II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL BRIKS ACADEMY

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II PUC

PHYSICS MANUAL

NAME : _____________________________________

WIN THE WORLD

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II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL BRIKS ACADEMY

PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXAMINATION:

General instructions:

• Duration of practical examination: 2hours.

• Maximum marks allotted: 30 marks.
Scheme of Valuation
Weightage of marks
Sl No. Particulars Marks
1 Performing the experiment 20
2 Viva-voce 04
3 Practical record 06
Total 20

Distribution of marks for performing the experiment:

Sl Particulars Marks
No.
1 Writing the principle of the experiment 2
2 Writing the formula with SI units and explaining the terms 2
3 Writing the diagram/figure/circuit with labelling/expected graph(if 2
it is there)
4 Writing the observations/tabular column 2
5 Constructing the experimental setup/circuit 3
6 Performing the experiment and entering the readings into the 4
tabular column/observations pattern
7 Substitution and calculation/platting the graph and calculations 3
8 Result with unit 2
Total 20

Viva-voce:
Four questions must be asked and each question carries 1 mark.

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II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL BRIKS ACADEMY

INDEX
No Experiment name Page no

1 Resistance per unit length 05

2 Resistivity of material of wire 07

3 Figure of merit of galvanometer 11

4 Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter 13

5 Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter 15

6 Frequency of A.C. 19

7 Focal length of concave mirror 23

8 Focal length of convex lens 25

09 Focal length of convex mirror 29

10 Focal length of concave lens 31

11 Angle of minimum deviation 33

12 Refractive index of glass 37

13 Refractive index of water using concave mirror 39

14 Refractive index of water using convex lens and plane mirror 41

15 Semiconductor forward bias characteristic 43

16 Semiconductor reverse bias characteristic 47

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Circuit diagram: Expected graph:

Observation:
Length of the given wire (L) = __________cm = ______ m

Tabular column:
Trial no Current (I) in Ampere Voltage(V) in volt Resistance(R) in 𝛀

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑹 = ___________𝛀
Calculations:
𝑉
Resistance(R) = slope = = Ω
𝐼

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =

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II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL BRIKS ACADEMY

Experiment No. I Date:

RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF THE WIRE
Aim: Determination of resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of
current verses potential difference.

Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery, Voltmeter, ammeter, plug key and
rheostat and metre scale.

Principle:
Ohm's Law: The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the ends of the conductor when temperature and other
physical conditions remain constant.

Formula:
1) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 Ω
Where R - resistance of the wire(Ω), m - slope of the graph of potential difference
current versus.
𝑅
2) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑅 ′ = Ω𝑚−1
𝐿
Where L - the length of the experimental wire(𝑚)

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) The rheostat is adjusted for a particular value of current I. Current I and
corresponding voltage V are noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of current I and the readings are
tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted between V and I, taking V on x-axis and I on y-axis. The slope m
of the graph is found,
5) The reciprocal of the slope is calculated which gives the resistance R of the wire.
6) The length of the resistance wire is measured.
𝑅
7) Then the resistance per unit length of the wire, is calculated.
𝐿

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II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL BRIKS ACADEMY

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𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑅 ′ = = − = _______________ Ω𝑚−1
𝐿

Result:
Resistance per unit length of given wire = _____________ Ω𝑚−1

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Circuit diagram:

Observations:
Radius of the given wire r = _______ mm = _________ m
Length of the given wire l = _________ m

Tabular column:
Trial no Current (I) in Ampere Voltage(V) in volt Resistance(R) in 𝛀

Calculations:
𝐴𝐵
1) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦), 𝑅 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝐵𝐶 = Ω
𝑉
2) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙), 𝑅 = = Ω
𝐼

𝜋𝑟 2
3) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 , 𝜌 = 𝑅 Ω𝑚
𝑙

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Experiment No. 2 Date:

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE
Aim: Determination of resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law and hence to find
resistivity of the material of the wire.

Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery, Voltmeter, ammeter, plug key and
rheostat and metre scale.

Principle:
Ohm's Law: The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the ends of the conductor when temperature and other
physical conditions remain constant.

Formula:
𝑉
1) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = Ω
𝐼
Where V is potential difference(V), I is current(A).
𝜋𝑟 2
2) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 , 𝜌 = 𝑅 Ω𝑚
𝑙
Where R — resistance of the wire(Ω), 𝑙- length of the experimental wire in m, r -
radius of the wire in m.

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) The rheostat is adjusted for a particular value of current I. Current I and
corresponding voltage V are noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of current I and the readings are
tabulated.
𝑉
4) Calculate the resistance of the wire using the formula, 𝑅 = 𝐼
5) The length 𝑙 of the experimental wire is measured.
𝜋𝑟 2
6) The resistivity of the material of wire is calculated by using the formula, 𝜌 = 𝑅 𝑙

Result:
The resistivity of material of wire , 𝜌 = ____________________Ω𝑚

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Circuit diagram:

Observations:
EMF of cell, 𝐸 = ________𝑉

Tabular column:
Trial Resistance R Deflection 𝜽 S for
𝜽
in 𝑹𝑺 𝑬
𝟐 𝑮= 𝛀 𝒌= 𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗
no. 𝒊𝒏 𝛀 in div 𝑹−𝑺 (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
𝛀

Average G = ______ 𝛀, Average k = ______________ A/div

Calculations:
𝑅𝑆
Resistance of galvanometer, 𝐺 = 𝑅−𝑆 Ω

𝐸
Figure of merit of galvanometer, 𝑘 = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣

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Experiment No. 3 Date:

FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER
Aim: Determination of the resistance of a galvanometer by half — deflection method and
to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, cell, resistance boxes and two keys.

Principle:
Deflection in a galvanometer is directly proportional to the current through the
galvanometer 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐼𝑔 ∝ 𝜃 ⇒ 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑘𝜃

Where k is called figure of merit of the galvanometer.

Formula:
𝐸
𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑘 = 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃
Where E - emf of the cell(V), R - resistance in series with the galvanometer(Ω), G -
Galvanometer resistance(Ω), 𝜃 - deflection in the galvanometer.

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) Key K2 is opened and key K1 closed. The suitable resistance R is unplugged to get
even deflection 𝜃 in the galvanometer.
𝜃
3) K2 is closed and suitable resistance S is unplugged so that deflection becomes 2.
𝑅𝑆
Then the resistance of the galvanometer G is calculated using the formula, 𝐺 = 𝑅−𝑆
4) The experiment is repeated for different values of 0 and average value of G is
found.
5) The figure of merit of galvanometer is calculate in each case using the formula, 𝑘 =
𝐸
(𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
6) Average value of k is calculated.

Result:
1) The resistance of galvanometer, 𝐺 = __________ Ω
2) The figure of merit of galvanometer, 𝑘 = ______________ 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣

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Circuit diagram:

Observations:
1) Resistance of galvanometer (given) 𝐺 = _________ Ω
2) Figure of merit of galvanometer (given) 𝑘 = _____________________ 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1
3) Number of divisions in either side of zero of galvanometer, 𝑁 = ________ 𝑑𝑖𝑣
4) Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾 = ____________________𝐴

5) Maximum voltage to be measure (say 3V), 𝑉𝑂 = _______ 𝑉

Calculations:
Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾 = ____________________𝐴

Theoretical:
𝑉𝑂
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔

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Experiment No. 4 Date:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

Aim:
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the required range (0— 3V) and
verify the same.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, battery, voltmeter, resistance box, key and

rheostat.

Principle :
Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting suitable high resistance
in series with it, so that very small current flows through the galvanometer.

Formula:
1) 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝑘 𝐴
Where N- Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer (div), k -
Figure of merit of the galvanometer (A/div).
𝑉𝑂
2) 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
Where G - Galvanometer resistance (Ω), V0 - Maximum voltage to be measured

Procedure:
𝑉𝑂
1) The value of resistance is calculated using the formula, 𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
2) The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3) The calculated high resistance, R is unplugged in the standard resistance box and
the rheostat is adjusted so that the voltage shown in the voltmeter is equal to the
desired range (say 3V).
4) The resistance from the resistance box is adjusted such that galvanometer shows
full scale deflection. The resistance 𝑅’ from the resistance box is noted.
5) 𝑅 ′ is equal to or nearly equal 𝑅. Hence conversion is verified.

Result:
Theoretical value of series resistance, 𝑅 = _________ Ω
Experimentally observed value of series resistance, 𝑅′ = _________ Ω

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Circuit diagram:
E- Battery eliminator
K- plug key
A – ammeter
G- galvanometer
S – Shunt resistance wire

Observations:
1) Resistance of galvanometer (given) 𝐺 = _________ Ω
2) Figure of merit of galvanometer (given) 𝑘 = _____________________ 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1
3) Number of divisions in either side of zero of galvanometer, 𝑁 = ________ 𝑑𝑖𝑣
4) Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾 = ____________________𝐴
5) Maximum current to be measure (say 3A), 𝐼0 = _______ 𝐴
To calculate shunt resistance
𝐼𝑔
6) Shunt resistance 𝑆 = 𝐼 𝐺 = ________Ω
0 −𝐼𝑔

To calculate length of wire

7) Pitch of screw gauge 𝑝 = ________ 𝑚𝑚
8) No. of division of circular scale = _________
9) Least count, 𝐿𝐶 = _______𝑚𝑚
10) Zero error, 𝑍𝐸𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚
11) Diameter of the wire 𝑑 = ________ 𝑚𝑚, Radius 𝑟 = _____ 𝑚𝑚 = ________ 𝑐𝑚
12) Resistivity of material of wire, 𝜌 = _______________________ Ω𝑐𝑚
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑆
13) Required Length of the wire 𝑙 = = ______________ 𝑐𝑚
𝜌

Verification:
𝐼0
Least count of galvanometer converted into ammeter 𝐿𝐶𝐺 = = ___________ 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1
𝑁

Tabular column:
Trial Galvanometer reading Ammeter reading 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
no. 𝑰𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝑨 𝑰𝟏 ~𝑰𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝑨
Deflection 𝜽 Current
𝑰𝟏 = 𝜽 × 𝑳𝑪𝑮 in A

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Experiment no: 5 Date:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into
an ammeter of desired range & to verify the same.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of merit are given,
a constantan or manganin wire, a battery, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter,
connecting wires, sand paper etc.
Principle:
Galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting suitable shunt(low)
resistance in parallel with it, so that very large current flows through the
galvanometer.
Formula:
1) 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝑘 𝐴
Where N- Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer (div), k -
Figure of merit of the galvanometer (A/div).
2) Shunt resistance required to connect in parallel with ammeter,
𝐼𝑔
𝑆= 𝐺 Ω
𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑔
Where G - Galvanometer resistance (Ω), 𝐼𝑔 −Current required for producing full
scale deflection of N divisions (A), 𝐼0 − Maximum current to be measure(A).
3) Length of the wire
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑆
𝑙= 𝑐𝑚
𝜌
Where r – radius of wire(cm), S – shunt resistance(Ω) and 𝜌 − resistivity of
wire(Ω𝑚)
Procedure:

1) Count the total number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer
scale. Let it be n.
2) Calculate the current (Ig) for full scale deflection i.e., Ig = nk.
3) Calculate the value of shunt resistance, for conversion into ammeter, using the
formula,
𝐼𝑔
𝑆= 𝐺
𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑔
where I is the range of conversion.
(The value of shunt resistance S is usually very small and a resistance box of that
range is not available. Such small resistances are obtained by taking wires of
copper, constantan, manganin, eureka, etc., of a suitable diameter and length).
4) Cut a length of the wire 2 cm more than the calculated value l. Mark two points on
the wire, one cm away from each end. Connect this wire to the two terminals of
the galvanometer such that the marked points are just outside the terminal
screws. This galvanometer with shunt wire, will now work as an ammeter of range
I0.
5) Make the electric connections as shown in circuit diagram.
6) Insert the key and adjust the rheostat so that the galvanometer shows nearly
maxi-mum deflection.

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Calculations:

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝑘 𝐴

Shunt resistance required to connect in parallel with ammeter,

𝐼𝑔
𝑆= 𝐺 Ω
𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑔

Radius of the wire:

𝑇𝑅 = (𝑃𝑆𝑅 + (𝐻𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿𝐶)) − 𝑍𝐸𝐶 𝑚𝑚

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑆
Required Length of the wire 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑚
𝜌

𝐼0
Least count of galvanometer converted into ammeter 𝐿𝐶𝐺 = = ___________ 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1
𝑁

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7) Note the reading on the galvanometer scale and also corresponding reading on the
ammeter.
8) Record your observations.

Result:

As the difference in actual and measured value of currents (as recorded, in column 4) is
very small, the conversion is perfect.

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Circuit diagram:

Observations:

1) Mass per unit length of the wire (given) 𝑚 = _____________ 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1

2) Acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2

Tabular column:

Trial no Mass attached to the wire Tension Resonating length 𝒍𝟐

M in kg 𝑻 = 𝑴𝒈 𝒊𝒏 𝑵 𝒍 𝒊𝒏 𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟐

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Experiment No. 6 Date:

FREQUENCY OF A.C.

Aim: Determination of the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an

electromagnet.

Apparatus: Sonometer with wire, an electromagnet, slotted weights with hanger.

Principle:

1) In each cycle of A.C., the sonometer string is pulled and released twice.

2) At resonance, the frequency of alternating current is equal to half of the frequency

of fundamental mode of vibration of the stretched string.

Formula:

1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑓 = 𝐻𝑧
4 √𝑚 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Where, m- mass per unit length of the string 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 )

Slope of the graph of 𝑙 2 versus T

Procedure:

1) Suitable mass is attached to the string and the tension T is found.

2) One pole of the electromagnet is placed close to the middle of sonometer wire.
3) The alternating current supply is switched on and the length of the vibrating
portion AB is adjusted by moving wedges such that the amplitude of thevibrating
string is maximum. (By paper rider method)
4) The resonating length 𝑙 is noted.
5) The experiment is repeated for different values of T and readings are tabulated.
6) A graph is plotted between T and 𝑙 2 , taking T on x-axis and 𝑙 2 on y-axis. The slope
of the graph is found.
7) The frequency of alternating current is calculated by using the formula,
1
𝑓=
4 √𝑚 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

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Calculations:

Slope of the graph =

1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑓 = 𝐻𝑧
4 √𝑚 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Result:

The frequency of alternating current, 𝑓 = ____________ 𝐻𝑧

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Diagram:

P1 – object pin

P2 – image pin

M – concave mirror

I – image

Observations:

Approximate focal length of concave mirror 𝑓 = ____________ 𝑐𝑚

Tabular column:

Trial no. Object distance Image distance 𝒇 = 𝒖𝒗

u in cm v in cm 𝒖+𝒗
𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒇 = ____________ 𝒄𝒎

Calculations:

𝑢𝑣
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑢+ 𝑣

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Experiment No. 7 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a concave mirror by u – v method.

Apparatus:

Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, concave mirror of focal length less than 20 cm,
three uprights with clamps and metre scale.

Principle :

1) Focal length is the distance between the pole and principal focus of the mirror.
2) The object distance must be greater than the focal length of the .concave mirror to
get a real and inverted image.

Formula:

𝑢𝑣
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑢+ 𝑣

Where u — distance of the object from the mirror (cm), v— distance of the image from
the mirror (cm).

Procedure:

1) The given concave mirror is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp
image of the distant object on the white sheet of paper kept vertically before the
mirror. Then the distance between the mirror and the sheet of white paper gives
the approximate focal length of the concave mirror.
2) The uprights mounted with concave mirror, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are
placed on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3) The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips
lie on the principal axis of the mirror.
4) The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u
which is greater than f.
5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1 from the other side of
the optical bench, tire position of the image pin P2 is adjusted so that its tip
coincides with the tip of the image without parallax. Then the distance between
the concave mirror and image pin P2 becomes image distance v.
6) The focal length f of the concave mirror is calculated using the formula,
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+ 𝑣
7) Experiment is repeated for differed values of u and readings are tabulated and
average focal length is found.

Result:

The focal length of the concave mirror, 𝑓 = _______________ 𝑐𝑚.

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Diagram:

Expected graph:

Observations:

Approximate focal length of convex lens, 𝑓 = _________ 𝑐𝑚

Tabular column:

Trial no Object distance u in cm Image distance v in cm

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Experiment No. 8 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph of u versus v.

Apparatus:

Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, convex lens of less than 20 cm focal length, three
uprights with clamps and metre scale.

Principle:

1) The object distance must be greater than focal length of the convex lens to get real
and inverted image.
2) When object distance is equal to twice the focal length of the convex lens, then the
image distance will be equal to twice the focal length.

Formula:

𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚
4

Where OA — image distance(cm), OB — object distance(cm)

Procedure:

1) The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image
of the distant tree on the white sheet of paper kept vertically behind the lens. The
distance between the lens and white sheet of paper is measured. This is the
approximate focal length of the lens.
2) The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are placed
on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3) The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips
lie on the principal axis of the lens.
4) The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u
which is greater' than f of the lens.
5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the
image pin P2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image without
parallax. Then the distance between the convex lens and image pin P2 becomes
image distance v.
6) Experiment is repeated for differed values of u and readings are tabulated.
7) A graph is plotted between u and v, taking u on x-axis and v on y-axis. The
angular bisector OZ is drawn and OA & OB are measured.
𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
8) Focal length f of the convex lens is calculated using the formula, 𝑓 = 4

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Calculations:

𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚
4

Result:

The focal length of the convex lens, 𝑓 = ____________ 𝑐𝑚

Alternate Method: Note: A graph is plotted between 1/𝑢 and 1/𝑣; taking 1/𝑢 on x-axis
and 1/𝑣 on y-axis, which is a straight line. From the graph, OA and OB are measured.
Focal length is calculated using the formula,

2
𝑓=
𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵

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Diagram:

Tabular column:

Trial Position C of Position M of Radius of curvature Focal length

no image in cm mirror in cm 𝑹 = (𝑪 − 𝑴) 𝒄𝒎 𝑹
𝒇= 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎
𝟐

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒇 = _____________ 𝒄𝒎

Calculations:

𝑅
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 =
2

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Experiment No. 9 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus:

Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, convex mirror of less than 20 cm focal length, four
uprights with clamps and metre scale.

Principle:

1) The object distance must be greater than focal length of the convex lens to get real
and inverted image.
2) The reflected ray from a convex mirror appears to be coming from its center of
curvature for normal incidence. \

Formula:

𝑅
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚
2

Where R— radius of curvature of the convex mirror (cm)

Procedure:

1) The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are placed
on the optical bench as shown in the figure.
2) The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips
lie on the principal 'axis of the lens.
3) The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance which
is greater than focal length of the convex lens.
4) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the
image pin P2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image of P1
without parallax. The position C of the pin P2 is noted.
5) The given convex mirror is introduced between the lens and image pin P2 as shown
in the figure.
6) The position of the mirror is adjusted such that the pin P1 coincides with the tip of
its image. The position M of the mirror is noted.
7) The distance between the position, of convex mirror and the position C is
measured which is equal to radius of curvature R of the convex mirror.
𝑅
8) Focal length of the convex mirror is calculated using the formula, 𝑓 = 2
9) The experiment is repeated by changing the distance between object pin P1 and
the lens. The average value of focal length of convex mirror f is found.

Result:

The focal length of the convex mirror, 𝑓 = ____________ 𝑐𝑚

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Diagram:

Tabular column:

Trial Position of Position Position of Object Image Focal length

no. the image of the concave distance distance 𝒗 𝒖𝒗
𝒇=
𝑰𝟏 image 𝑰𝟐 lens 𝑳𝟐 𝒖 (𝒁~𝑿) 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝒖−𝒗
𝒀 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝒁 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝑿 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 (𝒀~𝑿) 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒇 = _____________ 𝒄𝒎

Calculations:

𝒖𝒗
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝒇 = 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗

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Experiment No. 10 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS

Aim:

Determination of the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

Apparatus:

Optical bench, with uprights for holding the lenses and pins, a thin concave lens, a
convex lens of focal length (-15 cm) smaller than that of the concave lens and metre
scale.

Principle :

The object distance must be greater than focal length of the convex lens to get real and
inverted image. This image acts as virtual object for the concave lens. The concave lens
forms a real image for this virtual object.

Formula:

𝒖𝒗
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝒇 = 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎
𝒖−𝒗

Where u — distance of the virtual object from the concave lens (cm), v — distance of the
real image from the concave lens (𝑐𝑚)

Procedure:

1) The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are I
placed on the optical bench as shown in the figure - 1.
2) The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips
lie on the principal axis of the lens.
3) The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance which
is greater than focal length of the convex lens.
4) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the
image pin P2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image of P1
without parallax. Then position Y of the image pin P2 is noted.
5) Concave lens is introduced between convex lens and image pin P2 as shown in the
figure.
6) The position of the image pin P2 is adjusted such that its tip coincides with the tip
of the object pin P1 without parallax: The position Z of the image pin P2 is noted.
7) Then position X of the concave lens is also noted.
8) 𝑌~𝑋 gives object distance u and 𝑍~𝑋 gives image distance v.
𝒖𝒗
9) The focal length of the concave lens is calculated using the formula, 𝒇 = 𝒖−𝒗
10) Experiment is repeated by changing the distance between the convex lens and the
object pin P1. Readings are tabulated and average focal length of concave lens f is
found.

Result:

The focal length of the concave lens, 𝑓 = _____________ 𝑐𝑚

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Diagram:

Expected graph:

Tabular column:

Trial No. Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

in degree in degree

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Experiment no: 11 Date:

ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION

Aim:

Determination of angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by plotting a graph,

between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence.

Apparatus:

Drawing board, triangular glass prism, drawing pins and white paper sheets.

Principle:

The angle of deviation is the angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray. At
minimum deviation, the light ray passes through the prism symmetrically.

Hence, angle of incidence = angle of emergence

Procedure:

1) A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing board.
2) The points 𝑂1 , 𝑂2 , 𝑂3 , 𝑂4 and 𝑂5 are marked on XY at distances of about 10cm apart.
3) A normal 𝑁1 𝑂1 is drawn to XY at 𝑂1 and a straight line 𝐷1 𝑂1 is drawn to represent
ray of incidence which makes an angle of 35° (i) with 𝑁1 𝑂1.
4) The prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in the figure and its boundary is
drawn.
5) Two pins P1 and Q1 are vertically fixed about 5cm apart on the ray of incidence
𝐷1 𝑂1.
6) While seeing the images of pins P1 and Q1 through BC, two more pins R1 and S1
are fixed on the side of BC so that images of tips of pins P1 and Q1, R1 and S1 will
be collinear.
7) Pins are removed and their pricks are encircled. A straight line is drawn through
pin pricks of R1 and S1 to obtain ray of emergence.
8) Rays of incidence and emergence are extended as shown in the figure to find angle
of deviation (d).
9) Experiment is repeated for different values of angle of incidence 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°,
60° and readings are tabulated.
10) A graph is plotted between angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation (d), taking i
on x-axis and d on y-axis.
The angle of minimum deviation 𝑑𝑚 is found from the graph.

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Graph:

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Result:

The angle of minimum deviation, 𝑑𝑚 = __________

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Diagram:

Observations:

Value of 1 main scale division 𝑆 = _________ 𝑐𝑚

Total number of Vernier scale divisions 𝑁 = ________ 𝑐𝑚

𝑆
Least count of travelling microscope 𝐿𝐶 = 𝑁 = = _______ 𝑐𝑚

Tabular column:

Trial Reading Reading Reading Refractive index of

no 𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝑹𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 𝑹𝟑 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 glass
MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝜼𝒈 =
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒏𝒈 = ___________

Calculations:

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Experiment No. 12 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of glass using a glass slab and travelling
microscope.

Apparatus:

Travelling microscope, glass slab.

Principle :

The refractive index of the glass with respect to air is the ratio of real depth to the
apparent depth.

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

Formula:

𝑹 −𝑹
1) Refractive index of the glass with respect to air, 𝜼𝒈 = 𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟏
𝟑 𝟐
Where R1 Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through air
(cm),
R2 - Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through glass slab
(cm), R3 - Reading of the microscope when focused on the chalk dust on the upper
surface of the glass slab (cm).
2) Total reading of 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + ( 𝐶𝑉𝐷 𝑥 𝐿𝐶)
Where MSR - Main scale reading (cm), CVD - coinciding Vernier division, LC -
Least count (cm).

Procedure:

1) The least count of the travelling microscope is calculated.

2) A sheet of white paper is placed on the base of travelling microscope and ink mark
is made on it.
3) The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper. MSR and CVD
are noted in vertical scale and reading R1 is calculated using the formula. 𝑅1 =
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + (𝐶𝑉𝐷 × 𝐿𝐶).
4) Glass slab is placed on the paper and the microscope is raised to focus on the ink
mark through glass slab and corresponding reading R2 is found.
5) Chalk dust is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab and microscope is
again raised to focus on the chalk dust and corresponding reading R3 is found.
𝑹 −𝑹
6) Refractive index of glass is calculated using the formula, 𝜼𝒈 = 𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟏
𝟑 𝟐
7) The experiment is repeated for different positions of the glass slab and average
refractive index is found.

Result:

The refractive index of glass 𝑛𝑔 = ___________

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Diagram:

Observation:

1) Radius of curvature of concave mirror, 𝑅 = ______________ 𝑐𝑚

2) Radius of curvature of concave mirror with water, 𝑅′ = ______________ 𝑐𝑚

Calculations:

𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑛𝑤 =
𝑅′

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Experiment No. 13 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

Aim:

Determination of the refractive index of water using a concave mirror.

Apparatus:

Concave mirror, water, a pin and a metre scale.

Principle:

1) The rays of light form the object incident normally on the concave mirror, retrace
their paths so that image of the object forms by the side of the object.
2) The bottom of the concave minor containing water, appears to be raised up
because of refraction of light through water.

Formula:

𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑛𝑤 =
𝑅′

Where R - Radius of curvature of Concave mirror (cm), R’ - apparent radius of curvature

of concave mirror with water (cm).

Procedure:

1) A concave mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand as shown in the figure.
2) A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the pole of the mirror
and clamped.
3) The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides exactly
with the tip of its image 𝐴′ 𝐵′ without parallax.
4) The vertical distance R between the mirror and pin is measured.
5) Now a small quantity of water is poured into the concave mirror.
6) The position of the pin AB is lowered such that the tip of the pin coincides With tip
of its image 𝐴"𝐵" without parallax.
7) Then vertical distance R' between the mirror and the pin is measured after the
removal of water.
𝑅
8) Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula, 𝑛𝑤 = 𝑅′

Result:

The refractive index of water, 𝑛𝑤 = ________________

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Diagram:

Observations:

1) Radius of curvature of convex lens (given), 𝑅 = __________ 𝑐𝑚

2) Focal length of convex lens, 𝑓 = __________ 𝑐𝑚
3) Focal length of combination of lens, 𝑓′ = __________ 𝑐𝑚

Calculations:

𝑓𝑓 ′
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑓𝑤 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚
𝑓 − 𝑓′

𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑛𝑤 = 1 +
𝑓𝑤

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Experiment No. 14 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

Aim:

Determination of the refractive index of water using a convex lens and plane mirror.

Apparatus:

Convex lens, plane mirror, water, illuminated object.

Principle:

1) The rays of light form the object incident normally on the plane minor, retrace
their paths so that image of the object forms by the side of the object.
2) It is based on the relation between radii of curvature of equiconvex lens and
effective focal length of the glass and water lenses.

Formula:

𝑓𝑓 ′
1) 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑓𝑤 = 𝑓−𝑓′ 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚
Where f - focal length of convex lens (cm), f’- focal length of combination of glass
lens and water lens (cm).
𝑅
2) 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑛𝑤 = 1 + 𝑓
𝑤
Where R - radius of curvature of equiconvex lens (cm), 𝑓𝑤 - magnitude of focal
length of the lens formed by water (cm).

Procedure:

1) A plane mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand keeping its reflecting
surface upward.
2) A convex lens is placed on the plane mirror as shown in the figure.
3) A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the optic center (0) of
the convex lens and clamped.
4) The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides exactly
with the tip of its image A'B' without parallax.
5) The vertical distance between the convex lens and pin is measured and is equal to
focal length of the convex lens.
6) A few drops of water is put under the lens with the help of dropper so that the
space between the mirror and lens is filled with water.
7) The position of the pin AB is raised such that the tip of the pin coincides with tip
of its image A"B" without parallax.
8) Then vertical distance between the convex lens and the pin AB is measured which
equals focal length 𝑓’ of combination of convex lens & water lens.
𝑓𝑓 ′
9) The focal length of water lens is calculated using the formula, 𝑓𝑤 = 𝑓−𝑓′
𝑅
10) Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula, 𝑛𝑤 = 1 + 𝑓
𝑤

Result:

The refractive index of water, 𝑛𝑤 = ______________

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Circuit diagram:

Expected graph:

Tabular column:

Voltage
𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
Current
𝑰 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝑨

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Experiment No. 15 Date:

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTIC

Aim:

To draw the current (I) verses voltage (V) characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in
forward bias and hence find cut-in voltage.

Apparatus:

Semiconductor diode, milli-ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle:

When the diode is forward biased it offers very low resistance.

Cut-in voltage is the characteristic voltage at which diode current increases

exponentially even for a small increase in bias voltage, when diode is in. forward bias.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) Using the rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for suitable value V. The voltage V and
the corresponding current I are noted.
3) The voltage is increased in small steps. The values of V and I are noted in each
case and readings are tabulated.
4) A Graph is plotted between V and I, taking. the voltage V along x-axis and current
I along y-axis.
5) Cut-in voltage is found.

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Graph:

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Result:

The cut-in or knee voltage of diode = _________ 𝑉

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Circuit diagram:

Expected graph:

Tabular column:

Voltage
𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
Current
𝑰 𝒊𝒏 𝝁𝑨

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Experiment No. 16 Date:

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTIC

Aim:

To draw the current (I) verses voltage (V) characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in
reverse bias and hence to determine reverse saturation current.

Apparatus:

Semiconductor diode, micro-ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle:

When the diode is reverse biased it offers very high resistance. As the applied voltage
increases in reverse bias, the current increases and soon becomes constant and it is
called reverse saturation current.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) A suitable voltage V is adjusted by using rheostat and corresponding current is
noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of V and the readings are
tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted between V and I, taking voltage V along x-axis and current 1
along y-axis and reverse saturation current is found.

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Graph:

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Result:

The reverse saturation current for the given diode = ____________ 𝜇𝐴

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Viva questions:

OHM’S LAW
1. What is electrical resistance?
Resistance is the opposition offered by the material to the flow of current. OR resistance is the ratio of
potential difference across the conductor to the current through it.
2. What is the reciprocal of resistance? With what unit it is measured?
Conductance. Unit is mho or siemen.
3. Why large amount of current is not preferred in this experiment?
When large current passes, the conductor gets heated more and hence its resistance changes.
4. What is an ohmic conductor?
Conductor which obeys Ohm's law is called an ohmic conductor.
5. Give an example for a conductor.
Copper, (Aluminium, Iron)
6. In the above experiment two sets of readings were taken. The conductor is heated and two more voltage
and current readings were taken. Will the four points form a straight line in the graph? Why?
No. Because, the resistance changes with temperature. Hence two points corresponding to the readings
taken after heating the conductor form a different straight line.
7. How do you conclude that the conductor used in the above experiment has obeyed Ohm's law?
V-I Graph obtained is a straight line. Hence Ohm's law is obeyed.
8. V-I graph for a material is a straight line. What is your conclusion?
The conductor is an ohmic device which obeys Ohm's law. Hence potential difference across the
conductor is directly proportional to the current through it.
9. On what factors does resistance of a conductor depend?
Length of the conductor, Area of cross section, type of conductor and temperature.
10. Length of a material is halved. What happens to its resistance?
Resistance will be halved.
11. Thick metal plates are used in a metre bridge for connections. Why?
Thick metal plates have large area of cross section and hence less resistance. Hence parts of the
instruments do not add to any resistance.
12. What is current?
Rate of flow of charges is called current.
13. Why can't we use D.C. ammeters and voltmeters to measure A.C. current or voltages?
Because alternating current changes the direction every time and average value of current for full cycle
will be zero.
14. What is a rheostat?
It is a instrument used to vary current.
15. What is the use of a rheostat?
Rheostat is used to vary current and as a potential divider.
16. What is the principle of a galvanometer/ammeter/voltmeter?
Mechanical effect of electric current.
17. Give an example for variable resistor.
Rheostat, resistance box.
18. What does the slope of 1-V graph give? Conductance.
19. What is the difference between a rheostat and a resistance box?
In resistance box, resistance varies in steps. in rheostat resistance can be varied continuously. Both are
used to limit the current in a circuit.

Resistivity
1. Define resistivity (or specific resistance) of a material of a conductor.
It is the resistance of a material having unit length and unit area of cross section.
2. On what factors does resistivity of a material depend?
Resistivity depends on the material and temperature.
3. Does resistivity depend on length and area of cross section of the material?
No.
4. Length of a conductor is doubled. What will be its new resistivity?
Resistivity remains the same.

FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER

1. What is a galvanometer?
Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of current.
2. What do you mean by figure of merit of a galvanometer?
Current required for unit deflection is called figure of merit or sensitiveness.

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3. On what factors does the figure of merit of a galvanometer depend?
Number of turns in the galvanometer coil, area of coil, strength of magnetic field.
4. How does the galvanometer resistance 'G' vary as the current through the galvanometer increases?
G does not vary with current.
5. Is the galvanometer resistance constant?
Yes
6. What happens if the experiment is performed without high resistance R?
High current will pass through the galvanometer and damage it.
7. Resistance S required to produce half deflection is taken as galvanometer resistance G. Why?
Let S be open. Now current passes only through G and produces a deflection°. When we unplug S
such that current flowing through galvanometer earlier, now reduces to half and remaining half
flows through S. Deflection in G reduces to 0/2. 24

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER and AMMETER

1. What is an ammeter?
Instrument used to measure current
2. What is a voltmeter?
Instrument used to measure potential difference.
3. How do you connect an ammeter in a circuit?
In series.
4. How do you connect a voltmeter in a circuit?
In parallel.
5. How do you convert a galvanometer into an ammeter?
By connecting a very low resistance in parallel with the galvanometer
6. How do you convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter?
By connecting a very high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
7. Why can't we use a galvanometer directly as an ammeter or voltmeter?
An ammeter should have very low resistance and a voltmeter should have very high resistance. But
the resistance of a galvanometer is neither very high nor very low.
8. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
Zero
9. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
Infinity
10. Can you convert a voltmeter into an ammeter and vice versa? How?
Yes. To convert a voltmeter into an ammeter connect a very low resistance in parallel with the
voltmeter. To convert an ammeter into a voltmeter connect a very high resistance in series with
ammeter.
11. A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter of range 'V' volts. If the range has to be increased how
should the series resistance be varied?
Increase the series resistance.
12. A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter of range 'I' amperes. If the range has to be increased
how should the shunt resistance be varied?
Decrease the shunt resistance.

FREQUENCY OF AC
1. Define frequency of A.C.?
Number of ac cycles repeated in one second.
2. What do you mean by A.C.?
Current which varies sinusoidally with time.
3. Which type of current is supplied by KPTCL for our domestic use?
Alternating Current.
4. Which type of current is supplied by a dry cell available in shops?
Direct Current.
5. What is the frequency of ac supplied by KPTCL?
50Hz
6. What is resonance?
When the frequency of applied force and natural frequency of a system are same, the condition is
called resonance.
OR
When the natural frequency of the resonating wire is equal to frequency of applied force, wire
vibrates with maximum amplitude. Now the condition is called resonance.
7. What is electrical resonating length?
The length of the sonometer wire (or between the wedges) at which resonance occurs is called
resonating length.
8. What is an electromagnet?
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When a wire is wound on a ferromagnetic material and current is passed through it, the material
turns into a magnet. The magnet is called electromagnet.
9. Using this experiment can you measure the frequency of D.C.? If yes, how? If no Why? No.
Frequency of dc is zero. Hence the sonometer wire does not vibrate.
10. What is a sonometer?
It is an instrument to determine the frequency of vibration of a string.
11. How does resonating length vary with tension, T?
Resonating length is directly proportional to tension.
12. Frequency of ac is 50Hz. What is the frequency of vibration of sonometer wire? Why?
For every cycle of ac, electromagnet gets magnetized and demagnetized twice. Hence the sonometer
wire vibrates twice for a cycle of ac. Its frequency of vibration is 100Hz.

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

1. What is focal length of a mirror?
Paraxial rays incident on a mirror, after reflection meet at point. Distance from this point to the
pole of the mirror is called focal length
2. What difference will you find in the virtual image formed by concave and convex mirrors?
In a concave mirror, virtual image is always enlarged. In a convex mirror, virtual image is always
diminished.
3. Can a concave mirror form same sized real image? If yes, when? If no, Why?
Yes. When the object is at the centre of curvature.
4. Name one common use of a concave mirror.
As a reflector in vehicle head lights, (As a shaving mirror, dentists use concave mirror to get
enlarged virtual image of the teeth).
5. Which type of mirror is used by dentists? Why?
Concave mirror. Because concave mirror forms virtual enlarged image when teeth lies within the
focus.
6. A mirror like reflector is placed behind the bulb inside the head light of vehicles. Which type of
mirror is it?
Concave mirror.
7. In a concave mirror, object distance is decreased. What happens to the image distance?
Increases.

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

1. What is focal length of a lens?
Paraxial rays incident on a lens, after refraction meet at point. Distance from this point to the optic
centre of a lens is called focal length.
2. What do you mean by focal point of a lens?
Paraxial rays incident on a lens, after refraction meet at point. This point is called focal point.
3. A lens made of glass is diverging parallel rays of light in air. What type of lens is it?
Concave lens.
4. A lens made of glass is converging parallel rays of light in air. What type of lens is it?
Convex lens.
5. Name one common use of a convex lens.
Convex lens is used as a simple microscope (reading lens). Convex lens is used in microscopes,
telescopes.
6. A kid holds a lens in front of sun and burns a paper kept on the other side of the lens. Which lens
must he be using?
Convex lens.
7. A man is wearing convex lens as spectacle. What type of eye defect has he?
Hypermetropia
8. For what position of object, will a convex lens produce virtual image?
Objects within the focus.

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR

1. Define principal focus of a convex mirror.
Paraxial rays parallel to the principal axis after reflection at the convex mirror appear to diverge
from a point. This point is the principal focus.
2. What is radius of curvature of a convex mirror?
It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
3. What is the relation between radius of curvature and focal length?
𝑅 = 2𝑓
4. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror. What is the nature of the image formed?
The image is virtual, erect diminished and formed with in the focus.
5. What is the use of convex mirror?
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It is used as rear view mirror for motor car. It offers wide field of view and the image is erect.
6. What is the radius of curvature of a plane mirror?
Infinity

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS

1. What is a spherical lens?
Spherical lens is defined as a lens that is part of a sphere and has a surface that is spherical.
2. What type of lens is present in the human eye?
Convex lens is present in human eye.
3. What are the factors affecting the power of lens?
Following are the factors affecting the power of lens:
i. Refractive index of the material used in the lens.
ii. The change in medium.
iii. The radius of curvature.
iv. The wavelength of the light.
v. The thickness of the lens.
4. What is the focal length of a lens?
The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance between the optical centre and the principal
focus of the lens.
5. What are the use of lens?
Lenses are used in spectacles, microscopes, in optical instruments, and in telescopes.

REFACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

1. What is refractive index of a transparent medium?
The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in the given medium.
𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝑛= =
𝑉 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜐
Where c = velocity of light in the vacuum, v = velocity of light in the given medium.
2. What are the factors affecting the refractive index?
(a) Wave length of the light used. (b) Nature or the medium.
3. What is meant by monochromatic light?
Light consisting of only one colour or wave-length.
4. Can you see all the wave-lengths?
No, wave lengths from 4000Å (violet) to 6000 Å (Red) are visible only.
5. Can the refractive index of a medium be less than or equal to 1?
𝐶
No, since in the relation: 𝑛 = and we always have: V < C, n > 1
𝑣
6. What is the refractive index of? (a) glass (b) water (c) air (d) vacuum
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.33 (c) 1.003 (d) (V = C in vacuum)
7. What is the principle of this experiment?
1 1 1
The focal length (f) of combination of thin lenses is given by: = +
𝑓 𝑓𝑙 𝑓𝑔
Where, fl and fg are the focal lengths, the liquid lens, and the glass lens respectively.
8. What type of lens is formed by water?
Plano-concave lens.
9. What type of combined lens is formed?
Plano-concave lens.
10. Which one is greater, the focal length of the combination or the focal length of the convex lens?
The focal length of the combination.
11. What is function of plane mirror?
To reflect the rays refracted by the lens of liquid. When the pin is at the centre of curvature of the
combination, the reflected rays form the image at the position of the pin.
12. What are the laws of reflection?
(a) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. (b) The angle of incidence, angle
of refraction and the normal to the point of incidence, all lie in one plane.
13. What are laws of refraction?
(a) The ratio Sin i / Sin r is always constant give a given medium and is called refracted index,μ or
n (Snell’s Law). (b) The incident ray, the refracted ray and normal to the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
14. Which substance has greatest value of refractive index?
Diamond (2.42)
15. What defect may be produced in the image when very small quantity of water and hence the image
produced will be distorted.
The water surface will not be flat due to the small quantity of water and hence the image
produced will be distorted.

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ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION

1. Name the factors on which the angle of deviation depend on.
Following are the factors on which the angle of deviation depend on:
i. The angle of incidence
ii. The refracting angle of the prism
iii. Refractive index of the material used in the prism
iv. The wavelength of the light ray
2. Define angular deviation.
Angular deviation is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion of the two colours to produce the
deviation by the prism.
3. Name the factor on which dispersive power depends.
Dispersive power depends on the refractive index of the material used in the prism.
4. Name the colours with the highest and smallest refractive index.
Violet colour has the highest refractive index while the red colour has the smallest refractive index.

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

1. What do you mean by refractive index of medium?
Ratio of velocity of light in air to the velocity of light in medium.
2. Refractive index of a medium 'A is more than that of 'B'. In which medium does light travel
comparatively faster?
In B. (More the speed of light lesser will be the refractive index)
3. What is the refractive index of vacuum?
One.
4. Bottom of a swimming pool appears to be nearer when seen from air. How does a coconut tree look
when seen from a point inside water?
Looks taller than in air.
5. Name the material which has high value of refractive index among water, glass and diamond.
Diamond.
6. In which medium does light travel with maximum speed? What is its value?
In vacuum. 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
7. On what factors does the apparent depth depend?
Real depth, refractive index of the medium in which the object is kept and refractive index of the
medium from where the object is viewed.
8. In this experiment why is the apparent depth lesser than real depth?
Because the object is in denser medium and the observer is in rarer medium.
9. Can apparent depth be more than the real depth?
Yes. (When the object is in rarer medium and the observer is in denser medium)
10. What is the formula for real depth in the experiment?
𝑅3 − 𝑅1 .
11. What is the formula for apparent depth in the experiment?
𝑅3 − 𝑅2 .
12. 12. Can you find the normal shift in the above experiment? How?
Yes. By calculating 𝑅2 − 𝑅1

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
1. Define energy level in an atom.
Energy level in an atom is defined as the energy value of an electron in the subshell of an atom.
2. What are the different types of energy bands?
Following are the different types of energy bands: Conduction band (C), Valence band (V),
Forbidden band (F)
3. What are the different types of substances?
Following are the different types of substances:
Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors
4. What is the SI unit of conductance?
SI unit of conductance is siemens (S).
5. Name the different types of biasing.
Following are the different types of biasing:
• Forward biasing
• Reverse biasing
6. What is semiconductor?
Material having electrical conductivity property between conductors and insulators.
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7. How are semiconductors different from conductor in terms of their resistance?
Resistance of semiconductors is more than conductors.
8. What do you mean by biasing a diode?
Supplying energy to the junction is called biasing. The equilibrium barrier potential of a p-n
junction diode can be altered by applying an external voltage across the diode. This is called
biasing.
9. How do you forward bias a diode?
By connecting p-side of the diode to positive of battery and n-side of the diode to negative of
battery.
10. Name one application of a diode OR name an electronic circuit where semiconductor diode is used.
Rectifier.
11. What is the difference between a semiconductor diode and a resistor?
A resistor offers same resistance when current flows through it in both the directions. But a diode
offers low resistance when current flows in one direction and very high resistance when current
flows in opposite direction.
12. What do you mean by cut-in voltage?
The forward voltage of the diode after which current increases sharply is called knee or cut in
voltage.
13. What happens to junction resistance of a diode when it is forward biased?
Decreases.
14. What are the resistance of the diode during forward bias?
Less.

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