Language Programs Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia were later
added. ASEAN is a culturally and linguistically
Language programs in the context of education
correspond to specific curricula, programs, or classes
meant to instruct and enhance the learner's language skills
and abilities. These programs are frequently utilized in
learning environments such as schools and universities to
support the development of language proficiency in a range
of domains, such as reading, speaking, writing, and
listening.
Language programs pertaining to education are
designed to assist learners in growing their language ability.
They usually follow a predetermined curriculum, employ a
range of instructional strategies, and utilize teaching aids
and materials that meet the needs of the students as well
as the objectives of the specific program.
Few of the different forms of language programs
are Foreign Language Programs, English as a Second
Language (ESL) Programs, English Language Art (ELA)
Programs, Bilingual and Dual-Language Programs, Literacy
Programs, and Language Immersion Programs.
Language Policies
• The Language Policies are the intentional policies of
the government to preserve, protect, and control its
use in specific context or territory. These language
policies are frequently made to address issues like
linguistic diversity, language rights, and the social,
cultural, and political implications of language use.
• They can be put into action on a variety of scales,
including the national, regional, and local ones, and
they may be influenced by things like historical,
sociopolitical, and economic considerations.Official
language recognition, language planning projects,
bilingual or multilingual education programs, language
revitalization initiatives, and language-inclusive
legislation are a few examples of how they can be
implemented.
• Language use, language attitudes, individual and group
identities, and social cohesion within a society are all
significantly impacted by language regulations. They
have the power to influence language usage across a
range of industries, including those in education, the
media, politics, the public sector, and the arts.
Achieving a balance between fostering linguistic
diversity and ensuring the fair treatment of various
languages and language communities are the goal of
effective language policies.
ASEAN Establishment and Languages
• ASEAN was established in Bangkok, Thailand, in the
year 1967. Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, and Thailand are its first five members.
As the association grew, the nations of Brunei,
diverse region.
• It has been said that there are 1000 languages
estimated to be spoken as indicated in the region.
Though it is diverse, English has been the de facto
language of ASEAN since 2009. English as the
language for the Association of Southeast Asian
Nation (ASEAN) has 3 possible reasons,
(1) For active participation for globalization,
(2) for relatively "neutral status",
and
(3) serves as a drive for modernization.
Language Programs and Policies in the ASEAN
Brunei
✓ The smallest Southeast Asian Nation in terms of
population. They have 17 languages. The official
language is standard Malay as it is spoken in
Peninsular Malaysia, this is according to the Brunei
Constitution in 1959. Because Brunei Malay is the
first language spoken by the majority of the
population, it is the most widely spoken language in
the country and facilitates more communication.
✓ The language policy of that country specified that
Standard Malay and English be used as the main
languages of instruction in their educational system.
✓ The impact of bilingualism policy in the country of
Brunei turned out to be very effective.
✓ According to Claire Goode, in her review study,
"English language in Brunei: Use, policy, and status in
education” although there are concerns over the
English's influence on the Malay language and native
the Sultanate's languages, and apprehension in
terms of the educational gap, most people seem to
be extremely favorable on Brunei's usage of English,
especially in the education.
✓ She also added that the policy on bilingual education
has changed throughout time, and as of right present,
the country of Brunei emphasizes English as a crucial
21st-century skill. Furthermore, Goode stated that
there is a dearth of research on the student
experience in multilingual/bilingual settings. Higher
education staff may always use more understanding
of many facets of teaching, learning, and material
delivery, since these insights may be useful in a
variety of contexts.

Malaysia
✓ Malaysia, known for its rich cultural diversity, has a
range of language programs and policies aimed at
fostering national unity, promoting linguistic
diversity, and ensuring access to education for all
linguistic communities. This report provides an
overview of the key language programs and policies in
Malaysia:
1. National Language Policy (DLP):
The DLP emphasizes the promotion of Bahasa
Malaysia as the national language while recognizing the
importance of English and the native languages of various
ethnic groups. Bahasa Malaysia is designated as the
medium of instruction in national schools, with English as a
compulsory subject.
2. Bilingual Education Policy:
Malaysia encourages bilingualism, with Bahasa
Malaysia and English being key languages of instruction.
Bahasa Malaysia is the primary medium of instruction,
while English is taught as a compulsory subject from
primary school onwards.
3. National Language Act 1963/1967:
This legislation established Bahasa Malaysia as
the official language for governmental and official
purposes. It emphasizes the importance of Bahasa
Malaysia in national identity and administration.
4. National Unity Policy:
Malaysia's National Unity Policy aims to promote
unity through language by ensuring proficiency in Bahasa
Malaysia alongside respect for other languages and
cultures. Efforts are made to bridge linguistic and cultural
differences to strengthen
national cohesion.
5. Efforts to Preserve Indigenous Languages:
Malaysia recognizes the importance of preserving
indigenous languages and cultures. Initiatives are in place
to document, revitalize, and promote indigenous languages
to safeguard Malaysia's cultural heritage.
6. National Language Council (MLN):
The MLN oversees the implementation of language
policies and advises the government on language-related
matters. It plays a crucial role in shaping language planning
and development in Malaysia.
7. National Education Policy:
The National Education Policy outlines objectives
and strategies for language instruction and curriculum
development. It emphasizes the importance of language
proficiency for academic success and national
development.
8. Language Proficiency Tests:
Malaysia conducts language proficiency tests,
such as the Malaysian University English Test (MUET), to
assess English proficiency for tertiary education and
employment purposes. These tests serve as benchmarks
for language skills development
and proficiency measurement.
9. Language Promotion Campaigns:
Various campaigns are organized to promote
language learning and proficiency. Campaigns focus on
Bahasa Malaysia, English, and other languages to
encourage language acquisition and usage.
10. Language Development Centers:
Language development centers conduct research,
develop curricula, and provide teacher training to support
language education and policy implementation. They
contribute to the advancement of language education and
pedagogy in Malaysia.
In conclusion, Malaysia's language programs and
policies reflect the country's commitment to linguistic
diversity, national unity, and educational excellence.
By promoting multilingualism, preserving
indigenous languages, and ensuring access to quality
education, Malaysia continues to nurture a society that
celebrates its linguistic and cultural heritage.
Indonesia
Indonesia, with its rich cultural tapestry and
linguistic diversity, has implemented various language
programs and policies to promote national unity while
preserving the country's linguistic heritage.
1. Bahasa Indonesia as the National Language:
Bahasa Indonesia, recognized as the official
language of Indonesia, plays a pivotal role in fostering
communication and unity among the country's diverse
population. Its standardization and promotion have been
key objectives of language policies since
Indonesia's independence in 1945.
The government has implemented programs to
ensure its widespread use in education, government,
media, and commerce, thereby facilitating national
integration.
2. Regional Language Preservation:
Indonesia boasts a vast array of regional
languages, reflecting its cultural richness and diversity.
Recognizing the importance of preserving these linguistic
heritages, the government has undertaken efforts to
support regional languages through various initiatives.
These efforts include documentation projects, cultural
festivals, and language revitalization programs aimed at
maintaining the vitality of regional languages while
safeguarding cultural identity.
3. Bilingual Education Programs:
In recognition of Indonesia's linguistic diversity,
some regions have implemented bilingual education
programs. These programs aim to promote proficiency in
both Bahasa Indonesia and regional languages among
students. By incorporating regional languages into the
curriculum, these initiatives not only preserve linguistic
diversity but also foster a sense of cultural pride and
inclusivity among students.
4. Language Rights:
Language rights are an integral component of
Indonesia's language policies, ensuring that all citizens
have access to education and government services in their
preferred language. Efforts are made to accommodate
linguistic diversity in public institutions, allowing
individuals to communicate and access services
effectively. Additionally, language rights initiatives seek to
protect minority languages from marginalization and
promote their equitable treatment in society.
5. Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing (BIPA)
Program:
The Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing (BIPA)
program is designed to teach Bahasa Indonesia to non-
native speakers. Offered by universities, language
institutes, and cultural organizations both within Indonesia
and internationally, the program provides language
instruction at various proficiency levels.
Courses cover vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, and cultural aspects of the Indonesian
language, enhancing participants' spoken and written
communication skills. The BIPA program also incorporates
cultural immersion activities, such as field trips and
interactions with native speakers, to enrich the learning
experience.In conclusion, Indonesia's language programs
and policies, including the Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur
Asing (BIPA) program, are guided by the twin objectives of
promoting national unity and preserving linguistic diversity.
Through the promotion of Bahasa Indonesia as the
national language, support for regional language
preservation, implementation of bilingual education
programs, and protection of language rights, Indonesia
endeavors to create a society where linguistic diversity is
celebrated as a cornerstone of national identity.
Thailand
Despite a century-old stereotype of the nation as a
monolingual one with charming regional dialects, Thailand
is home to a population of about 60 million people with a
great diversity of languages. More than 70 languages,
belonging to five different linguistic groups, are spoken by
millions of people. Nonetheless, an increasing percentage
of the nation's language resources are being identified and
used to address the two centrifugal forces of economic and
political turmoil as a centripetal force of globalization.
Overview of Thailand’s Education System
1. Basic Education
Basic education in Thailand is compulsory for all
children from age 6 to 14. It consists of a six-year primary
education and a three-year lower secondary education.
2. Secondary Education
Secondary education in Thailand is divided into
two levels: Upper secondary education and Vocational
education. Upper secondary education is a three-year
program that prepares students for higher education or
vocational training. Vocational education offers specialized
training in various fields to prepare students for specific
careers.
3. Higher Education
Higher education in Thailand is offered by
universities, colleges, and vocational institutions. The Thai
government plays a significant role in regulating and
overseeing higher education institutions.
4. Role of the Government
The Thai government plays a crucial role in shaping
and guiding the education system. It sets policies, provides
funding, and establishes quality standards for schools and
universities.
5. Importance of Language in Education
Language holds significant importance in
Thailand's education system. Thai language is the primary
medium of instruction in most schools, while English is
taught as a compulsory subject.
Language Policies in Thailand
• Official Language
The official language of Thailand is Thai. It is the
primary medium of instruction in schools and the language
used in government, administration, and legal proceedings.
• English as a Second Language
English holds a significant position as a second
language in Thailand. It is taught as a compulsory subject in
schools, starting from the primary level.
• Bilingualism and Multilingualism
It recognizes the value of preserving and promoting
regional and ethnic languages spoken by minority
communities in Thailand.
• Promotion of Bilingual Education
These programs aim to develop students'
proficiency in both Thai and English languages.
• English as the ASEAN Lingua Franca
Since Thailand is a member of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), English has been
adopted as the ASEAN lingua franca.
Benefits and Challenges of English Medium Instruction
(EMI) Programs Benefits of EMI Programs:
1. Enhanced English Proficiency
2. Global Competence
3. Access to International Opportunities
4. Academic Accuracy
Challenges of EMI Programs:
1. Language Barrier
2. Cognitive Load
3. Teacher Competence
4. Maintaining First Language Proficiency
Internationalization Strategies
Since the 1990s, higher education institutions in
Thailand have actively embraced internationalization
strategies, which have resulted in a significant rise in the
number of English Medium Instruction (EMI) courses.
1. Globalization and Internationalization
2. Expanding Opportunities3. Enhancing English
Proficiency
4. Attracting International Students
5. Preparing Students for Global Careers
6. Partnerships and Collaborations
Effectiveness of English Education Policies Strengths:
1. Recognition of Importance
2. Inclusion in Curriculum
3. Bilingual Educational Initiatives
4. Internationalization of Higher Education
Weaknesses
1. Teacher Competence
2. Lack of Immersive Environment
3. Standardized Testing Focus
Areas for Improvement:
1. Teacher Training and Professional Development
2. Curriculum and Assessment Reform
3. English Language Immersion Programs
4. Equitable Access to Quality English Education
To sum up, the educational language policies and
initiatives in Thailand are designed to help students
become bilingual and to provide them with English
language proficiency. In addition to aiming to improve
students' language skills, these programs acknowledge the
significance of good communication in a globalized
society. The curriculum's inclusion of English and the
acknowledgement of its significance are positive
developments, but issues like teacher competency and the
creation of immersive language settings still need to be
addressed.
Students who participate in these programs have
more opportunities, stronger language proficiency, and
increased global competency. Thailand's educational
system will be strengthened even further and students will
be better prepared for success in a globalized world if
issues are addressed and fair access is encouraged.
Singapore
Planning a language is a time- and society-specific
task; any investigation into language, planning procedures
necessitates knowledge of the unusual and historical
setting in which language planning strategies are used
developed, put into practice, and the societal ramifications
of these rules.
Overview of Singapore’s Education System
1. Early Childhood Education
It focuses on holistic development and prepares
children for primary education.
2. Primary Education
Primary education is compulsory for all
Singaporean citizens and spans six years. The curriculum
includes core subjects such as English, Mother Tongue
Language (Mandarin Chinese, Malay, Tamil), Mathematics,
Science, and Social Studies.
3. Secondary Education
Secondary education in Singapore is divided into
two tracks: the four-year Express course and the five-year
Normal course.
4. Pre-University Education
Pre-university education prepares students for
tertiary education. It includes the two year Junior College
(JC) or the three-year Millennia Institute (MI) program.
Students typically take the GCE A-Level examinations at the
end of this stage.
5. Tertiary Education
It is offered by universities, polytechnics, and other
institutions. Universities offer undergraduate and
postgraduate programs, while polytechnics provide
diploma courses focused on practical skills and industry
relevance.
Key Features and Commitment to Bilingualism:
1. Bilingual Education Policy
Singapore is committed to bilingualism, with
English as the main language of instruction and the
student's respective Mother Tongue Language (Mandarin
Chinese, Malay, Tamil) as a second language. This policy
aims to preserve cultural heritage and promote effective
communication.
2. Speak Good English Movement
Singapore actively promotes the Speak Good
English Movement, encouraging the use of standard English
while respecting the influence of other languages. This
initiative aims to enhance English language proficiency and
effective communication skills.
3. Importance of Language in Education
Language plays a vital role in Singapore's
education system. Proficiency in English is crucial for
academic success, as it is the medium of instruction in
most subjects. Mother Tongue Language education fosters
cultural identity, strengthens family ties, and
promotes multilingualism.
4. International Language Proficiency
Singapore places importance on international
language proficiency, recognizing the significance of global
communication. Efforts are made to develop students'
language skills in English and other languages to prepare
them for global opportunities.
Singapore’s Official Languages:
1. English as the Main Language of Instruction
It is the language through which most subjects are
taught, including Mathematics, Science, and Social
Studies.
2. Significance as a Global Language
English holds immense significance as a global
language for several reasons:
a. International Communication: English is widely
spoken and understood across the globe. Its
prevalence allows people from different countries
and cultures to communicate effectively and bridge
linguistic barriers.
b. Global Business and Trade: English is the language
of international business and trade. Proficiency in
English opens up opportunities for Singaporeans to
engage in global economic activities and participate
in the global job market.
c. Education and Research: English is the primary
language used in academic research, scientific
publications, and scholarly communication.
Proficiency in English enables access to a vast range
of knowledge and facilitates participation in global
academic collaborations.
d. Cultural Exchange and Diversity: English serves as
a common language for cultural exchange, allowing
people from diverse backgrounds to share their
ideas, traditions, and experiences.
3. Importance for Singapore's Multicultural Society
English plays a crucial role in Singapore's
multicultural society, where people of different ethnicities
and languages coexist.
4. Bilingualism and Biculturalism
Singapore's commitment to bilingualism involves
the learning of English and the student's respective Mother
Tongue Language (Mandarin Chinese, Malay, Tamil).
Bilingual Education
Singapore's bilingual education policy involves the
teaching of English and the student's respective Mother
Tongue Language (MTL). This policy aims to develop
students' proficiency in both languages, recognizing the
benefits of bilingualism in promoting cognitive
development, cultural preservation, and international
communication.
Bilingual Education Policy
In Singapore, the bilingual education policy
mandates the teaching of English as the main language of
instruction and the student's respective Mother Tongue
Language (MTL) as a second language. The MTLs include
Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil, depending on the
student's ethnic background.
This policy is implemented from primary school
through to secondary school and aims to ensure that
students are proficient in both English and their mother
tongue.
Benefits of Bilingual Education:
1. Cognitive Development
Bilingual education has been shown to have cognitive
benefits. Research suggests that bilingual individuals often
exhibit enhanced cognitive skills, such as better problem-
solving, critical thinking, and multitasking abilities.
2. Cultural Preservation
Bilingual education plays a crucial role in
preserving cultural heritage. By learning their mother
tongue language alongside English, students maintain a
strong connection to their cultural roots, traditions, and
values.
3. International Communication
Bilingual education equips students with the
language skills necessary for international communication.
Proficiency in English allows Singaporeans to engage and
collaborate with people from different countries and
cultures, facilitating international communication and
fostering global opportunities.
4. Enhanced Language Skills
Bilingual education enhances language skills
overall. Learning two languages simultaneously helps
students develop a deeper understanding of language
structures, vocabulary, and communication strategies.
5. Cognitive Flexibility and Adaptability
Switching between languages requires mental
agility, allowing students to navigate different linguistic and
cultural contexts with ease. This flexibility extends beyond
language and can positively impact problem-solving,
creativity, and adaptability in
various domains.
Language Policies contribute to the formation of this
national identity:
1. Multiculturalism
By promoting bilingualism and multilingualism, the
policies acknowledge and celebrate the diverse ethnic
backgrounds and languages present in Singapore. This
fosters a sense of inclusivity, respect, and appreciation for
different cultures, contributing to the formation of a
national identity that values multiculturalism.
2. Diversity
Singapore's language policies reflect the
commitment to linguistic diversity. The recognition and
promotion of multiple languages, such as English,
Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil, demonstrate the
importance placed on preserving and promoting
different cultural heritages.
3. Effective Communication
English is emphasized as a common language for
communication, both within the country and on an
international scale. The policies aim to equip individuals
with strong English language skills, enabling effective
communication in various domains such as education,
business, and diplomacy.
4. Shared Values and Identity
Through language policies, Singapore promotes
shared values and a sense of national identity. The learning
of respective Mother Tongue Languages (MTLs) alongside
English allows individuals to maintain a connection to their
cultural heritage, preserving important values and
traditions.
Challenges Faced by Singapore’s Language Policies
and Future Directions Challenges Faced by Language
Policies:
1. Maintaining Language Standards
2. Balancing Bilingualism with Other Subjects
3. Equitable Access to Quality Language Education
Potential Future Directions and Innovations:
1. Enhanced Teacher Training and Support
2. Integration of Language and Technology
3. Inclusive Language Education
4. Expanding Cultural Exchanges
To summarize, the language policies and programs
implemented in Singapore's educational system have a
notable impact on the language competency, academic
achievements, and global competitiveness of students.
These policies have been effective, as seen by the
emphasis on bilingualism, high ranks in global language
competency examinations, and proficiency in Mother
Tongue Languages (MTLs) and English.
A national identity that emphasizes variety,
multiculturalism, and good communication is shaped in
part by these language policies and activities. In a
multicultural culture, they protect cultural heritage, nurture
identity, and encourage inclusivity. Education in languages
also improves communication, critical thinking, and
cognitive growth.
Philippines
The Philippines is a multilingual country with over
170 languages spoken across its various regions. As a
result, the government has implemented several language
policies and practices to promote national unity and
communication among its diverse population. One of the
key language policies in the Philippines is the use of
Filipino, also known as Tagalog, as the national language.
Filipino is used as the medium of instruction in
schools and government institutions, and is promoted as a
way to bridge the linguistic diversity of the country. In
addition to Filipino, English is also recognized as an official
language in the Philippines.
English is used in government, business, education, and
media, making it an important language for communication
and international relations. Many Filipinos are bilingual or
even multilingual, with fluency in both Filipino and English,
as well as their local dialects. This language policy reflects
the country's colonial history and its globalization efforts.
Language policies in the Philippines also play a
crucial role in promoting inclusivity and diversity. The
country recognizes the importance of preserving and
promoting indigenous languages, as well as other regional
languages spoken by various ethnic groups. Language
policies support the teaching and use of these languages in
education and government, allowing for greater
representation and understanding of different cultures. By
promoting multilingualism, the Philippines fosters a sense
of pride and identity among its people, and ensures that
linguistic diversity is celebrated and preserved for future
generations.
Furthermore, promoting national unity and cultural
diversity, language policies in the Philippines also have
practical benefits. Being proficient in multiple languages,
particularly Filipino and English, gives people greater
opportunities for education, employment, and
communication. English proficiency, in particular, is
considered an important skill in the global marketplace,
opening up more opportunities for Filipinos to work and
connect with people from different countries.
Therefore, language policies in the Philippines not
only serve to preserve and celebrate the country's cultural
heritage but also provide its people with the necessary
tools to thrive in a globalized world.
Vietnam
Vietnam, is a multi-ethnic country and a
multilingual society. Despite this linguistic diversity, the
Vietnamese language has no rival and is the dominant and
most widely spoken language in modern Vietnam. This may
be because it is the language of the majority. Vietnamese
language or the "the Quo Nou script" has had a more-than-
three-century history of development attaching to the
missionary activities of Western missionaries in the 16th
century in Vietnam.
Historical Background
By the time the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
was formed in the middle of the twentieth century,
Vietnamese had a vital position unmatched in its
development history, became the common script for the
whole nation. In a rule-of-law state like the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam, which later became the Socialist
Republic of Vietnam (since 1976), the Vietnamese language
has become one subject of national law and policy.
The policy has understood as the choice of the
state in conducting a specific issue in society. Research on
policies toward the Vietnamese language has been the
attractive matter of many scientific fields from languages,
culture, history to law, politics.
For a long time in its early history, Vietnam was
seen as having no language of its own (Do 1996). The history
of constant conflicts with colonial powers deprived the
country of the right condition for its national language to
emerge and develop (Do 1996: 31).
Current Policies
Language education policies in contemporary
Vietnam reflect the current status of the languages spoken
in the country. They can be categorized according to three
main areas:
(i) policies for Vietnamese - the national
language
(ii) rules and regulations regarding language
education for ethnic minority people, and
(iii) policies pertaining to the teaching and
learning of foreign languages, among
which English takes a primary position.
Policies on the Vietnamese language in Vietnam
have already existed in the modern Vietnamese state. Both
practical and theoretical reasons point out the need to
develop and complete these dealing with the following
fundamental aims:
✓ The policies toward the Vietnamese language are the
reasonable and civilized conduct of a sovereign state
over its official language; the critical role of the
Vietnamese language for Vietnamese culture and
human development; Vietnam is a multi-ethnic
country;
✓ scope of using Vietnamese crosses Vietnamese
national borders;
✓ the process of cultural exchange today puts
Vietnamese in tront of new challenges Policies of the
Vietnamese state toward Vietnamese through
periods are both consistent and complementary. Up
to now. Vietnamese is officially recognized by law as
“official language", "national language".
Cambodia
Cambodia's LEP has periodically changed mainly
due to political shifts and colonization. Cambodia
categorizes the English language because of its rapid
growth. It is their official international language. Despite the
fact that Cambodian elders speak French, Communication
is important since France had a significant effect on their
language throughout its colonialism Era. It is also known
that some Cambodians are fluent in Vietnamese.
Historical Background
Cambodia is home to an estimated 24 minority
language groups. Indigenous ethnic minorities make up a
significant proportion of the population in north-eastern
provinces; 64 percent of the population in Ratanak Kiri
province is from an ethnic minority. The people of
Cambodia called themselves Khmer and referred to their
language as /ohiiasaakhmaas/' or simoly Kamer. Khmer is
one of the most important members of the Mon-Khmer
group of the Austro-Asiatic family of languages.
Current Policies
Pertaining to national language policy, article 96 of
Cambodia's constitution states that "the state shall protect
and promote Khmer Language as required." Despite the
chaos in the previous decades, Khmer has always been
used as the national language in government, parliament,
and public schools.
On the other hand, foreign languages are used in
international communication between the Cambodian
government and agencies and international organizations
and United Nations agencies. English is a subject included
in the schools curriculum from grade 4 onward. It is learned
and taught as a foreign language (EFL).
However, the instruction of English in primary
schools is dependent on the availability of English
instructors. In addition, foreign languages are also used at
certain higher education institutions depending on the
language used by the lecturers available at those
institutions. Khmer language is used as a medium of
instruction for all subjects at public education system.

In conformity with these facts, and in the
framework of the present Cambodia, the needs and
demands for the English language cannot be
underestimated. At every level, for academic and social
purposes, the command of English opens new possibilities.
Today English has a special status in Cambodia.
English is not only the most preferred foreign
language, but people view English as a passport to a better
job or to a scholarship from abroad (Igawa, 2010). In
addition, it seems clear that English and French will remain
the two major foreign languages to
be taught in public schools in the future because of
Cambodia's historical experience, its strengthening
relationship with countries in Southeast Asia through
regional goals such as ASEAN's economic integration in
2015, and the continuing realities of globalization. In higher
education, it is likely that English and French long will
continue to be the medium of instruction and of research,
while Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese will be
used as well for the purpose of business communication
and work.
Challenges
Education has been a major concern in Cambodia
for centuries. A common problem, which English teachers
at the high school level frequently encounter, is that the
English competency of students varies so considerably
from one to the other. Some are at the intermediate or even
upper-intermediate levels, while some are at pre-
intermediate, elementary, or beginner levels.
It is therefore hard for teachers to find effective
strategies and methodologies to equally help
students improve their knowledge of English.
However, secondary school students in the city
tend to be rather highly motivated, with expectations that
they will have a good chance at finding good jobs after they
are able to use English accurately and fluently, and so it is
likely they will learn the language quickly if appropriate
approaches are put into practice. Another major problem,
which hinders the success of teaching and learning, is the
language proficiency of teachers. The knowledge of most
English teachers is still limited and they are not highly
qualified in teaching and transferring knowledge to
students.
Myanmar
Myanmar, a nation nestled in Southeast Asia,
boasts a rich tapestry of cultural diversity, comprising 135
recognized ethnic groups. This report delves into
Myanmar's historical background, current language
policies, challenges faced in promoting linguistic
inclusivity, implications for peace and conflict resolution,
and the marginalization of the Rohingya community.
Historical Background
During the British colonial period, Myanmar
operated under a dual-language administrative system,
utilizing English in Burman populated areas and ethnic
languages in respective regions.
However, following independence in 1948, the Burmese
language became the medium of instruction in schools,
with English taught from the fifth standard onwards. The
military regime from 1962 onwards enforced Burmese as
the exclusive language of instruction, marginalizing ethnic
minority languages.
Current Policies
In 2014, Myanmar introduced the National
Education Law, which outlined ambitious goals aimed at
preserving and promoting the cultural heritage of all ethnic
groups within the country.
The law recognized the importance of linguistic
diversity and stipulated that instruction could be
conducted in either Myanmar or English, or a combination
of both. Additionally, it allowed for the use of ethnic
languages alongside Burmese as a medium of instruction
at the basic education level, albeit with certain caveats.
However, despite these provisions on paper, the
reality on the ground paints a different picture. Indigenous
ethnic languages continue to face significant barriers to
promotion within the education system. While the law
theoretically permits the use of ethnic languages, practical
implementation remains elusive, with Burmese remaining
the dominant language of instruction in most schools. This
discrepancy between policy intent and implementation
perpetuates the marginalization of ethnic minority
languages and impedes efforts to foster linguistic
inclusivity within Myanmar's educational institutions.
Challenges
The promotion of indigenous ethnic languages as
subjects and mediums of instruction is fraught with
challenges that hinder their integration into the education
system. One major obstacle is the lack of standardized
written forms for many mother tongues, rendering them
inaccessible for formal educational purposes. Additionally,
some ethnic languages lack sufficient vocabulary and
instructional materials tailored for academic settings,
further complicating their inclusion in the curriculum.
Moreover, the shortage of trained teachers
proficient in ethnic languages presents a significant barrier
to effective language instruction. Teacher training
programs often prioritize Burmese proficiency over
proficiency in ethnic languages, perpetuating the
dominance of Burmese within the education system.
This dearth of qualified language instructors
exacerbates the marginalization of ethnic languages and
undermines efforts to promote linguistic diversity in
schools.
Ethnic Conflicts
The contentious issue of language policy lies at the
heart of ethnic conflicts that have plagued Myanmar for
decades. The imposition of a centralized, Burmese
language-only education system by the state has been
perceived by many ethnic minority groups as a threat to
their cultural identities and linguistic heritage. The
suppression of indigenous languages within the education
system has fueled resentment and resistance among these
communities, contributing to longstanding tensions and
conflicts.
However, Myanmar's transition to democracy has
provided an opportunity for dialogue and debate on the
issue of mother tongue-based education. With greater
political openness, ethnic minority groups have been able
to voice their concerns and advocate for the recognition
and preservation of their linguistic rights. The inclusion of
language diversity in discussions on
education reform represents a positive step towards
addressing the root causes of ethnic tensions and fostering
greater inclusivity within Myanmar's society.
Implications for Peace and Conflict
The implementation of language access policies in
Myanmar carries profound implications for the country's
peace and stability. By recognizing and accommodating the
linguistic diversity of its population, the government can
promote social cohesion and reconciliation among
different ethnic groups. Conversely, the continued
marginalization of ethnic languages risks exacerbating
existing tensions and perpetuating cycles of conflict and
division.
Efforts to reform language policies must be guided
by principles of inclusivity, equity, and respect for cultural
diversity. By prioritizing the preservation and promotion of
indigenous languages within the education system,
Myanmar can foster a more inclusive society where all
ethnic groups feel valued and represented.
Such measures are essential for building trust,
fostering dialogue, and ultimately achieving lasting peace
in a country scarred by decades of ethnic strife.
Marginalization of Rohingya
The plight of the Rohingya people in Myanmar
highlights the devastating consequences of discriminatory
language policies. The Rohingya, a predominantly Muslim
ethnic minority group, have faced systematic
marginalization and persecution at the hands of the
government, including the denial of their linguistic rights.
The official refusal to recognize the Rohingya
language and culture is emblematic of broader efforts to
erase their identity and deny their humanity. The
marginalization of the Rohingya extends beyond linguistic
exclusion to encompass a wide range of human rights
abuses, including restrictions on movement, access to
education, and citizenship rights. The denial of linguistic
rights serves as a tool of oppression, further isolating the
Rohingya community and reinforcing their status as
second-class citizens in their own country.
Myanmar's language policies hold immense sway
over social dynamics and intergroup relations, either
fostering inclusion or exacerbating division. Denying
linguistic rights, especially to marginalized communities
like the Rohingya, intensifies exclusion and discrimination,
escalating tensions and fostering conflicts. This
exclusionary stance perpetuates narratives of othering and
dehumanization, amplifying existing ethnic and religious
divisions, hindering genuine reconciliation, and impeding
stability efforts.
Addressing Myanmar's language policies is crucial
to rectify historical injustices, safeguard human rights, and
nurture inclusivity. A paradigm shifts toward recognizing
and protecting linguistic diversity is imperative, ensuring all
citizens enjoy linguistic rights irrespective of ethnicity or
religion.
Embracing linguistic diversity as a strength can
foster a more equitable society where each person feels
valued and represented.
Promoting dialogue, understanding, and mutual
respect across linguistic and cultural boundaries lays the
groundwork for a future founded on unity, diversity, and
shared prosperity.
Laos
Linguistic diversity in Laos is not just a matter of
numbers; it's a reflection of centuries of cultural
interactions, migrations, and geopolitical influences. With
49 ethnic groups calling Laos home, each with its own
language or dialect, the country stands as a testament to
the richness of human expression.
This diversity is not merely a product of
happenstance but is intricately linked to Laos' historical
trajectory, marked by colonial rule, conflicts, and its
strategic position among its neighboring nations.
Historical Background
The colonization of Laos by the French had a
profound impact on its linguistic landscape. The French
administration, in its attempt to streamline governance and
communication, introduced modifications to the complex
Lao script, aiming to simplify it for administrative purposes.
This intervention, while intended to facilitate
efficiency, also irrevocably altered the linguistic heritage of
the nation. The adoption of a simplified orthographic
system under French rule laid the foundation for the
modernization of the Lao language but also sparked
debates about cultural preservation and authenticity.
Challenges
Independence from French colonial rule marked a
pivotal moment for Laos, as it sought to reclaim its cultural
identity and assert its sovereignty. Lao emerged as the sole
official language of the newly independent nation,
symbolizing unity and national pride. However, the
linguistic diversity inherent in Laos posed significant
challenges to the widespread adoption of Lao as the
language of administration, education, and governance.
While efforts were made to promote Lao as a unifying force,
the reality of multilingualism persisted, presenting
obstacles to development in various sectors.
Enhancing National Language
The Ministry of Education's initiatives to strengthen
the position of Lao as the national language reflect a
nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding
language policy in Laos.
By equipping teachers with suitable
methodologies and resources, the ministry seeks to
empower them to effectively teach Lao while
acknowledging the linguistic diversity present in their
classrooms. Emphasizing interactive and experiential
learning approaches, teachers are encouraged to create
engaging environments where students can actively engage
with the language and construct meaning from their
experiences.
The incorporation of active learning methods, such
as small group work, not only fosters language
development but also cultivates critical thinking skills and
promotes cultural exchange among students. By
recognizing the value of indigenous languages and dialects
alongside the promotion of Lao, the Ministry of Education
endeavors to create inclusive learning environments that
celebrate the diverse linguistic heritage of Laos.
In doing so, it not only addresses the practical
challenges posed by linguistic diversity but also reaffirms
the country's commitment to cultural pluralism and
national unity.
MULTILINGUAL PHILIPPINES
I. INTRODUCTION
The Philippines is an archipelago with at least 7000
islands. Being an archipelagic country, it is home to many
languages and variations unique of its own, making it one of
the regions in the world with a high index of linguistic
diversity. According to Eberhard et al. (2021), the
Philippines is a home to 186 languages, wherein 184 are
living and 2 are extinct. Of the living languages, 175 are
indigenous and 9 are non-indigenous.
As Filipinos, it is best to get to know more about our
rich linguistic diversity, be aware of our very own language
policies and appreciate our multiple language tapestry.
Thus, this paper is written with the aim to present the
various languages in the Philippines, its geographic
distributions, the concept of multilingualism and its
benefits to individuals and society, as well as language
policies and educational approaches with its
corresponding advantages and disadvantages.
II. VARIOUS LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN THE PHILIPPINES
Filipino
The Filipino language is the national language of
the Philippines, with 28 million native speakers. It is known
as a standardized version of Tagalog that comes from the
Austronesian language families.
English
English is one of the lingua franca worldwide. As
English was the language of the Americans during the
American colonial rule, Filipinos today have a vast amount
of American English borrowed words. The Filipino –
American History expands not just in political ties but also
in its lexicon.
Tagalog
The Tagalog language is one of the predominant
languages in the Philippines, with a massive catalog of
Tagalog business vocabulary. At least 34.3 million people
speak the Tagalog language worldwide.
Cebuano
Among the Visayan languages, Cebuano is the
most famous mother tongue. The name Cebuano came
from the city of Cebu, where many speakers came from. It
has at least 27.5 million native speakers, ranking up from
22 million last 2010. It is the lingua franca in Central
Visayas, Negros Oriental, and Southern Visayas.
Ilocano
Another language with a large number of speakers,
Ilocano, holds third place among the major languages in
the Philippines, with 8.1 million speakers. Ilocano is the
second language of many Filipino communities in Hawaii
and California. The majority of the people in north Luzon
have Ilocano as their lingua franca.
Tausug
At least 1.2 million use Tausug as their native
language in the province of Sulu and eastern Sabah,
Malaysia. It comes from the Tausūg people with close
relations to the Butuanon language. Tau means person,
and Sūg’ means the island of Sulu.
Hiligaynon
Often referred to as Ilonggo, Hiligaynon is the
fourth major native language in the Philippines and the
second most widely spoken in the Visayas region. It has two
distinct varieties: Kari and Kawayan, from the island of
Biliran. Over 9.1 million speakers are present in Western
Visayas, Antique, Aklan, and North Cotabato, among other
regions.
Maranao
The Maranao language is a major language spoken
in Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur, with 1.4 million
speakers. Maranao follows the Malayo-Polynesian group of
languages with closely related dialects such as Ilanun and
Maguindanaon. The language has its history from Arabic
letters but is now in the Latin alphabet. It has aspirated
“hard consonants” and a distinct downstep accent.
Pangasinense
Pangasinense is a prominent language in the
province of Pangasinan and northern Tarlac. Some
communities in Benguet, southwest La Union, Nueva
Vizcaya, and Nueva Ecija, as well as Zambales speaks the
Pangasinense language
Waray
Also known as Waray-Waray or
Samaran/Samareño, Waray is a large ethnolinguistic group
in the Philippines. Most native Waray speakers are from
Eastern Visayas, particularly Eastern Leyte, Samar, and
Biliran islands. It is the fifth most spoken language in the
Philippines, with 3.6 million Waray speakers and counting.
Kapampangan
The language of the Kapampangan ethnic group,
which is spoken throughout the whole province of
Pampanga and Southern Tarlac, which is located in the
Central plains of Luzon, is known as Kapampangan. Along
with the bordering Pampanga provinces of Bulacan, Nueva
Ecija, and Zambales, Kapampangan is also spoken in
northern Bataan. In the southern region of Central Luzon, a
few Aeta clans also speak Kapampangan as a second
language.
III. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN THE
PHILIPPINES
The Philippines, an archipelago of 7,100 islands
located in Southeast Asia, are marked by substantial
linguistic diversity with 181 living languages being used. The
languages of the Philippines belong to the Western Malayo-
Polynesian group of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the
Austronesian language family.
Although the Philippines were a Spanish colony
from 1568 to 1898, the Spanish were reluctant to allow the
masses to learn Spanish. Nevertheless, numerous Spanish
loan words made their way into the Filipino languages and
into the toponymy of the archipelago; indeed, in one part of
the Philippines a Spanish Creole language emerged that
persists to this day. From 1898 to 1946, the Philippines
were a colony of the United States, and the Americans
aggressively promoted the teaching of English.
Today, English as an official language in the
Philippines is the language used in government and law and
is widely spoken as a second language by many Filipinos.
English proficiency has contributed greatly to the
employment of overseas Filipino workers around the world
and to the development of call centers in the Philippines.
Studying the languages of the Philippines
illustrates many concepts in linguistic geography. The
effect of physical geography upon linguistic diversity is
demonstrated by much of the archipelago’s linguistic
diversity being attributed to its fragmented territorial
morphology. The role of power relations upon languages is
demonstrated by the incorporation of Spanish and English
words into the Filipino languages. The use of English by
overseas Filipino workers and in call centers demonstrates
the role of English as the language of globalization.
Many people think that English is the most
important language in the Philippines. And while English is
one of the official languages in the country, there are many
other languages and dialects spoken on its territory.
Indeed, there are up to 187 languages spoken by the people
of the Philippines. Each of these languages has its history
and origin. Most of the languages spoken are indigenous
languages that have survived through the centuries despite
Spanish and American rule.
In conclusion, the Philippines is a place with an
incredibly diverse linguistic heritage. While the country is
the fourth-largest English-speaking country in the world,
one should not underestimate how widely the indigenous
languages are spoken in the country. What’s more, the
influence of English is slowly diminishing since the
government is investing considerable efforts in promoting
the native Philippine languages. As a result, a new trend of
multilingualism is occurring among the younger
generations.
IV. BENEFITS OF MULTILINGUALISM FOR INDIVIDUALS
Language plays a crucial role in fostering
connections among individuals from diverse cultures,
characterized by increased interaction among people with
varying linguistic backgrounds. Multilingualism is widely
recognized for enhancing the capacity to communicate and
establish relationships. In the Philippines, renowned for its
linguistic diversity across numerous local and indigenous
communities, multilingualism is ingrained in Filipino
identity, facilitating connectivity among those proficient in
different native languages and contributing to collaboration
and mutual understanding.
Additionally, it promotes cultural awareness,
sensitivity, and empathy. Beyond facilitating
communication and cultural exchange, multilingualism
offers cognitive benefits. According to a study by
researchers at the Center for Brain and Cognition at
Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona (as cited in Büttler,
2022), multilingual individuals demonstrate superior
observation skills and quicker information processing
compared to monolinguals and bilinguals.
They also excel at multitasking, effortlessly
switching between different language systems during
communication. Moreover, multilingualism correlates with
enhanced academic performance, as evidenced by
improved problem-solving abilities, metalinguistic
awareness, and heightened creativity among multilingual
individuals.
Multilingualism brings forth numerous benefits for
individuals, spanning from enhanced communication skills
and enriched cultural connectivity to cognitive
enhancements like improved multitasking abilities and
academic performance. Embracing linguistic diversity not
only enriches individual experiences but also fosters
deeper understanding across cultures and encourages
global collaboration.
V. BENEFITS OF MULTILINGUALISM FOR SOCIETY
Multiculturalism refers to a society that is made up
of diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious groups. It is
characterized by the coexistence and interaction of people
from different backgrounds, fostering an environment of
inclusivity and acceptance. We live in a diverse society,
were everyone co-exist in a healthy environment.
According to an article by Robert Longley, multiculturalism
is the way in which a society deals with cultural diversity,
both at the national and at the community level.
In multicultural communities, people retain, pass
down, celebrate, and share their unique cultural ways of
life, languages, art, traditions, and behaviors. There are a lot
of benefits in a multicultural society. Through our
differences we create a society that learns and respects
each difference. Living -with multicultural society comes
with a great opportunity and numerous advantages such as
economic benefits, cultural enrichment, and it can also
increase creativity and innovation. But aside from those
advantages there are still disadvantages that arise in our
society, and it includes cultural clashes, language barriers
and discrimination. Indeed, there is no perfect society that
exists.
To sum it all up, understanding the benefits of
multiculturalism can give us lots of opportunities, as well
as foster relationships and help us create a healthy
environment for everyone. It creates diversity, equality as
well as it fosters respect and love for everyone in our
society. Just like what Ola Joseph said, "Diversity is not
about how we differ. Diversity is about embracing one
another's uniqueness."
PHILIPPINE LANGUAGE POLICIES AND EDUCATIONAL
APPROACHES TO MULTILINGUALISM
The Philippines is the only ASEAN country that
institutionalized multilingual education as its official
language policy in the curriculum (Martin & Tupas, 2016),
The Philippines' most dramatic support for the regional
languages is the Order 74, Series 2009 of the Department of
Education, entitled “Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education,” that stipulated the use of
such languages in the early years of primary education.
In the Philippines, these language policies would include:
1. Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)
2. Bilingual Education Policy (BEP)
3. Language Policy of the Commission on Higher Education
MTB-MLE
MTB MLE is short for Mother Tongue Based
Multilingual Education. In the MTB MLE system, a child’s
first language or mother tongue (often denoted as L1) is
used to teach basic reading, writing and academic
material. A second language (L2) is then gradually
introduced into their learning so that they can transfer their
skills across to that language.
BEP
The Bilingual Policy of the Department of
Education, which was introduced in 1974 (through DECS
Order No. 25, s. 1974), was designed to develop a "bilingual
nation competent in the use of English and Filipino.”
The Language Policy of the Commission on Higher
Education In 1994, Republic Act No. 7722, creating the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) was signed. This
Act which is know as the “Higher Education Act of 1994”
provides that the CHED shall be independent and separate
from the DECS and attached to the Office of the President
for administrative purposes only. Its coverage shall be both
public and private institutions of higher education as well
as degree-granting programs in all post-secondary
educational institutions, public and private.
One of the first steps undertaken by CHED was to
update the General Education Curriculum (GEC) of tertiary
courses leading to an initial bachelor’s degree covering four
(4) curriculum years. This was done to make the curriculum
more responsive to the demands of the next millenium.
The requirements of the new GEC are embodied in
the CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 59, s. 1996.
Listed under miscellaneous of this CMO is its language
policy which is as follows:
 In consonance with the Bilingual Education Policy
underlined in DECS Order No. 52, Series of 1987, the
following are the guidelines vis-a-vis medium of instruction,
to wit:
1. Language courses, whether Filipino or English, should be
taught in that language
2. At the discretion of the HEI, Literature subjects may be
taught in Filipino, English or any other language as long as
there are enough instructional materials for the same and
both students and instructors/professors are competent in
the language.
Courses in the Humanities and Social Sciences should
preferably be taught in Filipino.
VII. ADVANTAGES OF THE LANGUAGE POLICIES AND
EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES MTB-MLE
MTB-MLE programmes have been shown to
improve Filipino students' learning outcomes, with
research which indicates that students taught in their
mother tongue outperformed those not. This shows that
MTB-MLE helps students understand and comprehend
concepts in their native language, establishing a solid basis
for academic achievement.
Additionally, MTB-MLE has been relevant to lower
dropout rates and higher retention rates, particularly in
early grades. MTB-MLE promotes cognitive development,
particularly literacy acquisition and critical thinking skills.
The effectiveness of these programmes is credited to
community engagement, which includes curriculum
development and implementation by educators,
community leaders, and policymakers. This generates a
sense of community ownership and empowerment, which
improves the program's effectiveness and long-term
reliability.
BILINGUAL EDUCATION POLICY
Bilingual education is a valuable approach that
helps preserve cultural heritage by allowing students to
learn in both their native language and a second language,
typically English. This fosters a sense of pride and identity
in one's own culture while promoting understanding of
other cultures. Bilingualism can lead to enhanced cognitive
skills, such as problem-solving, creativity, and mental
flexibility.
Students in bilingual education programs often
outperform monolingual peers in academic subjects like
mathematics and literacy. Bilingual education also provides
better job opportunities, as proficiency in multiple
languages is increasingly valued in the global job market. It
also promotes social cohesion by promoting
understanding and communication across linguistic and
cultural boundaries. Additionally, proficiency in English
provides greater access to information and resources both
domestically and internationally.
LANGUAGE POLICY ON CHED
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) in
the Philippines is in charge of developing rules that govern
higher education institutions (HEIs). Language policy is an
important part of these regulations, since it encourages the
use of Filipino languages, fosters national identity,
preserves cultural history, and promotes unity in diversity.
Policies that allow for Filipino language instruction
promote access to education for students from various
backgrounds by reducing learning barriers. Bilingual
education improves cognitive ability, creativity, and critical
thinking. Policies that identify and encourage indigenous
languages help to conserve indigenous knowledge
systems, particularly at higher education institutions with
a rich cultural legacy. Balancing Filipino language use with
English competence helps students prepare for the global
workforce.
VIII. ISSUES AND DILEMMAS
SURROUNDING THE LANGUAGE
POLICIES MTB-MLE
The MTB-MLE reform in the Philippines contains
high ambiguity and high conflict. In terms of ambiguity, the
DepEd orders specified what should be done but offered
little support for how it should be done. There were also
issues of whether English was the best language for
education in the Philippines, due to the fact that local
languages were not used as a medium of instruction.
Milambiling (2011) states that those who speak
more than one language are also generally more aware of
sociolinguistic variables and functions than those who
speak one language, and they are adept at switching
between different regional varieties, registers, and formal
and informal language styles.
In other words, the advantage of being multilingual
is that it creates various kinds of connections in the brain,
which gives multilingual individuals an advantage in some
respects compared with monolingual individuals.
On the other hand, Bernardo (2004) writes that
even though there were studies at that time that showed
the positive effects of using local languages in education
(see also Nolasco, 2008), there was no altering of the
dominant position of English. However, because of the
positive results of a few studies on mother-tongue
education, the Philippine government decided on a formula
for language in education that involved local languages
being used up to the second grade and English as the
medium of instruction from third grade onward.
Moreover, the following are the several issues and
dilemmas encountered by Teachers in Implementing
Mother Tongue - Based Instruction in a Multilingual Setting
in the Philippines.
Lack of support from the government
The implementation of MTB-MLE requires
sufficient resources from the government. However,
without sufficient financial resources allocated, the school
will find it challenging to impart knowledge to their
students, thereby compromising the overall quality of
education delivered to students.
Absence of books that are written in mother
tongue.
There are no dictionaries or even textbooks that
can accommodate the needs of the learners having
different mother tongues. The absence of books written in
native language affects the teaching specifically when
translating since their students are speakers of different
languages. When such materials are unavailable,
educators are forced to rely on inadequate resources,
hindering their ability to effectively transmit knowledge to
their students.
Lack of teacher-training program
Teachers are ill-prepared for the sudden change in
educational reform. Due to inadequate skills and support,
educators may struggle to adapt their teaching
methodologies to effectively teach academic content in
the native language.
BILINGUAL EDUCATION POLICY
The first and most comprehensive evaluation of the
accomplishments of bilingual education in the country
(Gonzalez and Sibayan 1988) found that more than MOI, the
most significant contributor to success in learning in
school in the country is the socioeconomic composition of
the student population which correlates with quality of
teachers, salary, and proximity to an urban environment. In
other words, bilingual education failed to overturn
“opportunities for advancement [which] seem to be largely
restricted to those who already enjoy social and economic
advantages in Philippine society” (Bernardo 2004, p. 26).
Language Domination
The usage of the Filipino language and the English
language as the mode of instruction should be in the right
balance, given the fact that bilingual education aims to
improve the proficiency of both languages. However, failure
to strike this balance can impede the academic progress of
the students.
Language as Identity
Filipino and English both serve as a prominent
medium of communication here in the Philippines.
However, there are instances where students may face
discrimination or stigmatization as being less "Filipino," just
because they are fluent in terms of utilizing the English
language or they are equally adept in both languages. Due
to this misconception, students may lose their confidence
to speak, or worse, might hinder students’ academic
development.
Insufficient Bilingual Learning Materials
Challenges related to learning materials impose an
additional burden on bilingual educators. They find
themselves compelled to invest extra time and effort in
creating teaching materials due to the inadequacy of
available resources, especially in rural or public schools
where textbooks and learning materials are scarce. Without
enough learning resources, it is difficult for the students to
be able to achieve proficiency and competence in both
English and Filipino, which ideally should have been
provided prior to the implementation of the policy.
Taking everything into account, the educational
system is the problem itself, not the educational reform.
The aforementioned challenges clearly state the current
situation faced by the field of education. Each of these
issues made a huge impact in terms of the students’
learning experience. As we all know, the main purpose of
these educational policies is to facilitate students in
acquiring proficiency and competency not just in the field
of academics but also beyond it.
Furthermore, I would just like to highlight that we
should focus on improving our educational system. We
should strive to emulate the attributes of highly developed
nations and establish a society where we will be identified
as comparable to those classified countries that have
advanced and intellectual learners.
LANGUAGE POLICY OF THE COMMISSION ON
HIGHER EDUCATION
The language policy on CHED, specifically the
guideline on teaching Literature subjects in Filipino, English
or any other language may clash with an already existing
Executive Order No. 210 series of 2003, section 2 which
states that Institutions of higher education, including State
Colleges and Universities, are hereby encouraged to adopt
the use of the English language as the PRIMARY medium of
instruction in the tertiary levels.
 LANGUAGE AND MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
WHY LANGUAGE MATTERS FOR THE MILLENNIUM
DEVELOPMENT GOALS?
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a
set of shared aspirations and efforts to make the world
more equitable and sustainable. At the heart of the goals is
the recognition that for this global initiative to be effective,
all people need to be included.
Language is the key to inclusion. Language is at the
center of human activity, self-expression, and identity.
Recognizing the primary importance that people place on
their language fosters the kind of true participation in
development that achieves lasting results.
These are the 8 goals of MDG for their goal;
GOAL 1: ERADICATE HUNGER AND POVERTY
People’s languages are vitally important to them.
Through language, people communicate, share meaning,
and experience their sense of individual and community
identity. Loss of language and culture is frequently
accompanied by large human and social costs, including
poverty, poor health, drug and alcohol abuse, family
violence, and suicide.
“Language has a very influential role in fostering
the process of an informed public dialog and debate”.
Language is still rarely explicitly articulated in key
international and national poverty reduction documents or
communications planning. This means insufficient
attention is given to the unique situations of ethnolinguistic
minorities and their particular problems in being included
in development processes.
Problems and solutions that MDS provides in different
countries:
Thailand: Sharing language and culture helps mountain
peoples
- Indigenous and ethnic minorities suffer from significant
poverty and marginalization in many countries. The Inter
Mountain Peoples Education and
Culture in Thailand (IMPECT) organization, based in the
province of Chiang Mai, has led a variety of initiatives to
strengthen local ethnic minority communities.
Among these are initiatives in which ethnic
communities have articulated and documented in their
local languages key information on their beliefs and
customs. The information has been shared with Thai
education officials at the district, provincial, and national
levels. One reported result of such sharing is greater
flexibility in local education curricula, with more emphasis
placed on indigenous culture, knowledge, and language.
This contribution to community strengthening is an
important element in the work of local minority groups as
they seek sustainable solutions to the challenges they face
in terms of cultural survival, development, and livelihoods.
Bangladesh: Strengthening local languages bolsters
communities
- A project working to improve the situation of the
Kol and Koda minority people in Bangladesh found that the
communities were losing engagement with their mother
tongue but were also not proficient in the dominant
language, Bangla.
This placed them at multiple disadvantages. Thus,
a joint project of SIL Bangladesh and Food for the Hungry
placed importance on strengthening the
mother tongue, while also focusing on enabling the
communities to take ownership of the development
process through participation.
The project has engaged with a wide range of local
ideas about language and language choices while
maintaining an emphasis on the importance of the mother
tongue. To strengthen the local languages, the initiative has
worked on developing local writing systems. It continues to
work in the local languages to develop community
institutions to bolster self-reliance, savings, skills
development, and advocacy for rights.
Language and development: Some tools and
approaches
Program planning/early stage: Awareness of language
issues from the beginning pays off;
• Conducting linguistic surveys: In linguistically diverse
areas, effective communications for development planning
include conducting a “language audit” or a sociolinguistic
survey of the partner population.
• Strengthening participation of local actors in research:
Language research has primarily been the domain of
“outsiders”, such as linguists and ethnographers.
• Including a focus on intercultural communications:
Staff working in linguistically and culturally diverse settings,
who are aware of key ideas around intercultural
communications and cultural competence, are better
equipped to foster participatory development.
Implementation stage: acting on awareness of language
issues;
• Sharing information through printed materials: Project
information and key messages produced in local languages
help ensure that minority people are
informed and are enabled to enter into discussions, ask
questions, and make suggestions.
• Employing creative channels of information:
Communication vehicles such as radio, video, and theater
allow important health and other development messages
to reach illiterate populations.
• Identifying the right sources for sending information:
When people are receiving and reviewing new information,
they must be able to identify the information source.

Monitoring stage: Language as a measure of impact
• Language as a measure of effectiveness: Including
language indicators can help measure the value of
development initiatives.
GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
To ensure that children universally, including both
boys and girls, who receive a good educational foundation
at pre-primary and primary school levels are in a much
better position when they navigate life’s challenges as
adults.
Education is one of the most important ways for
people to move out of poverty, and a strong basic education
is the first step. It has been found that children from
ethnolinguistic minorities especially girls are
disproportionately represented among those who are not
receiving any or adequate education.
Significant progress is being made on MDG. Yet
data indicated that an estimated 67 million of the world's
children are still not enrolled in primary education. Many
children who enroll in school later drop out. Without free
and compulsory primary education, those who cannot
afford to go to school are denied a fundamental right.
The ability of a family to pay for direct, indirect, or
hidden costs should never be the decisive factor in enjoying
the right to education. Without quality education, relevant
content, and minimum standards, the achievement of
MDG2 is undermined by dropouts. Lack of quality also
makes the goal insufficient for the full development of the
individual, for future job prospects, and for the ability to
fulfill the other goals and claim all other rights.
Without a full reference to non-discrimination on
any ground, some groups remain invisible. States may
easily argue they have achieved the goal of having all boys
and girls in class, but if they count only those that are visible
and if they do not provide support or facilities for other
groups when they are included, the target may be met, but
the human right is not fulfilled.
Why language is important?
Many children struggle at school when they are
forced to learn languages that are not their mother tongue.
School systems that do not use learners’ languages or
respect their cultures make it extremely difficult for
children to stay in school and learn. Teaching children for a
recommended six to eight years in their mother tongue, as
well as gradually introducing national or other dominant
languages (sometimes called Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education) – has the following outcomes:
Children receive a good foundation, children
perform better, fewer children repeat grades, fewer
children drop out of school, children have more family
support, and cycles of exclusion are broken.
Policy and practice
National education policies that prioritize learning
in the mother tongue as a strategy to improve educational
quality and access are in the political and economic
interests of countries with high levels of linguistic diversity.
In the Asia-Pacific region, in 2009, the Philippines adopted
a policy to institutionalize mother tongue-based
multilingual education in all public and private schools,
from preschool to high school.
Announcing the new policy, the Department of
Education stated; “The lesson and findings of various local
initiatives and international studies in basic education have
validated the superiority of the use of the learner's mother
tongue or first language in improving learning outcomes
and promoting education for all.”
Development partners can support governments
by promoting the use of appropriate languages as a central
pillar in achieving education quality and inclusion. In the
Asia-Pacific region, for example, programs have been
implemented or planned in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China,
India, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon
Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam, to name a few. Many
mother tongue-based education initiatives in developing
and middle-income countries are, as yet, on a small scale.
“Scaling up” such initiatives will be vital as countries strive
to achieve MDG 2.
GOAL 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER
WOMEN
Women and girls are disproportionately
represented amongst the world’s most marginalized.
Women from minority groups are often particularly
excluded from opportunities to improve their situations.
They suffer the “compound” impact of discrimination
based on gender and discrimination based on ethnic,
religious, or linguistic diversity. Investing in women and girls
has been described as a
“breakthrough strategy” for achieving all the MDGs.
That is because research has found that improving
women’s control over resources, their level of decision-
making power in the family and household, and their degree
of control over their physical security can help “free up
bottlenecks” that hamper further progress across all the
MDG targets.
Why language is important?
Education for girls: Research into bilingual
education in Africa and Latin America has found that girls
who learn first in familiar languages stay in school longer
and are more likely to be identified as good students.
Education for women: Improving adult women’s immediate
situations is vital to achieving development goals.
Research has also shed useful light on how language is at
the center of culture and belief systems that contain
elements that can both empower and disempower women.
 POLICY and PRACTICE
Policy
National education policies: Girls are helped by
national education policies that recognize the need for
mother tongue-based multilingual education.
National literacy programs: Women’s lives can be
improved rapidly by literacy programs focusing on local
languages, preferably in combination with other
participatory initiatives that enhance livelihoods.
Practice
As awareness grows that empowering women is
one of the fastest ways to improve overall conditions for
families and communities, more attention is also being
paid to the importance of local languages as part of the
process.
Examples:
- India: Women build on local languages to create a
“bridge” to wider opportunities
- Uganda and Bangladesh: Working in local languages,
women deploy information and communications
technology
GOALS 4 & 5: REDUCING CHILD MORTALITY AND
IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
The United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) outline a comprehensive agenda to tackle
global challenges, including Goal 4 (Reducing Child
Mortality) and Goal 5 (Improving Maternal Health).
Language inclusivity plays a crucial role in achieving these
goals by ensuring better healthcare access and outcomes
for vulnerable women and children.
Importance of Language in Health Education
1. Preventable Deaths: Annually, 10.5 million
children under the age of five succumb to
preventable causes such as pneumonia, diarrhea,
malaria, measles, and AIDS.
2. Maternal Mortality: Every minute, a woman dies
from childbirth complications, with over half a
million annual deaths, predominantly in
developing countries due to insufficient care.
Why Language Matters?
● Information Dissemination: Effective dissemination of
health information, including nutrition, breastfeeding, and
infection prevention, can significantly reduce mortality
rates.
● Cultural Context: Health information must be conveyed
in familiar languages and cultural contexts to ensure
effective engagement and understanding.
● Access to Healthcare: Language barriers hinder access
to healthcare, trust development, and health-seeking
behaviors among ethnic minority populations.
Policy Implications:
1. Inclusion in Policies: National health policies
must acknowledge the significance of language to
effectively reach marginalized women.
2. Success Stories: Examples like Lao PDR
demonstrate improved health outcomes through
the incorporation of local languages in health
education materials.
Practical Approaches:
1. Community Engagement: Initiatives such as
"Tumpukan Na!" in the Philippines utilize local
languages and traditions for community health
discussions, enhancing participation and
understanding.
2. Training Indigenous Health Workers: Supporting
indigenous health workers fluent in local
languages improves healthcare access and trust
within marginalized communities.
3. Intercultural Health Care: Promoting
intercultural approaches to healthcare fosters
better understanding and engagement among
diverse populations.
Case Studies:
● Philippines: "Tumpukan Na!" sessions have enhanced
community understanding and uptake of health services
through local language discussions.
● Vietnam: Training local midwives who understand
cultural nuances and speak the same language has
significantly improved maternal health outcomes,
particularly in remote ethnic minority areas.
GOAL 6: COMBAT HIV & HIV, MALARIA AND OTHER
DISEASES
Preventable diseases such as HIV/AIDS and
malaria pose significant health challenges worldwide. As of
2010, approximately 34 million people globally were living
with HIV and AIDS, half of them women. In 2008, there were
247 million malaria cases, resulting in nearly one million
deaths, primarily among African children. Malaria also
significantly impacts South-East Asia and other regions.
The Importance of Language
Ethnolinguistic minority communities are
particularly vulnerable to these health challenges due to a
lack of essential information in their languages and
culturally sensitive manners. The complexity and stigma
associated with diseases like HIV/AIDS necessitate careful
communication.
Educational campaigns can help dispel fear and
stigma, encourage service access, and enhance treatment.
However, if developed and presented inappropriately,
these campaigns can further marginalize and stigmatize
vulnerable communities, creating additional obstacles to
information and services.
Policy Considerations
- National policies on HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other
diseases must consider how language influences health
outcomes. For instance, referring to AIDS as a ‘deadly,
incurable disease’ can increase fear, stigma, and
discrimination.
Conversely, referring to HIV as a ‘manageable,
chronic illness’ may lead people to underestimate its
seriousness. Thus, communication strategies must define
messages understandable, relevant to the target audience,
based on available evidence, culturally appropriate, and in
local languages.
Practice: The Role of Local Languages and Cultures
Research shows that health messages are most
readily trusted and accepted when the information source
is familiar to the recipient. Local participation in message
production and reception is vital, implying that working with
communities in their languages is crucial.
Radio, video, community-based discussions, and
community theater in local languages can effectively
communicate with ethnolinguistic minorities and other
marginalized communities.
• Greater Mekong
In the Greater Mekong region, several radio soap
operas were produced in different ethnic languages to
reach remote populations vulnerable to HIV and AIDS.
These programs, developed following the UNESCO 12-step
methodology, presented key health messages in an
attractive format, leading to a sharp increase in audience
knowledge regarding HIV and AIDS transmission and
protection.
• South-East Asia
In Southeast Asia, researchers worked with small
communities in the Mekong region to understand local
traditions and beliefs related to bed net use for malaria
prevention. They found that innovations like bed nets would
only be effective if they fit within the community’s systems
of values and meanings. After long periods of trust-building,
discussion, storytelling, and a large local community
ceremony around bed nets, net usage increased, and
malaria incidence was reportedly reduced by around 50
percent.
GOAL 7: ENSURE SUSTAINABILITY DEVELOPMENT
Goal 7 of the Millennium Development Goals, aims
to ensure environmental sustainability. This sets the
overarching framework for environmental policies and
actions. At its simplest, sustainable development refers to
using and managing the world’s resources in ways that
meet current human needs without compromising the
ability of future generations to also meet their needs.
Policy
Local languages are a crucial element in policy and
planning for participatory sustainable development (see
also MDG1). National education policies that strengthen
mother tongues in early education are essential to
strengthen local communities and increase their inclusion.
Research shows that education helps in many other ways
too; it can, for example, improve agricultural productivity,
enhance the status of women, reduce population growth
rates, enhance environmental protection, and generally
raise the standard of living. In addition, promoting ESD
within education systems can help people engage in each
for sustainable solutions at the
community and wider levels.
Practice
Below are some examples of how a focus on local
languages can help bring about sustainable development;
- Language documentation strengthens communities.
- Mindanao, the Philippines: Local language is a
springboard to sustainable solutions.
- Mongolia: Minority language focus helps build human
security It is really important to use language properly
because using language properly can help people raise
awareness, engage people, and urge action to safeguard
the environment for future generations. Anyone, regardless
of background or academic level, can understand the
importance and the level of environmental challenges.
When knowledge is effectively communicated, people are
more likely to engage in sustainable habits and support
environmentally friendly practices.
Importance of language
Language serves as a tool for mobilizing communities
toward collective action. Effective communication inspires
people to take practical steps toward addressing
environmental issues. When people understand the impact
on the environment of their actions, they are more likely to
engage in eco-friendly behaviors like waste reduction,
energy conservation, and support for renewable resources.
Lastly, language is critical to attaining
environmental sustainability because it allows for effective
communication, mobilizes people, and encourages action.
Using simple and understandable language, we can
effectively educate and empower people to become
environmental stewards, guaranteeing a better planet for
current and future generations. Sustainable development
needs the participation of all groups, especially
ethnolinguistic minorities who depend on healthy
ecosystems for their survival and future. Yet minorities’
distance from the world’s centers and languages of
decision-making and power makes them vulnerable to
exclusion and marginalization.
GOAL 8: FOSTER GLOBAL PARTNERSHIPS FOR
DEVELOPMENT
Effective communication is paramount in building
global partnerships, allowing individuals to engage and
participate in community building actively. However,
language barriers often hinder participation in such
networks due to inevitable diversity. Hence, utilizing
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in
individuals' first languages can significantly enhance their
ability to engage, embracing development across all
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and providing
opportunities for accepting differences across the world.
In essence, incorporating multilingual
communication through ICT is essential for building
inclusive global partnerships, accelerating development
efforts, and fostering collaboration across sectors, as
these contribute to fostering a more progressive economy.
By breaking down language barriers, organizations can
ensure broader participation and more effective knowledge
sharing, ultimately advancing progress toward achieving
the
MDGs.
There should be a concerted effort to avoid
compelling individuals to communicate in languages they
are not proficient in, as doing so can foster a more inclusive
and respectful atmosphere conducive to communication
and understanding within diverse linguistic communities.
IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE
One of the most vital tools for fostering
understanding, expression, and communication within
communities and between people is language. It makes it
possible for humans to communicate ideas, feelings, and
facts successfully. Language also makes social contact,
education, cultural preservation, and knowledge transfer
between generations easier.
Furthermore, it is essential in forming our
identities, worldviews, and perspectives. On the other
hand, language holds immense significance for individuals,
shaping their communication, sharing of meaning, and
sense of identity within their communities. The loss of
language and culture often
incurs significant human and social costs, including
poverty, health issues, substance abuse, family violence,
and suicide.
Recognizing the profound value individuals attach
to their languages is crucial for addressing poverty and
hunger effectively. This report delves into the pivotal role of
language in participatory development models and
emphasizes the necessity of engaging with people's
languages for genuine participation and successful
outcomes.
Moreover, understanding the centrality of language
in people's lives is fundamental for combating poverty.
Departing from ineffective "top-down" development
approaches, which have demonstrated limited success, a
shift towards participatory development models has
emerged.
These models prioritize the active involvement of
beneficiaries, leading to improved outcomes in both short-
and long term development initiatives.
Research indicates that projects involving
beneficiary participation achieve a success rate of 68%,
contrasting starkly with a mere 10% success rate for
initiatives lacking such engagement.
In summary, meaningful involvement and
productive growth outcomes both depend on language.
When development professionals embrace language
variety and prioritize inclusive communication techniques,
they can solve complex problems, encourage sincere
engagement, and pave the way for sustainable
development. Moving forward, it will be imperative to
address language challenges in development frameworks
to achieve meaningful and equitable development goals.
This is also just good practice.
POLICY
A key component of social development and
human connection is language. It acts as a conduit for
understanding, expression of identity, and communication
between people and groups. The importance of languages
in the development planning process is becoming more and
more apparent to policymakers. This report, which draws
from research findings and policy recommendations,
examines the role that language plays in development
projects.
Furthermore, decision-makers understand that
sustainable development results depend on meaningful
engagement and good communication. It
is critical to acknowledge the role that language plays in
achieving these goals. Missed opportunities and
marginalized community exclusion might result from
development planning that does not value language.
In 2005, a seminal study highlighted the
importance of integrating language considerations into
national poverty reduction strategies. The study
emphasized the need for engagement with local languages
to foster informed public dialogue and debate.
However, despite these recommendations,
language remains underrepresented in international and
national poverty reduction documents and communication
strategies. The marginalization of ethnolinguistic minorities
is made worse by development planning that pays
insufficient attention to language.
Due to linguistic issues, these groups frequently
experience particular difficulties in gaining access to
development opportunities.
 In summary, the integration of linguistic issues into
development planning procedures is mostly the
responsibility of policymakers. Governments can
guarantee that development projects effectively reach
every section of society by giving priority to linguistic
diversity and inclusivity. This necessitates incorporating
language-sensitive techniques into communication plans
and policy frameworks.
PRACTICE
At any given time, numerous initiatives worldwide
are dedicated to addressing poverty and hunger, engaging
with communities in their native languages. However,
much of this language interaction occurs informally,
lacking proper documentation of experiences, both
successful and unsuccessful. This report explores the
importance of language in development initiatives and
presents case studies from Southeast Asia to illustrate its
impact. Language plays a crucial role in fostering effective
communication, understanding, and participation in
development projects. Engaging with communities in their
local languages ensures inclusivity, cultural sensitivity, and
greater accessibility to information and resources.
Moreover, it empowers individuals to actively
participate in decision-making processes and take
ownership of development efforts.
CONCLUSION
Millennium Development Goals is not possible if
we can use language as our medium of communication
with anyone. Language is our identity and our only way to
understand the needs of everybody, understanding their
backgrounds is also
acknowledging that they are part of the goals for the
betterment of our society. Development is not an individual
growth, if we need to accomplish a long-lasting goal, we
need to include everyone. Language is inclusion, without
language there would be no bridge to knowing someone,
and that includes knowing the wants, needs, and help of the
minority, especially those problems that happen in our
society, like poverty and hunger, women empowerment,
education, HIV and AIDs diseases, maternal health of
the mother, and also to sustain the development for a long
time, we need to share hands to different stakeholders, so
we can improve and include the development of today’s
generation. Helping everyone is also the growth of
everyone.
Language and Inclusive Basic Education: Issues and
Challenges
1.1 Language and Inclusive Basic Education
Language, as defined by Oxford Languages, is "the
principal method of human communication, consisting of
words used in a structured and conventional way and
conveyed by speech, writing, or gesture." Languages are
the most powerful instrument to preserve and extend
heritage and inspire solidarity based on understanding,
tolerance and dialogue. It is fundamental to
communication and, without languages, unique modes of
thinking and expression may be lost and consequently,
lessen cultural diversity.
On the other hand, according to HelpKidzLearn
(2007), inclusive education is about establishing a learning
environment that is welcoming and supportive of all
students, irrespective of their abilities or needs. This
approach ensures that students with special educational
needs can learn alongside their peers in mainstream
classrooms, equipped with the proper tools and support
systems to guarantee their success.
1.2 Inclusion in Education
Inclusive education is an approach that values all
students and staff equally. It aims to increase the
participation of students in, and reduce their exclusion
from, the cultures, curricula, and communities of local
schools. This approach seeks to minimize barriers to
learning and participation for all students, not just those
with impairments or those categorized as 'having special
educational needs.' Inclusive education also views the
difference between students as resources to support
learning, rather than
problems to be overcome. It acknowledges the right of
students to an education in their locality and strives to
improve schools for the benefit of both staff and students.
Secondary Schools:
Inclusive School Culture and Traditional School
Culture A more traditional culture in a secondary school
frequently emphasizes content rather than student needs,
and, as a result, accommodations for individual needs of
students are frequently not top priorities for teachers and
administrators (Tralli et al. 1996).
Consequently, in a more traditional secondary
school organization, all students will not match society's
expectations of success in school. This is because the
organizational characteristics of the more traditional
secondary school do not cater for different learning needs.
Rather, the focus is on the transmission of a set curriculum
content that is organized in routine ways by teachers who
usually work in isolation
On the other hand, it has been suggested that
teachers who work in successful inclusive schools have an
explicit value base that provides a platform for inclusive
practices (Salisbury et al. 1993, York-Barr et al. 1996).
Inclusive school cultures value diversity. In
Barton's (1997: 235) words, `difference is now to be viewed
as a challenge, a means of generating change and an
encouragement for people to question unfounded
generalizations, prejudice and discrimination'. It should
allow students with extraordinary gifts and talents to move
at their natural learning rate; students who are average and
slower than average to learn to the best of their ability, and
students with specific learning needs to receive creative
and effective supports to maximize their success.

Forms of Inclusion
Physical Inclusion
Physical inclusion ensures that all students,
including those with disabilities, have equitable access to
all facilities, services, and activities. It supports students
with disabilities who wish to participate in physical
activities before, during, and after school.
Social Inclusion
Social inclusion is both an outcome and a process
aimed at improving the conditions for groups and
individuals to participate in society. It combats
discrimination, reduces social disparities, prevents
exclusion and marginalization, and ensures the well-being
of all society members, regardless of their ethnic, cultural,
or religious affiliations.
Cognitive Inclusion
Cognitive inclusion refers to the role of cognitive
education and mediated learning as tools to enhance
teachers' teaching processes and students' learning
processes. It emphasizes the need to transform the
mindsets of both teachers and students to contribute to a
more inclusive education.
Inclusive basic education, underpinned by
language, is crucial for fostering a learning environment
that is welcoming, supportive, and conducive to the
success of all students. It encompasses physical, social,
and cognitive inclusion, all of which contribute to a
comprehensive and well-rounded educational experience.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Key Issues to Consider in Language and Inclusive Basic
Education
Inclusive basic education strives to create a
learning environment that welcomes all the students
regardless of background or ability. However, language can
become a significant barrier to achieving this goal. The
following are the key issues and challenges to language in
inclusive education according to Helen Pinnock and
Samantha Ross Hepworth.
Mother-Tongue Communication and Teaching
Students may come from homes where the
language spoken is different from the language of
instruction. This can create a barrier to understanding
concepts and might hinder their academic progress and
cultural identity. Some educational systems restrict the
use of students’ home languages, hindering their initial
learning and connection to the material.
It is important to note that early literacy
development is best built on a foundation of the language a
child already understands. Ensuring mother-tongue
communication and teaching in education is important for
fostering inclusive learning environments and promoting
academic success among students. When students are
taught in a language they understand, it not only helps them
grasp concepts better but also allows them to stay
connected to their culture.
Many students come from homes where they
speak a different language than the one used in schools.
This language difference can make it hard for them to
understand what they're being taught and can slow down
their learning progress, which can be frustrating. Some
schools even forbid students from using their native
language, which makes it even harder for them to connect
with the material.
Policy
The choice of language used in education is often
dictated by the government. They may want to ensure that
everyone communicates in a common language or learns
the language used in the country’s economic activities, or
that its use establishes a sense of national unity. As a
result, educational policies often fail to adequately address
the needs of multilingual learners. These policies may
prioritize a single mode of instruction, thereby neglecting
the potential benefits of mother-tongue education.
The influence of government policies on language
in education is profound, shaping the linguistic landscape
of classrooms and learning environments. Often driven by
objectives such as promoting national unity or economic
competitiveness, these policies tend to prioritize the use of
a dominant language as the medium of instruction.
While such measures may aim to streamline
communication and foster cohesion, they can
inadvertently marginalize students who speak minority
languages or come from diverse linguistic backgrounds. In
many cases, multilingual learners face significant barriers
to accessing quality education due to a lack of support for
their mother tongue in school settings.
Community and Parental Involvement
A lack of communication or collaboration between
schools and families whose language differ from the
dominant language can create barriers. According to
UNESCO 2016, students are unable to receive support from
their parents if they also do not understand the language of
instruction. Community and parental involvement are
important for creating a supportive learning environment,
especially for students whose language differs from the
dominant language of instruction. When schools and
families do not effectively communicate or collaborate due
to language barriers, it creates significant challenges for
students' academic success.
Research by UNESCO in 2016 highlights the
important role of parental support in a child's education,
emphasizing that students are unable to receive essential
support from their parents if they also struggle to
understand the language of instruction used in school.
Attitude and awareness
As education becomes increasingly diverse,
teachers face the challenge of meeting the needs of
students from various backgrounds and abilities.
Understanding the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of
prospective language teachers regarding inclusive
education is important for creating supportive learning
environments. A study involving 4th year prospective
English language teachers provided insights into their
awareness of inclusive practices and attitudes towards
inclusive education. The findings highlighted the
importance of equipping educators with the necessary
expertise and competencies to address the diverse needs
of students effectively.
In exploring the attitudes and awareness of
educators towards inclusive education, it is essential to
consider their knowledge of inclusive practices,
professional competencies, and perceptions of disability.
Educators who possess a deep understanding of inclusive
education principles and strategies are better equipped to
create inclusive learning environments where every student
feels valued and supported.
However, studies suggest that many educators
may lack sufficient expertise and skills in teaching students
with diverse learning needs, highlighting the need for
targeted professional development and pre-service training
programs
Writing materials and curriculum materials
Inclusive writing and curriculum materials should
consider various factors, including linguistic diversity,
cultural relevance, and different learning modalities.
Providing materials in multiple languages or formats allows
students to access content in their preferred language and
supports language development for multilingual learners.
Curriculum materials should be designed to accommodate
different learning styles and abilities, ensuring that all
students can access and engage with the content
effectively. This may involve incorporating visual aids,
interactive elements, and multisensory activities to cater to
diverse learning preferences.
Language Teaching and Learning Methods
Children can often switch between languages
when carrying out everyday tasks. But the cognitive and
language skills needed to cope with learning at school in a
second language are very different. Children learn literacy
and academic content best in the language they
understand best. They cope better with learning a second
language if they are educated in their own language first.
Early Childhood Education
One significant challenge is insufficient funding for
early childhood education programs. Many programs
struggle to secure the necessary resources
to provide high-quality education and support services to
all children, especially those from disadvantaged
backgrounds. Insufficient funding leads to limited access
to early childhood education and compromised program
quality.
Teacher Shortages and High Turnover Rates The
shortage of qualified early childhood educators is
another significant challenge in early childhood education.
Many countries struggle to attract and retain skilled
teachers in this field. The demanding nature of the job,
inadequate compensation, and low professional status
contribute to high turnover rates.
Inadequate Training and Professional
Development, providing ongoing training and professional
development opportunities for early childhood educators,
often assisted by early childhood organizations, is crucial
for ensuring quality
education.
Teacher Recruitment, Education, And Deployment
Sometimes teachers speak the children’s
language but are not allowed to use it in class. Or they may
not speak the same language at all. Some may even have
been deliberately deployed to an area where they don’t
speak the language to encourage education in the official
language. It can be difficult to recruit teachers who speak
ethnic minority languages; students from these groups
often lack sufficient education to be accepted on teacher
training courses.
Teachers are increasingly trained using English as
the medium of instruction. But this does not make them
better at teaching in English, it just makes it harder for them
to learn how to become teachers.
Issues and Challenges face by Children with Special
Needs (CWSN)
3.1 Various Issues and Challenges Faced by Children
with Special Needs in Inclusive Education:
1. Characteristics of Individual Pupils
2. Lack of access to the mainstream
3. Lack of awareness and Attitude
4. Lack of trained teachers
5. Large class size
6. Lack of proper infrastructure
7.Lack of Support or Partnership
8. Peer Rejection
 RESOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES
Inclusive Education Policy
Defined as the guidelines, principles, roles, and
responsibilities for the implementation of all activities
conducted within the mainstream system or through
alternative learning pathways, to provide education for all
categories of students with complex learning profiles and
children under special circumstances, to the maximum of
their potential.
The policy provides a guideline that supports the
school to develop internal capacities to identify and remove
barriers that restrict achievements and provide quality
education for the students who experience Special
Education Needs and Disabilities.
The Policy aims to ensure Students of
Determination develop a strong sense of belonging to the
school community, enhance their emotional resilience,
and are well prepared for the next stages of education and
life. So far, the practice of IE in Philippine basic education
is largely determined by Department of Education Order
No. 72, s. 2009, an outdated directive that does not specify
a stable, clear, and definite process for including CSN in the
general education setting.
A move to effect high-quality inclusion in Philippine
schools is said to be underway, but at present, the Special
Education Act (Philippine Senate Bill 3002), which is
supposed to determine the practice of inclusion in general
education schools, is still under review at the Philippine
senate. The continued delay of this bill’s passage into law
and which standards should be met in its implementation
are issues that continue to defy definitive resolution.
Curriculum Adaptation Policy:
Curriculum adaptation involves differentiation to
meet the needs of all students. The content, the teaching
process, assessment and evaluation, and the physical
environment may be modified to help students achieve
success in the classroom.
The kind of activities chosen by the teacher,
including group activities, must be flexible and reflect the
background knowledge of small groups or individual
students. The following shows the adaptations that are
required in different areas for
inclusive pedagogy.
As a result of the Right to Education Act, of 2009,
the composition of classrooms is changing. Students with
varying levels of abilities cannot, and should not, be taught
in the same manner. Without adaptations/modifications,
some children in your classrooms would never be
challenged to perform up to their potential, while others
may not be able to ever experience success.
Republic Act 11650
It mandates the inclusion of professionals like
speech-language pathologists and occupational
therapists, who will play a crucial role in supporting these
efforts. Filipino speech-language pathologists, in
particular, will be instrumental in raising public awareness
about the communication challenges faced by learners
with special needs and in implementing the law's provisions
nationwide.
An Act Instituting a Policy of Inclusion and Services
for Learners with Disabilities in Support in Inclusive
Education, Establishing Inclusive Learning
Resource Centers of Learners with Disabilities in all School
Districts, Municipalities and Cities, Providing for
Standards, Appropriating Funds Therefore, and For Other
Purposes was approved and signed into law.
This law states that all public schools nationwide
are required to identify learners with special needs and
provide these learners with free basic and quality
education. It also mandates that all cities and
municipalities have at least one Inclusive Learning
Resource Center (ILRC).
An ILRC is a physical or virtual center that provides
teaching and learning support throughappropriate,
accessible, and gender-sensitive
materials. This is in line with the country's efforts to
eliminate barriers that prevent learners from reaching
greater heights through accessible and quality education.
This applies to all learners, with or without disabilities.
Policies and Legislative Framework of India
7 policies and legislative framework implemented by
India for the betterment of Inclusive Education:
1. National Policy on Education (1986)
2. (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation)
3. Action Plan for Inclusive Education of Children and Youth
with Disabilities. (2005).
4. National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006).
5. Centrally sponsored scheme of integrated scheme
education for the disabled. (1974).
6.Project Integrated education for the disabled. (1987)
7. Action plan for inclusive Education of children and youth
with Disabilities. (2005).
MODELS AND APPROACHES FOR PROMOTING
LANGUAGE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
5.1 Policy Model
The Rational Policy Model is a conceptual framework
employed in the analysis and formulation of policies and in
the process of making informed decisions.
The underlying assumption is that policymakers
exhibit rational behavior, wherein they systematically
evaluate the entirety of accessible information, assess the
advantages and disadvantages associated with various
policy alternatives, and ultimately select the option that
optimally aligns with their objectives or goals.
This model emphasizes the significance of
employing logical reasoning, conducting systematic
analysis, and making decisions based on evidence within
the policy process. Inclusive education programs, before
their implementation, underwent systematic evaluation, in
which education experts exhibit rational behavior in
crafting the mandate. Likewise, it also utilizes the
incremental policy model.
The Incremental Policy Model is a methodological
framework for formulating and implementing policies
characterized by adopting gradual and incremental
changes implemented through small-scale steps. The
emphasis lies in utilizing the existing policy framework as a
foundation for decision-making rather than commencing
from a blank slate.
The model recognizes the constraints imposed by
the existing resources and emphasizes the importance of
striking a balance between gradual modifications and
maintaining stability. Developing and executing policies on
inclusive education, particularly in making changes, should
be done gradually and incrementally, using small-scale
steps. Various current policy frameworks are bases for
decision-making by policy experts. Thus, acknowledging
the limitations imposed by the existing resources and
highlighting the significance of finding a middle ground
between making gradual changes and preserving stability.
6.1 Role of Teachers in Inclusive Education
Inclusive education, which seeks to provide all
learners, with or without support networks, the opportunity
to learn together, involves a significant shift in perspective.
Most notably is the belief that if a child struggles to
learn, the reasons lie within the framework of the school
system and not with the child's abilities.
Here, the responsibility rests on the school and,
importantly, the teacher, to configure the teaching
environment in a way that meets the needs of all students.
The teacher essentially sets the stage for an inclusive
education setting, requiring preparation and a profound
commitment to teaching students struggling with learning,
including those with disabilities.
Role of Different Social Institutions in Inclusive
Education
Family
Families play a critical role in inclusive education
by offering support and extra attention to their children,
conducting frequent school visits, seeking training to better
handle their children's needs, maintaining active
communication with teachers, safeguarding their children
from potential harm, and accompanying the children as
needed.
Peer Group
Peer groups contribute to inclusive education by
discouraging bullying and isolation, encouraging
collaborative learning and cross-age peer support, forming
partnerships, providing technical support, and sharing
study materials.
Administrators/Policy Makers
Administrators and policy makers can champion
inclusive education by enforcing the accurate
implementation of constitutional rights, introducing new
schemes for such students, providing special
infrastructural facilities, offering scholarships, offering
financial support to the families of such children, providing
employment opportunities
to parents of such children, promoting multicultural
education, and implementing multi-grade teaching
methodologies.
CONCLUSION
Inclusive education benefits both individuals with
impairments and those without disabilities. By placing all
children, regardless of their challenges, in age-appropriate
general education classes within their local schools, they
receive high quality instruction, interventions, and support
that enable them to succeed in the core curriculum,
irrespective of their abilities.
This approach promotes unity in learning and
fosters inclusivity by embracing individuals of diverse
ethnicities, skin colors, disabilities, and more. Inclusive
education differs from traditional schooling as it prioritizes
equal access to education and encourages interaction
among all students, including those with special needs. Its
primary objective is to ensure that every student feels
included, appropriately challenged, and motivated to
overcome their weaknesses.
Language and inclusive basic education are
essential for creating a fair and supportive learning
environment. Inclusion in education means valuing all
students equally and reducing barriers to learning.
However, challenges like language barriers and
limited resources need to be addressed. To overcome
these challenges, we can use models like the rational
policy model and the incremental policy model. Teachers
play a crucial role and should receive continuous training to
teach in inclusive classrooms. Collaboration among
teachers, parents, and other stakeholders is important.
Comprehensive policies and legislative
frameworks are necessary to protect the rights of students
with disabilities and marginalized backgrounds. These
policies should focus on language access, curriculum
design, collaboration, intervention, facilities, and
stakeholder engagement
Multilingualism in the Classroom
INTRODUCTION
Language diversity can sometimes create
confusion and challenges in communication and social
interaction. However, the education sector is particularly
impacted by the language barrier. Students often find it
difficult to adjust to and comprehend what is being taught
if the language used for instruction is not familiar to them.
In various parts of the world, including the
Philippines, multilingual students are common. In fact,
extensive research and evidence suggest that knowing
more than one language yields cognitive and practical
benefits that are advantageous for teaching and learning.
Thus, every teacher should strive to recognize,
promote, and utilize the linguistic knowledge and skills of
their students, regardless of their subject specialization.
MULTILINGUALISM
Multilingualism can be defined as “the ability of
societies, institutions, groups and individuals to engage, on
a regular basis, with more than one language in their day-
to day lives” (European Commission, 2007: 6). The word
multilingual comes from two Latin words, “multi” means
many and “lingua” which means language.
According to The Britannica Dictionary,
multilingualism refers to the ability to speak and
understand more than one language, either by an individual
speaker or by a group of speaker.
Nowadays, multilingualism has spread in the
educational context because of historical, social, political
and economic reasons. However, multilingualism in
education does not necessary imply multilingual
education.
MULTILINGUALISM IN THE CLASSROOM
Multilingualism in the classroom refers to the
presence of students who speak multiple languages and
come from diverse linguistic backgrounds. This is a
common scenario in many educational settings around the
world.
Understanding the meaning of multilingualism in
the classroom is essential for teachers to create an
inclusive and effective learning environment. The following
are three different variables to include when understanding
the meaning of multilingualism in the classroom:
1) Diverse Language Backgrounds:
Multilingualism in the classroom means that
students come from various linguistics backgrounds. They
may speak different languages at home or have varying
levels of proficiency in the language of instruction.
2) Language Diversity:
In such classrooms, there may be a mix of
languages spoken, and students may be bilingual,
trilingual, or more.
3) Cultural Diversity:
Multilingual classrooms often come with cultural
diversity, as language and culture are closely linked.
Students bring their cultural perspectives, traditions, and
values to the classroom.
CHALLENGES OF MULTILINGUALISM IN THE
CLASSROOM
Challenges of multilingualism in the classroom includes:
• Language Barriers:
Teachers may face challenges in effectively
communicating with students who have limited proficiency
in the language of instruction. This can
hinder comprehension and participation.
• Differentiated Instruction:
Meeting the diverse language needs of students
can be challenging. Teachers must adapt their teaching
methods and materials to accommodate various language
levels.
• Assessment:
Designing fair assessments that accurately
measure students’ knowledge and skills while considering
language barriers can be complex.
• Cultural Sensitivity:
Teachers need to be culturally sensitive and avoid
bias or discrimination in their teaching practices.
• Resource Constraints:
Limited resources for language support, such as
bilingual materials or language specialists, can hinder
effective teaching.
MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION
As defined earlier, Multilingual Education (MLE) is
the use of one or more than one language as a medium of
instruction and learning in formal and non-formal settings.
The aim of multilingual education is to promote
linguistic diversity, intercultural dialogue, social inclusion,
and quality education for all learners and opportunities for
all learners According to UNESCO, the use of at least three
languages is the basis of MLE:
1) The mother tongue(s)
2) A regional or national language
3) International Language
MLE has been receiving support from UNESCO since it
published the Use of Vernacular Languages in Education in
1953. In 1999, UNESCO adopted a resolution defining MLE
and emphasizing its benefits for cognitive development,
academic achievement, cultural identity, and social
cohesion.
MODELS OF MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION
Depending on the context, goals, resources, and
stakeholders involved, MLE can take various forms. Some
of the common models of MLE are:
A. Transitional Bilingual Education:
Transitional Bilingual Education is a model that
uses the mother tongue as the mainlanguage of instruction
in the early years of a child's learning and gradually
introduces a second language (usually a dominant or
official one) as a subject, only to slowly start using the
second language as the medium of instruction. The goal of
doing this is to help students transition from their mother
tongue to a second language with a smoother flow.
B. Maintenance Of Bilingual Education:
This model functions by using both the mother
tongue as well as a second language as the language of
instruction all throughout schooling. The main aim is to
help students not only maintain and develop their mother
tongue but also acquire proficiency in the second language.
C. Immersion Bilingual Education:
The Immersion Bilingual Education focuses more
on the use of a second language as the main or even sole
language of instruction for students who speak a different
mother tongue. The motive behind this is to help the
students acquire proficiency in the second language while
maintaining their mother tongue.
D. Two-Way Bilingual Education:
As the name suggests, Two-Way Bilingual
Education uses two languages (usually a dominant/official
language and a minority or indigenous language) as
languages of instruction for the students who speak either
one of them as their mother tongue. The ultimate aim of this
model is to help students acquire a command of both
languages while fostering cross-cultural understanding
and cooperation
E. Multilingual Education:
Multilingual Education uses more than two
languages as languages of instruction for students who
speak different mother tongues. The aim of multilingual
education is to develop a good command of multiple
languages in the students while respecting and promoting
linguistic diversity.
CHALLENGES OF MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION
Just like every new development and initiative,
Multilingual Education also faces multiple challenges and
barriers, from political to sentimental and discriminatory.
These challenges may hinder the growth rate and never
stop it.
Let's have a look at some of these:
• Lack of Political Will:
When it comes to supporting or implementing
multilingual education, many governments and programs
tend to take a step back due to various reasons, such as
national unity, security, prestige, or cost. Opposition from
dominant groups who perceive MLE as a threat to their
linguistic or cultural hegemony is also a major barrier faced
by Multilinguistic Education.
• Inadequate Resources:
A great number of schools or local communities
lack the resources necessary to provide quality MLE, such
as textbooks, curriculum, materials, infrastructure, or
technology. In order to ensure its sustainability and
effectiveness, MLE requires additional funding and
coordination.
• Insufficient Teacher Training:
For proper implementation of MLE, the teachers
need to be trained first. However, many teachers are not
adequately prepared or equipped to teach in multiple
languages or to deal with multilingual classrooms.
They may either lack the required linguistic
competence, pedagogical skills, or cultural sensitivity to
deliver Multilingual Education. Workload, burnout, and
Isolation are also some challenges the teachers may face.
• Negative Attitudes towards Minority Languages:
A good number of students, parents, or other
stakeholders have negative attitudes towards the minority
languages, even MLE. They might view minority languages
as not only inferior and irrelevant but also detrimental to
learning or career prospects. Also, they may have biased
beliefs and tend to lean towards global languages only,
such as English or French, as a medium of instruction or a
subject of study.
• Dominant Monolingual Norms and Standards:
Many education systems are based on
monolingual norms and standards that do not
accommodate or value linguistic diversity and prefer to stay
the same. Monolingual assessments, examinations, or
certifications disadvantage multilingual learners or
teachers. Monolingual policies, practices, or ideologies
may also undermine the status and role of minority
languages in education and society.
2) Differentiation:
Teachers must employ differentiated instruction to
cater to students’ varying language levels and learning
styles.
3) Language Support:
Providing language support through scaffolding, visual
aids, and peer assistance can help students
understand and participate in the class.

BENEFITS OF MULTILINGUALISM 4) Collaboration:

So far, one thing is clear, Multilingual Education is of high
importance and offers great benefits. MLE has both
cognitive and socio-cultural benefits for learners,
educators, communities, and societies. The following are
some benefits of MLE:
1. Enhance Cognitive Development:
Research shows that learning in one’s mother tongue
enhances cognitive skills such as memory, attention,
reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and metalinguistic
awareness. Learning multiple languages also boosts
cognitive flexibility, executive
function, and brain plasticity.
Collaborating with language specialists or bilingual
educators can be beneficial for addressing language
challenges.
5) Inclusivity:
Creating an inclusive classroom environment where all
students feel valued and included is crucial.
6) Professional Development:
Teachers should seek professional development
opportunities to enhance their skills in teaching
multilingual learners.

2. Improves Academic Achievement:

Studies indicate that learning in one's mother tongue
improves academic performance in various subjects such
as mathematics, science, social studies, and literacy.
Learning multiple languages also enhances
communication skills, critical thinking skills, and
intercultural competence.

3. Supports Cultural Identity:

Evidence suggests that learning in one's mother tongue
strengthens cultural identity, self-esteem, motivation, and
emotional well-being. Learning multiple languages also
fosters respect for diversity, tolerance, and empathy.

4. Promotes Social Inclusion:

Data shows that learning in one's mother tongue reduces
dropout rates, increases enrolment rates, and improves
access to quality education for marginalized groups such
as indigenous peoples, minorities, refugees, and migrants.
Learning multiple languages also facilitates social
integration, participation, and mobility.

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS

Implications for teachers regarding multilingualism in the
classroom are as follows:

1) Cultural Competence:
Teachers should develop cultural competence to
understand and respect the diverse backgrounds of
their students.