Regional States during Gupta Era: The Chalukyas of

Kalyana
The Chalukyas of Kalyani (also known as western Chalukyas):

The Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami. The
Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two
centuries.
In the late 10th century, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire, the descendants of
Chalukyas of Badami quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who
moved the capital to Kalyani.
However, this claim (being descendants of Chalukyas of Badami) is made by the Chalukyas
of Kalyani. But the origin of this family is debatable.
After a close study of the available evidences, B.R. Gopal held the view that the Chalukayas
were an indigenous Kannada family belonging to the occupation of agriculture and
military background, who settled in and around and the Badami region. B.R. Gopal further
thinks the word Chalukya is an archaic Kannada term.
The founder of the Chalukyas of Kalyani line Tailapa II, who was a feudatory of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III. He became strong enough within a few years of the death of Krishna to
overthrow Karka II and establish himself as independent monarch.
He started his reign from AD 973. He ruled for a period of 24 years from AD 973 to 997 and is
credited with victories over Chedi, Orissa and Kuntala.
He is also said to have killed Munja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.
These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th
century. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty.
This dynasty played a dominant role for two centuries from AD 973 to 1200 in the politics of the
Deccan and South India.
For over a century, the two empires of Southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the
Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi.
During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western
Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further
complicating the situation.
M.K.L.N. Sastry states that the Chalukyas of Kalyani followed the imperial traditions of the
Vatapi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and their period of more than two
hundred years was a period of cultural efflorescence of Karnataka.
Innumerable lithic records and some copper plates and literary texts like
Vikramankadevacharita, Manasoltasa and Vikramankabhyudctya of Bhulokamalla Somevara,
Mitakshara of Vignaneswara, Merutunga’s Prabandhachintamani and Ranna’s Gadayuddha and
 Ajitapurana are very helpful to a student of history in reconstructing the historical and cultural
edifice of the times of Kalyani Chalukyas.
A brief history of the Chalukyas of Kalyani:

Taila was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who claims to have won a victory over a Chola
invader. Satyasraya was followed in succession by Vikramaditya V, Jayasimha I and
Jagadekamalla.
Jagadekamalla claims to have defeated Paramara Bhoja, the ruler of Malwa and the ruler
of Chedi and Rajendra of the Chola line.
Jagadekamalla was followed by Somesvara I who ruled from AD 1042 to 1068 with the titles of
Ahavamalla and Trailokyamalla.
Bilhana in his Vikramankadevacharita states that Somesvara I built the city of Kalyana and
made it his capital.
V. Venkataraya Sastry is of the view that Kalyana appears to have been in existence even
during the reign of Jayasimha II and was one of his Skandhavaras.
As Sankaracharya in his Soundrayalahari mentions the city of Kalyana as great Devipitha, it
can be safely surmised that Somesvara I made Kalyana a well guarded city and shifted his
capital to Kalyana in the longer and larger interest of the safety from the invaders.
Somesvara I carried on the struck with the contemporary Chola power.
While the Chalukyas claim victory over the Cholas, the Cholas stoutly deny it.
Chola epigraphs claim that Somesvara I was defeated at Koppam in AD 1055 and again
at Kudalasangamam in AD 1061.
It appears that Dharavarsha, the Nagavamsi ruler of Chakrakuta accepted his supremacy
and the territories of Kosala and Kalinga were occupied by him.
After Somesvara I, his son Somesvara II became the ruler with the title of Bhuvanaikamalla and
ruled till AD 1076.
From Bilhana, we come to know that Somesvara I wanted to make his second son
Vikramaditya his successor and after the refusal of the offer by Vikramaditya, Somesvara II
was made the ruler.
It appears that the relations between the brothers strained as Somesvara II took to evil
ways. A civil war broke out and in the end; Vikramaditya won and became the ruler.
Vikramaditya VI had the title of Tribhuvanamalla even before he assumed the sovereignty.
Vikramaditya bore the title of Tribhuvanamalla from AD 1071 and ruled from AD 1076 to
1126.
Vikramaditya started a new era of Chalukya Vikrama era and continued wars against the
Cholas.
During the rule of Vikramaditya VI, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the
Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between
the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south.
His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of
Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and
 Bengal.
K.A.N. Sastri argues that both Vikramaditya VI and his Chola contemporary realised their
parity in might and the futility of continuing hostilities and they suspended their raids into
each other’s territories.
This is only partially correct as Vikrarhaditya continued his designs against Vengi and in the
meanwhile he had to take measures to suppress the rebellious ambitions of Ballala I and
Bittiga Vishnu Vardhana of the Hoyasalas, his subordinates.
After a protrated battle with Hoyasalas, Vikramaditya succeeded in mastering the
Hoyasalas and made them submissive to him.
Along with subjugating the Hoysalas Vikramaditya renewed hostilities against Vengi and by
AD 1118 or 1119; Anatapala Dandanayaka the famous general of Vikramaditya gained
control over Vengi. For all practical purposes, the Chola power disappeared from the other
parts of Andhra too.
Vikramaditya VI patronized Bilhana and Vignaneswara.
Vikramaditya VI was followed by his son, Somesvara III, who ruled from AD 1126 to 1135.
He assumed the titles of Bhulokamalla and Sarvajna Chakravarti. He also started a new era
by name Bhulokamalla era.
He appears to be a peace-loving ruler. He was the author of Manasollasa and
Vikramankabhyudaya in Kannada.
He was succeeded by Jagadekamalla II who ruled from AD 1135 to 1151. Jagadekamalla II was
followed by his son Tailapa III, who ruled from AD 1151 to 1163.
As Tailapa III was a very weak and incompetent ruler the Kalachuri chieftain Bijjala, slowly
and gradually usurped power by AD 1157 and Tailapa III died while fighting with the
Kakatiyas.
Somesvara IV, the son of Talipa III ascended the Chalukya throne but he failed to safeguard the
Chalukyan power and was defeated in AD 1190 by the Hoysala Balala II and thus ended the
Western Chalukyan power of Kalyani.
The death of Vikramaditya VI saw the beginning of the decline of Chalukyan power. Their
subordinates the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Hoyasalas of
Dwarasamudra and the Kalachuris began to take advantage of the weakness of the rulers and
began to make preparation to declare their independence.
The Chalukyas of Kalyani disappeared from the arena of political power by AD 1190 during the
reign of Somesvara IV.
Polity:

The Chalukyas of Kalyani also followed the hereditary monarchical form of government,
wherein the king was the head of the state with effective power.
They bore the titles of Samastabhuvanasraya and Vijayaditya. Their insignia was a boar
signifying the Varahavatara of Lord Vishnu that protected the earth.
Interestingly the Chalukyan queens and other family members actively participated in the
administrative process.
 Queen Lakshmidevi, wife of Vikramaditya VI claimed in an epigraph to be ruling from
Kalyana.
We have some more evidence of Lachchala Mahadevi, wife of Somesvara I and Ketaladevi
another queen of Somesvara I participating in administration.
Manasollasa prescribes the qualities of the ministers and mostly ministers’ posts were
hereditary. Manasollasa suggested the number of ministers to be 7 or 8.
There is a view that the Western Chalukyan polity had elements of feudalism because of the
existence of graded powerful political intermediaries like Samanta, Mahasamata,
Mahasamantadhipati and Mahamandalesvara along with Senapathi, Dandaanayaka,
Mahadandanayaka and Meghaprachandadandanayaka of the military service.
For administrative convenience the territory was divided as Rashtra, Vishaya, Nadu,
Kampana and Thana.
There is no clear-cut demarcation between Rashtra and Vishaya and Nadu except that
Vishaya and Nadu are considered as smaller units than Rashtra.
All the copper plate charters reconciling important transactions are addressed to all
Rastrapatis, Vishayapatis, Gramakutakas, Ayuktakas, Niyuktakas, Adhikarikas, Mohattaras
and others.
The above indicates the channels of communication between the ruler and the ruled to be
collective.
Social life:

It is believed that during the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, social life was based on
traditional Varnasarama model.
Though caste was universal and hereditary, the connection between caste and occupation
was not rigid.
The woman of higher strata of society played an important role in social and administrative
matters; S.L. Shantakumari writes that the epigraphical records pertaining to this period reveal
the names of a number of women not only belonging to royal families but also those of others
lower in rank who distinguished themselves in almost all walks of life like administration,
religion, social and cultural aspects of life of the period.
Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and
martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and
defeated rebellious feudals
The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste
system which retained royal support.
Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala
Devi’s and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi’s skill in dance and music.
The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th-century
Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known.
Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati though present
was on a voluntary basis.
 Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while
the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities.
People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals
fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor
pastime.
In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by
traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples.
Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu
Matha, Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara.
Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning
were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly
of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause.
Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen. The
four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science
(Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki) etc.
Economy:

Trade and commence and agriculture were the backbones of the economy of the Chalukyan
state.
Agriculture:
Majority of the people were engaged in agriculture as an occupation. The rulers
encouraged agricultural operations by providing irrigational facilities like excavation of
tanks, construction of irrigation canals which increased the fertility of the soil.
A number of epigraphs testify to the above mentioned activities.
Epigraphs refer to the classifications of cultivated land as wet land, dry land and garden
land, and tax collected from agriculturalists was not uniform and it varied from area to area.
An inscription from Kolhipaikkai records that the lands were classified as Uttama,
Madhayama and Adhama and even the villages were classified as above on the basis
of fertility and yield.
There existed private ownership of land along with joint ownership in villages. What
epigraphs prove of this period is that economic disparities among different sections of the
populace are noticeable.
The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as
there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords.
If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of
the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue
from their labor.
Trade:
Traders were organized into a number of autonomous guilds, with their own traditions
and insignia and Prasasti.
 The most celebrated of such merchant guilds was the 500 Swamis of Ayyavolepura;
who claim to be the protectors of Vira Bananjadharama, i.e., the law of the noble
merchants.
G.S. Dikshit is of the view that the period of the Chalukyas of Kalyana was the heyday
of the guilds like the reign of their enemies the Cholas.
The most important guild of Ayyavola, Ainurrvar, Virabalanja or Valanjiyar or Nanadesi
had its origin in Aihole in Bijapur district.
This guild was very active in the regions of Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra, Rayalseema,
Telengana and Kerala; it had its activities overseas such as Burma, Malaya and
Sumatra.
The growth of trade and commerce led to the growth of market towns in all the above
mentioned regions.
Religion:

What we notice during this period in the religious domain is a general atmosphere of spiritual
conciliation in which many creeds lived together on a basis of mutual tolerance.
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with
the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi, was a setback to Jainism.
Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged,
Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala
region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms
continued to be religiously tolerant.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through
its association with Basavanna in the 12th century.
Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system. In his
Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and
wrote “work is worship” (Kayakave Kailasa).
Also known as the Lingayats (worshipers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these
Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in
rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage
of unwed older women.
This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood.
The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court, Harihara and Raghavanka, were Virashaivas.
Saivism and Vaishnavism were the major branches of Pauranic Dharma of the present-day
Hinduism. Sakti was also worshipped as Kollapura Mahalakshmi and Kartikeya was also
worshipped and the main centre of Kartikeya worship was Kudidatani in Bellary district.
Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, traveled to the Hoysala
territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga).
He later wrote Sribhashya, a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra, a critique on the
Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara.
 Ramanujacharya’s stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting
to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South
India was profound.
Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers
were written over the next centuries.
Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and a host of Basavanna’s followers, including Chenna
Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called
Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva.
The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi
Shankara’s Advaita philosophy
However, Buddhism flourished at Belagave and Dambal.
There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which
suggest the religious transition was smooth.
Literature:

The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and
Sanskrit.
In a golden age of Kannada literature, Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and
Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas. Nearly
three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have
been recorded.
Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata,
Puranas and Vedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics,
medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time.
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna, grammarian Nagavarma II, minister
Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna.
Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the “three gems of
Kannada literature“.
He was bestowed the title “Emperor among poets” (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II
and has five major works to his credit.
Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy
of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements
and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day
of the Mahabharata war.
He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to
Kannada literature in various subjects.
His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their
importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.
 Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a
lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive
contributions.
Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were
Jagaddala Somanatha’s Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this
time.
They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that
could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu,
Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them.
In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (Mahakavya) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by
Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king
Vikramaditya VI.
The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI’s accession to the Chalukya throne after
overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit
work intended for all sections of society.
This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including
medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications,
painting, music, games, amusements etc.
This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including
medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications,
painting, music, games, amusements etc.
Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called
Vikraman-Kabhyudaya.
The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the
geography and people of Karnataka.
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his
Mitakshara, in the court of Vikramaditya VI.
Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law
(commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most
parts of modern India.
Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were
Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara.
Art:

The Chalukyas of Kalyani patronized fine arts.

An epigraph dated in AD 1045 refers to the construction of a Natakasala or theatre in the
premises of a Jaina temple.
We have epigraphic references to a flutist, songsters, florists, drummers and dancers, being
given grants for their maintenance.
 On the basis of epigraphical evidences, K.A.N. Sastri holds the view that next to the court,
the temple was the great promoter of fine arts.
Architecture, sculpture in stone and metal, and painting were promoted by the temples.
An inscription dated AD 1085 from Nagai refers to a great sculptor Nagoja, who is called
Kandarana Vidyadhirajam, the master of the art of engraving and we have references to other
sculptures and engravings.
Architecture:

Temples:
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of
Deccan architecture. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today
as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya
dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. This style is sometimes called Karnata
dravida. It is also sometimes called the “Gadag style” after the number of ornate temples
they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag
district in Karnataka.
The dynasty’s temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th
century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in
present-day central Karnataka.
Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna
Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi
and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi.
The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite
example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and
towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture.
An inscription outside the temple calls it “Emperor of Temples” (devalaya chakravarti)
and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king
Vikramaditya VI.
The Kedareswara Temple at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala
architectural style.
The vimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the
plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.
To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned
(tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural
material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples.
They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures.
Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were
natives of places such as Balligavi.
The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture.
Apart from temples, the dynasty’s architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells
(Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in
 Lakkundi.
These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara
empire in the coming centuries.
Language:

The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and
epigraphs.
Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada
language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language.
More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the
12th century. Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates
(Tamarashasana).
This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which
came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called Lingayatism) who expressed
their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas.
At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related
to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy,
origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit.
Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its
boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee,
taxes and dues, and witnesses.
This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any
ambiguity.
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical
details of dynasties.
Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on
older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular.
Some well-known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance,
both written by Nagavarma I, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna, a book on medicine called
Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called
Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya, a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and
an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II.