Electrostatics:

Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest.

Electric charges are fundamental in nature. There are two types of charges and can be produced by
friction. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, some electrons from glass rod are migrated into
the silk cloth. This makes the glass rod positively charged due to loss of electrons in it and the silk
cloth negatively charged due to excess of electrons in it. Similarly, when the plastic rod is rubbed with
fur, electrons migrate from the fur into the plastic rod making the rod negative and the fur positive.
Also, there is a force of attraction between the glass rod and silk cloth. There is a force of repulsion
between similarly charged bodies and a force of attraction between oppositely charged bodies.

What is a Potential Difference

Electro Motive Force (E.M.F):
It is the force which causes the flow of electrons in any closed circuit. The unit of electro
motive force is volt. It is represented by letter E or V.
Potential Difference (p.d):
Whenever current flows through a resistor there will be a potential difference (p.d)
developed across it. Essentially, emf causes current to flow; whilst a p.d. is the result of current
flowing through a resistor. The unit of potential difference is volt (V).
AC Supply and DC Supply.
Electric Potential:
The potential at any point in an electric field is the amount of work done in bringing a charge
of 1 coulomb of positive charge to that point against the electric field.
Electricity:
It can be defined in terms of its behavior. It classified as either static or dynamic depending on
whether the charge carries either static or dynamic.
Electrical Charge:
Electrical charge, denoted by Q. Charge is the characteristics property of the elementary
particles of the matter.
The elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutron. Charge can be either positive or
negative and is usually measured in coulombs. The charge of an electron is called negative charge
and charge of a proton is called positive charge. The charge of an electron is equal to 1.602x10-19
coulombs.
Electricity:
It can be defined in terms of its behavior. It classified as either static or dynamic depending on
whether the charge carries either static or dynamic.

Electrical Charge:
Electrical charge, denoted by Q. Charge is the characteristics property of the
elementary particles of the matter. The elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutron.
Charge can be either positive or negative and is usually measured in coulombs. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge and charge of a proton is called positive charge. The charge of an
electron is equal to 1.602x10-19 coulombs.
Current:
The rate of flow of electric charges is called, “electric current”. The unit of current is ampere
(A). It is denoted by the letter ‘I’
Ampere:
An ampere is defined as the flow of one coulomb of charge in one second. 1 ampere = 1
coulomb per second.
Resistance:
It is defined as the property of a substance which opposes the flow of current through it.
It is represented by R. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). One ohm is one volt per ampere.
Conductors:
Conductors are materials that readily allow current. They have a large number of free
electrons. Most metals are good conductors.
Silver is the best conductor and copper is next. Copper is the most widely used conductive material
because it is less expensive than silver. Copper wire is commonly used as a conductor in electric
circuits.
Examples:
Copper, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, Silver, Gold and Carbon etc.,
Insulators:
Insulators, or non-conductors, are materials with electrons that are tightly bound to their
atoms and require large amounts of energy to free them from the influence of the nucleus.
Examples:
Plastic, Rubber, Glass, Porcelain, Air, Paper, Cork, Mica, Ceramics and Certain oils.
Semiconductors:
These materials are neither good conductor nor insulators.
Their electrical conductivity lies between good conductors and insulators.
Examples:
Silicon and germanium
Relation between V,I and R |Circuit theory|
Ohms law:
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was
explained by the German physicist Georg Ohm, (1787 - 1854).
Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing through a fixed
linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely
proportional to the resistance.

Statement:
It states that the current ‘I’ flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage ‘V’ and inversely proportional to the resistance ‘R’, provided the temperature remains
constant.

Thus, I α V

Factors affecting the resistance or Law of Resistance.

Classifications of Electrical Circuit Elements:
1. Passive Elements (Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor)
2. Active Elements.
1.Passive Elements:
Passive elements stores or dissipates the energy.
Example: Resistor dissipates energy and capacitor stores energy.

2.Active Elements:
An element capable of supplying energy is called as active elements.
An active element can be considered as source of energy.
Resistance:
It is defined as the property of a substance which opposes the flow of current through it. It is
represented by R. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). One ohm is one volt per ampere.

Laws of Resistance:
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends upon the following factors:
(a) The length of the conductor,
(b) The cross-sectional area of the conductor,
(c) The type of material and
(d) The temperature of the material.

Resistance (R) is directly proportional to length (l), and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area (a).

Effect of temperature on resistance

Temperature coefficient of resistance.

Temperature coefficient of resistance:

The resistance of almost all electricity conducting materials changes with the variation in
temperature. This variation of resistance with change in temperature is governed by a property of a
material called temperature coefficient of resistance (∝).

The temperature coefficient of resistance can be defined as the change in resistance per degree
change in temperature and expressed as a fraction of the resistance at the reference temperature
considered.

Kirchhoff’s laws:
Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than ohm’s law and are used for solving
electrical networks.

The two Kirchhoff’s laws are:

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) It states that “the algebraic sum of the currents in a junction of a
circuit is zero. (or) The sum of current entering the junction is equal to the sum of the current leaving
the junction.

Explanation:
Consider 5 conductors carrying currents. Assume positive sign for the current flowing
towards the junction and negative sign for the current flowing away from the junction.

Let P is a junction.

I1, I3, & I4 = incoming current towards the junction P

I2, & I5 = outgoing current away from the junction P
By applying Kirchhoff’ s current law at junction P,
I1 - I2 + I3 + I4 - I5 = 0
I1 + I3 + I4 = I2 + I5
Sum of incoming current = sum of outgoing current

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

 It states that in any closed electrical circuit, “the algebraic sum of voltage is zero”.
 That is the sum of voltage rises (EMF) in a closed network is equal to the sum of voltages
drops (P.D)

what is capacitor and capacitance?

A capacitor is a passive electrical component that stores electrical charge field.

The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. C=Q/V
Basic Construction:
Capacitor A capacitor is an electrical device that stores electrical charge and is constructed of
two parallel plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Connecting leads are
attached to the parallel plates.
Construction of Capacitor Working of Capacitor:
In the natural state, both plates of a capacitor have an equal number of free electrons. When
the capacitor is connected to a voltage source, electrons are removed from plate A, and an equal
number are deposited on plate B. As plate A loses electrons and plate B gains electrons, plate a
becomes positive with respect to plate B.

During this charging process, electrons flow only through the connecting leads.

No electrons flow through the dielectric of the capacitor because it is an insulator.

The movement of electrons ceases when the voltage across the capacitor equals the source voltage.
A charged capacitor can act as a temporary battery.