as siege by Batlokwa in 1824 and travelled
80km south of Butha-Buthe to a safer environment.

GROWTH OF SOTHO KINGDOM AT THABA BOSIU

The mountain of Thaba Bosiu lay next to the rich and fertile Caledon valley, Moshoeshoe arrived
here by night, and hence Thaba Bosiu became the turning point of Basotho kingdom. It was here
that he built the Basotho nation. As a defensive nation builder, Moshoeshoe welcomed the
Mfecane refugees and gave them protection. Unlike his contemporaries Moshoeshoe did not
build his kingdom solely through the army. He used both diplomacy and when necessary warfare
in dealing with both his people and his enemies. This saved his kingdom as shall be noted in his
policies below:

MOSHOESHOE DOMESTIC POLICIES

LOOSE CONFEDERACY
Moshoeshoe government was made up of loose confederation of semi independent chiefdoms
such chiefdoms were allowed to self rule as long as they remained loyal to the control of king.

AGE REGIMENTS
Subject chiefs were allowed to keep their age regiments for their own defense. These could only
be summoned to the centre if the kingdom was threatened by some strong external force.

THE PITSO SYSTEM

The Pitso system was where Moshoeshoe invited all local /subject chiefs to his capital at Thaba
Bosiu to participate in discussion on important matters affecting the state and make major

37
decisions.
This was a form for democratic expression. All chiefdoms within the kingdom were represented
and this contributed in the running of the kingdom as a whole. This system won the Moshoeshoe
the loyalty of his followers and subject as they felt be longing to the state. This was participatory
democracy.

MARRIAGE ALLIANCES
In addition to then above strategies on nation building Moshoeshoe married wives from different
clans within the kingdom including the neighboring chiefdoms not under his control. This helped
to buy friendship, trust and peace. As a result he made more friends around his kingdom who
also respected him as both an in law and good leader hence the large following.

MAFISA SYSTEM
Moshoeshoe lent out his cattle to needy people and rewarded them for the safe keeping of his
herds. Such an act cultivated loyalty to him by these people especially that the Mfecane wars had
destroyed their economy including livestock which Moshoeshoe was now helping with.
All the above policies created a spirit of common identity among his followers. By this too
Moshoeshoe was able to increase the population of Basotho from which he established a very
powerful kingdom.

MOSHOESHOE FOREIGN POLICIES

His foreign policy was geared towards the defense of the kingdom which he had now created.
There were many potential enemies who could easily destroy his Sotho kingdom. He thus
created as policy that would keep his enemies away from his people:

TRIBUTE TO THE POWERFUL NEIGHBORING

Moshoeshoe paid tribute to those neighboring who were more powerful than him. By this he
brought peace from dangerous neighbors like Shaka and Matiwane who were always attacking
weaker neighbors. Moshoeshoe ensured that he sent regular cattle tribute and feathers and furs.
In 1827 this policy paid off as Shaka helped Moshoeshoe by attacking and defeating the
Ngwane. Matiwane defeat left Moshoeshoe kingdom the strongest in the southern veld.

Defensive warfare
Moshoeshoe used defensive warfare when attacked. Unlike his compatriots who were always on
the offensive, Moshoeshoe army was mainly used to defend the kingdom. As such he created

38
friendship than enmity with neighbors.
>Besides Moshoeshoe restricted his cattle raids to distant people. He avoided close neighbors as
he would probably need their assistance in the event of major attack by a strong group. His
people were thus protected by such policy. As a result he was respected, loved and supported by
people within his nation and neighbors.

Diplomacy
Generally Moshoeshoe was a diplomat as can be observed from most of the elements of his
policies.
>After defeating Mzilikazi of the Ndebele in 1831 Moshoeshoe gave Mzilikazi lots of cattle as
provision on their journey. The gift of cattle satisfied Mzilikazi who then dropped the idea of
ever invading the Basotho again. The Sotho was thus safe from the Ndebele. The double crossing
of Matiwane was another diplomatic score on their part of Moshoeshoe. The Sotho was safe
from Ngwane attacks as a result.

Use of missionaries
Missionaries of the Paris evangelical missionary society arrived in his kingdom in 1833.
Moshoeshoe welcomed them with presents of cattle. He allowed them to build mission station at
Morija and Beersheba along the Caledon valley as new defensive centers against troublesome
Griquas and the Kora. Missionaries thus helped Moshoeshoe also as advisors to the king on
matters concerning white people who were flocking into Lesotho posing a threat to security.
Missionaries brought education to Basotho so that his people could be literate and deal with
Europeans coming into their kingdom without relying on other people. Besides like Moshoeshoe,
missionaries were men of peace who would help him with ideas on peace. Missionaries also
provided a useful link with the cape colony for trade in guns and horses so as to protect the
kingdom from the notorious Griquas and the Kora
.

Asking for British protection in 1868

Between 1858 and 1866 Basotho had suffered severe attack by the Boers. Property in the form of
cattle, crops and homes had been destroyed. Many lives had been lost as the Boers tried to
exterminate the whole population in a bid to seize their land. Moshoeshoe too was growing old
and weak and his sons were struggling between themselves for throne.
Moshoeshoe however was eager to save his country. He knew the British were very powerful
than the Boers. Moshoeshoe thus humbled himself before Governor Phillip Wodehouse of the
Cape Colony to ask for British protection.

In 1868 Basotho land became a British protectorate, Moshoeshoe thus saved his country from
disintegration from both local and extreme threats. He died in 1870 leaving one of the most
powerful African kingdoms in Southern Africa. In conclusion the diplomat and pragmatic
created a realistic foreign policy that is successfully protected his nation. Many other people

39
joined him in appreciate of the security and certainty offered under such a viable selfless foreign
policy.

DIFFICULTIES MOSHOESHOE FACED AND HOW HE ADDRESSED THEM

During his career, Moshoeshoe encountered many problems that threatened the security of his
newly built kingdom. These included other rival African groups like the Tlokwa, Ndebele,
Ngwane (Matiwane and the Zulu; Griquas and Kora horsemen; Boer encroachment on Sotho
lands and British attacks. He however took steps to overcome these shall be seen below:

INFLUX OF BOERS

After 1836, the Voortrekkers flocked into the interior in the movement called the great trek.
They entered into Moshoeshoe kingdom grabbing fertile land for agriculture and settlement.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ZULU NATION BY SHAKA

SHAKA’S AIMS
Shaka worked as a nation builder and as a military leader. He has some aims for this:

Military aims
As a military leader Shaka aimed at building an all conquering national standing army.

Shaka was determined to use the powerful army in a systematic conquest of many tribes to be
incorporate into a unified multi tribal kingdom the Zulu kingdom.

Political aim
As a nation builder Shaka aimed to establish a viable multi tribal, centralized military kingdom

Shaka was determined to establish himself as the all powerful king on whom the destiny of the
Zulu kingdom solely veiled.

THE IMPACT OF SHAKA’S CHILDHOOD AND UPBRINGING ON SHAKA’S AIM

Shaka was determined to carve a name for him in order to compensate for the unpleasant
childhood he endured outside his father’s domain.

SUMMARY OF SHAKA’S AIMS

>To establish an all conquering national army for defense.

>To establish a viable multi- tribal, centralized, military kingdom, ruled by an all powerful king

40
on whom the destiny of the kingdom depended.
>To achieve greatness that will compensate for the humiliation he suffered as a child outside his
father’s domain.
Shaka had a combination of these aims as a nation builder and military leader in the Mfecane
period.

HOW DID SHAKA ORGANISE IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO ACHIEVE THESE AIMS

Shaka military organization

Shaka reformed his army by introducing new ideas and bettering old ones and those did help him
to achieve his military aims. Shaka’s short stabbing spear replaced the traditional Nguni long
throwing spear in order to keep his soldiers fully armed throughout wars. The broad shields
could be placed close together to form a protective wall against spears. The cow horn formation
was perfected and used by Shaka’s warriors. For example for mobility and speed to carry out the
formation effectively and surround the enemy, Shaka’s warriors were made to fight barefooted
by abandoning the wearing of sandals.
When the Zulu army attacked a number of regiments were in the centre of their line. One
regiment made up each horn regiments of the horn tried to surround the enemy while those in the
center crushed the surrounded enemy. This formation coupled with speed and mobility ensured
complete destruction of the enemy with the effective assegai in the hand to hand combat. Shaka’s
scorched earth policy and the idea of completely destroying the enemy introduced “total
warfare”. Scouts sent out to reconnoiter and eliminate dangers of ambushes and locate water
were Shaka’s tactics that ensures the success of his warriors. Young boy porters carried the
baggage of warriors to make them fresher and the boys were thus boldly initiated into warfare.
To be able to practice tactics and formation and masters the use of weapons and also to be ever
ready to fight. Shaka’s regiments lived in barracks. Each barrack was ruled by a commander of
Shaka’s choice. High military discipline and success were achieved before the forty year old was
discharged into the reserve force. Thus Shaka established his all conquering nation standing
army through the age regiment system that cut across tribal barriers and encouraged national
consciousness.

Shaka’s administration
The main spring of Shaka’s administrative policy was the policy of assimilation by which he
inculcated the spirit of unity and nationalism among the Zulu.

While pursuing this policy Shaka established the viable multi tribal, centralized military nation
the Zulu kingdom.

Centralized became evident when Shaka tried to hold all power in his own hands. Shaka was the
head of the state, commander in chief of the nation army, the chief justice and the high priest.
Shaka took the final decision in all important issues and his word was command and final.

41
>Shaka reduced the powers of the sub chiefs greatly.

>Many of the conquered people were not allowed to keep their traditional chiefs. Shaka sent a
member of his family to rule many conquered areas.

>He adopted the policy of assimilation by which the conquered people were forcibly
incorporated into the Zulu culture in order to achieve national unity.

>The military nature of the Zulu nation showed as follows. Shaka himself the head of state was a
soldier. He himself appointed commander to head the military settlement posted throughout the
nation
>Almost everyone was a soldier citizen within the Zulu nation. Besides Shaka replaced the
traditional Nguni council and his self appointed commanders. These indunas in most cases
became rubber stamps to Shaka’s decisions.

>The army from which Shaka devived power became the most powerful body in the state.

>The economy of the nation was centrally controlled and administered. Women and the ex-
service men attended to mixed farming for production of food and meat.
>Besides each of the military settlements was given one of the royal herds of cattle allocated by
Shaka himself.

>Shaka also used religion to increase the feeling of national unity. For example the warriors went
through spitual fortification ceremony led by Shaka before they went to war. In addition, Shaka
made the annual first fruits ceremony in which he played a leading role a national event.

4 SHAKA ‘S WARS FOR TERRITORIAL EXPANSION

Shaka used the Zulu war machine in conquering, incorporating and expanding the Zulu nation.
In fact since the Zulu nation was born in war it was organized for war.

Shaka defeated Zwide on the Mhlatuze River and given the whole Ndwandwe were heavily
defeated in 1826. Men and territory belonging to the fallen Ndwandwe kingdom were
incorporated into the Zulu kingdom.

Shaka using his all conquering army campaigned in natal in 1817, 1818, 1819and 1827. Natal
was thus depopulated to create a southern buffer zone to ensure security for the Zulu nation.

Shaka fought against the Beje in 1826 and1827.

42
The Mpondo were defeated in 1828 and almost all their cattle taken by the Zulu.

By the time Shaka died in 1828 the Zulu nation embraced almost the territories and the tribes
that existed in northern Nguniland. The kingdom had its northern boundary on the River Pongola
in the North and the River Tugela in the south; it stretched to the foothills of the Drankensburg
mountains in the West and to the shores of the Indian Ocean in the East. Kwa Zulu Natal was
thus created.

THE IMPACT OF SHAKA’ WORK

On the Zulu nation the following were considered as some of the effects of Shaka’s work on the
Zulu nation.

>The all conquering machines set up for Shaka gained for them territory and depend able
defense and also prestige. When Shaka died the Zulu nation did not fall apart a viable nation.

>Shaka gave the viable multi tribal Zulu nation he set up along lasting unity and consciousness.

>Through his wars of conquest Shaka united the petty warring chiefdoms of northern Nguniland
and gave them a common identity. But the incessant wars tended to make the Zulu nation
warlike.

>As a result of Shaka’s military reforms and political organization he established a viable Zulu
nation. Despite the defeat of the Zulu army in the late nineteenth century the unity of the people
remains.

On southern Africa

>The incessant wars made people suffer in the region. The population of Natal and Pondoland
was virtually wiped out. Zwide his most powerful enemy was finally destroyed.

>For fear of destruction by the Zulu war machine king Moshoeshoe I and others paid annual
tribute to Shaka.

>The Pedi, the Sotho and the Swazi set up defensive kingdoms on mountain top to defend
themselves from the hordes of armies fleeing from Shaka’s war machine.

>The Zulu conquest led to incorporation, depopulation and dispersal of groups that created
empty spaces for the trek Boers to occupy and set up Orange Free State and Transvaal. In this
way Shaka’s work contributed to the causes of the great trek in 1836.

43
>The Nguni and Ndebele were influenced by Shaka’s military techniques before they fled to
Central Africa and established kingdoms there.

On the central east Africa

Shaka gave the central and eastern Africa regions revolution military and political reforms that
contributed to nation building. For example Shoshongane’s Gaza Empire, Mzilikazi’s Ndebele
kingdom in Zimbabwe and Nguni states in Zambia, Tanzania and Malawi founded by the
Mfecane migrant groups that had imbibed Shaka’s techniques testify to Shaka’s influence.

The Ndebele of Mzilikazi

During the Mfecane the Ndebele were a small Khumalo clan under the Ndwandwe of Zwide.
Moshoeshoe was the Khumalo leader. After Moshoeshoe’s death at the hands of Zwide,
Mzilikazi transferred his loyalty to Shaka of the Zulu. At a youthful age Mzilikazi proved to be a
brilliant and skillful leader and Shaka appointed him a leader of a regiment in his army.
Mzilikazi gained fame by raiding neighboring groups, capturing their cattle and property which
he had to surrender to Shaka. But Mzilikazi soon felt that it was wrong to enrich another man
instead of building his own power and wealth. He broke away from Shaka and began his long
march to Matebele land in Zimbabwe. In their flight the Khumalo were called Ndebele or
Matebele.

MZILIKAZI’S AIMS

>To find a home land far away from the Zulu land in which to settle his people.

>To establish himself as a powerful political leader.

>To create and sustain his own wealth and power as a leader of a powerful kingdom

>To create a very powerful and respected kingdom in central Africa

FLIGHT FROM ZULU LAND

In 1821 after a successful raid on the Tlokwa, Mzilikazi refused to hand the captured cattle to
Shaka. In 1822 Mzilikazi led his people across the Drankensburg Mountain and set up a
temporary settlement at Ekupumuleni among the neighboring Tswana groups. Through raids
Mzilikazi captured young men and women and looted cattle and grain from the neighboring
Tswana groups. But Ekupumuleni was still too close to Zulu land. Mzilikazi moved further to

44
central Transvaal where he set up his new capital at Mosega near Magalisburg. From here more
raids were carried out to as far as inland as Botswana and Lesotho. More cattle, young men and
women were captured and brought under Ndebele control. At Mosega Mzilikazi met and made
friends with Robert Moffat from whom he hoped to get five arms. Mosega was excellent cattle
country, but Mzilikazi was forced to move further north by attacks from the Griquas and the
Kora. At Vegkop the Boer trekkers under Potgieter attacked and captured Ndebele cattle in 1836,
forcing Mzilikazi to move further north. In 1837 the Ndebele splint into 2, crossed the Limpopo
and established a new state at Bulawayo in and other Nguni people into his Ndebele kingdom.

The Ndebele of Zimbabwe

On the arrival in Zimbabwe Mzilikazi put his son Nkurumane to death as he was appointed
leader by the group that arrived first in Zimbabwe. Mzilikazi then married Nyamazane and
brought her Nguni migrants under his control. Mzilikazi attacked and subdued the Shona, forcing
them to flee to north.

Political organization
Mzilikazi set up a centralized military state with more power concentrated around him. He
divided his state into four provinces with four army divisions and a number of districts. All
provincial leaders and administrative leaders were appointed by Mzilikazi. High positions in
central administration were reserved for Nguni aristocrats. In this way Mzilikazi was able to
maintain stability and rule over a nation of diverse ethnicities.

The Ndebele army was organized into age regiments called Amabuthu. The young men from
captured groups were incorporated into the age regiments. Mzilikazi built a strong army which
constantly raided neighboring groups for grain and cattle.

Economic
Mashonaland was good cattle country. The Ndebele grew crops and kept cattle as source of food.
More cattle were captured through regular raids and the system of Ukulagisa which distributed
cattle over a large area of land allowing a better system of grazing.
Other sources of wealth were tribute and trade. Mzilikazi established a monopoly over the ivory
trade, while the neighboring groups were forced to pay tribute in grain and cattle to the king.

Social
The Ndebele was divided into social classes. At the top was the Zansi, consistency of al the
Nguni groups. Second was the Enhla consistency of the captured groups and the last was the
Hole, made of the Shona and Leya who were looked down upon. This promoted the purity of the
Nguni aristocracy while at the same time it sows seed of future divisions. Mzilikazi adopted the
Shona religion and Mwari as a way of promoting national unity.

45
Effects of Mzilikazi’s work in central Africa
Positive
-Mzilikazi established a strong and powerful kingdom in central Africa which still serves as part
of modern Zimbabwe.
-Mzilikazi was able to unite different ethnic groups through the use of IsiNdebele which still
spoken in central Africa.
-The Ndebele contributed to the liberation of Zimbabwe from colonial rule as Zipra. Today
Zimbabwe is an independent nation.
-Mzilikazi spread the Mfecane ideas of nation building and efficiency of centralized leadership
and good military organization into central Africa.

Negative effects
1 The Ndebele spread destruction and war in their flight to central Africa. Weak groups
were terrorized in the process. In Zimbabwe the Shona were harassed and many were
forced out of their land while others were killed. People lost cattle and other property to
Mzilikazi raiding parties. Many people lost their lives.

2 Mzilikazi friendship with Moffat facilitated colonialism in Zimbabwe as the concession

seekers used Moffat friendship to the Ndebele to their own advantage.

3 Mzilikazi social class divisions contributed to the ethnic conflicts in modern day
Zimbabwe as such divisions encouraged a master servant relationship in which the Shona
were treated as an inferior group while the Ndebele considered themselves to be a
superior.

THE KOLOLO OF SEBETWANE

Their origin: and migrations

The Kololo were Bafokeng a Sotho speaking people of the Patsa branch. They had lived on the
bank of the Vet River near the Kurutlele Mountain before the outbreak of the Mfecane. Their
nearest neighbors were the Bataung of Moletsane. The Bafokeng lost nearly all their cattle after
an attack by the Mma-Nthatisi Tlokwa. This loss of cattle coupled with lack of security and
peace in the area forced the paternity- striking to cross the Vaal River. This was to be the start of
their long wanderings.

Across the Vaal River the Bafokeng were joined by another large group Bafokeng who also had
been attacked and deprived of their cattle by Moletsane Taung. Many other small Sotho
communities also fleeing from wars had crossed the Vaal River and these further increased the

46
numbers of the Bafokeng. It was this stage that Sebetwane a prince of the Patsa house, now
assumed the leadership of the combined Fokeng group.

Sebetwane and his followers- wandered extensively in search of a new home and cattle to
replace their lost herds. First they went west wards into the Batlhaping country. Here they
encountered other dislodged groups the Baphuting and the Bahlakwana. The Bafokeng and the
Phuting fought but later the three groups combined forces and attacked the Tlhaping capital of
Ditlhakeng in 1823.

Robert Moffat an agent of London missionary society organized a combined force of Griquas
and other half caste groups to defend Ditlhakeng. The Griquas and their allies had guns and
horses which enabled them to defeat the invaders and drive back with heavy losses. This
disastrous defeat at the battle of Ditlhakeng led to the break of the mixed herd. The Phuting and
Hlakoane moved in an easterly direction while the Sebetwane led his followers on renamed the
Makololo north wards through the country of Barolong.

The Kololo fought their way through Tswana countries as they raided for cattle and able to
bodied men to increase their military manpower. Their northward march brought them into
Ngwato territory under Kgari whom they fought5 twice defeating and relieving them of much of
their cattle. The Kololo now decided to move towards the Lake Ngami but lost their way in the
desert and were forced to abandon many of the Ngwato cattle. When they finally reached the
territory of the Batawana in the vicinity of Lake Ngami the Kololo easily triumphed over the
inhabitants whom they dispersed of their stock.

The Kololo attempts to cross the Kalahari Desert and reach the west coast were defeated by
desert conditions and stiff resistance by some communities. These seatbacks forced the Kololo to
return to Lake Ngami and to move northwards. Finally the Kololo settled near the confidence of
the Zambezi and Kafue rivers. But soon the Kololo suffered three attacks from Nguni regiments,
one by Nxaba leader of Msene Nguni and the other two by Mzilikazi Ndebele who also had been
wandering along the Zambezi River in search of a new home.

Having successfully established his control over the Lozi Sebetwane settled down to consolidate
his state through a carefully considered programme of action. He introduced social, economic
and political changes whose main was nation building.

47
Social changes

1 He brought the Kololo and the Lozi closer together by discouraging the development of a
class society and the adoption of the policy of fusion.

2 He married Lozi wife to encourage intermarriage between the Lozi and the Kololo.

3 To bring about understanding and a feeling of oneness, Sebetwane encouraged the adoption
of Kololo as a common language.

4 Sebetwane mixed freely with his people both Kololo and Lozi. This endeared him to the Lozi
whose chiefs isolated themselves from their people because of religious beliefs.

5 He allowed the Kololo patrilinial family system to co exists with the Lozi matrilineal family
system. Both subjects liked him for that.

6 To protect his people from destruction by malaria. Sebetwane moved his capital from the
mosquito infested Naliele to a healthier place at Linyanti.

Economic

Sebetwane also adopted some sound economic measures in order to enhance the consolidation
and survival of the state. He therefore introduced the following economic reforms.

1 He encouraged both the Lozi and the Kololo to till the land and fish.

2 Cattle ranching ,hunting and trade were also carried out

3 He collected tribute of various kinds in order to increase his national revenue.

4 He relocated his capital from Naliele to Linyanti to encourage cattle production and to
promote trade as Linyanti was situated on the trade routes to the south.

Political
To enhance national unity and political stability, Sebetwane introduced some political reforms
comprising administration and defense
1 Villages were grouped into provinces under the supervision of Kololo governors of
Sebetwane age group. This he did in order to share power with his age group to ensure their
loyalty and stability. In this way social and political stability was assured.

2 He allowed trusted Lozi chiefs at the village level to rule their own people

48
3 To ensure security Sebetwane placed in the Lozi villages two Kololo families as humble
overloads to monitor affairs there.

4 He controlled central government with the assistance of Kololo and Lozi councilors. This
power sharing ensured unity and stability.

5 To reinforce the administrative set up, national army consisting of both the Kololo and the
Lozi was established.

6 The relocation of the capital to Linyanti was aimed at strengthening national security
because it enabled attacks from the south to be repelled easily.

7 To promote national unity ,Sebetwane introduced a political slogan “all are the children of
the chief”

THE COLLAPSE OF THE KOLOLO STATE UNDER SEKELETU

In 1851 Sebetwane died and eventually succeeded by his son Sekeletu, a misfit and the opposite
of his father.
In 1865 the Kololo state which Sebetwane had so painstakingly built was topped by a Lozi
bloody revolution. The causes of the revolution which overthrew the Kololo state can be
summarized as follows:
1 Sekeletu’s misrule

2 Malaria

3 Recovery of the Lozi

4 Succession dispute following Sebetwane’s death

Although this Lozi revolution ended Kololo rule it could not destroy the lasting impact of
Sebetwane’s rule on the history and people of the Lozi kingdom.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SEBETWANE IN THE HISTORY OF CENTRAL AFRICA

The following considerations can be mentioned and expanded
1 He was a remarkable statesman

2 He used the policy of fusion, meaningful power-sharing intermarriage and adoption of

common language to unite the Kololo and the Lozi

3 The patrilinial family system introduced by the Kololo permanently changed the Lozi
matrilineal custom to a bilateral decent pattern.

4 He tackled the challenges of building national unity with vigor and imagination

49
 5 His military powers enabled the Kololo to survive the numerous encounters during their
migration and to beta off attacks by the Ndebele and the Msene Nguni before finally
overcoming the Lozi

6 The Lozi leader, Lewanika was able to carry on from where Sebetwane left by unifying
and stabilizing the kingdom

RECONSTRUCTION OF TSWANA STATES AFTER MFECANE

MINERAL REVOLUTION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA UP TO

1910
Mineral revolution refers to the discovery of minerals that is diamonds and gold in Southern
Africa in the 19th century which brought a lot of social, economic and political change to
people’s lives.

The discovery of diamonds in Kimberly in 1868 and gold in Witwatersrand in 1884 brought
about a lot of changes to the people of Southern Africa. The discovery of minerals led to rapid
industrialization and new ways of life for both the Africans and the white settlers. For the settlers
it brought wealth accumulation and for the Africans it brought misery and poverty: hard labor,
exploitation and loss of land. This period is known as the mineral revolution because it brought a
complete change/revolution to the socio-economic and political lives of the people of Southern
Africa.

50
Diamond discovery
Diamonds were first discovered in Hopetown near the Vaal and the Orange Rivers. Most of the
diamonds discovered were small and did not attract much attention. In 1868 something happened
which the world could not ignore. Large scale of diamonds was discovered in Kimberly.
Diamonds discovery could have been a happy event but it was not so different groups claimed
diamond fields. The British government intervened in the matter. A commission was established,
headed by Robert Keate.
Diamond claimants
1 Griqua of Waterboer

2 Boers of the Transvaal and Orange free state

3 Batlhaping of chief Mahura

4 Barolong

5 Bataung

Keate Award And Annexation of Griqua Land West

In 1871 a special court of land arbitration was set up under the British Lieutenant Robert
Keate, governor of Natal. This court was based in Bloemfontein. In judging the case and after
listening to deliberations and the evidence Keate awarded the diamond fields to the Griqua of
Waterboer. Waterboer asked for British protection and in 1872 the British declared protectorate
over the Griqua and the area became known as the Griqua Land West. These meant that the
diamond fields were effectively under the British control. The Boers were discontent and bitter
about the decision. This added salt to injury on the already hostile relationship between the two
settlers republics.
Immediately after the diamond discovery; thousands of men rushed to the areas as fortune
seekers. Each miner had to register his own claim before they begin to dig. The diamond mines
were initially owned by numerous individuals as small holdings. These resulted in too many
claims(pits) in the diamond mining area.
As the mines got deeper, mining became more expensive, as there was a need equipment to haul
men and gravel from the deep hole. There was also a need for equipment to pump water from the
mine. Rhodes made a lot of money by running a water pumping company.

Many individual miners could not afford these expenses and challenges, so they sold their
claims. Therefore in 1880 Rhodes formed the De beers Mining Company and by 1889 it had
swallowed all the other mining companies in Kimberly. The company later became known as De
Beers consolidated mining company.

With monopoly over the diamond mining the employers were able to control labour. Example;

51
 1.Mine Workers could no longer change employers as they wished.
2. They now worked on contract basis and lived in company compounds
3. They could not contact or visit their families until the end of contract
4. The De beers company was now able to control production and keep diamond prices
high.

Federation schemes
The idea of federation came from the British. Federation meant joining the four white settlers’
states of the Cape, Natal, O.F.S and TVL. The idea was initially raised by Sir George Grey,
the then Cape governor in the 1850s, Grey’s effort failed. Between 1870 and 1874 Lord
Kimberly attempted to again federate the four provinces but he also failed. In 1874 Lord
Carnarvon, the new British colonial minister bought up the issue of federation again. He was
more determined to establish a federation because he feared the influence of rival European
powers like Germany.

Sir George Grey’s Reasons for the federation of South African Republics
1. George Grey wanted federation because he was convinced that the racial question was
the central problem in South Africa and he recognized that with separation as it existed,
war was inevitable somewhere in the country.
2. Grey also aimed for federation because he considered the internal affairs of separate
states to be so small that they would produce no statesman, would provide little
educational opportunity and any money coming from a stagnant economy would not be
enough for their own protection.
3. He believed that with the defenseless position of the separate states, they would in turn
invite attack from neighboring African groups. This then meant that the British
dominance as well as peace among Africans would be threatened.

Lord Carnarvon’s reasons for the Federation plans.

1. Conditions at the time were encouraging Carnarvon to embark on federation and this was
because the Cape was prosperous and well populated while the two Boer republics of Natal and
Orange Free State were poverty stricken, so Carnarvon thought that they might be willing to give
up their independence in exchange of their share in the economic prosperity of the Cape.

2. It showed South Africa had potential for economic development and would open up more land
for white settlers in the region.

3. The British troops will also withdraw from South Africa and the federated states would be in a
position to defend themselves against the Africans.

52
REACTIONS OF THE BOER STATES TOWARDS FEDERATION
(WHY FEDERATION PLANS FAILED)

Transvaal
The Boers of Transvaal were strongly against the Federation because they were not willing to
give up their newly won freedom. Transvaal also realized that federation with the Cape would
mean the acceptance of the more liberal racial policies of the Cape. After Mineral discovery they
were more determined to secure their autonomy in order not to not to share their mineral wealth
and they believed that they could defend themselves and run their own government properly.

Orange Free State

These Boers did not want to unite with other Sates because they were very suspicious of the
British initiative especially after the British annexation of Griqualand West. They did not want to
lose their independence.

Cape Colony
The Boers at the Cape were not prepared to accept interference from Britain so soon after
gaining self- government. The Cape Colony was not prepared to share its resources with other
states and help them military. The Prime Minister Molteno was not prepared to support an
extension of Imperial influence. He was only to consider a federation scheme if it was started by
the Cape Colony government.

Natal
Of the entire four provinces, Natal was the only one which accepted the federation. She was poor
and therefore hoped to benefit economically from other provinces.
Carnarvon attempts to federation
Carnarvon was determined to unite the four provinces. In 1875 he prepared a meeting for all four
leaders but the meeting failed because Natal was the only province which sent a representative.
He was convinced that Transvaal was the main obstacle to federation so he started plans to attack
and annex Transvaal to end its self autonomy.

Annexation of Transvaal 1877

A number of events happened in the Transvaal which gave Carnarvon the chance to bring it
under British control.
1 By 1876 there were rumors that slavery was practiced in the Transvaal.

2 Sekhukhune; Bapedi chiefs refused to pay tax and admit Boer prospectus into his land

53
 and hand over the land claimed by the Boers. A war broke out between the two at the end
of the war the Boer republic was left bankrupt/poor.

Due to this situation Carnarvon decided to annex the Transvaal to save it from its own trouble
and further his plans for federation. The Transvaal refused to accept the annexation on the 12th
April 1877. Sir Shepstone annexed the Transvaal. The Transvaal people were angered by the
annexation and they started an anti-British movement known as the African Bond. Other states
except Natal condemned the annexation.

On December 1880 the Boers declared Transvaal independent from British control and Kruger,
Pretorius and Joubert were appointed to look after the affairs of the republic. A war broke out
between the British and the Boers in 1880-the first Anglo-Boer war. The British were defeated
at the battle of Majuba Hills.

After the signing of the Pretoria convention and the London convention in 1884 the Boers of the
Transvaal regained their self government from the British. The annexation of the Transvaal
strengthened the hatred between the British and the Boers

GOLD DISCOVERY AT TATI

In 1867 gold was discovered by Karl Mauch and Henry Hartley at Tati in the north eastern
district of Bechuanaland. Soon a lot of people arrived to seek fortunes. President Pretorius of
Transvaal decided to offer Macheng the leader of the area protection against the gold diggers and
other foreigners. During the gold discovery the Tati area was the dispute between the Bangwato
of Macheng in Bechuanaland and the Ndebele of Mzilikazi in Zimbabwe.

Pretorius tried to convince Macheng to seek Boer protection of the area but he was frustrated by
John Mackenzie who advised Macheng to ask for British protection. This annoyed Pretorius and
he decided to annex the Tati area in 1868. This annexation of the Tati by Pretorius annoyed the
other European groups like the Portuguese, the Germans and the British who were also interested
in the area. These groups protested strongly to Transvaal and Pretorius withdrew his annexation.
However a lot of people shortly lost interest in the Tati gold areas because of the discovery of
gold in the Witwatersrand.

THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN THE WITWATERSRAND

In 1884 gold was discovered in the Witwatersrand at Johannesburg in the Boer republic of the

54
Transvaal. There was no dispute over the ownership of the area Within 2 years it was confirmed
that there was more gold there than anywhere else in the world. Foreign fortune seekers arrived
in large numbers (ESPEACIALLY FROM BRITAIN) and the government could not stop them.
These were both the blacks and the whites and by 1887 already 3000 people were living in
Johannesburg as fortune seekers. Boers were not happy about these outsiders whom they called
the UITLANDERS and they were tobe a source of conflict between the British and the Boers.
At first these thousands miners operated individual gold claims but there was a complete chaos
and very quickly men like Cecil Rhodes bought all the individual gold claims. Soon the gold
industry was controlled by large companies. One of the largest was owned by Rhodes
ie.“consolidated gold fields”. As a result of the gold discovery the poorest state in South Africa
suddenly became the richest. Johannesburg grew rapidly to be as large as Cape Town.

RESULTS OF MINERAL REVOLUTION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The discovery of minerals was perhaps the most important event of the nineteenth century in
South Africa. The discovery of the two main minerals, gold and diamond brought drastic
changes to the social, economic and political way of life of both the Africans and the whites in
South Africa and the rest of Southern Africa.

SOCIAL LIFE STYLE

i) Creation of shanty towns

With the discovery of diamonds in South Africa, a lot of people flocked in to the area leading to
over population. This influx of the outsiders had an effect on the Boers as they could not provide
them with accommodation. The outlanders then resorted to sleeping everywhere near the mines
and this resulted into shanty areas. The shanty areas became the breeding place for a number of
social problems like diseases, poverty, crime and prostitution. An unhealthy environment came
as a result of the discovery of diamonds in Kimberly.

ii)Family break-ups

The mineral revolution in South Africa led to family break ups as African men were separated
for long period of time from their families. As a lot of men went to seek fortunes in the mines,
some of them never went back home either due to low wages or irresponsibility. The wives back
home were involved in new relationships thus leading to family breakups. At the mines men also
found new wives in South Africa ending up with new families and new sets of children in South
Africa thus forgetting about families at home. This meant that family ties were broken up.

55
 iii) Detribalization/loss of culture

One of the social results of mineral revolution in South Africa is Detribalization. Because of the
influx of the outsiders into South Africa, people of completely different cultures met and some of
these miners forgot about their culture and adopted new cultures . They became detribalized.
Loss of culture also came about as these miners from different parts of the world had problem in
communication and decided to create a common language without a common root for purpose of
communication and their language came to be known as “fanakaloo. The cultures of Africans
also changed since wealth came to be measured in money and no longer in livestock. This means
these people lost their language and customs and followed the one created at the mines.

iv) Changes in gender roles

The migration of able bodied males to the mines meant that women were left to do all the duties
at home. Women were forced to take up jobs which were traditional reserved for men like
looking after livestock, ploughing. In some cases some African women became house servants
for their white masters especially in South Africa. In Botswana a lot Batswana women especially
in areas bordering South Africa took up jobs as house servants for the whites, taking care of
children, cleaning, cooking and all the general household chores.
v) Racial segregation/discrimintion

The system of apartheid came as a result of the mineral revolution in South Africa. Laborers
were recruited from countries now called Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and
Mozambique and in mines the laborers were given unskilled low paid jobs. They had no
chance of rising to higher paid jobs and skilled jobs were reserved for the whites. This marked
the begging of racial discrimination which rapidly increased in South Africa. As a result there
were separate developments between the whites and the blacks.

Economic Results of Mineral Revolution

Diamonds in South Africa were discovered when the economy was about to collapse and the
discovery of diamonds saved the situation.

1 Improved communications

Communication in South Africa grew as a result of the discovery of diamonds. For example
railways lines were improved, a railway line from Cape to Kimberly was completed in 1885, and
telegraphs were introduced between the mining towns and the outside world. All these
improvements would have taken place much later if minerals had not been discovered.

2 A new source of Great wealth

56
The discovery of minerals altered the whole economy of the region. Employment, both skilled
and unskilled, was available for thousands of people.

South Africa became rich because of diamonds discovery. Transvaal which was previously poor
became rich. Johannesburg at the center of mining area grew rapidly large in 14 years. Kimberly
also grew rapidly because of diamond mining..

3 Decline in the African agricultural economy

The mineral discovery in South Africa completely destroyed agriculture in the African
community. Able bodied men left their homes for the mines leaving women and children who
could not effectively carryout agriculture. This means that agriculture was destroyed as men had
gone to the mines.

On the other hand the mineral revolution had a positive effect on agriculture. These Africans
who continued their agriculture made profits since the mineral revolution led to the rise of
population in towns and these farmers were able to sell their products to the available market
provided by the diamond discovery. Farmers had a bigger market for their goods.

4 Growth of industries

Mineral revolution led to the growth of secondary and manufacturing industries which supplied
the mines with necessary equipment. Some of the industries were directly to and supportive of
the mining industry. For example, there were firms manufacturing dynamites, picks and other
tools and machinery for mining. This meant that there was a rapid industrial development t in
South Africa, changing it from an agricultural based economy to an urban industrial based
economy
5 Greater dependence on money economy
Mining affected the self reliance among Africans as they stooped their own production of pots,
baskets, clothing, iron tools and they began to depend on those bought from urban centres. This
brought about a greater dependence on the money economy.

vi) African loss of land

With the discovery of diamonds in Kimberly, a lot of Africans lost their right to ownership of
land. Land which formally belonged to Africans was taken by force by the white settlers.
Africans were gradually transformed into landless people and laborers in white owned farms and
mines.

57
 vii) Poor whites

Many whites on the other land became poor with discovery of diamond in Kimberly. These
whites sold their farms and rushed to the diamond areas with the hope of making money but
unfortunately they became very unsuccessful and they could not go back to their farms because
they had already sold them and they therefore remained very poor.

viii) Improved banking facilities

It was very necessary that with the increase in trade there should be an accompanying expansion
of banking facilities. The major banks which established themselves at this time of mineral
revolution were the Standard Bank, the Oriental Banking Corporation and the National Bank of
the Orange Free State. All the 3 absorbed local banks and opened new branches all over the
country. The banks were important in that they provided services for the mine workers and
business people used them to invest their capital.

Political Results of Mineral Revolution

1 Conflicts over diamond areas

Instead of the discovery of diamonds bringing happiness to the people, it brought conflicts over
the diamonds producing areas. People quarreled over areas which had diamonds and this only
came as a result of discovery of diamonds.

2 Increased hatred between the Boers and the British

The discovery of diamonds resulted in increased hatred between the Boers and the British. The
animosity between the two was increased by the Keate award and even grew in 1871 when the
British decided to protect the Griqua of Waterboer. The sour relationship between the two
worsened due to the mineral revolution. This resulted in the first and the second Anglo- Boer
Wars of 1880-1881 and 1899-1902 respectively.

3 Federation of Boers states

One of the political results of mineral revolution was the British decision to federate all the Boer
states. The British decided to bring the Boer states into a federation in order to enjoy the
financial benefits. This only came after the discovery of diamonds.

4 Loss of political power by African leaders

With the discovery of diamonds in South Africa, Kimberly a lot of African leaders lost all their
powers to the new colonial administration which controlled their lands. These leaders were

58
reduced to the status of warrant chiefs and puppets. The African leaders ended up having
completely no authority over their ethnic groups.

5 Cross pollination of political ideas

A lot of Africans who went to seek fortunes in the Kimberly diamond mines leant about the
politics of South Africa. They realized how blacks in South Africa were treated and how these
blacks fought for their independence.
When they went back to their respective countries with cross pollination of ideas, they began to
challenge the colonial government demanding to have a say in the running of their governments.
They began to push for independence. In Botswana the two most important personalities who
were influenced by politics of South Africa were Motsamai Mpho who joined African National
Congress and Phillip Matante who joined Pan African Congress.

GRIEVANCES OF THE UITLANDERS

1. The Uitlanders complained of the restrictions on their political rights in Paul Kruger’s
government. Laws were passed which only allowed people to vote who had lived in the
republic for 14 years and this greatly annoyed the Uitlanders.

2. They also complained that Kruger’s government was corrupt. For instance civil servants
were appointed because they were relatives of the higher officials and not because they
properly qualified.

3. Kruger’s government was also accused by Uitlanders forgiving monopoly over certain
goods to certain individuals or companies. These individuals or companies then sold
goods at very high prices.

4. They again complained that the government of Paul charged high customs for goods
coming from overseas. These customs were higher than those charged by Natal and cape
colony ports of entry.

5. They also complained that Kruger’s government refused to use cape colony and Natal
railway line. Kruger preferred to use the railway line built by Netherlands railway
company only because it had nothing to do with the British.

6. They complained that they were not allowed to use English language in public occasions.

7. Their complaint was also that they were not allowed trial by jury.

NB. It is important to note that the grievances of the Uitlanders led to the Jameson Raid of
1895-1896 where the British believed that they had the right to help the Uitlanders. This

59
happened after the Uitlanders had approached Cecil John Rhodes for help against Kruger’s
government. Rhodes intervened by smuggling arms and ammunition into Transvaal to help the
Uitlanders rebel. He organized a force led by Dr Leander Starr Jameson to attack the Boers from
Southern Rhodesia (present day Zimbabwe) through Pitsane in Bechuanaland. However, the raid
was unsuccessful since the news of the attack had leaked and reached the Boers. The British met
a tough resistance from the Boers and were defeated.

Results of the Jameson Raid

i) The major result of the Jameson Raid was that a peaceful solution to the differences
between Transvaal and Britain became almost impossible. In the Transvaal, suspicion
of the British was increased while groups in Britain wanted the British government to
intervene in the Transvaal.

ii) The other result was that Paul Kruger was re-elected as the President of Transvaal. Had
the raid not happened, Transvaal might have chosen a more liberal leader.

iii) The Jameson Raid also created a closer understanding between the two Afrikaner
Republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State. In here Orange Free State realized that
the British designs on the Transvaal could also extend to her.

iv) In the Cape, Rhodes was forced to resign as Prime Minister and concentrate his attention
on the future of Rhodesia because he had interests there.

v) The alliance between Rhodes and Hofmeyr was destroyed. Hofmeyr had supported
Rhodes in his search for a united South Africa but the raid destroyed the alliance and
W.P. Schreiner formed a government whose aim was to limit Rhodes influence and
prevent British interference in internal South African affairs.

vi) Transvaal grew closer together to Germany when the Emperor, Kaiser Wilhem II sent a

60
 telegram to Paul Kruger congratulating him on the raid. Kaiser then sent troops to
Delagoa Bay to be at Kruger’s disposal should he need them. This of course angered
the British government and people.

THE ANGLO BOER WAR / THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAR OF 1899-1902

The Anglo Boer war is often described as a white man’s war because this was a war between
whites that is the Boer and British.

Factors contributing to the Anglo Boer War

1 The animosity between the Boers and the British is demonstrated by the Great Trek when
the British arrived at the Cape, finding the Dutch, they introduced a lot of changes which
greatly annoyed the Boers who then decided to move out of the Cape. It is this Boer Trek
that we see sour relations between the Boer and the British which led to war in 1899.

2 Keate Award

The Keate award also contributed much to the Anglo Boer war. When Robert Keate awarded the
dispute area to the Griquas of Waterboer, the Boer became very bitter. Their bitterness worsened
when Waterboer asked for British protection and was granted it and the area became the British
crown called Griqualand west. This added salt to the injury thereby making war very possible.
1 Federation schemes

The federation plan by the British also worsened the already sour relations between the Boers
and the British. All the Boer republics except Natal refused federation and this meant war was
not easy to avoid as the Boers hated being under the control of the British.

2 Annexation of Transvaal in 1877

The British annexation of Transvaal in 1877 also contributed to South Africa war, when the
Boers republics refused federation the British were convinced that they were influenced by
Transvaal in 1876, Transvaal was weakened by the war with the Bapedi and the British took
advantage of Transvaal’s situation and annexed her. Other Boer states except Natal were very
much annoyed by this annexation. Tension grew between them and this prepared the grounds for
war.

61
 3 The Uitlander Question

Another contributory factor to the Anglo-Boer war is the Uitlander question. The British took
advantage of the Grievances of the Uitlanders to intervene in the Boer affairs. The British felt
that there was need to rescue the Uitlanders from the harsh treatment of Paul Kruger’s
government because most of the Uitlanders were British. By so doing the republic’s government
felt the British were unnecessarily interfering with their affairs. The hatred became even much
worse thus paving the way for the war.

4 The Jameson Raid of 1895

The Jameson raid contributed to the outbreak of the Anglo - Boer War. Cecil John Rhodes
wanted the independence of the Boer states to be destroyed. He used the British Uitlanders’
complaints to get into the Boer affairs. He claimed to be helping the Uitlanders when he
appointed his friend Dr. Leander Starr Jameson to organize an army that would carry out an
uprising against Kruger’s government. At the last movement, the outlanders decided not to rise
against the government. When Cecil John Rhodes dropped the idea, Jameson decided to go on
with the plot because he was a rush man who loved to do things that might earn him a title of a
hero. On the 29th December 1895 he invaded Kruger’s government and this came to be known as
the Jameson Raid. However Jameson was forced to surrender to the republics forces. This raid
worsened the animosity between the Boers and the British. The Boers were very convinced that
they could no longer trust the British. War was inevitable.

5 Policy of Sir Alfred Milner

The policy of Milner as well contributed to the Anglo - Boer war, Joseph Chamberlain appointed
Sir Alfred Milner as the High Commissioner to help him bring about a union of South Africa.
The two simply told Kruger’s government that Britain had the right to control the whole of South
Africa. In his policy Milner started to encourage Uitlanders to ask for British assistance. Milner
also felt that he had the right to assist the Uitlanders living in Transvaal. The Boers then felt
Milner was too much interfering in the Boer affairs. The Boers then came to a conclusion that
Britain was indeed determined to destroy their independence so on 11th October 1899 the Boers
decided to go to war in order to defend their independence and the Second Anglo - Boer War
had begun.

62
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Scramble for Africa

This refers to the time of the 19th century during which the European powers rushed into Africa
to acquire African colonies for political and economic purposes.

Reasons for the Scramble for Africa

6 The desire to open new markets

Over production, surplus capital and under consumption in the industrialized countries led to
European countries seeking new areas in Africa to invest their surplus capital and establish new
markets for their goods.

7 The desire to control international trade and acquire more raw materials

The European powers rushed to Africa in order to have control over the international trade which
of course meant more wealth to them. They were as well interested in acquiring raw materials as
Africa was believed to be rich in raw materials.

8 For purpose of political domination/ prestige

The acquisition of more colonies in Africa by European countries meant complete prestige to
them and it was a source of transfer imperialist countries. As such they could not overlook this

63
political and economic prestige.

9 To spread Christianity and spread western culture

The European powers rushed to Africa to spread evangelical Christianity in order to make
Africans soft targets for colonization. These Europeans again argued that Christianity came to
Africa to civilize the savages of Africa. They then forced Africans to abandon their culture and
adopt western culture.

IMPERIALISM
This refers to the era in the 19th century when European countries wanted to control foreign
lands for political and economic reasons.

Methods of colonization used by European Powers

1. Conquest: The most important method was conquest. Because of the industrial
revolution, which began in Europe, Europeans could make powerful new weapons such
as machine guns and dynamite before other people had them. So they easily defeated
people who used weapons such as spears, bows and arrows and old fashioned guns.
Europeans also possessed steamships that enabled them to travel to distant places and
attack from the sea.

2. Trickery: Europeans also sometimes tricked rulers of foreign lands into giving away
their lands. The most common method was to get a ruler who could not read or write to
sign an agreement called a treaty. Signing was done by means of making a cross on the
paper. This gave away his land. In most cases these rulers did not understand what treaty
meant.

3. Protection: Sometimes rulers placed themselves under the protection of a European power
because they feared other enemies, who wanted to destroy their state. Although they believed
that they would remain independent under such protection, this did not happen. The protecting
power gradually took away the powers of the protected rulers.

64
IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE IN BECHUANALAND

Reasons for the British declaration of a protectorate over Bechuanaland

1. The British declared Bechuanaland a protectorate so that the Boers could not interfere
with missionary work. Most Boers hated the LMS missionaries because they taught
Batswana skills such as reading and writing.

2. The British again declared Bechuanaland a protectorate so that the British traders
could trade without Boer interference.

3. The other reason for the British Protectorate was for the fact that Britain could protect
Batswana lands from Boer expansion. Mackenzie thought that Britain would develop
the land of the Batswana and spread European civilization for the benefit of both black
and white people.

4. The British as well declared a protectorate over Bechuanaland in order to protect the
road to north which passed through Bechuanaland through central Africa. For
many years British traders and missionaries had used the road from the cape through
Mafikeng, Kanye and Molepolole to Shoshong where it branched off to Ngamiland and
central Africa. This road to the north was used by missionaries, hunters and traders. It
was very important for the British trade and expanded northwards to central Africa.

The economic importance of the road was increased by the discovery of diamonds in Kimberly
in 1867. British capitalists owned the diamond mines and recruited labor from all over Southern
Africa. As early as the 1870s Batswana looked for work in Kimberly. Labor recruiters and
laborers both used the road. When gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand in 1884-1885 the
road became even more important for labor recruitment. Cecil John Rhodes a wealthy mine
owner who eventually rose to become the prime minister of the cape colony also wanted to use
the road to north to expand his own business interest in to what is today Zimbabwe and Zambia.

5. Besides the access to the road, Rhodes was also interested in the country of the
Batswana because he thought it might contain minerals. Gold mining had taken place
in the Tati area in the 1860s long before gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand.
Ngamiland was rumored to contain diamonds and king Moremi II of the Batawana had
granted some concessionaires permission to explore for minerals. Rhodes did not want to
be left out of this competition for Botswana’s potential wealth. Indeed he wanted to
prevent other mineral seekers from mining in the area so that he could have a monopoly
over his riches.

65
 6. The British feared that the Germans and Boers would unite against them in taking the area
between Namibia, Tanganyika and the Transvaal. This would block the road to the north for the
British capitalists like Rhodes. To prevent this, in April 1884 Britain declared the land South of
the Molopo River a protectorate (that is the area belonging to the Barolong and the Batlhaping).
The area was called British Bechuanaland. On April 1885 the protectorate was extended to
Batswana in the land north of Molopo. That is, Bakwena, Bangwato, Bangwaketse,
Bakgatla ,Balete and Batawana. The area became known as the Bechuanaland Protectorate

Response and resistance to the protectorate by Tswana Leaders

>Soon after the declaration of the protectorate different misunderstandings emerged between
Batswana kings and British colonial officials over the meaning and implications of the
protectorate. The British soon appointed a friend of Rhodes Sir Sidney Shippard to be the
resident commissioner for Bechuanaland in 1885. This was a clear indication of British
interference in the internal affairs of Bechuanaland. South of Molopo the British were harassing
and treating other Batswana groups with contempt and taking their land by force. This sent a
clear message of British colonial intensions to Bechuanaland leaders. The kings in Bechuanaland
began to express their dissatisfaction and protest against the protectorate. Only Khama of the
Bangwato supported British imperialism. In 1889 Sir Sidney Sheppard called a conference at
Kopong to discuss the divergent views of the Tswana leaders towards protectorate ie THE
KOPONG CONFERECE.

While Khama welcomed the protectorate, Sechele and Gaseitsewe received it with mixed
feelings and suspicions. As a result of the influence of the missionary John Mackenzie, Khama
allowed the British to occupy territories which were largely occupied by Bakalanga, Batawana,
Bakwena and Bakgatla and not the land occupied by Bangwato. Sechele and Gaseitsewe
accepted the protectorate on condition that the Queen could only rule among white people and
not among Africans. Sir Charles Warren, the Queen’s messenger in Bechuanaland could not
convince Sechele and Gaseitsewe to fully support the idea of the protectorate.

Below are some of the words of the kings in response to the proposal of Mackenzie and
Warren.

Khama “I give thanks to the words of the Queen ……and I accept the friendship and protection
of the government of England within Bangwato country”
Gaseitsewe “…. I wish to rule my own people in the land of then Bangwaketse which remains
ours .Nevertheless I do not refuse the advice and help of the English as I shall be dwelling
among them”
Sechele “…… I wish to rule my people according to custom but I give to the Queen to rule

66
among the white people wherever they are”

Examples of resistance

How Batswana opposed colonial rule

10 Refusal to pay tax and license fees

>In February 1889 Sheppard, the British colonial administrator called a conference at Kopong to
convince Tswana leaders to accept colonial rule. However Sebele openly stated that he refused to
pay tax and that he would never pay tax to anyone. He was supported by Bathoen.

11 The three Tswana leaders to London to protest against colonial rule

Still on the mission to oppose colonial rule, the three Tswana chiefs; Khama III, Bathoen I and
Sebele II left for London to strongly show disagreement towards colonial rule and the transfer of
the rest of the country to the BSA.co of Cecil Rhodes.

12 Defiance of chief Sebele

Still at the Kopong conference, chief Sebele openly and strongly expressed his disapproval of the
colonial administration without any fear of the British. He proved that he was too difficult to be
controlled by the British.

13 Topics that were discussed at Kopong conference of 1889

The topics that were discussed were the following:

i. The hut tax to be paid by the Batswana in order to pay for the administration of the
protectorate.

ii. The settlement of disputes among the Merafe by the British.

iii. Defense matters

iv. The digging of wells

v. Means of communication such as the telegraph line, the railway and roads.

COLONIAL RULE IN BECHUANALAND PROTECTORATE

Indirect system of rule

67
This is the nineteenth century system of rule which the British used in African colonies by ruling
through the local chiefs to pass the colonial administration messages to the entire Merafe.

Reasons for the British use of indirect rule

i. They used this rule because this system of administration was cheap as it made Africans
pay for and run their own administration.

ii. They also used the rule because they feared that if they interfered too much with
Setswana ways of doing things the Batswana might revolt then it will have to spend a lot
of money putting down the uprising.

iii. They used this system again simply because the country was considered to be a poor semi
desert one as the mineral wealth of the country had not yet been discovered.

iv. They also used this system because it did not want to spend money in ruling or
developing its colonies.

The following illustration shows the general structure of indirect rule used in
Bechuanaland protectorate

British Colonial Administration

High Commissioner in Cape Town and Pretoria

Resident Commissioner in Mafikeng

68
District Commissioners

Chiefs
(9 Dikgosi recognized by the British)

Head man
(Dikgosana recognized by the /British)

THE ROLE OF THE DIKGOSI IN THE PROTECTORATE

(The impact of Colonial Rule on Traditional Leaders)

14 In 1891 the Dikgosi were brought under the direct rule of the colonial administration and
they became mere civil servants who took orders from the white colonial administration.

15 The Dikgosi were no longer responsible to their people but rather to the British.

16 The British could take punitive action against the Dikgosi who did not follow their
instructions. The punitive actions included the suspensions from bogosi or even
expulsion.

17 The authority of Dikgosi was eroded by the new system of the colonial government as the
tribal councils were formed to assist the Dikgosi in the administration and this meant the
Dikgosi could no longer make sole decisions. The decisions they made had to be
approved by the resident commissioner.

18 The Dikgosi lost their judicial powers to the colonial administration. They could no
longer try major cases such as rape, murder and were to pass those to the resident
commissioner.

19 However the Dikgosi only gained authority where they were to collect hut tax for the
colonial administration. This is the only area where they exercised their degree of
authority.

IMPACT OF COLONIZATION ON BECHUANALAND

69
Political impact
6 The protectorate was administered by the high commissioner in the Cape Town and the
resident commissioner was responsible for the day to day affairs in the country. This then
meant the local chiefs became mere servants.

7 Hut tax was introduced by the British without consulting the Batswana and the British
administration continued to tax Botswana without giving them a say in the government.
The Batswana were then denied the political rights.

8 District commissioners and magistrates were introduced to serve as decision makers,

advisors and supervisors and this greatly reduced the powers of the chiefs.

9 Under Tswana law and custom land belongs to the nation and the chief administers it on
behalf of the people and this land cannot be given away or sold. However the British
created reserves for occupation by the people in each of the chiefdoms. Clear boundaries
had to be fixed land in the tribal reserves was meant to be occupied by Tswana leaders.
However, in this way much land was taken out of the control of the Tswana chiefs by the
British government.

Economic
1 During colonial period, agricultural farming continued to be mainly subsistence farming
and inadequate rainfall caused great problems. To overcome this British administration
introduced small irrigation schemes and trained demonstrators. This improved
agricultural farming.

2 For most of time Batswana did not think of producing cattle for markets. Cattle were
herded in open unfenced pastures by herd boys. However the British government
introduced schemes to improve cattle farming. Lobatse abattoir was built. Steps were
taken to improve the markets of beef.

3 During colonial rule, roads were in very poor state and could hardly be used when it
rained. There were only about 5km of tarred road from Lobatse station to the high court
which was built for the visit of the queen of England. Rail transport was provided by
Rhodesian railway.

Social
1 Christianity is one of the earliest results of the contact with Europeans. Christian
missionaries taught a faith which was very different from the traditional religion of the
Batswana. They criticized bogadi, polygamy, initiation ceremonies, rain making

70
 ceremonies and traditional medicine men. This meant that Batswana gave up their
traditional customs and beliefs.

2 The missionaries on the other hand helped the Batswana by building schools, e.g.
Moeding College where Batswana were taught hoe to read and write.

3 Medicine cure is one area where very little attending was received during colonial rule.
These were severe shortage of hospitals but the missionaries built the first hospitals in the
country.

THE BEGINNING OF NATIONALISM IN BOTSWANA

This is the era of 19 century when African colonies wanted to have their own independence and
move away from the control of the Europeans states.
Two stages can be traced in our study of nationalism in Botswana. The first stage is the reform
and protest without emphasis on complete political take over. The second stage is the stage of
decolonization by demanding complete transfer of political power from the British colonial
administration to the African leaders of Botswana.

EARLY FORMS OF NATIONALISM

The African advisory council

In 1919 the British high commissioner to Bechuanaland allowed Africans to form the Nature
Advisory Council. The council was made up of representatives from all Merafe. It met annually
in Mafikeng. The resident commissioner was the council chairman. The African Advisory
Council provided Africans with the opportunity to criticize and challenge the British colonial
administration on a number of issues such as
1 More representative of Africans in the administration

2 Racial discrimination in the colonial government service

3 Poor salaries for Africans in the colonial government service

4 Lack of economic development in Bechuanaland

5 Poor provision of educational and health facilities.

The Africans also used the council to protest against the plan of incorporation into union of
South Africa. The African Advisory Council became a training ground for politics of
nationalism. It taught Batswana to begin to see themselves as a result with a common problem
of British colonial domination and to speak with one voice.

71
The joint advisory council
The protectorate whites formed the European Advisory Council in 1920 to oppose to the African
Advisory Council. Africans opposed the idea of separate councils from its very beginning and
demanded the formation of a joint council. The joint Advisory Council was formed in 1950 to
address matters concerning both Africans and non-Africans of Bechuanaland. The joint council
was later transformed to form the legislate council. Members of the legislative council worked
together until 1625 when internal self government was achieved.

The African civil service association

Colonial government workers were divided into district administration and tribal administration.
The tribal administration was composed of representatives of Merafe and the Dikgosi. District
administration was composed of the protectorate white settlers and educated Africans. Important
and high paying positions were reserved for white.
The African civil servants complained about the wide spread of racial discrimination and decided
to form the African civil servants association in 1949(ACSA). The purpose of the ACSA was the
promotion of qualified Africans to higher positions and fight racial discrimination in the civil
service. But only a few Africans were promoted in 1960s just before the independence. The
ACSA is today known as the Botswana Civil Service Association.

Bechuanaland protectorate teachers association

In 1937 the Bechuanaland protectorate teachers association was formed (BPTA). The purpose of
the BPTA was to address the problems of poor salaries, accommodation for teachers, inadequate
classroom, discrimination against female teachers and to demand changes in the colonial
curriculum which was basically missionary oriented and in many ways irrelevant to the needs of
Batswana. In 1965 the BPTA was transformed into the Botswana Teachers Union which still
continues the work by the BPTA.
Trade union (General Organization for workers)
Between 1949 and 1962 several trade unions were formed in Bechuanaland. These included the
Francistown African union and the Bechuanaland protectorate workers union and the
Bechuanaland General Workers Organization. Trade Unions were formed to fight for
improvement of employees conditions of work and demand political emancipation for Batswana.
The Botswana Federation of trade was formed in 1977 to represent all unions in Botswana.

The legislative council – LEGCO.

In 1960 the legislative council was formed. LEGCO was composed of an equal number of
Africans and Europeans. LEGCO replaced the European Advisory Council and the Joint
Advisory Council and the African Advisory Council. The African Advisory Council was later
transformed into the House of Chiefs after independence.
LEGCO was the resident commissioner. Some members of LEGCO included Bathoen, Seretse,
S.M. Molema and Jimmy Haskins.
The Africans used LEGCO to criticize the colonial government for failure to develop

72
Bechuanaland and also to demand for transfer of political to Batswana. By the early 1960s newly
formed political parties were actively demanding complete political independence.

NEW FORMS OF NATIONALISM

Formation of political parties

After 1960 Botswana saw the emergence of new form of nationalism with the emergence of
political parties. Political parties sent a clear message of transfer of political powers from the
British colonizers to the African leaders and political parties were formed by educated Batswana
and the former migrant laborers from South Africa mines. Simon Ratshosa was on of the earliest
Batswana to speak out openly about the formation of a country wide “National progressive
Party” which would take over political power from the British colonial government. The first
political party in Botswana was the Bechuanaland Protectorate Federal Party by Leetile Raditladi
in 1959. The federal party was formed in 1961, but it failed to survive due to its predominantly
white orientation.

The Bechuanaland People’s Party

The first strong political party with large following in Botswana was the Bechuanaland People’s
party formed in 1960. It was formed by Motsamai Mpho, Phillip Matante and K.T.Motsete. The
BPP leaders had been greatly influenced by political developments outside Botswana especially
by the African National Congress, Pan Africanist Congress and the Nyasaland Congress of
Malawi.
The BPP had a clear message to then British. Their message was political independence for
Botswana. The BPP attacked the British colonial government’s failure to develop Botswana;
they attacked the racism in the LEGCO and in the whole country and called for political
independence from British domination. Matante made protests against British imperialism in
Botswana to the United Nations in 1962- 1963. The BPP soon gained a large following in
Francistown, North east, Mahalapye, Mochudi, Molepolole and Lobatse. While the BPP was
weakened by internal conflicts, it also suffered great sabotage at elections from the British white
settlers who saw BPP as a radical nationalist party with no support or sympathy for British
imperialism. The BPP lacked funding to reach the rural masses of Botswana and only opposition
after elections in 1965.

The Bechuanaland Democratic Party

The BDP was formed in 1965 basically to oppose the BPP which had become a threat to British
imperialism. Seretse Khama was joined by Masire, A.M. Tsoebebe, Tsheko Tsheko, G. Mosinyi
and Dabadaba Sedie to form BDP. Seretse who was married to a British young lady Ruth
Williams enjoyed a lot of support from the British protectorate whites. Many of them joined the
BDP. They enjoyed a lot of support from the European members of the LEGCO who saw BDP
as an alternative to the BPP which they hated for its uncompromising position for complete

73
political independence for Botswana. The BDP was seen as a friend of the British Imperialists.
At the lections in 1965 the BDP enjoyed financial support from the British colonialists to reach
the rural masses and register the majority of voters. It won the elections and formed the first
elected government of Botswana in 1966.

Botswana National Front

In 1965 a new opposition movement was formed under the leadership of Dr. Kenneth Koma was
among the most educated Batswana who had just returned from Russia and many other countries
abroad where he did his studies. The aim of the BNF was to unite all the opposition parties and
challenge the BDP. The BNF considered the BDP as a sell out organization which represented
British interest at the expense of the interests of the Batswana. BNF soon gained support from
the former BPP and BDP members and it soon grew to become the major opposition party in
Botswana until this day. In 1966 Kgosi Bathoen II joined the BNF and built a strong support for
the BNF in Kanye. The BNF also enjoyed the support of the workers because it appeals to the
protection of the rights of the workers in the country. Its largest support base 10 therefore in the
major towns of Botswana.

Changes brought by colonialism to Botswana

British colonization affected the lifestyles of Batswana in many different ways. Some of the
effects of British colonialism in Botswana include the following:
1 Loss of land: Batswana lost large areas of their land to the British. Such areas include
land held by the Tati Company in the north east and around Francistown. It also includes
the Tuli Block farms, Barolong farms and the Gantsi Block. Today many Batswana
remain poor due to landlessness and shortage of space to graze their animals and plough
crops.

2 Christianity: many Batswana were converted to Christianity which condemned Tswana

traditions such as polygamy, bogadi, bojale, bogwera, mephato and bongaka. Batswana
stopped bojale and bogwera but continue to use bongaka and mephato.

3 Marriages: Batswana abandoned traditional marriages and adopted Christian marriages.

They abolished polygamy but bogadi remained. Some Batswana especially in rural areas
still marry the traditional way.

4 Trade: traders brought new cosmetics which replaced sebilo and other Tswana cosmetics.
But some of these cosmetics affected people’s skin and hair negatively. Trade introduced
new item such as European clothing and beer.

5 Clothing: traditional leather blankets and clothes were replaced with European cotton
clothes such as trousers, shirts, dresses and huts.

6 Diet: early traders brought new types of diet such as tea, coffee, sugar and strong liquor

74
 which replaced the light sorghum beer.

7 Tool: traders brought guns, mould ploughs and wagons which made hunting, ploughing
and transport easier.

8 Production: European destroyed the Tswana forms of production such as sewing leather
and iron working by bringing cheap goods from Europe. Uncontrolled hunting led to the
destruction of forests and wildlife during colonialism.

9 Political leadership: the system of indirect rule diluted the powers of the Tswana kings.
Under this system colonial officials ruled through the kings who were now reduced to the
level of chiefs. The kings were no longer able to run the affairs of their communities
without interference from the colonial government. The kings were now expected to take
orders from the colonial administration which indirectly held more power than the kings.

Post independence developments / changes in Botswana

The British neglected development in Botswana throughout the period of British colonial rule.
Changes were brought after 1966. Post independence developments in Botswana included
mining, transport and communication, agriculture, water provision, education, health and
tourism.
ix) Mining: after 1966 Botswana opened several mines. These included diamond mines,
copper and nickel, coal and soda ash mines. Mining brought profits and increased the
country‘s revenue. (economic)

x) Transport and communication: at independence there were no tarred roads in

Botswana. Roads have been built to link villages, towns and to link Botswana to her
neighboring countries in sub region such as Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia and South
Africa, such as the tarring of Francistown-Plumtree road and Nata - Maun. Airport
and postal services have been provided in the major towns and tourists destinations
such as the Maun Airport. Telecommunications have improved with telephone found
in towns and major village. This Maun airport is one of the busiest in Southern Africa
because of its importance to the tourist industry. (economic)

xi) Agriculture: crop production has largely remained poor and rural in Botswana. Beef
production has been successful in Botswana but the main producers of beef animals
are a small class of rich Batswana and the former colonizers who still control large
areas of grazing land in Botswana. BMC is one of the major exporters of beef in
Southern Africa. The government also took measures to animal diseases like foot and
mouth. Veterinary department expanded by training more Batswana who carried out

75
 vaccines and spraying to destroy tsetse fly. Artificial insemination centres have also
been built. (economic)

xii) Provision of water: provision of water has improved in towns and major villages in
Botswana. But water supply still remains problem in many rural areas. However a
major new development was the provision of clean water to nearly all villages of
reasonable size. Many dams have been built like Shashe , Mopipi and Gaborone
dams.(social)

xiii) Education: government built many primary and secondary schools after
independence. Before independence there were very few well- educated Batswana
and the British provided poor quality missionary education which was for the most
part irrelevant to the needs of Batswana. Today Botswana has many primary schools,
a lot of juniors’ secondary schools, many senior secondary schools, several colleges
of education and one university. Bursaries are awarded by the government to allow
Batswana to study both local and abroad. Brigades have also been built in order to
encourage Batswana not only to receive academic training but also to develop manual
work skills. These include Serowe brigade, Palapye, etc. Non formal education has
been introduced to cater for those Batswana who could not formally attend school.
Teaching has been done in correspondence(social)

xiv) Health: health care services were poor before independence in Batswana. After
Independence, the government has built clinics in villages, hospitals in towns such as
Ngangabhgwe, Marina and some in villages such as Sekgoma Memorial. Public
health officers have been trained and sent to villages to teach people about a health
living. Institutes of Health Sciences have been built to train nurses and scholarships
are provided to train Batswana in medical profession. This has improved the health
conditions of many people. But health care still remains a problem in many rural
areas where people still die from curable diseases such as malaria.(social)

Political parties formed before 1966

i. Bechuanaland Protectorate Federal Party (1959)

ii. Bechuanaland Protectorate People’s Party(1960)

iii. Bechuanaland Democratic Party (1965)

iv. Botswana National Front(1965)

76
 v. Botswana Independence Party (1964)

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The 20th century world
During the 19th Century, Europe made great economic and social progress. Development in
agriculture and expansion of industry and world trade gradually led to a higher standard of
living. The great European powers established colonial empires all over the world which

77
provided the market for their manufactured goods and a source of raw materials for its industries.
Various factors began to threaten the political stability of Europe from 1870. There were six
major European powers i.e Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy and Russia. Serious
mistrust developed between countries and they began to build up the strength of their armies and
navies.

European powers in 1900

Britain France Russia Germany Austria- Italy

Hungary
Population(millions) 46 40 167 65 50 35
Steel production(millions of 7.9 4 4 17 2.6 3.9
tons
Merchant ships(millions of 20 2 0.75 5 3 1.75
tons
No. of soldiers-thousands 711 1250 1200 2200 810 750
warships 122 46 26 85 24 36
submarines 64 73 29 23 6 12

Unification of Germany

The country that came to be called Germany started off as a loose confederation of 39
independent states. The unification of these states came about in 1871 under the domination of
Prussia. Prussia was the Strongest of the states. The chancellor of Prussia, Otto Von Bismarck
wanted to bring about this unification in the middle of Europe. The unification came as result of
three main wars; against Denmark, Austria and the most crucial of all was the Franco – Prussian
war of 1870-1871. France was defeated and had to pay Germany an indemnity of 5000 million
Francs and also lost valuable mining and industrial provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia
(Germany). The loss of territories by France left bitter memories for the French and
determination to undo ceded territories.

Bismarck’s foreign policy 1871-1890

Subsequent to the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck’s aim was to isolate France, to prevent her
from acquiring an ally in Europe, since that would make her declare war on Germany as a
revenge on the German defeat to France in1870 and French loss of her two important territories
of Alsace and Lorraine. The Germany Chancellor had to avoid this. This had to be achieved
through a system of alliances. He was also most anxious to keep being on good terms with
Austria and Russia.

78
The Dreikaiserbund (three Emperors’ League)
This was an alliance which was signed by the three Emperors: Wilhelm I of Germany, Francis
Joseph of Austria and Tsar Alexander II of Russia.
Terms
a. They all agreed to suppress socialist revolution and to give assistance if
necessary.
b. When one is attacked by an outsider, the two remain neutral except when attacked
by France and another country.
However in 1878 the League collapsed, Russia withdrew and became closer to
France.

The Dual Alliance of 1879

At the Berlin Congress of 1878 Bismarck had taken sides with Austria and Britain over the
misunderstandings with Russia in the Balkan Peninsula. He clearly saw that he had risked the
possibility of an alliance between Russia and France. He quickly negotiated an alliance with
Austria. The result was the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria in 1879.
Terms
-Austria would remain neutral in the event of war between Germany and France alone.
-Members would help each other if attacked by Russia with the help of another power.
-Germany promised to support Austria’s interests in the Balkans where she clashed with Russia.

Renewal of the Three Emperor’s League 1881

This was signed after the ascension of the new Tsar Alexander III to the Russian throne after the
assassination of his father Alexander II.
Terms
-Germany would remain neutral if Russia was involved in a war with a fourth party (possibly
Britain)
-Russia would be neutral if Germany and Austria Hungary with a third party (possibly France)
-In return, Russia agreed that Austria could take over complete control of Bosnia –Herzegovina.

Triple Alliance
During the Scramble for Africa, Bismarck deliberately encouraged the French to occupy Tunis in
North Africa. This, he did despite the fact that Italy had interests in the territory. The French take
over of Tunis rightly angered Italy, and she joined the Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria,
thus converting it into the Triple Alliance.
Terms
They pledged to help one another if attacked by France.
Italy could not fight against Britain in any circumstances.

Secret Reinsurance Treaty of 1887

79
There was rivalry between Austria and Russia over the Balkans. This led to the collapse of the
three Emperor’s League which was supposed to be renewed after every three years. Bismarck
still wished to preserve good relations with Russia. So in 1887 he concluded a secret treaty with
Russia, the Reinsurance Treaty. It was secret because it was against the interests of Austria
Hungary in the Balkans.
Terms
-Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral if either went to war with the third party.
-The neutrality clause would however not apply if Germany was attacked by France or Russia
attacked Austria Hungary.
-Germany agreed that Russia should exercise the main influence in the affairs of the Balkan
Peninsula.

The fall of Bismarck

In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died and was succeeded by his grandson Wilhelm II. Through the
years Bismarck acted with consulting the Kaiser. However the events changed when the new
Kaiser came into power in 1890. The new Kaiser did not agree with Bismarck over several issues
including Bismarck’s alliances. Wilhelm II decided that Germany should have a strong navy and
get more colonies. All this means were opposed to Bismarck’s own way of thinking hence his
resignation in 1890.
Europe after Bismarck

After 1890, Bismarck’s system of keeping peace through alliances collapsed. The new Germany
Emperor, Wilhelm II did not renew the treaty with Russia. He wanted the policy of colonial
expansion whereas Bismarck wanted Germany’s foreign policy limited to Europe.
He wanted to secure Germany-Austrian control over the Balkans even if it led to hostility from
Russia. Germany adopted a policy known as Welt- politik. This was an aggressive desire to
dominate the whole world rather than focus on continued affair in Europe. Wilhelm was also
determined to build a strong navy which could challenge Britain. The economic situation in
Germany also necessitated a change in foreign policy. Germany industries had grown
enormously; therefore it was necessary to acquire fresh markets for the manufacturers. As a
result it was obvious for Germany foreign policy to have as unlimited growth such as the need to
acquire colonies.

Germany navy
The adoption of world policy was necessitated by the creation of a strong army. Wilhelm stated
that a navy was necessary for defending the acquired empire. But the real motive for creating a
powerful army was to challenge the British naval supremacy. The German’s naval programme
caused a long term rivalry between Germany and Britain which led to the outbreak of the First
World War

Europe began to move gradually to world war which Bismarck has been trying to avoid from

80
1871 to 1890. Wilhelm did not favour friendship with Russia. In 1888 the Russian government
attempted to obtain loans from Germany but these were opposed by the new Kaiser. Russia then
turned to France who readily agreed. This paved a way for the Dual Alliance between France
and Russia in 1893. They agreed that in case of an attack on France or Russia by a third party
(clearly meant Germany), they would support each other.

The results of this agreement were very crucial: Germany now faced the possibility of fighting a
war on two fronts, something that Bismarck had worked to avoid. In addition, France had broken
out of isolation and Russia’s position was also strengthened. Thirdly, Britain found herself
dangerously isolated. She felt the alliance was directed against her because she had clashed with
both countries; (with France over Fashoda in Sudan and Egypt and with Russia over Persia,
Afghanistan and the Far East). Britain was also disturbed by Kaiser Wilhem II’s telegram to Paul
Kruger after the Jameson Raid in 1896 in which the latter was congratulated by the former for
having repelled the raiders without foreign aid. This made Britain to seek friendship. The British
approached the Japanese and they signed an alliance in 1902. In 1904 Britain again approached
France and they concluded the Entente Cordiale.

The Entente Cordiale 1904

This was a friendly agreement which settled remaining disputes between Britain and France in
North Africa. France recognized the British control of Egypt and Sudan while the British
recognized the French interests in Morocco. It should be noted that this was an “entente” or
understanding not a military alliance.

The Triple Entente of 1907

At the Algeciras Conference in Spain in 1906, Britain and Russia found themselves supporting
France, though the two were not friends. France then persuaded Russia and Britain to resolve
their differences. This then resulted in the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 in which Britain and
Russia resolved their issues over Afghanistan and the Far East. Britain gained control of the
foreign policy of Afghanistan however, both exercised equal trading rights in the country. These
three countries were now linked together by an official understanding, i.e. Russia and France,
France and Britain, and Britain and Russia. The result was that Russia was added to the Entente
Cordiale thus transforming into the Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia. This agreement
finalized the Division of Europe into two armed camps.
.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR OF 1914-1918

81
On 28 July 1914, the First World War broke out in Europe. This involved major powers of
Europe and their allies together with their associated territories. The war was also known as the
Great War. The war was caused by a combination of factors.

SYSTEMS OF ALLIANCES

Bismarck’s web of friendship eventually divided Europe into 2 hostile camps; members of the
Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria- Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente comprising of
France, Britain and Russia. There were irreconcilable differences between the two camps; e.g.
Russia and Austria had differences over the Eastern Question/Balkan crisis. At the same time
these alliances were defensive in nature; if one of the members of the alliances was to be
attacked then others will help. This left Europe in a dangerous position and brought Europe on
the brink of the war because of tensions that were created. If Europe had not been divided into
the two hostile camps a general war that had taken place could not have broken out. A local
conflict between any two of the countries that were aligned was likely to draw in its allies.
Secondly, because they were aligned, countries such as Austria acted recklessly in handling
international disputes as they knew that they would be supported. Equally, Serbia knew that
Russia would come to her aid if war broke out especially between her and Austria. Thirdly, most
of these pre war agreements were concluded in secrecy, and when the terms later became known
to the other camp this had the effect of increasing tension between the countries involved.

ARMS RACE

This was competition between the two camps over weapons and war machinery. >Immediately
after the loss of Alsace- Lorraine, France prepared for the war too. There was mass production of
war artillery and battle ships. For any eventuality it reached a stage where there was a need to
test the strength and prowess of each camp. The major European powers also competed against
each other in the production of other general weapons of war before 1914. Countries such as
France and Russia introduced military conscription. The French wanted a war of revenge and
recovery of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. Russia armed herself in preparation for a
possible show down with Austria in the Balkans. Due to this, tension continued to mount.

THE ANGLO-GERMAN NAVAL RACE

This was a competition in the production of warships between Britain and Germany. For a long
time Britain was the leading naval power in Europe. The navy was very important to
Britain as an island she depended on her ships for food and raw materials. This made her
to adopt a policy of “splendid isolation” in Europe. This meant she did not want to be
involved in European matters. In 1896 Germany passed the Tirpitz laws that she was

82
 going to expand her navy. These made Britain to abondone her isolation and expand her
Royal Navy to maintain the lead. In 1900 Germany passed a Navy Law which ordered
the building of 41 battleships and 60 cruisers. Britain responded by announcing a big
naval increase. Germany navy could have access to the North Sea. The Anglo-German
naval rivalry strained relation between Germany and Britain before the war. Britain was
forced to find allies which she did through France and Russia leading to the Triple
Entente.

IMPERIALISM/ COLONIAL RIVALRY

The 1884 conference of Berlin was aimed at averting war between European powers. The
scramble for Africa led to the competition between Europeans powers and nearly fought
for colonies in Africa. A typical example is the Fashoda incident (Britain and France) the
Moroccan/ Agadir crisis (between Germany and France)

FASHODA INCIDENT
This was a conflict between Britain and France over Sudan in Africa. Captain Jean-Marchand of
France entered the village of Fashoda in Sudan and signed treaty with the chief. Two weeks later
the British army entered into Sudan to declare their interest over the Sudan. This produced
tension between the two powers and both prepared for war. France was not ready for the war as
her allies Russian (Dual alliance of 1890) had just been defeated in the Japanese-Russo war of
1904. At the same time France was les powerful military to Britain even though Britain did not
have any allies (she was still exposed to attack from the triple alliance). Both France and Britain
decided to resolve their differences realizing that they have the common enemy (Germany) and
eventually expanded the Dual Alliance to form the entente cordiale/Triple Entente in 1907.
According to the terms of the treaty France recognized the interest of Britain in Sudan and in
return Britain allowed the France to take over Morocco.

MOROCCAN CRISES OF 1905

The first Moroccan crisis/ Tangier crisis
In 1905 the French were preparing to occupy Morocco as one of their colonies. Britain, Spain
and Italy had no objection but the Germans had not been asked for their opinion. Germany
intervened in Morocco to test the strength of the Entente. The German Kaiser landed in Tangier
(morocco) and made a speech in which he declared the independence of Morocco. This surprised
many as it was well known that Morocco was a French sphere of interest. This crisis was
resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.At the conference, Germany found herself
isolated, .only Austria and Morocco supported her while France was supported by Britain,
Russia, USA, Spain and Italy. It was agreed that Morocco be granted independence, France with
the help of Spain was given policing powers. In addition, France was given the right to control
customs and arms supply while Germany was given trading rights only.

83
NB The result of the Conference was the coming together of France, Russia and Britain leading
to the formation of the Triple Entente

The second Moroccan crisis/ Agadir Crisis of 1911

In 1911 Kaiser Wilhelm II again interfered in the affairs of Morocco and caused a crisis which
nearly resulted in a war between major powers. In 1911 there was a rebellion in Morocco
as people were against the Sultan whom they felt was being used by the French. The
rebels occupied Fez the capital. The French sent troops to drive out the rebels. Germany
mistook this as a French occupation of Morocco and she sent a gunboat called the
Panther to a Moroccan port of Agadier on the Mediterranean Sea. There was now danger
of war between France and Germany. Britain ordered her navy to get ready. The German
warships withdrew from the area. Britain and Russia were likely to be drawn in because
of the Triple Entente. On the other hand, Austria- Hungary and Italy were on Germany’s
side due to the Triple Alliance of 1882. In November 1911, the Treaty of Paris gave
Morocco to France and Germany was compensated with territory from French Equatorial
Africa.

Though the crises were resolved, Germany’s careless and aggressive policy alarmed other
powers and forced them to come together more closely. In addition, this strained relations
between members of the Triple Entente and The Triple Alliance in a way that a general
war was brought nearer. This therefore created tensions between the great powers before
1914.

WAR PLANS
Almost all the major powers had drawn war plans to help then when a war broke out. This was
dangerous because these plans had to implemented, thus causing war.

a) The Schlieffen Plan-Germany’s war plan

The Plan was designed by the military leader in 1870 count Alfred Von Schlieffen, after the
signing of the Frank Furt and the loss of Alsace –Lorraine. The plan was designed to counter the
war of revenge planned by France for Alsace –Lorraine. The Germans had always patiently
waited for the war so as to put their plan into effect. The Schlieffen pan was drawn to avoid
fighting two countries at the same time, that is France in the East and Russia in the west.
According to the plan Germany was to attack France from the north through neutral Belgium and
defeats her in six weeks then move to the east to attack Russia. The plan hoped that Russia, a
backward country would take a long time to mobilize her army, and therefore a small army
would be deployed against her. On the other hand Britain would remain neutral.

b) Plan 17 (France’s war plan)

84
 Ever since their defeat at the hands of Prussia in 1871, the French had always cherished fighting
a war of revenge and recapture Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. The French army general
therefore drew PLAN SEVENTEEN in 1913. If war broke out well trained French troops would
carry an all –out attack on Alsace –Lorraine. After capturing the two provinces the French forces
would cross the Rhine river and head for Berlin. Under Plan 17 troops would move very fast
using railways. Soldiers were trained to fight fiercely.

c) The British Expeditionary Force (BEF), Britain’s War Plan

The British had a well trained strong army. The Expeditionary Force was well prepared for any
attack. In 1906 the British promised the French military support in the event of a German attack.
The army was then improved with 144 000 men. Their task was to travel quickly to France as
soon as war was declared. To back them up, a Territorial Army of Volunteers was created. To
ensure there was a good supply of officers to lead the enlarged army the Officers Training Corps
were set up for older pupils in schools.

d) Russia’s Plan
Russia also had a war plan. Initially they planned to attack only Austria and carry out a
defensive war against Germany. But the plan was modified under French influence to force
Germany to fight on two fronts. The Russians were to attack both Germany and Austria as soon
as war came and overwhelm the enemies’ army by sheer weight of numbers because Russia had
millions of soldiers.

e) Austria’s Plan
The Austrians had secretly made enormous cannons at their Skoda factories. They also relied on
the success of the Schlieffen Plan so that Germany could help them defeat the Russians.

The war plans contributed to the outbreak of the First World War because they made a general
war more possible. Plans that were made had to be tested and put into operation .In
addition, once the mobilization plans of the various armies were started they could not be
changed and gave the politicians little room to manoueuvre.

EASTERN QUESTION/ THE BALKAN CRISES

This is regarded as the spark of WW1. It was a conflict between the Russian and Austria over the
Balkan Peninsula. The problem was that the Slavs of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Bulgaria etc. were under the Turkish Empire. The Turks ill treated the Slav and the Russia. She
regarded herself as the guardian of the Slavs. Austria was against the idea; she wanted the Slavs
to be under the Ottoman Empire. Austria was afraid that the independence of the Slavs will mean
the expansion of Slavs, who might in future aggresses other countries. This bone of contention
came in 1908 when Austria took over Bosnia-Herzegovina. Russia and Serbia protested, but
Germany made it clear that she supported Austria. Serbia and Russia were not prepared to risk

85
war with Germany. Austria became too confident that Germany will support her in future
disputes and started to make trouble.

Balkan Wars
From 1912-13 there were Balkan wars. In 1912 Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria
attacked Turkey. After the war Serbia was not happy with the gains; they wanted Albania so as
to have access to the sea. In 1913 the 2nd Balkan war, the Bulgarians were dissatisfied with the
peace settlement; they were hoping for Macedonia. Bulgaria was defeated since turkey,
Romania, Greece rallied to support Serbia; by the treaty of Bucharest Bulgaria forfeited all gains
from the 1st Balkan wars.
Serbia emerged from these wars as the most powerful, with strong army; and close ally of
Russia. She was also determined to cause problems among the Serbs and Croats living in Austria
–Hungary. Austria felt that Serbia had to be dealt with to stop her ambitions. In addition, because
the British were in support of Austria in the Balkans, the Germans miscalculated into thinking
that the British were moving away from Russia and France.

SARAJEVO INCIDENT (28 JUNE 1914)

The Austrian heir to the throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the town of Sarajevo in Serbia.
He was assassinated by a Bosnian student Gavrillo Princip. Princip was a member of the “Black
Hand Society a Bosnian nationalist movement. This sparked anger and Austria sent a very stiff
ultimatum to Serbia to be answered in 48 hours. This was done after being given a green light by
Germany due to the Dual Alliance of 1878. Serbia could not agree to all the terms of the
ultimatum. Austria took this as a provocation of war. Since Austria had desired to crush Serbia at
all costs she saw this as a golden opportunity to teach Serbia a lesson. On 28 July 1914, Austria
declared war on Serbia.

Russia did not want both Austria and Germany to dominate the area of the Black Sea and the
Dardanelles Straits. Furthermore she desired to support a fellow Slav country. Russia mobilized
her forces. Germany then instructed Russia to stop her mobilization but Russia rejected the order
on 31 July 1914. On 1st August 1914 Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. France
then mobilized in support of Russia as per the Franco-Russian Dual Alliance of 1893. Germany
ordered France to stop mobilization when France refused she declared war on France on 3
August 1914. Britain hesitated for a few days. She however informed Germany that she would
not allow a German naval attack on France in the English Channel. The Royal navy was ordered
to mobilize. On the 4th August 1914 Germany invaded Belgium as per the Schlieffen Plan. By
invading Belgium, Germany had violated the Treaty of London of 1839.This was signed by the
following countries: Britain, Belgium, Austria, France, Germany and Russia. These countries
guaranteed Belgium independence and neutrality. Britain therefore entered the war on 4th August
1914 at 11:00 PM to protect the Belgian neutrality.

86
Austria Hungary declared war on Russia. France and Britain declared war on Austria Hungary.
The British overseas possessions –Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and India joined her in
the war. France was equally supported by her colonial empire. Japan supported her ally Britain.
Turkey and Bulgaria supported the Central powers. Brazil, Romania, Greece, China joined the
Triple Entente. When the war started, Italy remained neutral. She did not join though she was a
member of the Triple Alliance. She only entered in 1915 after Britain had promised her some
territories which were seized from her by Austria (Damaltia, SouthTyrol, Trieste, Trentino) after
signing the Secret LONDON treaty.Italy fought on the side of the Allied powers. USA too
fought on the side of the Allied powers. She joined the war in April 1917 after Germany’s
submarine warfare, in which she sunk USA’s ships.

The war ended in 1918 in favour of the Triple Entente and was concluded by the Paris Peace
Settlement.

Why the Central powers lost the war

a) Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

The Plan failed because it was not easy for Germany to pass through Belgium and finish with
France. Germany had miscalculated into thinking that the Belgians would not resist their
invasion. Belgian’s delaying tactics gave time for the British force to reach Belgium and
gave the French an opportunity to organize themselves. The Germans were to face a full
scale war on two fronts, what Germany had tried to avoid. This weakened them.

b) Allied sea power was decisive

The British were very clever in dealing with the Central powers. The removed all contact
between Germany and her colonies together with her friends. This blockade resulted in food
shortage while on the other hand keeping the Allied armies fully supplied. As a result, the
Germany ships were destroyed and soldiers were demoralized.

c) In response to the blockade, Germany retaliated by mines and submarines attacks.

Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare was suicidal because they attacked USA ships
supplying supplies to the British. The Americans then had to fight the Germans. Initially
USA was not involved in the war. Germany then drew her into the war.

d) Americans involvement into the war gave the Allied powers new hope. Americans
helped the in defeating the Germans which was not going to be easy for allied powers
alone. German troops retreated because of incessant losses which demoralized soldiers.
In trying to rescue the situation, Germany brought in new, young and inexperienced
troops. However this did not help it was worsened by the outbreak of Spanish flu.

87
88
 INTER WAR PERIOD 1919-1939
PARIS PEACE TREATIES

THE VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY

The First World War was a disaster for Europe. Millions of people had been killed and countries
were devastated. The victorious leaders met in Paris Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on June 1919
to try and work out how to stop a terrible war from occurring again. The peace settlement came
to be known as Versailles Peace Treaty, signed with Germany.
This Versailles treaty had five separate treaties signed with defeated powers as follows;

Treaty of St. Germain with Austria (1919)

Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (1920)
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (1919
Treaty of Sevres with Turkey (1920)

These treaties were dealt with separate but were generally a part of the peace settlement.
Versailles treaty was therefore generally accepted to imply all arrangements made at Versailles.

PERSONALITIES AT THE PEACE SETTLEMENT “THE BIG THREE”

The peace settlement was dominated by the three important personalities of France, Britain and
USA. The leaders were known as the victorious allies.

AIMS OF THE BIG THREE

President Woodrow Wilson of USA

Wilson was an idealist who had religious feelings. Wilson of course believed in that Germany
should be blamed for starting the war but he believed that the treaty with Germany should not be
too harsh but be just so that Germany may not seek revenge in future. Wilson wanted
international peace and he put forward two most ideas of self determination and international
cooperation. Wilson also brought up the fourteen points.
Wilson’s fourteen points

*No secret treaties between countries

*Free access to the seas for all countries in peace time or war time
*Free trade between countries
*All countries to work towards disarmament
*Colonies owned by Europeans to have a say in their own future.
*German troops to leave Russia.
* Independence for Belgium

89
*France to regain Alsace and Lorraine
*frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted
*Self determination for people of Eastern Europe.
*Serbia to have access to the sea.
*Self determination for people in the Turkish Empire.
*Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea.
*The League of Nations to be set up to solve conflicts peacefully.

Georges Clemenceau of France

He was an extremist (person with not ordinary views) and his main aim was to make Germany
suffer, so he wanted a treaty that will cripple Germany and make her not to recover her strength
there by will not be a threat to France. He would want a very harsh treaty on Germany. He had
been aggrieved by the German invasions and was determined not to see France attacked again.
He was strongly supported by his people who wanted Germany to be left in a state of impotence.

David Lloyd George of Britain

He was a mediator (was between the ideas of Clemenceau and Wilson). He did not want
Germany to be punished harshly but wanted a lenient punishment so that Germany will not want
revenge in future. Georges knew that Germany was a potential customer of the British goods. He
wanted her to recover quickly to purchase goods from Britain.

Despite all these different views the treaty of Versailles was signed in June 28th 1919 reluctantly
by the two representatives of the German government. The Germans had not been involved in
drawing up the treaty and just saw the proposals presented to them. They therefore referred to
this as ‘DIKTAT’ meaning a settlement imposed on them.

TERMS OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY

They are divided into:

*Territorial terms (involve taking land from Germany)

*Non territorial terms (have got no issue of land)

TERRITORIAL TERMS OF VERSAILLES TREATY

Germany had to lose a lot of territories in Europe as follows

Territory Lost to

90
 Alsace-Lorraine France ( originally belonged to her)
Eupen, Moresnet, Malmedy Belgium
North Schleswig Denmark (initially hers before)
West Prussia, Posen Poland
Danzig To be a free city under the league of
nations administration
Memel Lithuania
Saar coalfields France but administered by the league and
after 15 years the population will vote
whether the area be given to France or
Germany
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Set up as free independent states
Union between Germany and Austria Their union was forbidden (Anshluss)
Germany’s Africa colonies Taken away and became mandates under
the League of Nations supervision. Eg
Namibia given to South Africa, Togo to
France, Tanganyika to Britain as mandates

NON TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Reparations
>Germany had to pay a staggering compensation amount of 6,600 million Pounds to France,
Belgium and Britain for the damages caused by the war. This amount was decided at the
Versailles treaty but was later announced in 1921 and if the terms of the treaty had not been later
changed. Germany would have finished payment in 1984.
>Germany also had to give pensions to all widows and orphans as maintenance.

*Disarmament
>The German army to reduce total number to100 000 men.
>Conscription was not allowed, armored vehicles, submarines or aircraft and was only allowed
to own six battle ships.
>The Rhineland was permanently demilitarized

*The War Guilt clause “Article 231”

Article 231 of the clause reads “ The Allied and Associated Government affirm and Germany

91
accepts the responsibility and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied
and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequences of war
imposed them by the aggression of Germany and her Allies”

This clause was simple but very harsh on Germany especially the last seventeen words. Germany
was forced to accept the responsibility for having caused the war and to be answerable to all
damages and suffering of the war. This clause caused a lot of resentment because Germany did
not start the war alone.

OTHER PARIS PEACE TREATIES

TREATY OF ST GERMAIN -DEALT WITH AUSTRIA

TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Bohemia and Moravia were lost from Austria to new state of Czechoslovakia.
*Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia was lost from Austria to new state of Yugoslavia.
*Austria was to lose Galacia to Poland and land to Italy.
*this treaty was about to sort out a chaotic jumble of territories into new states rather than
punishing Austria.
*union with Germany was forbidden.

NON TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Austria’s army was restricted to be 30 000.

TREATY OF NEUILLY 1919- DEALT WITH BULGARIA.

TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Bulgaria was to lose lands to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia and its access to the
Mediterranean.

NON TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Bulgaria was to limit its armed force to 20 000.
*Bulgaria was also to pay $ 100 million in reparations.

TREATY OF TRIANON 1920-DEALT WITH HUNGARY

92
TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Hungary was to lose Transylvania to Romania

*Hungary was also to lose Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia.
*it was also to lose Slovenia and Croatia to Yugoslavia
*Hungary also lost its population of about three million who ended up in other states.

NON TERRITORIAL TERMS

*Hungary was due to pay reparations but its economy was weak hence never paid the
reparations.
*HUNGARY WAS ALSO TO DISARM
TREATY OF SEVRES 1920-DEALT WITH TURKEY

TERRITORIAL TERMS
*Turkey was to lose Smyrna to Greece.
*Syria was taken from Turkey and given as Mandate which was under French control
*Turkey was to lose countries of their former empire such as Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco as
they were now independent and under the British and France protection
*Turkey was to lose control of the straits running into the Black sea.
*Turkey was also to lose Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan to be the league’s mandates.

NB. The Turkish nationalists however challenged the terms of the treaty of Serves and drove
the Greeks away from Smyrna in a revolution.This resulted in the signing of another treaty called
the treaty of Lausanne of 1923. In this treaty Smyrna was returned to Turkery.

THE GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

The overall reaction of the Germans to the treaty was horror and outrage. They certainly did not
feel they had started the war. They did not even feel they had lost war.

One of the non-territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles was guilt clause article 231. In this
term Germany was to accept the blame and responsibility for the war. The Germans therefore
hated this term as they felt blame should be shared.

The other non territorial term was disarmament. Here the German army was to be reduced to
only 100000 men, conscription was abolished and Germany was not allowed to own armoured

93
vehicles submarines and air crafts. She was to have only 6 battleships. In here the Germans were
very much upset by the disarmament terms because to them, the army was their pride and terms
were a blow to their pride.
Further more they were angry because it was only Germany who was to disarm despite Wilson’s
fourth point of 14 points. Other powers did not disarm to the extent that Germany was to disarm.

The Germans felt that they were further insulted when they were not allowed to join the League
of Nations. The League of Nations was to be set up to preserve world peace and promote self
determination. Germany was not allowed until she was seen by the Allied powers to be behaving
well. She felt that her treatment was not in keeping with Wilson’s fourteenth point and in any
case all countries should be allowed to disarm including Germany.

There were as well reparations in the treaty and Germany was to pay a staggering amount of
$6,600 million to Britain, France and Belgium. The Germans hated this term very much as they
believed that this is such a huge amount that not even a rich country could afford to pay and they
wondered why Germany was expected to pay such a sum of money given that hre economy was
also seriously affected by the war.

Germany also lost a lot of territories to different countries. The Germans hated this loss of land
as it was a major blow to their economy and of course the Germans pride. They felt insulted as
when Germany was losing land, Britain and France were busy taking control of German and
Turkish territories in Africa and in the Middle East.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES ON THE GERMANS.

The treaty of Versailles tipped Germany into chaos. The German nation was divided into two
that is the right wing who blamed Fredrick Ebert for signing the treaty and the left wing who
supported Ebert. This obviously meant that the political set up of Germany was crippled thereby
leading to complex political instability.

The treaty again made the right wing to attempt a revolution which was however defeated by a
general strike then destroyed the essential services of power and transport. This meant economic
aspect of Germany was paralyzed.

Due to high reparations that Germany was to pay Britain, France and Belgium, Germany fell
behind in payment and in 1923 French and Belgian troops entered the Ruhr and took what was
owed to them in the form of raw materials and goods. This meant that Germany lost her goods
and raw materials and obviously hunger and starvation hit the Germans as the economy was

94
crippled by the French and the Belgium actions.

The French and Belgian troop’s actions of taking the German raw materials and goods in
response to German’s failure to pay reparations forced the German government to order workers
to go on strike so that the French and Belgian troops will not have anything to take. This created
a problem as Germany had no goods to trade with and even no money to buy goods with. With
this, obviously the trading system of Germany was paralyzed in the economic aspect. Starvation,
poverty and hunger spread in Germany.

As the German government ordered its workers to strike in order to deal with Belgium and
France, the French reacted by harshly killing 100 workers and 100000 of them were expelled
from the region. The workers were denied their civil rights and more importantly Germany did
not have any goods to trade with making the economy to collapse. The German Nation remained
a poverty stricken one.

The worse was yet to come, due to high reparations Germany had to pay and of course due to the
fact that there were no goods for trade and no money. Germany tried to solve this problem by
printing extra worthless money. This created a major problem of hyper inflation. With this
money in circulation, prices shot up, workers needed wheelbarrows to carry home their wages.
This was complete disaster in Germany. Hunger and starvation and poverty could not spare the
Germans. This was a real blow to the German economy.

Conclusion: the Germans naturally blamed these problems on the versaillies treaty. But the
truth is more complex. Some say French acted too harshly. Others say that the Germans brought
the problems on themselves by failing to pay reparations.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Origins of the league
The League of Nations is often spoken as the brain child of the American president Woodrow

95
Wilson. It is important to note that although Wilson was certainly a great supporter of this idea of
an international organization of peace, the league was a result of coming together of similar
suggestions by a number of world states men i.e. an organization that could solve international
problems without resorting to war, would help to achieve this.
However there were disagreements about what kind of organization it should be e.g. Wilson
wanted an organization that would be like a world parliament where representatives of all nations
could meet together regularly to decide on any matters that affect them all.

Many British leaders thought the best league would be a simple organization that would just get
together in emergencies. A French proposal was a strong league with its own army. However it
was President Wilson who won.
Wilson came up with a very ambitious plan for the league and according to the plan ;
>All nations were to join the league
>All nations were to disarm
>If nations have dispute they were to take it to the league
>They were to accept the decisions made by the league.
>They were to protect one another if invaded
<If any member break the covenant and go to war other members promised to stop trading with
it and sent troops if necessary to force it to stop fighting.
The league was therefore formed in 1920 but USA never joined the league as the Americans
were totally against the league.

Aims of the league

>To maintain peace and security throughout the world through collective security.
>To encourage international cooperation in order to solve economic and social problems.
>To encourage countries to disarm.
>To improve the living and working conditions of people in all parts of the world.

The structure of the League of Nations

The organization of the league was divided into two. (ie major and minor organs)

Major organs

The general assembly

* It’s the leagues parliament

96
*All nations in the league of nations were to send representatives to the assembly
*It met annually and is made up of representatives of all the member states.
*The decisions made by the assembly had to be unanimous. (ie had to be agreed by all members
in the assembly).

FUNCTIONS
-Assembly could recommend action to the council
-It admitted new members to the league
-Appointing temporary members of the council
-Debating the leagues budget
> Its function was to decide the general policy
>To admit new members to the league
>To appoint temporary members of the council
> To draw the budget of the league
>Revise peace treaties

The decisions made had to be unanimous e.g. they had to be agreed by all members of the
assembly.

The Council
The council was a much smaller body which met more often, at least three times a year. It
contained four permanent members – Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. There were four other
members elected by the assembly for a period of three years(non permanent members).
FUNCTIONS
*To solve political disputes as they arise between members. In doing this they can use

>Moral condemnation: they could decide which country was to be blamed for trouble. They
could condemn the aggressor’s action and tell it to stop what it was doing

>Economic and financial sanctions: members could refuse to trade with the aggressor.

>Military force: the armed forces of member countries could be used against an aggressor.

They used a policy called VETO in which if one member can stop the council from acting or
implementing a decision even if all other powers agreed ie A permanent member has the
power to stop a decision that has been agreed by other powers.
NB The main idea behind the council was that if any dispute arose between members they should
bring the matter to the council and would be sorted out through discussions.

The Permanent Court of International Justice

It was based at the Hague in Holland and it consisted of fifteen judges of different nationalities.

97
It dealt with legal disputes as opposed to political ones.
FUNCTIONS
*It settle disputes between countries peacefully.
*It also gave legal advice to the assembly and council.
*The court was not like the courts which carried out the law within member countries ie. it had
no way of making sure that countries followed its rulings.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat was a sort of civil service. It performed all the paperwork or administrative work
of the league. It kept records and prepares agendas of league meetings and prepared reports for
the different agencies of the league.

International labour organization

The ILO brought together employers and the government and workers representatives once a
year. It deals mainly with labor issues. Its function was:

>To improve the working conditions of people throughout the world.

>It collected statistics and information about working conditions and it tried to persuade member
countries to adopt into suggestions.

Minor organs

The Mandates Commission

After the first world war, former colonies of Germany became mandates to the League of nations
under the control of (ruled by) Britain and France. The leagues mandate commission made sure
that Britain or France acted in the interests of the people of that territory and not in their own
interests.

The Refugees Committee

>Helped to repatriate ( return) the refugees to the original home after the end of the First World
War.

98
Slavery Commission
Worked to abolish slavery around the world

Health Committee
>Attempted to deal with the problem of dangerous diseases and to educate people about health
sanitation.

The successes of the league in the 1920s

Although it had its problems and its critics the league did also have its successes. However the
reputation of the league suffered because these successes were either small-scale or were only
partial successes.

Solving international Disputes: the major purpose of the league was to try to solve disputes
between nations without them ending in war. In the 1920s the league became involved in trying
to sort out many disputes in different parts of the world.

*The Aaland islands 1920-1921

The league successfully intervened to prevent a conflict between Finland and Sweden over
which stat owned these islands. The league decided that the islanders should remain under the
Finish control. However, the rights of the Swedish minority in the islands were to be protected.

*Upper Silesia 1921

This area was on the border between Germany and Poland and contained both Germans and
poles. When conflict threatened the league organized a PLEBISITE on whether they should
become part of Poland or Germany. Based on the result of the vote the league decided to divide
the area up. One third went to Poland and two thirds to Germany in peaceful settlement.

*Austria 1922
The Austrian government was facing economic disaster after they lost from the First World War
and the treaty of Versailles which followed. The league sent a team of financial experts to help
the Austrian government. They managed to prevent the collapse of the Austrian economy by re
organizing Austria’s finances and its economy.

*Greece /Bulgaria 1925

In October 1925 Greek troops invaded Bulgaria after an incident in which Greek troops invaded
Bulgaria after an incident on the boarder in which some Greek soldiers were killed. Bulgaria
appealed for help from the league. The league condemned the Greek action after the commission

99
of inquiry and ordered Greek soldiers to pull out of Bulgaria and pay compensation to Bulgaria.
Greece obeyed the order.

These successes have often been forgotten. It appeared the league was able to solve conflict
between small states but failed on conflicts involving great powers. Even so the league showed
that it was capable of successfully preventing disputes and in some cases it was even able to stop
fighting once it had already broken out.

The International Labour Organization (ILO): some of the league’s greatest successes came
in its work to improve the lives of ordinary people throughout the world. The ILO made several
important contributions to improving people’s working conditions. The ILO got its member
countries to agree to the following principles:

>A target working day of 8 hours maximum and working week of 48 hours maximum.
> All workers should have the right to join a trade union and have annual paid hours.
>No one should be in full time work under fifteen years of age.
>The ILO regularly published its findings and recommendations in order to increase pressure on
governments throughout the world.

Other areas of success: the league was also successful in other work:

>It had some success in fighting three different but very unpleasant activities-slavery, gym-
running and drug trafficking.
>The league’s minorities commission put pressure on government which did not respect the
rights of minority groups.
>The world health organization enjoyed some success in helping countries to control outbreaks
of life threatened diseases.
>The league helped to repatriate approximately 400,000 First World War prisoners.
>The greatest success for the league tended to be in its work as a agency, helping people and
tackling problems such as diseases.

The failures of the league in the 1920s

The League of Nations has a bad press from historians. They often say it was a failure. This is
not entirely fair. As you have seen it the le ague had its successes. However these successes
tended to be small scale where as its failures was more high profile (and they got worse in the
1930s)

INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES IN THE 1920S

100
Vilna 1919/1920-Lithuania and Poland

Vilna was the former capital of Lithuania but contained many poles. It was seized by the Polish
army in 1919 and so the new government of Lithuania appealed to the League of Nations. The
league protested against the Polish action; but Vilna remained under the Polish occupation.
France, a key member of the league supported Poland’s claim to Vilna in return for Polish
support in the event of a future attack by Germany.

Corfu 1923-Italy and Greece

In 1923 an Italian general named Tellini who was working for the League of Nations boundary
commission was murdered in Greece. Mussolini; the leader of Italy ,demanded 50 million Lira
compensation from the Greek government ,ordered his guns to bombard the Greek Islands of
Corfu and demanded that the killers be handed over. The Greek government did not know who
the killers were and appealed to the league. The league council suggested that the Greeks pay
compensation to the league which would hand back the money once the murderers had been
found. However Mussolini had ideas. He said the conference of ambassadors should judge the
case rather than the league. Mussolini got his way and the conference judged Greece should pay
Italy what it was demanding.

DISARMAMENT
By the mid 1920s it was accepted that an arms race had helped to cause the First World War. The
major powers had met at the Washington conference in 1922 and agreed some limits on naval
power. Then in 1925 there were plans for the league to organize a world disarmament
conference. However league members failed to agree on this most were worried that disarming
might leave them vulnerable.

League members were looking after their own interests as well as trying to be members of the
league, in many cases there was no conflict but there were other such Corfu and the disarmament
conference where the self interest of a country clashed with the aims of the league.

The Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931-Japan and China

In 1931 Japanese troops invaded the Chinese territory of Manchuria and China appealed to the
league, which condemned Japan and ordered her troops to be withdrawn. When Japan refused
the league appointed a commission under Lord Lytton which decided (1932) that there were no
faults on both sides and suggested that Manchuria should be governed by the league. However
Japan rejected this and withdrew from the league (March 1933). The question of economic
sanctions let alone the military ones was never even raised because Britain and France had
serious economic problems. They were reluctant to apply a trade boycott of Japan in case it let to
war which they were ill equipped to win especially without American help. Japan had
successfully defied the league and its prestige was damaged though not yet fatally.

101
The Italian invasion of Abyssinia- October 1935

This was the most serious blow. The league condemned Italy and introduced economic
sanctions; however this did not include exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy. So half hearted
were the sanctions that Italy was able to complete the conquest of Abyssinia without too much
inconvenience (May 1936). A few weeks’ later sanctions were abandoned and Mussolini had
successfully floated the league.
Again Britain and France must share the blame for the league’s failure. Their motive was the
desire not to antagonize Mussolini too much so as to keep him as an ally against the real danger
Germany.
Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions anyway and began to draw closer to Hitler.

WHY DID THE LEAGUE FAIL?

The self interest of the leading members
The league depended on Britain and France to provide firm support in times of crisis. When
conflict occurred however neither the British nor the French government was prepared to
abandoned its self interest to support the league.

The USA and other important countries were absent

At any one time important countries were not members. Germany was not a member until 1926
and left in 1933. The USSR did not join until 1934, whilst Japan left in 1933 and Italy left in
1937. Most important USA was never a member. Without major power the league lacked
authority and sanctions were not effective.

Economic sanctions did not work

Economic sanctions were supposed to be the leagues’ main weapon, but members of the league
did not willingly impose them because they worried that without the USA they would not work.
When they did impose them they were easily broken. The league therefore lacked the muscle to
enforce the decisions of its Assembly and council.

Lack of troops
If economic sanctions failed, military force was the next option yet the league had no armed
force of its own and relied upon the cooperation of its members. Britain and France however
were not willing to commit troops. At time did troops ever fight on behalf of the league?

The treaties it had to uphold were seen as unfair

The league was bound to uphold the peace treaties which had created it. In time however it
became apparent that some of the terms of those treaties were harsh and unjust and needed
amending. This further undermined the league.

102
Decisions were slow
When a crisis occurred the league was supposed to act quickly and with determination. In many
cases however the league met too infrequently and took too long to make decisions. The need for
all members to agree on a course of action undermined the strength of the league.

WEIMAR REPUBLIC AND THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER

By November 1918 Germany was affected by series of strikes and riots, people longed for peace.
The desperate Kaiser appointed the prime max of Baden as the chancellor. In November
revolution broke out, the Kaiser abducted the throne and fled to Holland. The political vacuum
left by the Kaiser marked the end of monarchy and start of republicanism. The vacuum was filled
by the new government Weimar Republic led by Frederick Ebert leader of the social democrats.
The new government met in the town of Weimar and this was named after the town. The new
government was faced with two major tasks; to provide the constitution and sign the Versailles
treaty. From the onset the Weimar government faced a heavy task and was bound to failure.

Socio-economic problems
*Germany emerged from the war defeated and destroyed; she faced some socio-economic
problems.

*German industries, social; infrastructure i.e. bridges; hospitals and roads were destroyed by
allied powers. This led to unemployment coupled with military limitations imposed by the
Versailles treaty.

*Economic chaos also hit Germany caused by inflation; the German currency lost value. At the
same time Germany was expected to pay reparations. By 1922 the Germans fell behind in paying
full annual payment.

*Starvation and spread of influenza and other diseases affected Germany.

*French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 after Germany fell behind in paying reparations; the

103
government ordered the workers to follow a policy of passive resistance. The decision was
catastrophic as it affected the economy and the currency value.

*In 1919 Germany was closed to bankruptcy because of the big expenses of war. Due to this
economic instability the new government became unpopular and led to political revolutions
posed by different political organizations. Different political organizations wanted to take over
power in order to improve the economic and political status of the country.

Political problems

Spartacist rising -1919

In January 1919 Germans communist wanted to take over power from the Weimar government.
They were led by a woman called Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Spartacist. As the Spartacist took to
the streets the Freikops went into action and stopped them. The Spartacist were overcome and
the 2 leaders were tracked down and arrested. Later they were brutally killed and their bodies
were thrown into a canal.

Kapp Putsch (coup d’ etat) 1920

BB organized a strike and after 4 days Putsch petered out. Kapp fled the country and other
people who took part were not punished

Beer hall Munich putsch

Organized by Hitler and the Nazi party it was also a failure. The economic stagnation and
political chaos came to stability around 1924 when Gustar Stressmen was appointed the
chancellor of Germany. From the on set Stressmen wanted amicable and tranquil relations
between Germany and the allies. He felt that the problem affecting Germany emanated from
their hatred on the allied
[Britain and France] He wanted to establish relations with the allied so as to improve the
economy and for Germany to be recognized as a country. He came up with policies at this;

POLICIES OF GUSTAV STESSEMAN

THE DAWES PLAN 1924

The economy was on the verge of collapse, the reparation bills huge and the inflation had made
the Herman currency worthless. By 1923 Germany fell behind in paying reparation and France,
Belgium troops responded by occupying the Ruhr. Britain asked the US to sort out German
economy. A committee led by Charles Dawes ensured that Germany continue to pay the
reparations for a long time. It was agreed by 1926 the German economy was strong again and
its government is stable.

104
LOCARNO PACT 1925
There were signs that international relations were improving. In 1925 representatives of
Germany, Italy, Britain, France etc. met at Locarno in Switzerland and agreed to settle disputes
between them. It was agreed that Belgium, France and Germany to accept the borders drawn by
the treaty of Versailles. The Rhineland was to remain demilitarized. France promised
Czechoslovakia and Poland assistance in case of German attack. Germany was treated as a
partner and in 1926 she was allowed to join the League of Nations.

KELLOG-BRIAND PACT 1928

In 1928 the foreign ministers of France (Briand) and Kellog of USA drew an agreement not to go
to war and was signed by 65 nations. They should use war only in self defense. This can be seen
as high point of international relations.

YOUNG PLAN 1929

By 1929 the Dawes plan terms were coming to an end. Owen Young; American financer drew
up a plan to reorganize reparation payment s. the plan reduced reparations by 75%. Germany was
given 59 years to pay the bill. These improved the economy of Germany and ensured political
stability. But all these were followed by the great depression which affected the whole world. It
meant Germany was hit twice after WW1 economically. This depression affected Germany and
led to the rise of political demagogue like Adolf Hitler.

WEAKNESS OF THE WEIMAR [reasons for collapse]

[1] The Weimar republic had accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty, with its
arms limitations, reparations and war guilt clause and was therefore always associated with
defeat and dishonor. Germany nationalist could never forgive the republic for that.
[2] There was traditional lack of respect for democratic government and a great admiration for
the army and the ‘officer class; as the rightful leader of Germany. In 1919 the view was wide
spread that the army had not been defeated. It had been betrayed stabled in the back by the
democrat who had needlessly agreed to the Versailles treaty. However the stab in the back
legend was eagerly fostered by all enemies of the republic
[3] The political parties had very little experience of how to run a democratic parliament system
because before 1919 the Reichstag had not controlled policy and had final authority and were the
one who really ruled the country. Under the Weimar republic constitution, it was the other way
round- the chancellor was responsible for the Reichstag (Parliament) where the Reichstag had
the final say. However the Reichstag usually failed to give a clear lead because the parties
refused to compromise. Disagreements became so bitter.
[4]Successive coalition governments also affected the republic. There were always 2 or more
governments in the parliament (Reichstag) which made it difficult to achieve some progress to
improve the political and economic fabric of the German society. The parties always wanted to

105
pursue their own political agenda and forget about the people. This topic can be divided into 3
phases.

The 1st phase 1919 – 1924; this era is characterized by Kaiser’s abdiction; economic and
political instabilities.
>2nd 1924 – 1929; Stressman era and his policies. Economic growth, Dawes (1924) >Locarno
pact (1925) and Young plan (1929), Kellogg pact (1928) etc, then the death of stressman.
>3rd phase 1929-1933; economic instability and economic depression, political instability, the
Weimar government on the verge of the collapse. By 1933 Hitler appointed as the chancellor.
THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER
1933-1939
Hitler was born in 1889 in Biraunau on the border of Austria and Germany. He was Austria by
birth. At a young age he wanted to become an architect/painter but failed in that endeavor. At 16
he dropped from school and moved to Vienna where he lived like a tramp and did menial jobs
i.e. clearing way. He was filthy and dirty until 1914 when world wars world war started. He
enlisted in the Germany army fought bravely. He was promoted to the rank of corporal, wounded
twice and a warded the iron crosses for bravery. When the war came to an end he was
hospitalized and ovept bitterly upon receiving news that the Germany army has been defeated.
Hitler was stationed at Vienna to monitor the small political groups in area. In 1919 he joined the
GERMAMY SOCIALIST WORKERS and the same year he became the president of the party. He
also felt the new Weimar government was not doing enough to improve the economic situation
in the country, thus in 1928 he organized a Putsch to overthrow the government.

Munich Putsch
The headquarters of the Nazi party were in a beer hall in Munich. Hitler, Gobbles, Goering and
the Nazi supporters decided to take over the Barbarian government. Nazi troopers occupied
important buildings but the army hit back and Putsch. He had undermined the mood of the
German people. The leaders were arrested and charged with treason. He was sentenced to 5 years
in jail but served 9 months in lands berg prison. While in prison he wrote a book called the
“mean kampf”-“my struggle”. Upon release from jail he found that stressman’s policies had
improved the economy, he set his energies in rebuilding the Nazi party; he established and open
the branches of the party country wide.
The 1930s with the economic depression and economic instability provided the Nazi with
grievances and started to complain of the economic chaos. By 1932 the coalition between the
centre and social democratic party collapsed du to unemployment benefits and economic
reforms. The president Von Hindenburg appointed Von Papen as the chancellor; but Papen
insisted that Hitler be appointed the chancellor so that he can be used as a puppet and to stop the
communists. In 1933 Adolf Hitler was appointed by Hindenburg as the chancellor of Germany;
this was the dawn of democracy and start of the totalitarianism.

106
HITLER CONSOLIDATE POWER
Enabling act
>After being appointed the chancellor, the asked to rule Germany for a period of 4 years. His
argument was that other parties were given 14 years to improve the economy and social fabric of
the German society. All the laws to be drafted by the chancellor and came into effect the day of
publication. Hitler was to be a dictator for 4 years- the period was extended indefinitely and he
became the Fuhrer.

1933 elections
The elections were violent and Nazis used state machinery i.e. radio and pres. Meetings of the
opponents were wrecked every one who was not a Nazi member was beaten up. Then SS and the
SA were used to cause instability and chaos during the campaign. The Nazi won the elections
and became the majority and single party in the Reichstag.
Reichstag fire
The climax of the elections came on the 27th February, when the Reichstag was damaged by the
fire. Van Der Lubbe was blamed for the fire. Hitler used the fire to stir up fear of communism
and as a pretext for the banning of the party. The communist leaders were rounded up some
jailed and others put in the concentration camps or exiled. The Nazi failed to reach the 2/3
majority.

Night of the long knives

Hitler dealt with the opponents within the Nazi party. The leading officers in the army were not
impressed with Hitler. The SA leader Ernest Rohm wanted to make the SA the second army.
Hitler was suspicious of Rohm and regarded him as a rival. Hitler had to choose between the
army and the SS. On weekend of 29-30 June he acted ruthlessly. SS men broke into the home of
Rohm and other leaders of SA and arrested them. Hitler accused Rohm of planning to overthrow
and murder him. Rohm and 400 others were executed. Hindenburg thanked Hitler for his action
of nipping treason in the bud. The SA became subordinate to the SS and many of them were
absorbed in the army.

How Hitler stayed in power

The enabling act of 1933

Force coordination
Hitler used forced coordination and turned Germany into a totalitarian state. He used the SA, SS
and the Gestapo to control all aspects of the state.

All political parties were banned and Germany became a one party state.

The education system was closely controlled by the state so that children were indoctrinated with
the Nazi opinions. School text books were rewritten to fit in with the Nazi philosophy. History

107
and biology were changed to fit in the Nazi theory and opinions. Teachers, lecturers were closely
watched and were reported to Gestapo if they strayed.

Religion was brought under state control were sources of opposition.

Germany became a police state; the police helped by SS, SA prevented all opposition to the
government. Enemies of the state were put in concentration camps.

Hitler’s anti-Semitic policy- Hitler blamed the Jews for everything that affected Germany. Jews
were denied German citizenship. Jews were harassed, their property destroyed, shops looted. By
1939 about 6 million Jews were killed.
Trade unions were abolished, their funds confiscated and leaders jailed.

HITLER’S DOMESTIC POLICY

Economic recovery
The Nazi can be created with the economic recovery of Germany. Their coming to power was
characterized by building of highways, roads and most people were absorbed in the army when
Germany violated the treaty and introduced military conscription. By 1953 the level of
unemployment had drastically reduced by 50%. A lot of development had taken place which had
long been wanted by the Germans. The people realized that the Nazi party had restored the pride
of the Germans to be behind the Nazi party and give them the outmost support.

The youth
The children were indoctrinated with the Nazi philosophy and were taught to spy on their
parents and report them to the Gestapo. Young boys joined the Hitler youth and show the purity
of the German nation. The girls joined the le ague of the German Maiden: they were taught to be
good mothers. There were financial incentives in the law encouraging marriages. Homes of the
unmarried women were created.

The Jews
The state opponents were persecuted, but the Jews received worst treatment. The Nazi boycotted
all Jews business. Jewish shops were marked with the Star of David. Jewish children were
intimated at school and Germans were taught that Jews were responsible for German defeat.
Jews had to wear the yellow star on their clothing. Between 1942 4.5 million Jews were gassed
in different death camps i.e. Auschwitz, Treblinka, Dachau etc. By 1939 more than 6 million

108
Jews had been killed in Germany. This was known as the “HOLOCAUST”.

HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY

His policy was based on three main aims;
*Lebensraum for the Herrenvollc (living space for the Germans)
*To reverse the much hated Versailles treaty
* To build the army, the pride of the Germans

In October 1933 Hitler pulled out of the disarmament conference. In this conference countries
wanted to reduce their arms in order to reduce the risk of war. The French refused to disarm, like
wise Hitler argued that unfair to disarm while other countries were busy arming especially
France.

Withdrawal from the league

The same year in 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the league. His reason was that the league
refused to revise the Versailles treaty which made Germany weak. At the same time the
permanent members of the league had violated the covenant of the league i.e. Japan and Italy.
Hitler wanted to have freedom of action to pursue his aggressive. By denouncing Germany’s
membership in the league he knew he could do anything he liked without being constrained by
the laws of the league.
Hitler wanted to show that he was interested in peace and he signed the NON-AGGRESSION
PACT with Poland. The Pact was for 10 years.

Hitler was Austrian born and had a great affection for his homeland. In 1932 Dolfuss became
chancellor and was bitterly opposed to socialism. He banned all political parties and became the
dictator. Hitler was watching the events with great concern; Austrian Nazis were opposed to
Dolfuss. Dolfuss was a friend to Mussolini. 25th July 1934 the Austrian Nazis attempt a coup,
they shot and killed Dolfuss. German intervention in Austria was quickly stopped by Mussolini
who sent his troops in Austria and promised to defend the independence of Austria. Hitler lost
interest at least for the moment.

The return of the SAAR coalfields

According to the Versailles treaty the Saar coalfields will be placed under the league for 15 years
in which a plebiscite will be held to determine the future of the area. In 1934 the period had
elapsed. A referendum was held to determine its future, 90% of the people in the Saar voted for
the return to Germany. This was the major victory for the Nazi party.

Rearmament
Hitler repudiated the military restrictions imposed by Versailles treaty and started military

109
conscription and rearmed Germany. European powers felt uneasy and only condemned him for
violating the treaty. Mussolini called a meeting at Stresa to face the growing THREAT OF
Germany. They protested that though the disarmament clause was unfair, Germany was rapidly
rebuilding her forces. Apart from the protest they did nothing.

The same year Britain violated THE VERSAILLES TREATY BY SIGNING A SECRET
TREATY WITH Germany the Anglo German Naval Pact. According to the pact Germany was
allowed to rebuild her navy as long as it was maintained at about 2/5the size of the British navy.
Also to ensure that the British navy was not challenged. This was done without the knowledge
of France. Britain had implied her acceptance of Germany’s right to rearm inspite of the limits of
the Versailles treaty. This was a major boost to the Nazis.

The remilitarization of the Rhineland

The Versailles treaty had removed the German troops from the Rhineland to ensure the security
of France. In 1935 Hitler argued that the Rhine was part of Germany and so the German troops
should be in the area. His troops marched into the Rhineland thus flagrantly violating the
Versailles treaty and Locarno pact. Britain and France could not take a direct action but only
condemned Hitler’s actions, this encouraged Hitler to do as he wanted. He realized that no
country could risk fighting after the catastrophe of 1914 WW1.
Hitler now feeling success turned to Austria, he promised to recognize the independence of
Austria. In 1936 the Austo-German agreement was signed. Austria allowed some Austria Nazis
share in the government.

Mussolini and Hitler had the same interest in Spain which was plunged in a civil war in 1936; the
two countries signed the Romeberun axis which promised mutual cooperation between Italy and
Germany.

The following year Germany and Japan signed the Anti-comintern pact and agreed to support
each other in combating/ stopping the spread of communism.

The Anschluss/unity with Austria

This was another violation of the Versailles treaty. Hitler was determined to unite the 2 German
speaking people. SEYSS INQUART, an Austria Nazi entered the government and the Nazis
caused trouble and embarrassed the government. Austria chancellor SCHUSCHNIGG met with
Hitler to discuss the future of Austria who bullied and abused Schuschnigg called for a
referendum.

Hitler threatened the chancellor and eventually SEYSS-INQUART took the position and
immediately called for German support –March 1938 German troops marched into Austria and
the chancellor proclaimed the union with Germany.hitler allowed the referendum to take place
and about 99% approved of the Anschluss.

110
APPEASEMENT POLICY
This policy was initiated by the British .it was a policy to satisfy or pleasing Hitler .some
revisionist in Europe felt that Versailles treaty was harsh on Germany. Many people felt that the
treaty should be revised. This policy was aimed at pleasing Hitler and accepted his demands in
order to avoid war. The allies had realized that the best way to contain Hitler was to agree to his
demands. This was the mistake Europeans did since Hitler could not be satisfied by any power.

APPPEASEMENT AT WORK-OCCUPATION OF SUDETENLAND

-1938 Hitler turned his attention to Czechuslovia, henlein now Hitler’s puppet wanted Sudeten
land. Germans to have full independence as Hitler pressed for taking over Sudetenland,
chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden. Britain and France asked the Czechs to give German
all the areas with more than 50% Germans. 22 September chamberlain met Hitler and was
staggered to find that Hitler made new demands; some people felt that Hitler needs to be dealt
with. The final conference was held in Munich. It was complete surrender to Hitler’s demands.
On the 10th October German troops occupied Sudetenland. The Slovaks continued to want
independence, Hitler seized the opportunity, and he violated the Munich agreement and occupied
the whole of the Czechoslovakia.

His next move was to take over Poland; Chamberlain had seized to trust Hitler and showed
support for the poles. In May 1939 Hitler and Mussolini signed the pact of steel; both countries
promised to help each other in the event of war. 3 months later he signed the Ribbentrop-
Molotov pact with Russia which was shocking and amazing. The treaty arranged for the division
of Poland and ensured the neutrality of Russia. On 1st September 1939 German troops invaded
Poland, 3rd September a British ultimatum was given to Germany; when the ultimatum expired
Britain declared the war on Germany, France joined and the WW2 had begun.

111
CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
(1939-1945)
THE WEAKNESS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
This cause is considered to be a major factor which contributed to the outbreak of the Second
World War. The League failed to take effective actions against the aggressors; the League again
failed to revise the much hated treaty of Versailles which was a bitter pill for the Germans to
swallow and ultimately filled them with a spirit of revenge. This created many loopholes which
gave Hitler an opportunity to violate the terms of the treaty . The League was therefore often
referred to as a’ toothless bulldog’. As a result, the failure of the League of Nations had
actually created a stage of theatre for hostilities and aggression endangering peace in
Europe and putting Europe at a brink of war .

THE FAILURE OF DISARMAMENT

The league covenant demanded an all round reduction of armaments. The disarmament
conference was held in Genera from 1932 and it ended in 1934 and the countries failed
to agree on disarmament. The League failed to enforce disarmament instead countries
increased their armaments especially France because they felt that disarmament would
leave them vulnerable to external attacks. This made war possible as countries like
Germany began re- armament hence leaving peace in Europe being disturbed.

THE FAILURE OF APPEASEMENT POLICY

In the period between 1932-1933 Britain and France formulated a policy called
appeasement policy which was to establish friendly relations with Hitler by meeting his
demands to avoid violent confrontation. The policy was however the biggest mistake ever
made in Europe because Hitler was never satisfied as he made one demand after another. As
the British and the French treated him with ‘kid gloves’ (smoothly), they infact gave him
confidence to be aggressive without any fear thereby disturbing peace and making war
inevitable.

THE AGGRESSIVE POLICY OF GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN

In the 1930`s Germany ltaly and Japan followed an aggressive foreign policy which

112
finally led to war in 1939. Hitler had the plan to expand Germany and this meant
violence when he united Germany with Austrian, remilitarized the Rhineland, began re
armament etc. Italy as well wanted to increase her prestige and she easily defied the
League during Corfu Incident and Abyssinian. Japan also attacked China and all these policies
were aggressive causing war in 1939. Member states however failed to work collectively to
contain these aggressive Nations.

THE WORLD GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION-1929

The dream of peace was also shattered by the Great Economic depression of 1929 in
Europe. This was a serious breakdown of the economies of the world, countries like USA,
Britain, Japan were also severely attacked by this depression. Germany was one that was hit
hard by this depression because America stopped giving her financial assistance. Unemployment
short up as industries closed down. At the heart of this economic depression, a mood of
desperation filled the hearts of the Germans. Hitler took advantage, he mobilized people and
made good promises As such he gained power and started to be aggressive . This means
that the depression created an opportunity for Hitler to rise to power and be aggressive
leading to war.

INVASION OF POLAND -1939

On the 1`st September 1939 Germany invaded Poland after the invasion of Sudetenland
and Czechoslovakia. This was still Hitler is plan of expanding Germany. Invasion of Poland
is regarded as the `SPARK THAT LIT THE BORNFIRE’’ because when the ultimatum
given to Germany expired, Britain declared war on Germany, France followed and by that the
Second World War had began and it ended in1945.

THE POLITICAL IMPACT OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1) In many European Countries the old pre- war leaders were swept aside, particularly those
who were thought to have helped the Germans. In France, Scandinavia and the Balkans
the resistance leaders were seen as the nature leaders of the country after the war.

2) The war gave a real boost to independence movement in colonies owned by European
countries. Within three years India had been granted independence from Britain. Twenty
years after the war, Britain had lost almost all its empire.

113
 3) The war completely crippled the economies of the European power. Economic recovery
was even more difficult than after the First World War. This actually strengthened the
will to cooperate and over the following 20 years led to the setting up or the first stage of
the European Union.

4) The war had shown that the two most powerful countries in the world were the capitalist
USA and the communists USSR. In the war they had been allies against Germany and
Japan. The question was whether they would get on after war would the friendship hold.

THE SOCIO- ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

a) ENORMOUS DESTRUCTION

There was economic destruction of lives, home, industrial and communications in Europe
and Asia. Almost million people were killed; well over half of them were Russians, six
million were poles, four million Germans, two million Chinese and two million Japanese,
Britain and the USA got off comparatively lightly.

Another 21million people had been uprooted from their homes; some had been taken to
Germany to work as slave laborers, some had been put into concentration camps and
some and been forced to flee from invading armies.

Large parts of Germany especially her industrial areas and many major cities lay in ruins,
and some had been completely devastated and some 25 million people were homeless.
France had suffered badly too; taking into account the destruction of housing, factories,
railways, mines and livestock, almost 50 percent of total French wealth had been lost in
Italy where damages and a high death toll from bombings.

b) THERE WAS NO ALL- INCLUSIVE PEACE SETTLEMENT

This was not like the end of the First World War when an all inclusive settlement was negotiated
at Versailles. This was mainly because the distrust which had re-emerged between the USSR and
the west in the month of the war made agreement on many points impossible, however a number
of separate treaties were signed ;e.g.
1 Italy lost her African colonies and gave up heir claims to Albania and Abyssinia
(Ethiopia)

114
 2 Romania recovers northern Transylvania, which the Hungarians had occupied during the
war

3 The USSR took the eastern sector of Czechoslovakia, the petsamo district and the area
around Lake Ladoga from Finland and held on to Latria, Lithuania and Estonia
which they had occupied in 1939

4 Tricot, claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia was declared a free territory protected by
the United Nations Organization.

5 Later at San Francisco (1951) Japan agreed to surrender all territory acquired during the
previous ninety years which include a complete withdrawal from china.

However the Russian refused to agree to any settlement over Germany and Austria, Except that
they should be occupied by Allied tropes and East Prussia should be divided between Russia and
Poland.

c) THE WAR STIMULATED IMPORTANT SOCIAL CHANGES

Apart from the population movement during the war once hostilities were over, many millions of
people were forced to move from their homes. The worst cases were probably in the areas in
Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia. About 10 million Germans were forced to leave and
make their way to west Germany so that no future German Government would be able to claim
those territories in some countries especially the USSR and Germany extensive urban
redevelopment took place as ruined cities had to rebuilt. In Britain the war stimulate among other
things, the Beveridge Report (1942).a plan for introducing a welfare state.

d) THE WAR CAUSED THE PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

The first ever use of these weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, demonstrated their horrifying
power of destruction. The world was left under the threat of a nuclear war which might well have
destroyed the entire planet. Some people argue that thus acted as a deterrent, mainly both sides in
the cold war so frightened of the consequences that they were deterred or discouraged from
fighting each other.

e) EUROPE’S DOMINATION OF THE REST OF THE WORLD

The four western European states which had played a leading role in world affairs for the
first half of the twentieth century were now much weaker than before. Germany was
devastated and divided, France and Italy were on the verge of bankruptcy; and although
Britain seemed strong and victorious with her empire intact the cost of the war been ruinous.

115
The USA had helped to keep Britain going during the war by sending supplies but there had
to be paid for later. As soon as the war was over the new US pretended Truman abruptly
stopped all further help leaving Britain in a sorry state: she had overseas debts of over, £3000
million many of her foreign investment had been sold off and her ability to export goods had
been much reduced. She was forced to ask of interest the loan from the USA which was
given at high rate of interest. The country was therefore closely and uncomfortably
dependent on the USA.

f) EMERGENCE OF THE SUPER POWER

The USA and the USSR emerge as two most powerful nations in the world and no longer as
isolated as they had been before the war. The USA had suffered relatively little from the war
and had enjoyed great prosperity from supplying the other allies with war material and food.
The Americans had the world’s largest navy and air force and they controlled the target army
in the world other countries were highly suspicious of each other intentions now that the
common enemies, German, and Japan had been defeated.

g) DECOLONISATION

The war encouraged the movement towards decolonization. The defeats inflicted on Britain,
Holland and France, Japan and Japanese occupation of their territory – Malaga, Singapore
and Burma (Britain), French ado- China and the Dutch East Indies-destroyed the tradition of
the Europeans superiority and invincibility. It could hardly be expected that having fought to
get rid of the Japanese, the Asian people would willingly return to European rule. Gradually
they achieved full independence though not without a struggle in many cases. This in turn
intensified demand for independence among the people of Africa and the Middle East and the
1960’s the result was a large away of new states.

h) THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION

This emerged as the successor of the league of the nations its main aim was to maintain

116
world peace and the whole it has been more successful than its unfortunate predecessors

117
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION

1. ORIGION

1 The United Nations organization was formed in 1945 to replace the League of the
Nations which had failed so badly to preserve world peace.

2 The United Nations charter was drawn up at San Francisco in 1945. The charter was
based on proposed mode at earlier meetings between Russia. The United States of
America, China and Britain, held at Dumbarton (USA) in 1944.

3 The Membership of the UNO is open to all peace – loving independent state. The
Headquarters of the UN are situated at new York In USA

4 In the setting up the UNO the great powers tried to eliminate some of the weakness which
had hand capped the league.

2. PURPOSE/ AIMS OF UNO

1 The principal aim of UNO is to maintain peace and prevent future wars. This aim
is to be achieved through collective action by imposing either economic or
military sanctions on aggressors.

2 The UNO also aimed at encouraging international co-operation to solve social and

118
 economic problems facing especially the poor and under developed nations

3 The UNO was also established to provide a forum where conflicts can be
peacefully resolved.

4 Safe guarding the rights of all individual human beings and the rights of people
and nations.

3. THE ORGANISATION OF THE UNO

In order to make it possible to operate and achieve its aims the UNO charter established six main
organs. They are the general Assembly, the Security Council, the economic and social council,
the Trust ship council, the international court of Justice and the secretariat.

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

It is composed of representatives of all the member states of the UN.

1 Each member has one vote.

2 It meets annually in September but special sessions can be called by the Security Council
in times of emergency.

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY PERFORMS THE FOLLOWING

FUNCTION:
- The debates and makes proposal about international problems concerning peace and co-
operation.

- It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council.

-Besides it considers the budgets and what amount each member’s state should pay.

- In addition supervises the work of the many other UN bodies.

-
- Decisions do not require unanimous vote as they did in the league Assembly a two thirds
majority is usually needed on important issues.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

The Security Council seems to be the most important organ in the UN. It is composed of five
permanent members who are USA, USSR, Britain, France and china. And there are ten non-

119
permanent members who are elected by the General Assembly for a two year term.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL ARE CRUTIAL

Its primary function is to maintain peace and security. It is the Security Council that recommend
and seas to it that economic and military sanctions are imposed on an aggressor. Members’ states
undertake to make available to the council, the armed force assistance and facilities necessary for
maintaining international peace and security .each of the five has a veto power, however, a
member may decide no to use it by not voting it thus abstains.

3. THE SECRETARIAT

The secretariat is the permanent administrative staff. It is headed by the secretary – General who
is appointed for a five year term. The staff of the secretariat is selected from various members’
states. The secretariat performs the following functions:
1. It is responsible for running of day to day affairs of the United Nations.

2. It looks after the administrative work preparing minutes translation and piece of
information

3. The secretary General has the power to bring the Security Council any matters of
important he wishes to be discussed.

4) THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

The international court of justice is at Hague. It has fifteen judges selected from various nations
by the General Assembly and the Security Council. Members serve for three year. Its functions
are as follows:
1. It judges frontier submitted to it. Such cases involve settlement of dispute over
frontier. For example it has settled the frontier dispute between Holland and
Belgium the disagreement between Britain and Norway over fishing limit.

2. Besides it advises on international laws and on matters as the interpretation of

treaties.

3. Nations appeals to it now have to agree to accept its decisions as binding.

Failure to do so can mean that the decision will be enforced by the Security
Council.

120
5) THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

This origin replaced the league’s mandates commission.

5 Its membership comprises the five permanent members of the security. Council and state
with Trust Territories and others.

6 Its main function was to see to it all states looking after trust territories prepared them as
soon as possible for independence.

7 By 1970 its job was almost competed, except a few countries including South west Africa
(Namibia) which refused to grant

6) ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

This council originally had 18 members who serve for three years. The number has increased to
54.

Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of the United Nation and the
specialized agencies

The council initiates activities relating to development world trade, industrialization, and natural
resources, human right, social welfare prevention of crime and other social and economic
problems.

Some specialized agencies

The International Labour Organization (ILO)

>ILO investigates the working conditions, wages, trade union rights and social security of
workers in all parts of the world.
>It ensures that the government gives fair deal to workers where grievances can lead to disorder.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

>It collects and disseminates information concerning nutrition, food and agriculture.
>Besides, it sends experts to help countries peering technical advice on food production, how to
fight pests and animal diseases and how to conserve the soil.
>At times of fire resulting from drought and other natural crises the FAO send food relief to the
victims of these natural disasters.

121
The Word Health Organization (WHO)

>The world health organization is the agency which advices countries on public health problems
and the control of diseases.
>It fights against Malaria, TB, Yaws, Typhoid and Polio.
>WHO’s greatest achievement is the eradication of small pox from the world.

The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

>It encourages not simply the spread of education but also encourages international cooperation
between artists and scientists and scholars in all fields.
> It works on the assumption that the best way on avoiding war is to educate people’s minds in
pursuit of peace.
>Besides it encourages the study of science in educational institution in the developing countries
by supplying equipment and books.
>UNESCO promoter universal respect for justice, the rule of law; and human rights.

THE UNITEDNATIONS INTERNATINAL CHILDRENS EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF)

-It is concerned with the care of children in under developed countries.

-It specializes in the supply of medicines, food and equipment for child welfare societies.

THE UNO AND PEACE –KEEPING

Although the UN has had mixed success, it is probably fair to say that the UN has been rather
more successful than the league of nations in, to peace keeping efforts especially in crises which
did not directly involve the interest of the great powers.

1. The UN is currently keeping peace forces in Lebanon, where a protected civil war has
being going on.
3 Though the UN has not been able to end civil war, the presence of the peace keeping
forces has reduced the rate of fighting and general tension.
4 The UN peace –keeping force stationed on the Island of Cyprus is performing a similar
role, trying to reduce the rate of fighting and general tension
5 On the other hand the UN has scored complete success on two occasions.
The 1950-1953 Korean war. This was the only occasion which UNO was able to take a
decisive action in crisis involving the interests of the great powers in the cold war.
6 South Korea was invaded by communist north Korea in June 1920
7 The Security Council immediately passed a revolution condemning North Korea.
8 It called on member states to send help to South Korea.
9 According to troops of 16 countries were sent and were able to repel the invasion and

122
 preserve the frontier between the two Koreans.
10 Though the success was achieved with a heavy American support in the absence of
Russia, the initiative and the operation were taken in the name of the UN. Hence the UN
is credited with success.

The Suez crisis-1956

This crisis showed the UN at its best.
1 President Nasser of Egypt suddenly nationalized the Suez Canal in which Britain and
France had heavy shares.
2 In reply Britain and France protested and sent troops to protest their interest.
3 At the same time the Israelis invaded Egypt from the east. It became obvious that Nasser
was to be destroyed.
4 The Security Council condemned the invasion though it was vetoed by France and
Britain.
5 The matter was passed to the general assembly and a resounding majority condemned
Britain and France.
6 As a result France and Britain troops withdrew on condition that the UN ensured a
reasonable settlement over the canal and stopped the Arabs and Israelis from killing each
other.
7 A united nation emergency force was moved in while Britain, France and Israeli forces
pulled out.
8 The UN by this quick and useful decision stopped the war.

SOME PROBLEMS FACING THE UN

DISARMAMENT

>One of the most important problems facing the UN is disarmament. This is because it is the
arms race which creates tension and suspicion preceding World Wars.
The arms race which preceded the World War persists and American and Russia have quantities
of arms.
>Besides a similar situation of the balance of power between the two armed camps of Triple
Entente and Triple Alliance exist today. NATO and HARSAN PACT countries belong to the
opposing armed camps of the East respectively.
>Arms control _ between Russia and USA has not yielded any concrete results as mutual
suspicion and mistrust continue to grow.
>The Security Council which is specifically responsible for disarmament has not yet been able to
do much disarmament.

123
2 POWER BLOC POLITICS
Power bloc politics involving the interest of the big powers threatens the effort of the UN.

On the other hand the African –Asian Bloc tends to co-operate against the Big powers instead of
considering issues critically on their merit.

3. FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
>Peace keeping operations and the work of the UN specialized agencies cost much money.
>Failure of some member states to pay their contributions has increased International tension.
For example, at the start of 1965 almost twenty nations including Russia and France were behind
payments.
>The UN charter provider that any nation which is two years behind payment is to be denied a
vote in the General Assembly. However the enforcement of this rule would increase rather than
decrease the world tension.

SOME ARCHIEVEMENTS OF THE UN

In spite of all the unsolved problems that face the UN, considerable amount has been achieved in
the year since 1945.
Local wars which could easily spread have been isolated.
In 1950 -1953 the UN, heavily supported by the USA was able to repel communist North Korea
trying to invade South Korea.
The Greek and Turkish Cypriots confrontation has been kept under control by the presence of a
UN peace-keeping force in Cyprus.
In human affairs the success has been remarkable and international co-operation has resulted in
an important progress against hunger, disease and illiteracy through the activities of UN
specialized agencies. The eradication of smallpox for example is a great victory the WHO has
won.
The United Nations has survived in a world still divided by Lear, suspicion and jealousy.
It has become a much more international body than the League of Nations.
Above all it provides a great international forum for discussing issues which can result in war
without the existence of UN.

CURRENT UNPEACE-KEEPING ACTIVITIES

a) UN’S INVOLVEMENT IN NAMIBIA’S ACHIEVEMENTOF INDEPENDENCE

When South Africa refused to grant Namibia independence the South West Africa People
Organization (SWAPO) resorted to arm struggle to take power.
South Africa resisted and the result was a prolonged bitter war which claimed lives on both
sides.

124
However, as a result of UN sanctions against South Africa and the------- loss of life and
destruction of property South Africa eventually opted for a diplomatic solution of the Namibian
crisis.
It then became necessary for the UN to send into Namibian troops (UNTAGS) and the requisite
personnel to supervise the ending of the war and the conduct of free and fair elections in order to
grant Namibian independence.
As a result Namibian has won her independence under a SWAPO government led by Sam
Nujoma.

b) UN ‘S INVOLVEMENT IN THE 1990 GULF CRISIS

Iraq and Kumit are rich oil producing neighboring Arab countries in the Middle East.
Apart from the USSR which is the leading world oil producer, the most important source of oil
supply for American and European Industries lies in the Middle East.
Frontier disputes and oil production conflicts have marred the relation between Iraq and Kuwait
for some time now.
Instead of Iraq taking the conflict to the UN for a peaceful solution Iraq has rather invaded and
annexed Kuwait. This is threat to peace.
As a result of permanent member states of the UN have unanimously agreed to improve
economic sanctions on Iraq, the aggressor.
These measures have been adopted to compel Iraq to pull out of Kuwait and thereby prevent any
war between the two countries.
Accordingly troops from member states on UN amassed in Saudi Arabia and in the Gulf to
ensure an effective economic sanction against Iraq.
This crisis and the response of the UN clearly illustrate UN’s collective action to improve
economic sanctions in order to maintain peace and prevent the out break of war.

SPECIALISED AGENCIES

[1] UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CALTURAL ORGANISATION

[U.N.E.S .C.O]
>To promote universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and Human rights.

[2] FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION [F.A.O]

To raise standards of living, increase agricultural production, and facilitate food distribution
among people under the member nations.

[3] WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION [W.H.O]

>To help underdeveloped countries to fight epidemics and improve their medical services.

[4] WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION [W.M.O]

125
To facilitate international exchange of weather information promote application of meteorology
to agricultural, aviation research.

[5] INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION [I.L.O]

>To give advice on international labour questions and to formulate standards of labour
conditions and promote economic and social stability.

[6] International Trade Organization [I.T.O]

>To encourage the expansion of world trade and the removal of trade barriers between countries
all over the world.

[7] International Monetary Fund International Bank.

To promote international monetary co-operation balanced trade and exchange stability.

[8] International Civic Aviation Organization.

To ensure international air transports is developed on safe and fair baits.

[9] Universal Postal Union.

>To unite its member in a single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of mail.

[10] International Telecommunications Union

>To organize and regulate international communication by telegraph, telephone, cable and radio
and to promote the development of technical facilities.

The league of nations The united nations

Work did not have much authority
The mandate commission
Eleven independent experts advised on
administration problems of the mandated
territories
It sought eventual self government only
Welfare activities
It had limited welfare activities done by
ILO, Health, Race, Refugees’ and few
other commissions
Secretary general can act himself for
recommended security council action
present peace
The trustee council
It comprises of the ‘Big Five’ and six
others
It ensures sound administration of the
mandated territories
It supervises and inspects the territories to
ensure the achievement of independence
Welfare activities
The economic and social council
coordinates the numerous activities of the
specialized agencies including WHO,
UNESCO, FAO, UNICEF and many

126

Maintenance of world peace
Was able to maintain peace for only about
twenty years and did not have peace
making forces
others.
Maintenance of world peace
Has been maintaining peace for the past
forty six years using UN peace keeping
forces.

The peace keeping role of the UNO

One of the key roles of the UNO since 1945 has been to try to bring about and keep peace in
areas where fighting has broken out. Since 1945 the UNO has been involved in many peace
keeping operations.
Hungary (1956)
The dispute that occurred was when the Hungarians tried to get away from the control of the
USSR. Soviet tanks and troops moved in and crushed the revolt. The UN’s Security Council was
paralyzed by the USSR veto. The assembly condemned the invasion but USSR simply ignored it.
In conclusion the USSR was able to ignore the UNO and the UNO could do nothing it was a
failure although negotiations behind the scenes continued for many years.

Cyprus (1964)
The dispute that occurred was a civil war between Greek and Turkish Cypriots which broke out
in 1963. UN’s peace keeping forces stopped fighting in 1964. However fighting broke out again
in 1974 again stopped by UN troops are still there. In conclusion UNO acted successfully as
peace keeping but once again failed to solve the problem permanently.

Suez (Egypt) 1956

The dispute occurred when Britain and France sent troops to seize control of the Suez Canal
which had been nationalized by President Nasser. The UN Security Council was stopped by
French and British veto but the general assembly condemned the invasion. Pressure on Britain
and France forced them to pull out. This was a very great success for the UN.

PALESTINE (1967-President Day)

The dispute arose when the new state of Israel set up in 1948 was claimed by the Arabs as their
land. The UN was unable to prevent wars in 1967 and 1973. In conclusion there was limited
success, the UN was not able to solve the problem but did some good work (e.g. arranging cease
fires).

KASHMIR (1947, 1965)

The dispute arose when both India and Pakistan claimed the border province of Kashmir. The
UN troops kept peace by keeping the two sides apart although a short war broke out in 1965,
again stopped by NU. In conclusion the UN was successful as peace keepers bur unable to end

127
the problem.
AFGHANISTAN (1979)

The dispute appeared when the USSR’s troops invaded to put the man they wanted in power in
Afghanistan. In seeing this NU security council again faced soviet veto. The assembly
condemned the USSSR but the troops did not withdraw. In conclusion this was another
demonstration of how powerless the UN could be against one of the superpowers.

REASONS FOR SOME OF THE UN’S FAILURES

1. One of the reasons for the united nation failures was lack of a permanent UN army. Due
to lack of permanent UN army it meant that it was difficult to prevail upon powerful
states to accept its decisions, if they choose to put itself interest first. This meant that if
persuasion and pressure of the world opinion failed the Un had to rely on member nations
to provide troops to enable it to enforce decisions e.g. UN‘s involvement in Somalia
(1992-1995) and Bosnia (1992-1995) showed the impossibility of the Un being able to
stop the war when the warning parties were not ready to stop fight.

2. The other reason for some of UN’s failures was that there was a problem about exactly
when the UN should become involved during the course of a dispute. Sometimes it hangs
back too long so that the problems become more difficult to solve where as at the same
time it hesitates so long that it scarcely become involved at all. This left the UN open to
accusation of in decision and lack of firmness. The UN caused some states to put more
faith in their own regional organizations like NATO for keeping peace. This obviously
meant that many agreements were worked out without involving the UN and also the
security council was hampered by the veto which its permanent members could use hence
a failure.

128
3. The other reason was that there was increased membership of the UN during the 1970s.
By 1970 members from the third world that is Africa and Asia were in a clear majority.
As these nations began to work more together it meant that only they can be certain of
having their resolutions passed and it became increasingly difficult for both western and
communists’ blocks to get their accused of being inefficient and wasteful and of having
unacceptable political aims. What brought a matter to a head was proposal by some
communist state for the interval licensing of foreign journalists. This was a failure
because other members withdrew from UNESCO e.g. the USA because she said
UNESCO had become hostile to the basic institutions of a free society especially a free
market and a free press.

4. One other reason was that there was wastage of effort and resources among the agencies.
These sometimes seemed to duplicate /to do the same thing / each other’s work. Critics
claim that the WHO and FAO overlap too much. A clear example was in 1984 when
FAO was criticized for spending too much on administration and not enough on
improving agricultural systems.

5. One other reason for some of the UN’s failures was that the UN in doing its work it needs
every large sums of money to finance its operations. It is entirely dependent on
contributions from member states. Each state pays regular annual contributions based on
its general wealth and ability to pay but many members states have refused to pay from
time to time, either because of financial difficulties of their own or as a mark of
disapproval of UN will be behind in currying out their finance and operation hence it can
cause a failure.

129
HOW DEFFERENT IS THE UNITED NATIONS FROM THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
These are some important differences which have tended to make the UN a more successful
body than the league.
1 The UN spends much more time and resource on economic and social matters and its
scope is much wider than that of the league. All the specialized agencies with the
exception of the international labour organization [founded in 1919] were set up in 1945
or later.

2 The UN is committed to safe guarding individual who the league did not get involved in.

3 Changes in the procedures of the general assembly and the Security Council and the
increased power and prestige of the secretary general have enabled the UN, on occasion
to take more decisive action than the league ever achieved.

4 The UN has a much wider membership and is therefore more of a genuine world
organization than was the league, with all the extra prestige that this entails. Both the
USA and the USSR were founder members of the UN whereas the USA never joined the
league. Between1963 and 1968 no fewer than forty three new members joined the UN

130
 mainly the emerging states of Africa and Asia and by 1985 members had reached 159,
the league never had more than 50 members. Later many of the former member states of
the USSR joined and by 1993 the total had reached 183.

THE SOVIET UNION 1917-1953

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE BEFORE 1917

The tsarist government

The Russian empire was an autocratic state. This means that it was ruled by one man the Tsar.
The way the country was governed depended almost entirely on his personality. Nicolas II
became the Tsar in 1894. He took from Alexander II. Pobedonosteu groomed Nicolas for the
Tsardom. He made the first policy statement for Nicolas in 1894 which summarized what Tsarist
autocracy consisted of
“The Tsar is the anointed of the Lord sent by God to be the supreme guardian of the church and
the all powerful ruler of the empire ….. As he receives his power from God it is to God alone
that he must account for….. Constitutional liberalism is hereby as well as a stupid chimera

According to this philosophy, the Tsar was God’s nominee and anointer.

131
He was interior only to God and was answerable to God alone and to no one earth. The Tsar was
the executive, the legislature and the Judiciary. This also means that constitutionalism was a
hereby for only God could limit the power the Tsar.

THE RUSSIAN SOCIETY

1. At the top was the class of Nobility. There was made up of the Tsar, Tsarina and his
relatives. The imperial family lived in the winter palace in St. Petersburg, surrounded by
aristocrats, army officers and important government officers. The Nobility was not aware
of the sufferings of the people.

2. Below the Nobility was the class of landowners. This was Russia’s middle class, the rich.
Together with the Nobility they owned large tracks of land.

3. At the bottom were the peasants. They were the large social group in Russia and they
were the very poor and ordinary people. For centuries they have been tied to their
landowners as serfs (slaves). They had no right and did not own any land though they
worked the land for their landowner.

During the years 1890-1914 industry expanded in the Russian Empire. There was great
movement to the town and working conditions in the towns were extremely bad , despite all
these hardship people did not rate the Tsar. They saw him as a father- figure that would help
them if only he release how they were being treated by the landowners and factory owners.

On 22 Sunday January 200 000 peasants led by priest Father Gapon carried Nicholas Portrait
when they marched to protest about how wages and poor living conditions when the troops
guarding the winter palace opened fire on the peaceful demonstration without warning the long
tradition of a special family relationship between the Tsar and his people ended. It was a decisive
day, this come to be known as Bloody 22 January 1905

POLITICAL OPPOSITION TO THE TSAR

Since the mid C 19th a number of groups had formed which were hostile to the Tsar. Those

132
groups were different in many ways. Some were secret, other were open. Some wanted to change
things by using the law; others believed they must break the law to get what they wanted.

The idea and writings of Karl Marx influenced the idea of one the radical parties called the
Social Democracy. Karl Marx thought that industrialization would lead to society being ruled by
the bourgeoisie (middle class) the bourgeoisie made profile by selling goods made the
proletariat. There would be a conflict of interest between the two classes which Marx called class
struggle. The class struggle would lead to a revolution where the workers would replace
capitalism with communist state.
In 1903 the socialist Democratic Party split into two. One section was the Mensheviks who
wanted support from workers. They believed that a revolution could not take place in Russia
until the country was fully industrialized. They had little faith in cooperation from peasants.
Another party was the Bolsheviks who wanted smaller, more organized party to lead a
revolution. The leader Vladimir Lenin believed that they must work with the peasants as well
and get them involved in the revolutionary activity. The Bolsheviks promised to nationalize land
and industry after a revolution.
There were also the cadets who wanted a peaceful change leading to the handover of power to an
elected Duma (parliament).

The 1917 revolutions; the March revolution

Political tensions in Russia reached a boiling point in 1917. Demonstrations broke out in
Petrograd. On 7th March women protesting about food shortages were joined by factory workers.
The troops were sent to end the demonstrations mutinied. They refused to open fire on civilians;
many of them joined the protests. Mobs seized public building released prisoners from jails and
tools over police stations. This was not a planned revolution but an uprising of people who were
expressing their frustrations and oppressions.
Faced with this situation the privileged classes turned against Nicolas in the hope of saving their
own skin. The reformers in the Duma now had to decide on how to respond to this movement.
They advised Nicolas to set up a constitutional monarchy but he refused. This behavior
convinced the Duma that Nicolas had to go. On 16 March they demanded the Tsar’s resignation
and set up the PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT. He issued a statement that he was abdicating.
Prime Minister George Lvov became the prime minister and in July he was replaced by
Alexander Kerensky. This provisional government was faced with enormous problems and in
November a second revolution took place which overthrew the provisional government.

REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT

Unpopular decision to continue the war

The provisional government therefore took an unpopular decision to continue the war. The army
was tired of fights in the First World War as a lot of soldiers were killed. Others injured while
others went missing. The decision to continue fighting made the army to lose morale and

133
discipline and sent thousands of deserting troops streaming home.

The government lost support because it delayed election

The provisional government also collapsed because it lost a lot of support due to delay in
elections. The government promised the Russians elections but it delayed them arguing that
elections were not possible as millions of troops were away fighting in the WW1. The people
were also promised immediate re-distribution of land from large estates to peasants. Tired of
waiting for elections and land re-distribution; people lost trust and support in the provisional
government. Peasants even seized land from land owners, hence the collapse of the government.

The return of Lenin from exile in Switzerland

When Lenin heard a bout the February Revolution in Russia, he immediately returned to Russia.
The Germans allowed him to travel through to Petrograd in a special “sealed” train hoping that
he would cause more chaos in Russia. When he arrived in Petrograd, after a great welcome he
sent out the Bolsheviks programme in what was called the April thesis. He argued the people to
support the Bolsheviks. Lenin’s slogan of “PEACE LAND AND BREAD” and that of “all
power to be taken by the soviets” attracted a lot of people. Support for the Bolsheviks increased
quickly causing the collapse of provisional government.

The growing economic

In Russia there was an economic disaster where there was inflation, lagging wages, rising bread
prices, shortage of raw materials and fuel. In this situation Lenin and Bolsheviks put forward an
attractive policy of a separate peace with Germany to get Russia out of the WW1. People were
also promised that all land would be given to the peasants and that there would be more food at
cheaper prices. A lot of people then supported the Bolsheviks thereby making the provisional
government to collapse.

Kornilov’s affair/idea
The idea of Kornilov also embarrassed the provisional government and increased the popularity
of the Bolsheviks causing the decline of the provisional government. General Kornilov, the army
commander in chief viewed the Bolsheviks as traitor who had to be dealt with. He brought troops
towards Moscow intending to get rid of the Bolsheviks. However many of his soldiers mutinied
and Kornilov was arrested. Public support was in favor of the Bolsheviks. By October they have
won the majority in the Petrograd and Moscow and Leon Trotsky was elected chairman of the
Petrograd.

Petrograd soviet’s decision to seize power

On October 20 Lenin urged the Petrograd soviet to take power and Trotsky made most of the

134
plans which went very well. During the night of November 6-7, the Bolsheviks Red Guards
occupied all key points and later arrested the provisional government ministers except Kerensky
who managed to escape. It was a bloodiness coup and Lenin was able to overthrow the
provisional government and set up a new soviet with himself in charge.

HOW THE BOLSHEVIKS CONSOLIDATE POWER UNDER LENIN

How Stalin rose to power
Joseph Stalin was the dominant figure, a dictator from 1928 until his death in 1953 at the age 73.
When Lenin died in January 1924, everyone expected Leon Trotsky to take over as the leader but
instead Stalin succeeded Lenin. The obvious successor to Lenin was Trotsky but circumstances
arouse which Stalin was able to rise to power. Some of such circumstances are;
1. Trotsky’s brilliance worked against him
Trotsky’s brilliance aroused a lot of hatred among the Politburo members. Trotsky was arrogant
and condescending and many politburo members hated the fact that he had joined the Bolsheviks
shortly before the November revolution. They then worked together doing their best to pre vent
Trotsky from becoming the leader, hence Stalin’s rise to power.

2. Other politburo members underestimated Stalin

When Lenin died, Stalin was the secretary general of the communist party and Lenin saw
him as someone rude and stubborn. So Lenin suggested that Stalin be removed from his
position, but the politburo members ignored Lenin’s advice be cause they saw Stalin as
nothing more than a competent administrator.(they underestimated him and he was able to
rise to power as he was regarded as someone to play second or third place.

3. Stalin used his position to rise to power

As the secretary of the communist party, Stalin holds full powers of appointing and promoting
members. He then used his powers to place his own supporters in key positions and removed the
supporters of others to distant parts of the country.

4. Stalin used disagreements to his own advantages

There were disagreements in the politburo over policy as to how the new communist
society should be governed because Karl Marx never explained. When Lenin introduced
new economic policy he intended it to be temporary until the crisis passed. But now
Bulcharin wanted NEP to continue even though it was causing an increase in then kulaks
(wealthy peasants) who were thought to be the enemies of communism.

On the other hand Kamenev and Zinoviev felt unhappy about NEP and wanted it to stop.
They were strongly supported by Trotsky. Stalin decided to use agreements to rise to
power. He supported Bulcharin only to isolate Trotsky one by one starting with Trotsky,

135
 Kamenev and Zinoviev were voted out of politburo and were expelled from the party in
1927. The following year, Stalin decided that NEP must go. When Bulcharin protested,
he too was expelled in 1929 and Stalin was left with all power in his hands.

HOW STALIN CONSOLIDATED POWER UP TO 1953 (STALIN’S DOMESTIC

POLICY)
1. The five year plan
Stalin stopped Lenin’s NEP and set up modernizing strategy through the five year plans. The
first five year plan (1928-1932) was set in order to concentrate on heavy industry like coal, oil,
iron, steel and machinery in order to triple the output. The second (1933-1937) was set to
concentrate on increasing consumable goods. The plans were vey complex but they were set in
such a way that every worker knew what he/she had to achieve. The plans were a remarkable
success which indeed saved Russia’s economy. However life for the workers was very harsh
under Stalin. Factory discipline was strict of course medal was given to workers who achieved
record output but there was severe punishment for bad workmanship (late coming and
absenteeism)

2. Collectivization
Collectivization was a programme used to increase food production. The idea was that small
farms and holdings belonging to the peasants should b emerged to form a large collective farms
jointly owned by the peasants. The main reason was that Stalin though that the existing system of
small farms was in efficient whereas large farms under state control using tractors and harvesters
would greatly increase grain production. Stalin also wanted to eliminate the class of prosperous
peasants who he believed were standing in the way of progress.

Peasants themselves did not like collectivization. They simply refused to hand over their land
and produce. The peasants were arrested and sent to labour camps. In revenge the peasants burnt
their crops and slaughtered their animals so that the communists could not have them. Millions
of the Kulaks died in 1941 all land was organized under collectivization. Stalin had achieved hid
aim hence his consolidation of power.

3. The purges
Stalin used purges to get rid of his opponents. Purges were indeed the real terrifying period in
Stalin’s rule. In the next four years after the introductions of purges in 1934, hundreds of
important officials were arrested, tortured and confess to all sots of crimes they did not do. It is
said that every family in the USSR lost someone in the purges. Victims were arrested in the night
and they would not be told what they were accused of. Those executed include Bulcharin,
Kamenev, Zinoviev, MN Ryutin and Trotsky who was murdered in exile in Mexico in 1940. The
purges were successful in eliminating Stalin’s possible opponents hence his consolidation of
power.

136
 4. The new constitution
In 1936 Stalin created a new constitution for the USSR. This constitution gave freedom of
speech and free elections to the Russians. Everyone was allowed to vote by secret ballot to
choose members of a national assembly known as the Supreme Soviet. The national elected a
small body called the union soviet of commissars. Stalin became the secretary at which he
wielded the real power. Although these were mention of freedom of speech, anybody who was
bold enough to criticize Stalin was quickly purged.

5. Social and cultural policies

1 Writers, artists and musicians were expected to produce works of glorifying soviet
achievements and Stalin. All musicians and other arts confirm closely monitored. Anyone
who did not confirm was persecuted.
2 Religious worship of any kind was banned. People were encouraged to worship Stalin,
believe in God was replaced by belief in communism.
3 Education was also closely watched by the secret police and although it was free,
children were indoctrinated with Stalin propaganda.

137
138