Chapter 30+ 31- The Atom,Nucleus and

Radioactivity + Nuclear Energy

Chapter 30: Atom, Nucleus and Radioactivity:
1. Describe how the Bohr model of the atom explains emission line spectra?
● Electrons occupy different energy levels within the atom.
● When they occupy higher up energy levels, the fall down to a lower one. As this occurs,
energy is released in the form of a photon of light.
● These photons are of a particular frequency and are the line emission spectra.
● E2-E1=hf
2. What are isotopes?
Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
called isotopes of that element
3. Why is radon gas considered to be dangerous?
Due to it being radioactive.
4. How can the build-up of radon in a building be reduced?
By utilising a sump, a membrane or ventilation.
5. Distinguish between photoelectric and thermionic emission?
Photoelectric: Light, thermionic emission: Heat.
6. What name is given to the electrons emitted during radioactive decay?
Beta.
7. What is emission spectrum?
Specific frequencies emitted by a material.
8. Explain, in terms of the structure of the atom, how this spectrum is produced?
● Energy given to electron
● Electron changes energy levels
● Photon emitted.
9. What physical quantity represented by (i) point A? Threshold frequency
10. The slope of the graph? Plank Constant.
11. Where i the tube are electrons produced? Cathode
12. State to design features of an X-ray tube? Tungsten and cooling fluid.
13. What is meant by radioactivity?
The spontaneous disintegration or decay of the nuclei of certain atoms with the emission of one
or more types of radiation from a nucleus.
14. What is the function of a moderator in a fission reactor?
It slows down the neutron, to increase the rate of reaction in the fission reactor.
15. Name a device used to detect beta-radiation and explain its principle of operation?
Geiger Muller Tube or solid-state detector can be used.
16. How many of the neutrons emitted in a fission reaction are self-sustaining and safe?
Explain your answer.
● 1 would be suitable.
● Greater than 1: Results in uncontrolled reactions because more neutrons would give us
uncontrolled chain reactions.
● Less than 1: Results in the chain reaction ending.
17. Explain the function of moderator
Slows down neutrons, which in turn increases the rate of fission reaction.
18. Name a detector of radiation and describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, its principle
of operation?
Gregiger miller tube:
● Radiation passes through the thin mica window into the argon gas
at low pressure.
● It ionises some of the argon atoms there producing positive argon
ions and negatively charged electrons
● The electrons pick up high speed in the very strong electric field
near the wire anode. These further ions and electrons by collision
with other argon atoms. In this way an avalanche of electrons are
produced.
● The electrons reach the anode and a pulse of current slows in the
external circuit.
● The number of pulses can be counted on some form of electronic
counter such as a scalar or a ratemeter.
● Conc: Ionization of gas.
19. Describe Rutherfor’s model of the atom?
It consists of a small dense, positively charged core with negatively charged electrons in orbit
around it. There was mostly empty space surrounding it.
20. Define the becquerel: One disintegration per second and The unit of activity or the quantity of
radioactive material in one nucleus, is called Bequerel, it is referred to as one disintegration per
second. It is the disintegration per second.
21. Name one device used to detect ionising radiations.
Geiger Muller tube
22. Compare alpha, beta and gamma emission using the following headings: (a) Penetrating
ability, (b) deflection in a magnetic field.
● Penetrating ability: Gamma most penetrating than beta, beta more penetrating than
alpha, this makes alpha the least penetrating.
● Deflection in a magnetic field: Alpha, beta are deflected and gamma not deflected.
Alpha and beta deflected in opposite directions .
23. Explain what happens during nuclear fission?
Large nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei with the emission of energy and neutrons.
24. What is radioactivity? The spontaneous disintegration or decay of the nuclei of certain atoms
with the emission of one or more types of radiation from a nucleus.
25. Which type of nuclear radiation emits positively charged particles? Alpha particles.
26. List two uses of radioactive substances? Sterilise instruments and food , Produce energy for
heat and electric power. Smoke detectors and carbon dating.
27. Give two precautions taken/advised when using radioactive substances: Alpha and beta
emitters can be handled using thick gloves, gamma rays emitters must be handled only by
remote control. Also the use of long tongs when handling them. Radioactive materials must be
stored in thick containers.
28. Explain the term background radiation: Background radiation is the radioactive radiation such
as alpha, beta, and gamma to which we all are exposed even in the absence of visible radioactive
sources. They are always present with no specific source.
29. What is the approximate background radiation in the region where the above readings
were taken? Approx 200 counts per minute.
30. Explain the term half-life. The half-life of a radioactive element is also the time taken for its
activity to decrease by half.
31. What is the approximate half-life of this sample? Two days or 172800s
32. Name an instrument that could have been used to detect the radioactivity of the sample?
Geiger Muller Tube
33. Name two common sources of background radiation: Nuclear Pollution or accidents:
radioactive sources.
34. Give an application of (i) radioactivity, (ii) fission: Smoke Detects and Generating electrical
energy
35. What is an alpha particle? A helium nucleus is referred to as an alpha particle. Basically two
protons and two neutrons stuck together.
36. When an alpha particle is emitted what is the change in (i) the atomic number of a nucleus
and (ii) the mass number of a nucleus? When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus, the
nucleus loses two protons and two neutrons. This means the atomic mass number decreases by
4 and the atomic number decreases by 2.
37. Outline an experiment to investigate the range of alpha particles in the air.
By the use of a suitable source: Either a detector or Geiger Muller Tube. It was found that alpha
particles passed through a magnetic field. They were deflected in a positively charged particle. In
regards to their penetrating power, it was found that they were stopped by a sheet of paper. And
for their ionising ability, they are found to produce a lot of ionisation and cause the electroscope to
lose its charge rapidly.
38. Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom and outline the principle of the experiment that
led to this model? It consists of a small dense, positively charged core with negatively charged
electrons in orbit around it. They accelerate the protons by injecting them into a tube, across
which there is a large potential difference. They detected the alpha-particles, by having them
collide with a zinc sulphide screen and observed the resulting scintillations with a microscope.
39. State two design features of an X=ray tube that account of this: Tungsten target and cooling
fluid.
40. The Scientist who discovered X-ray: W Rontgen.
41. Distinguish between the intensity of an X-ray beam and the penetrating power of an X-ray
beam: Intensity= number of x-rays- temperature of heater. Penetration: Energy of X-ray, voltage
setting.
42. Name two uses of photoelectric effect: Bar code and furnace control.
43. It is sometimes stated that the photoelectric effect is the reverse process of making
X-rays. Explain why this statement would be made: Photoelectric= photon in electron out,
X-ray= electron in, photon out.
44. List three quantities that are conserved in nuclear reactions: Momentum and charge and
mass energy.
45. In initial of beta-decay, not all three quantities appear to be conserved. What was the
solution to this contradiction: Proposal of neutrino.
46. Which fundamental force of nature is involved in beta decay? Weak (nuclear)
47. Describe how the reading on the detector ma vary as the paper passes by: Count rate would
decrease with increasing paper thickness.
48. Why would the radioisotope Am-241, which emits alpha particles not be suitable for this
process? Paper would easily block the alpha particles.
Chapter 31: Nuclear Energy:

States:
1. Explain what is meant by a chain reaction in nuclear fission?
Neutrons that are released are fast neutrons from one reaction initiate subsequent reactions
resulting in a self-sustaining reaction. In other words, these neutrons produced will result in a
further fission, in which we have a chain reaction.
2. What is meant by: radioactivity, (b) ionisation?
● Radioactivity: The spontaneous disintegration or decay of the nuclei of certain atoms
with the emission of one or more types of radiation from a nucleus.
● Ionisation: The losing or gaining of electrons
3. Outline the differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
● Nuclear Fission: Is the splitting up of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei of roughly
the same size.
● Nuclear fusion: Is the joining of two small nuclei to form a larger nucleus.
4. What is the function of a moderator?
To slow down neutrons and increase the rate of fission.
5. State one example of a moderator?
Graphite or water
6. Why are nuclear fusion reactors not yet viable?
Too much energy needed to overcome electrostatic repulsion between nuclei and scarcity of
tritium.
7. Why are the alpha particles produced in the detector not considered a health hazard?
They are easily stopped, they are not very penetrating.
8. What are isotopes?
Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
called isotopes of that element
9. Is it an artefact from the Bronze Age? Justify your answer.
c-14/c-12 = ¼ c-14/c-12 c-14 = 5730 years
Artefact living tree (½) (½) = ¼
2 T/2 therefore 2(5730) = 12,000
No, if the ratio is a quarter of that found in a living tree this means that 2 lives have passed. This
amount of time is greater than the time since the beginning of the Bronze Age.
10. In terms of how they interact with the neutrons in fission reactors, distinguish between a
moderator and a control rod?
The moderator slows down the neutrons, while a control rod absorbs the neutrons.
11. Explain the terms nuclear fission and specific heat capacity?
● The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy needed to change
the temperature of one kilogram of that substance by one kelvin.
12. What effect does a moderator have on the rate of fission?
It increases the rate of fission in the reaction.
13. How does a moderator have this effect?
By slowing down the neutrons.
14. Explain why fusion reactors are not yet a practical source of energy on Earth.
Too much energy is required to overcome force of repulsion between nuclei.
15. Give one other advantage that a fusion reactor would have over a fission reactor?
● Raw material readily available.
● Less radioactive waste.
16. Explain the terms Fission and radioactivity. (Repeated)
17. How many of the neutrons emitted in a fission reaction must, on average, cause a further
fission so that the reaction is self-sustaining and safe? Explain your answer.
● 1 would be suitable.
● Greater than 1: Results in uncontrolled reactions because more neutrons would give us
an uncontrolled chain reactions.
● Less than 1: Results in the chain reaction ending.
18. The neutrons emitted are sometimes passed through a moderator. Explain the function of
the moderator.
● To slow down neutron inorder to increase the probability of fission.
19. Explain the terms: Chain reaction and nuclear fission.
● Chain Reaction: Neutrons that are released are fast neutrons from one reaction initiate
subsequent reactions resulting in a self-sustaining reaction. In other words, these
neutrons produced will result in a further fission, in which we have a chain reaction.
● Nuclear Fission: Is the splitting up of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei of roughly
the same size.
20. Give an example of a moderator.
Graphite or heavy water
21. Explain: (i) why a moderator is needed in a nuclear reactor and (ii) how the control rods
affect the rate of the reaction.
● To slow down neutrons inorder to increase the probability of fission.
● By absorbing neutrons
22. Explain how the heat exchanger operates. Why is it necessary to use a heat exchanger?
Heat energy from the reactor transfers into liquid. The water in the heat exchanger is to drive a
turbine the material in a reactor is radioactive. The importance of a heat exchange is allowing the
core to reach a higher temperature.
23. Give one benefit of switching from fossil fuels to nuclear power for the generation of
electricity. Explain your answer.
Less carbon dioxide produced. This in turns allows less pollution to be emitted in the environment
as well as producing useful radioisotopes.
24. What is the function of a moderator? To slow down neutrons and increase the rate of fission.
25. State one example of a moderator? Graphite or heavy water
26. Why are nuclear fusion reactors not yet viable? Too much energy needed to overcome
electrostatic repulsion between nuclei and scarcity of tritium.
27. Why are the alpha particles produced in the detector not considered a health hazard? They
are easily stopped, they are not very penetrating.
28. What are isotopes? Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element
29. In terms of how they interact with the neutrons in fission reactors, distinguish between a
moderator and a control rod? The moderator slows down the neutrons, while a control rod
absorbs the neutrons.
30. Explain the terms nuclear fission and specific heat capacity? The specific heat capacity of a
substance is the heat energy needed to change the temperature of one kilogram of that
substance by one kelvin.
31. What effect does a moderator have on the rate of fission? It increases the rate of fission in
the reaction.
32. How does a moderator have this effect? By slowing down the neutrons.
33. Explain why fusion reactors are not yet a practical source of energy on Earth. Too much
energy is required to overcome force of repulsion between nuclei.
34. Give one other advantage that a fusion reactor would have over a fission reactor? Raw
material readily available. Less radioactive waste.
35. How many of the neutrons emitted in a fission reaction must, on average, cause a further
fission so that the reaction is self-sustaining and safe? Explain your answer. 1 would be
suitable. Greater than 1: Results in uncontrolled reactions because more neutrons would give us
an uncontrolled chain reactions. Less than 1: Results in the chain reaction ending.
36. The neutrons emitted are sometimes passed through a moderator. Explain the function of
the moderator. To slow down neutron inorder to increase the probability of fission. .
37. Give an example of a moderator. Graphite or heavy water
38. Explain: (i) why a moderator is needed in a nuclear reactor and (ii) how the control rods
affect the rate of the reaction. To slow down neutrons inorder to increase the probability of
fission. By absorbing neutrons
39. Explain how the heat exchanger operates. Why is it necessary to use a heat exchanger?
Heat energy from the reactor transfers into liquid. The heat exchanger uses that heat to produce
steam by driving a turbine, the material in a reactor is radioactive. Hence the steam drives a
turbine to generate electricity. The importance of a heat exchange is allowing the core to reach a
higher temperature.
40. Give one benefit of switching from fossil fuels to nuclear power for the generation of
electricity. Explain your answer. Less carbon dioxide produced. This in turns allows less
pollution to be emitted in the environment as well as producing useful radioisotopes.