Hindawi

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2018, Article ID 9739853, 10 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9739853

Research Article
Seismic Behavior of Rammed Earth Walls with Precast Concrete
Tie Columns

1,2
Xinlei Yang and Hailiang Wang1,2
1
School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, No. 26, Jinjing Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300384, China
2
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Civil Buildings Protection and Reinforcement, No. 26, Jinjing Road, Xiqing District,
Tianjin 300384, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Xinlei Yang; yxl@tcu.edu.cn

Received 3 December 2017; Accepted 30 January 2018; Published 13 March 2018

Academic Editor: Robert Cerný

Copyright © 2018 Xinlei Yang and Hailiang Wang. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Rammed earth (RE) constructions are widespread in underdeveloped rural areas in developing countries. However, these RE
constructions are often susceptible to earthquake damage due to their poor seismic performance. Precast concrete tie columns and
ring beam (tie bars) were proposed to improve the seismic behavior of RE constructions. Four RE walls, including a traditional RE
wall and three RE walls with precast concrete tie columns and ring beam (tie bars), were tested under reversed cyclic loading, and
the seismic behavior of these tested specimens was evaluated in terms of failure pattern, energy dissipation, displacement ductility,
and stiffness degradation. The results showed that a significant increase of the load-bearing and deformation capacity could be
achieved with the application of precast concrete tie columns in combination with RE. The load-bearing capacity and deformation
capacity of traditional RE wall were increased by an average of 113% and 417%, respectively. These test results could provide
reference to the design and construction of the environmental-friendly structures in rural areas.

1. Introduction content, and compressive strength and found that the

Rammed earth (RE) dwellings are widespread in un-
derdeveloped rural areas of western China, which has several
advantages over other buildings, including low cost, easy
availability, thermal comfort, and low intervention with
surroundings. However, RE constructions have drawbacks
of sensitivity to water, propensity to shear failure, and
lacking systemic engineering design concerning earthquake.
They are susceptible to earthquake damage owing to low
compressive strength, shear strength, and durability [1–5].
Many efforts have been undertaken to enhance the
mechanical properties of rammed earth. Niroumand et al.
[6] investigated the influence of nanotechnology on material
characteristics of rammed earth, and the results showed that
nanoclay could increase the level of compressive strength in
rammed earth walls and be used as a cohesive material in the
soil mixture. Venkatarama Reddy and Prasanna Kumar [7]
studied the relationship among soil density, moisture
compressive strength of rammed earth was very sensitive to
its dry density and moisture content. Cheah et al. [8]
conducted an experimental study of the shear strength of
a stabilized RE material reinforced with sisal and flax fibres.
The results showed that a shear failure of the triplet test
appeared along the weak interface between layers, but
specimens failed along diagonal shear plane at the triaxial
test. Bouhicha et al. [9] conducted a study to investigate the
influence of fibre length and fibre fraction on compressive
strength, flexural strength, and shear strength of rammed
earth. The results proved that adding straw could decrease
shrinkage damage, reduce the curing time, and improve the
mechanical property. Bui et al. [10] analyzed the role of the
moisture content on the mechanical characteristics and il-
luminated the importance of suction to RE specimens. There
are limited numbers of studies on the improvement of the
performance of rammed earth buildings using various re-
inforcement technologies. Bu et al. [11] studied the effect of
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

the split-level construction or pin keys on shear strength of Table 1: Summary of soil properties.
rammed earth walls and found that the two methods were Property Parameters Value
effective in improving the shear strength of construction
Gravel fraction 28%
with respect to the traditional method. Sand fraction 44%
Generally, many experimental investigations have been Grain size distribution
Silt fraction 13%
conducted to enhance the mechanical properties of rammed Clay fraction 15%
earth by improvements in material characterization (chemical, Liquid limit 27.8%
physical, mechanical, and durability) and possible additions Atterberg limit Plastic limit 17.7%
(lime, cement, straws, and fibres). However, there are limited Plastic index 10.1%
investigations addressing the issues of the attempt to enhance Optimum moisture content 16.5%
Proctor test
seismic performance of rammed earth buildings by means of Maximum dry density (kg/m3) 1710
structural strengthening solutions. In this paper, precast con-
crete tie columns and precast concrete tie beam (tie bar) were
proposed to improve the seismic behavior of RE constructions, Table 2: Mechanical properties of reinforcing bars.
and the effectiveness of these structural strengthening solutions Yield Elastic Ultimate
Bar Ultimate tensile
is validated by conducting cyclic loading tests. The test results strength modulus elongation
type strength (MPa)
could provide data to support the RE construction practices. (MPa) (GPa) (%)
Φ6 356 418 202 22.4
Φ2.6 352 435 202 15.4
2. Materials and Methods Φ2 321 403 186 14.2
2.1. Materials. In this study, the used soil was taken from
Gongyi County in Henan Province, China, which is located
in the East Loess Plateau. The properties of selected soil are Specimen Q-2 was designed as a reinforced CSRE wall
outlined in Table 1. Generally, compaction characteristics of with a precast concrete tie beam and two concrete tie
rammed earth are evaluated by two important parameters, columns, as shown in Figure 1(c). Specimen Q-5 is similar
that is, optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum to Specimen Q-2; however, one wire tie is used instead of
dry density (MDD). By the standard Proctor tests, OMC is the precast concrete tie beam, as shown in Figure 1(d).
16.5% and MDD is 1710 kg/m3. Specimen Q-7 was designed as a reinforced CSRE wall with
In view of the availability, economy, and ease of con- two precast concrete tie columns and three wire ties
struction, cement was selected as a stabilizer. Ordinary starting at 400 mm from the top of the foundation beam
Portland cement of 42.5 grade was used in the experimental that were spaced at 400 mm along the wall height, as shown
investigations. In the experimental investigations, 10% ce- in Figure 1(e). In order to prevent slippage between the
ment by dry mass of soil was used for production of test CSRE wall and the steel ground beam, two rows of bolts
specimens. In the test specimens, the diameter of corrosion were installed on the surface of footing and performed well
resistant zinc-coated wire used as tie bars is 2.6 mm. Table 2 as expected.
summarizes the properties of the steel bars. During the Using precast concrete tie columns and tie beam could avoid
construction of each wall, 150 × 150 × 150 mm cubes were negative effects of moisture on strength of CSRE. The precast
prepared to test compressive strength of cement-stabilized concrete tie columns and tie beam had the dimensions of
rammed earth (CSRE). The average compressive strength 80 mm × 80 mm × 1400 mm and 80 mm × 80 mm × 1440 mm,
was in the range of 4.5∼8.4 MPa. respectively, and were constructed using C30 concrete. The
longitudinal reinforcement used in the precast concrete
column was four Φ6 plain bars, and the transverse re-
2.2. Specimen Design and Construction. This research con- inforcement was Φ2 galvanized iron wire. The longitudinal
ducted experimental investigations on four 1/3-scale reinforcement of precast concrete tie beam was four Φ6
1600 × 1200 × 200 mm (L × H × W) RE walls under lateral plain bars, and the transverse reinforcement was Φ2 gal-
cyclic loading; considering the requirement of loading vanized iron wire. The dimensions and reinforcement
equipment, the height is 1400 mm actually. The dimensions details are shown in Figure 2.
and reinforcement details of the tested specimens are shown The soil was prepared to their optimum moisture
in Figure 1. content determined by the compaction test and com-
Specimen Q-1 was designed as a traditional CSRE wall pacted inside aluminum alloy I-beam molds to form
without tie columns and tie beam (tie bar) and used as walls. The test wall is composed of several layers of earth
a control specimen, as shown in Figure 1(a). Specimen K-1 and constructed on a steel ground beam. The earth was
was designed as a frame, which consisted of a precast poured into molds in layers approximately 350 mm
concrete tie beam and two concrete tie columns, as shown in thick and then compacted with a pneumatic compactor
Figure 1(b). The other three specimens were CSRE walls with rammer. The thickness of each layer after compaction
the precast concrete tie columns, and those tie columns had maintained roughly at 200 mm. In order to guarantee the
the same dimensions and reinforcement details. Structural cohesiveness between layers, compacting in corners and
characteristics of each tested specimen are briefly summa- spraying water at each layer surface were accomplished
rized in Table 3. manually.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

160
3:1

80
1400

1160
M18 × 100 mm
M18 × 60 mm M18 × 60 mm
300

300
300 1600 300 300 80 1440 80 300

(a) (b)
160

200
3:1
80

Ф2
1200
1160

M18 × 100 mm M18 × 100 mm

M18 × 60 mm M18 × 60 mm
300
300

300 80 1440 80 300 300 80 1440 80 300

(c) (d)
200

Ф2
400

Ф2
400

M18 × 100 mm
Ф2
400

M18 × 60 mm
300

300 80 1440 80 300

(e)

Figure 1: Dimensions and details of test specimens (unit: mm). (a) Q-1. (b) K-1. (c) Q-2. (d) Q-5. (e) Q-7.

2.3. Test Setup and Instrumentation. A servohydraulic ac- hydraulic jack was used to carry out a constant axial load to
tuator with 150 kN maximum load and a ±250 mm dis- the top of the wall to simulate gravity actions. Specimen
placement range was used to apply a quasistatic lateral K-1 was only subjected to horizontal reversed cyclic
loading to 1200 mm height in two opposite directions. A loading without the vertical load. The loading devices and
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 3: Summary of structural characteristics of the tested specimens.

Specimen Structural characteristics Remarks
Q-1 Without tie columns Control specimen
K-1 Precast concrete tie columns + precast concrete tie beam
Q-2 Precast concrete tie columns + precast concrete tie beam + CSRE
Q-5 Precast concrete tie columns + one wire tie + CSRE
Q-7 Precast concrete tie columns + three wire ties + CSRE

80 80
2Ф6 2Ф6

80

64
80

64

2Ф6 2Ф6
Ф2@30/80 Ф2@80
(a) (b)

Figure 2: Details of the precast concrete tie column (a) and tie beam (b).

the site of test setup are shown in Figures 3 and 4,

Reaction frame
respectively.
For each test wall, a total of five displacement sensors Load sensor Reaction
Jack
were used to record the displacement developed at different Steel beam wall
loading stages, as shown in Figure 5. Displacement of the
Actuator
ground beam relative to strong floor was measured by
number D0. Displacement of the ground beam relative to
wall was measured by number D3. Lateral displacement of Test specimen
wall was measured by numbers D1 and D2, which were
installed at loading position centerline. The diagonal strain
Steel ground beam
of the wall is recorded by numbers D4 and D5, which were
positioned in the diagonal direction.

Figure 3: The schematic drawing of loading devices.

2.4. Test Procedure and Loading Characteristics. A constant
axial load of 26.43 kN simulated to gravity actions was
applied to the wall and was maintained constant throughout
each test. The applied axial load at the top of the walls
includes the dead loads (self-weights of the roof and wall)
and the live load (0.5 kN/m2), which was defined by the
similitude law. It represents a normal stress of 0.08 MPa, as
in current rammed earth walls in a one storey house in
China.
After application of the axial load to the top of the steel
beam, low-rate lateral cyclic loading of increasing amplitude-
simulated lateral earthquake loading was applied to a height of
1200 mm. The test walls were loaded in a displacement- (drift-)
controlled mode at a constant rate of 0.2 mm/s, and two fully
reversed cycles were applied at each drift. The selected drift
was intended to cause displacements that investigated in-
elastic deformations of the wall corresponding to earthquake
action.
Each test was initiated at interval steps of 0.1% drift ratios
until 0.8%. In the range of 0.8%∼2% drift ratios, the specimen
was cycled at interval steps of 0.2%. In the range of 2%∼4% drift
ratios, the specimen was cycled at interval steps of 0.4%. When
the drift ratios reached 4%, interval steps of 0.8% drift ratios
were imposed to the specimens until failure or instability. The
lateral cyclic loading protocol is shown in Figure 6.
3. Failure Process and Modes
The final failure modes of tested specimens observed are
shown in Figure 7.
Specimen Q-1: the damage was initiated at a drift ratio
of approximately 0.2%, at which time the first hori-
zontal crack appeared at a distance of 230 mm from the
bottom of the wall. The horizontal crack propagated in
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Figure 4: The picture of the test setup.
D1(D2)
200
400
1200
D
800
D4 5
D3
200
D0
200 1200 200
LVDT
Figure 5: Measurement layout of instrumentation.
size and evolved into a horizontal penetrating crack at
0.3% drift ratio. As the drift increased, the wall was
separated into two portions by this horizontal pene-
trating crack, and the relative slippage was observed at
a drift ration of 0.8%. The cracking patterns of Spec-
imen Q-1 are shown in Figure 7(a).
Specimen Q-2: a horizontal shrinkage crack forming at
200 mm below the loading position evolved into
a horizontal penetrating crack at a drift of approxi-
mately 0.2%. When increasing displacement in both
the positive and negative directions, the horizontal
cracks propagated to both sides of the columns and
local shear failure was observed on columns at a drift
of approximately 2.4%. The ultimate failure mode
refers to Figure 7(b).
Specimen Q-5: a horizontal shrinkage crack at the central
region of the wall evolved into a penetrating crack at
a drift ratio of 0.1%, and horizontal cracks occurred on
both sides of tie columns at a drift ratio of 0.8%. The test
was stopped at 6.4% drift ratio, and at the end of the test,
the bearing capacity was not reduced except for the
presence of out-of-plane displacements of the wall. The
ultimate failure of the wall refers to Figure 7(c).
Specimen Q-7: in the middle section of the wall,
a horizontal shrinkage crack penetrated into wall core at
a drift of 0.2% and the crack width increased remarkably
as the drift increased. Flexural cracks emerged on both
sides of precast concrete tie columns at a drift ratio of
5
12
Drift (%)
0
−4
−8
−12
0 12 24 36 48
Number of cycles
Figure 6: Loading history.
0.6%. Specimen Q-7 was loaded at increasing drift until
9.6%, at which time the test was terminated because of
out-of-plane displacements of the wall. The ultimate
failure mode refers to Figure 7(d).
Specimen K-1: the flexural cracks of Specimen K-1
were observed on both ends of columns at a drift ratio
of 0.4% and propagated gradually along the height
with the drift increasing. The concrete in the joint
region spalled and crushed off at a drift ratio of 9.6%.
Additionally, the column longitudinal reinforcement
exposed progressed. The ultimate failure mode refers
to Figure 7(e).
It could be seen from Figure 7 that the failure modes of
these wall specimens were dominated by a shear failure
mechanism. The horizontal penetrating cracks were mainly
formed along a layer interface, illustrating that the layer
interface is the weak regions in rammed earth walls. For
Specimen Q-2, the earth under the precast concrete tie
beam was not compacted to be very dense due to space
constraints and formed a weak region, which causes the
local failure appearing on both sides of precast concrete tie
columns ahead of expected theoretical design attributed to
uneven distributed load. The performance of Specimen
Q-5 is similar to that of Specimen Q-7, in terms of crack
development and reduction process of bearing capacity,
respectively. With increasing drift amplitudes, the con-
finement effect exerted by precast concrete tie columns
and wire ties gradually played a role and the load-bearing
capacity of tested specimens increased slowly. Although
the load had dropped to 85% below the peak value, the
increase of strength at late stage of loading can be
regarded as capacity reservation.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Overall Response. The hysteresis curves are the most im-
portant characteristic for assessing the seismic performance of
tested walls under cyclic loading in terms of the energy dissi-
pation capacity, the ductility performance, strength de-
terioration, and stiffness degradation of the wall. The hysteresis
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
(a)
(c)
(e)
Figure 7: Failure mode of tested specimens. (a) Specimen Q-1. (b) Specimen Q-2. (c) Specimen Q-5. (d) Specimen Q-7. (e) Specimen K-1.
loops (load versus story drift) of four test specimens are pre-
sented in Figure 8.
It could be seen that Specimen Q-1, as a control spec-
imen, exhibited poor hysteretic properties with a remarkable
strength drop after peak load, with this unfavorable perfor-
mance attributed to lack of precast concrete tie columns in the
wall. Other three wall specimens with precast concrete tie
columns exhibited a stable lateral load versus drift hysteretic
response, especially Specimens Q-5 and Q-7, showing that the
seismic performance of rammed earth walls can considerably
be improved through the use of precast concrete tie columns
and wire ties.
The hysteresis loops of specimen Q-2, Q-5, and Q-7
presented a fusiform shape during initial loading. With
increasing cracks, and after spalling and crushing of earth,
(b)
(d)
the curve shape gradually changed into reverse S, which
illustrated that cracks progressed adequately so that im-
possible to recover and residual deformations appeared in
the later stage.
The ability of a structure to survive an earthquake de-
pends to a large extent on its ability to dissipate the input
energy. The good energy dissipation capacity indicates the
capacity of the structure to perform satisfactorily in the
inelastic range. The amount of cumulative energy dissipated
is plotted versus the roof drift in Figure 9. The energy
dissipation capacity of Specimen K-1 is significantly inferior
to other three specimens at the same drift, which illustrates
that the rammed earth plays a major role in energy dissi-
pation capacity. After comparison of Specimen Q-1 and
other three walls, it could be found that the cowork between
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 7

120 120

60 60
Load (kN)

Load (kN)
0 0

−60 −60

−120 −120
−12 −6 0 6 12 −12 −6 0 6 12
Drift (%) Drift (%)

Q-2
Q-1
(a) (b)
120 120

60 60
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

0 0

−60 −60

−120 −120
−12 −6 0 6 12 −12 −6 0 6 12
Drift (%) Drift (%)
Q-5 Q-7
Q-1 Q-1
(c) (d)

Figure 8: Hysteresis curves of specimens. The hysteretic response of (a) Q-1; (b) Q-1 and Q-2; (c) Q-1 and Q-5; (d) Q-1 and Q-7.
32
tie columns and walls was effective on significantly im-
Cumulative energy dissipation (kN.m)

proving the capacity of the energy dissipation. The energy

24 dissipation capacity of each rammed earth wall specimen
was similar at the same drift, which indicated that the energy
was mainly dissipated by rammed earth.
16

4.2. Skeleton Curves. The comparison of skeleton curves of

8
the RE walls is shown in Figure 10. The skeleton curve of
Specimen Q-1 shows a peak load at a drift ratio of 0.2% and
rapid degradation in strength properties with increasing
0
0 3 6 9 12 displacement, which indicates that Specimen Q-1 did not
Drift (%) perform as well as other three walls in terms of bearing
capacity and deformability capacity. The strength of speci-
Q-1 Q-7 mens Q-2, Q-5, and Q-7 reached peak load almost simul-
Q-2 K-1
taneously at a drift ratio of 1.2%. Specimen Q-2 did not
Q-5
perform as well as Specimens Q-5 and Q-7, showing that
Figure 9: Comparison of cumulative energy dissipation of wire ties are more effective than tie beam on enhancing
specimens. deformation capacity. Finally, it could be concluded that the
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

120

60

Load (kN)
0

−60

−120
−12 −8 −4 0 4 8 12
Drift (%)

Q-1 Q-5
Q-2 Q-7

Figure 10: Comparison of skeleton curves of specimens.

Table 4: Global displacement ductility values of test specimens.

Parameter Py (kN) Δy (mm) Pmax (kN) Δmax (mm) Pu (kN) Δu (mm) μ  Δu /Δy Mean value of μ
POS 18.78 1.39 18.78 2.40 15.96 7.62 5.48
Q-1 5.74
NEG −16.65 −1.35 −19.04 −2.40 −16.18 −8.09 5.99
POS 26.14 4.77 40.73 9.60 34.62 16.24 3.40
Q-2 3.27
NEG −29.09 −5.21 −46.25 −12.00 −39.31 −16.35 3.14
POS 25.84 5.58 38.40 16.80 32.64 38.83 6.96
Q-5 6.82
NEG 26.29 −5.76 −44.35 −14.40 −37.70 −38.47 6.68
POS 30.99 4.17 38.87 12.00 33.04 29.81 7.15
Q-7 7.93
NEG −28.58 −4.30 −35.07 −12.00 −29.81 −37.43 8.70
Note. POS: positive direction; NOG: negative direction. Py: the yield load; Δy : the displacement corresponding to the yield load; Pmax: the peak load; Δmax: the
displacement corresponding to the peak load; Δu : determined as corresponding to a 15% drop of the peak load; Pu: the load corresponding to Δu .

proposed precast concrete tie columns are effective on 16

dramatically improving the performance of the seismic and
deformability.
Secant stiffness (kN . mm–1)

12

4.3. Ductility Capacity and Bearing Capacity. The ductility

capacity is identified as an important parameter for earthquake- 8
resistant constructions, which could be calculated as the
ratio of ultimate displacement to the yield displacement.
Using the ultimate displacement and calculated yield, the 4
ductility capacity value is determined as follows:
Δ
μ  u, (1) 0
Δy 0 3 6 9 12
Drift (%)
where Δu is determined as corresponding to a 15% drop of
Q-1 Q-7
the peak load and Δy is the displacement corresponding to Q-2 K-1
the yield load. Q-5
The peak load, the ultimate displacement, the yield load,
the yield displacement, and ductility value of the test walls are Figure 11: Stiffness degeneration curves.
presented in Table 4. Although the ductility value of Specimen
Q-2 was slightly lower than that of Specimen Q-1, the de- of precast concrete tie columns and precast concrete tie beam
formation capacity of Specimen Q-2 was significantly higher (wire ties) could significantly improve the deformation ca-
than that of Specimen Q-1. The ductility value of Specimens pacity of the test walls. The ductility value of Specimens Q-7 is
Q-5 and Q-7 is 18.79% and 38.1% higher than that of 16.28% higher than that of Specimen Q-5, attributed to the
Specimen Q-1, respectively, which shows that the application increase in the number of wire ties.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 9

50 50

40 40

30 30

Load (kN)
Load (kN)

20 20

10 10

0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Drift (%) Drift (%)

K-1 Q-1 + K-1 K-1 Q-1 + K-1

Q-1 Q-2 Q-1 Q-5
(a) (b)
50

40

30
Load (kN)

20

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Drift (%)

K-1 Q-1 + K-1

Q-1 Q-7
(c)

Figure 12: Comparison of strength of specimens at specific drifts. Comparison of strength between (a) Q-2 and Q-1; (b) Q-5 and Q-1;
(c) Q-7 and Q-1.

The result clearly shows that the yield load and the yield
displacement of Specimens Q-2, Q-5, and Q-7 are significantly
higher than control Specimen Q-1. Compared with control
Specimen Q-1, the ultimate bearing capacity of other three
specimens was increased by 95%∼130%, which were confined by
precast concrete tie columns and precast concrete tie beam (wire
ties). The maximum bearing capacity of Specimen Q-2 is the
largest among four wall specimens, and the maximum bearing
capacity of Specimen Q-5 was similar to that of Specimen Q-7,
showing that effect of the precast concrete tie beam is better than
that of tie bars in terms of maximum bearing capacity.
4.4. Stiffness Degeneration. Stiffness degradation is one of
the most important criteria for evaluating the performance
of test walls, when subjected to simulated lateral earthquake
loading in successive low-rate reversed cycles. The stiffness at
different cycles was determined using (2). This calculation
only involves the first reversal cycle. The comparison of
stiffness degradation for all specimens is shown in Figure 11.
+P  + −P 
Ki   i   i . (2)
+Δi  + −Δi 
The initial stiffness of the confined walls (Q-2, Q-5, and
Q-7) is close to that of the control specimen, Q-1, which is
attributed to low lateral stiffness of the frame (K-1). The
secant stiffness of Specimen Q-1 is only approximately 40%
of the other three walls at a drift ratio of 0.8%. The walls
confined by precast concrete tie columns had a lower rate of
stiffness degradation compared to Specimen Q-1, attributed
to the restriction from precast concrete tie columns and
precast concrete tie beam (wire ties).
4.5. The Influence of Tie Column and Tie Beam (Wire
Ties). Figure 12 shows a comparison of bearing capacity of
10
five specimens at different drifts. “Q-1 + K-1” denotes the
summation of the bearing capacity of Specimens K-1 and
Q-1 at the specific drift. Because the test of specimen Q-1
was terminated at a drift ratio of 0.8%, it is assumed that the
subsequent bearing capacity remains constant.
Referring to Figure 12, it can be seen that there is little
difference between the bearing capacity of Specimens Q-2,
Q-5, and “Q-1 + K-1” when the drift is not beyond 0.3%,
which shows that the action of two precast concrete tie
columns and one precast concrete tie beam (wire tie) is weak.
The bearing capacity of Specimen Q-7 is bigger than that of
“Q-1 + K-1,” and this could be due to the fact that there are
three wire ties; therefore, the combined action of two precast
concrete tie columns and three wire ties is stronger than that
of one wire ties. On the whole, the effect of precast concrete
tie columns and precast concrete tie beam (wire ties) on the
bearing capacity is not obvious at the initial stage of loading.
When the story drift is beyond 0.3%, the effect of precast
concrete tie columns and precast concrete tie beam (wire
ties) on the bearing capacity is more and more obvious as the
story drift increases.
5. Conclusions
Four rammed earth walls were tested under lateral cyclic
loading, and the seismic performance were discussed in
terms of bearing capacity, stiffness degradation, and dis-
placement ductility, and so on. Based on the results of this
investigation, the following conclusions could be drawn:
(1) A majority of cracks were observed in the middle
section of the wall attributed to the low shear
strength in layers. Hence, it is necessary to consider
the possibility of split-level construction and pin keys
to improve the shear strength.
(2) The proposed construction measures are effective on
significantly improving the performance of bearing
capacity and deformability.
(3) The effect of precast concrete tie columns and precast
concrete tie beam (wire ties) on the bearing capacity
is not obvious at the initial stage of loading; however,
when the story drift is beyond 0.3%, the effect is
significant.
(4) In general, the application of wire ties instead of a tie
beam is practical and effective, and the number of
wire ties has an effect on the seismic performance of
the RE walls.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest
regarding the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Ministry of Science and
Technology of the People’s Republic of China (Grant no.
2015BAL03B02).
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
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