ANATOMICAL SOCIETY OF BANGLADESH

Explanatory Figure: General Anatomy- Osteology

General Anatomy: Osteology 1

Diagram of immature and mature compact and spongy bone.
a. Immature (woven) bone does not display an organized lamellar appearance because of the interlacing arrangement of the collagen fibers.
The cells tend to be randomly arranged, b. The cells in mature compact bone are organized in a circular fashion that reflects the lamellar
structure of the Haversian system. Resorption canals in mature bone are lined by osteoclasts (in cutting cones) and have their long axes oriented
in the same direction as the Haversian canals, c. Mature spongy bone represents a meshwork of trabeculae (thin, anastomosing spicules of
bone tissue). The spaces within the meshwork are continuous and, in a living bone, are occupied by bone marrow.
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Explanatory Figure: General Anatomy- Osteology

General Anatomy: Osteology 2

Schematic drawing of cells associated with bone.
All cells except osteoclasts originate from the mesenchymal stem cells, which differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and finally
osteocytes and bone-lining cells. Bone-lining cells on external bone surfaces are part of the periosteum, hence the term periosteal cells. Bone-
lining cells on internal bone surfaces are frequently called endosteal cells. Note that osteoprogenitor cells and bone-lining cells have a similar
microscopic appearance and are often difficult to distinguish from each other. Osteoclasts originate from hemopoietic progenitor cells, which
differentiate into bone-resorbing cells.
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Explanatory Figure: Regional Anatomy- Abdomen

Regional Anatomy- Abdomen 1

Rectus sheath.
Anterior view (A) and in sagittal section (B). Note the arrangement of the aponeuroses forming the rectus sheath.
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Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- Gametogenesis

General Embryology- 1
Events occurring during the first and second maturation divisions.
A. The primitive female germ cell (primary oocyte) produces only one mature gamete, the mature oocyte. B. The primitive male germ cell
(primary spermatocyte) produces four spermatids, all of which develop into spermatozoa.
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Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- Gametogenesis

General Embryology- 2
Drawing showing the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in regulating the ovarian cycle.
Under the influence of GnRH from the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases the gonadotropins, FSH, and LH. Follicles are stimulated
to grow by FSH and to mature by FSH and LH. Ovulation occurs when concentrations of LH surge to high levels. LH also promotes
development of the corpus luteum. 1, primordial follicle; 2, growing follicle; 3, vesicular follicle; 4, mature vesicular (Graafian) follicle.
 ANATOMICAL SOCIETY OF BANGLADESH

Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- Ovulation to implantation

Events occurring during the first and second maturation divisions.

Events during the first week of human development. 1, oocyte immediately after ovulation; 2, fertilization, approximately 12 to 24 hours after
ovulation; 3, stage of the male and female pronuclei; 4, spindle of the first mitotic division; 5, two-cell stage (approximately 30 hours of age);

General Embryology- 3
6, morula containing 12 to 16 blastomeres (approximately 3 days of age); 7, advanced morula stage reaching the uterine lumen (approximately
4 days of age); 8, early blastocyst stage (approximately 4.5 days of age; the zona pellucida has disappeared); and 9, early phase of implantation
(blastocyst approximately 6 days of age). The ovary shows stages of transformation between a primary follicle and a preovulatory follicle as
well as a corpus luteum. The uterine endometrium is shown in the progestational stage.
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Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- Fertilization

General Embryology- 4
Phases of fertilization.
The three phases of oocyte penetration. In phase 1, spermatozoa pass through the corona radiata barrier; in phase 2, one or more
spermatozoa penetrate the zona pellucida; in phase 3, one spermatozoon penetrates the oocyte membrane while losing its own plasma
membrane. Inset shows normal spermatocyte with acrosomal head cap.
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Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- The Gut Tube and the Body Cavities

Formation of body cavities.

General Embryology- 5
A. Transformation of the pericardioperitoneal canals into the pleural cavities and formation of the pleuropericardial membranes. Note the
pleuropericardial folds containing the common cardinal vein and phrenic nerve. Mesenchyme of the body wall splits into the pleuropericardial
membranes and definitive body wall. B. The thorax after fusion of the pleuropericardial folds with each other and with the root of the lungs.
Note the position of the phrenic nerve, now in the fibrous pericardium. The right common cardinal vein has developed into the superior
venacava.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Skeleton

Systems-Based Embryology- Skeleton 1

Formation of the vertebral column at various stages of development.
A. At the fourth week of development, sclerotomic segments are separated by less dense intersegmental tissue. Note the position of the
myotomes, intersegmental arteries, and segmental nerves. B. Proliferation of the caudal half of one sclerotome proceeds into the
intersegmental mesenchyme and cranial half of the subjacent sclerotome (arrows). Note the appearance of the intervertebral discs. C.
Vertebrae are formed by the upper and lower halves of two successive sclerotomes and the intersegmental tissue. Myotomes bridge the
intervertebral discs, and therefore, can move the vertebral column.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System

Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System 1

Transverse sections through the region of the stomach, liver, and spleen, showing formation of the omental bursa (lesser peritoneal sac),
rotation of the stomach, and position of the spleen and tail of the pancreas between the two leaves of the dorsal mesogastrium. With further
development, the pancreas assumes a retroperitoneal position.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System

Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System 2

Development of small intestine.
A. A 9-mm embryo (approximately 36 days). The liver expands caudally
into the abdominal cavity. Note condensation of mesenchyme in the
area between the liver and the pericardial cavity, foreshadowing
formation of the diaphragm from part of the septum transversum. B.
A slightly older embryo. Note the falciform ligament extending
between the liver and the anterior abdominal wall and the lesser
omentum extending between the liver and the foregut (stomach and
duodenum). The liver is entirely surrounded by peritoneum except in
its contact area with the diaphragm. This is the bare area of the liver.
Rotation of mid gut.
A. Primary intestinal loop before rotation (lateral view). The superior
mesenteric artery forms the axis of the loop. Arrow, counterclockwise
rotation. B. Similar view as in A showing the primary intestinal loop
after 180° counterclockwise rotations. The transverse colon passes in
front of the duodenum.
 ANATOMICAL SOCIETY OF BANGLADESH

Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System

Systems-Based Embryology: Digestive System 3

Annular pancreas.
The ventral pancreas splits and forms a ring around the duodenum, occasionally resulting in duodenal stenosis.
 ANATOMICAL SOCIETY OF BANGLADESH

Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Urinary System

Systems-Based Embryology- Urinary System 1

Development of a metanephric excretory unit.
Arrows, the place where the excretory unit (blue) establishes an open communication with the collecting system (yellow), allowing flow of
urine from the glomerulus into the collecting ducts.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Urinary System 2

Systems-Based Embryology- Urinary System 2

Development of the renal pelvis, calyces, and collecting tubules of the metanephros.
A. 6 weeks. B. At the end of the sixth week. C. 7 weeks. D. Newborn. Note the pyramid form of the collecting tubules entering the minor calyx.
 ANATOMICAL SOCIETY OF BANGLADESH

Explanatory Figure: Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System

Systems-Based Embryology- Digestive System 4

Developmental anomalies of Hindgut.
Urorectal (A) and rectovaginal (B) fistulas that result from incomplete separation of the hindgut from the urogenital sinus by the urorectal
septum. These defects may also arise if the cloaca is too small, which causes the opening of the hindgut to shift anteriorly. C. Rectoperineal
(rectoanal atresia). These defects probably result from vascular accidents involving the caudal region of the hindgut, resulting in atresias and
fistulas. D. Imperforate anus resulting from failure of the anal membrane to break down.
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Explanatory Figure: General Histology- Connective tissue

General Histology- Connective tissue 1

Loose connective tissue.
a. Photomicrograph of a mesentery spread stained with Verhoeff’s hematoxylin to show nuclei and elastic fibers; it has been counterstained
with safranin for identification of mast cell granules and with orange G for identification of other proteins (mainly collagen fibers). The elastic
fibers appear as blue-black, thin, long, and branching threads without discernible beginnings or endings. Collagen fibers appear as orange-
stained, long, straight profiles, and are considerably thicker than the elastic fibers. Most of the visible nuclei are presumed to be those of
fibroblasts. Nuclei of other cell types (e.g., lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages) are also present but are not identifiable. Mast cells
are identified by the bright reddish granules within their cytoplasm. Note the presence of the small blood vessel filled with red blood cells. 150.
b. Schematic diagram illustrating the components of loose connective tissue. Note the association of different cell types with the surrounding
extracellular matrix, which contains blood vessels and different types of fibers.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Histology: Digestive Tract

Systems-based Histology: Digestive Tract 1

Diagram of M cells covering the lymphatic nodule of the intestine.
a. This diagram shows the relationship of the M cells (microfold cells) and absorptive cells in the epithelium covering a lymphatic nodule. The
M cell is an epithelial cell that displays microfolds rather than microvilli on its apical surface. It has deep recesses within which lymphocytes,
macrophages, and processes of dendritic cells come close to the lumen of the small intestine. An intact antigen from the intestinal lumen is
transferred across the thin layer of the M cell apical cytoplasm to lymphocytes and other antigen-presenting cells residing within the recesses,
b. Scanning electron micrograph of a Peyer's patch lymphatic nodule bulging into the lumen of the ileum. Note that the area of the follicle
covered by M cells is surrounded by the finger-like projections of the intestinal villi. The surface of the M cells has a smooth appearance. The
absence of absorptive cells and mucus-producing goblet cells in the area covered by M cells facilitates immunoreactions to antigens. X80.
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Explanatory Figure: General Histology- Muscle tissue

General Histology: Muscle tissue 1

Mechanism of excitation- contraction coupling in a skeletal muscle fiber.
An increase in the Ca2+ level in the sarcoplasm starts the sliding of thin filaments. When the level of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm declines, sliding
stops. (a) During relaxation, the level of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm is low, only 0.1 µM (0.0001 mM), because calcium ions are pumped into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum by Ca2+ATPase pumps. (b) A muscle action potential propagating along a T tubule causes voltage gated Ca2+ channels
to undergo a conformational change that opens Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions flow into the sarcoplasm,
and contraction begins.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Histology- Hepatobiliary

Comparison of three models of liver organization and function.

Systems-based Histology- Hepatobiliary 1

a. The outlines of a classic hepatic lobule, portal lobule, and liver acinus are visible on this section of the liver tissue. Note that the hexagonal-
shaped classic lobule (red) has the terminal hepatic venule (central vein) at the center of the lobule and the portal canals containing portal
triads at the peripheral angles of the lobule. The triangular portal lobule (green) has a portal canal at the center of the lobule and terminal
hepatic venules (central veins) at the peripheral angles of the lobule. A diamond shaped liver acinus (multicolor) has distributing vessels at the
equator and terminal hepatic venules (central veins) at each pole. b. The liver acinus is a functional interpretation of liver organization. It consists
of adjacent sectors of neighboring hexagonal fields of classic lobules partially separated by distributing blood vessels. The zones, marked 1,2,
and 3, are supplied with blood that is richest and most nutrient-oxygenated in zone 1 and least so in zone 3. The terminal hepatic venules
(central veins) in this interpretation are at the pointed edges of the acinus instead of in the center, as in the classic lobule. The portal triads
(terminal branches of the portal vein and hepatic artery) and the smallest bile ducts are shown at the corners of the hexagon that outlines the
cross-sectioned profile of the classic lobule.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Histology- Hepatobiliary

Systems-based Histology: Hepatobiliary 2

Diagram of the flow of blood and bile in the liver.
This schematic diagram of a part of a classic lobule shows the components of the portal triads, hepatic sinuses, terminal hepatic venule (central
vein), and associated plates of hepatocytes. Arrows indicate the direction of the blood flow in the sinusoids. Note that the direction of bile flow
(green duct) is opposite that of the blood flow.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Histology: Lymphatic System

Systems-based Histology: Lymphatic System 1

Blood flow in the spleen.
Schematic view of the blood circulation and the structure of the spleen,
from the trabecular artery to the trabecular vein. Small branches of these
arteries are called central arterioles and become enclosed within a
sheath of lymphoid cells, the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath (PALS) in
white pulp. B cells in these sheaths can form nodules as the largest
masses of white pulp, and around these nodules are located the marginal
zone sinuses. Emerging from the white pulp, the central arteriole
branches as the penicillar arterioles, which lead to sheathed capillaries.
From these, blood flows into either a closed circulation passing directly
into splenic sinuses (S) or an open circulation, being dumped from the
vasculature into the lymphoid tissue of the red pulp’s splenic cords. From
there viable blood cells reenter the vasculature through the walls of the
sinuses.
Structure and function of splenic sinusoids.
The endothelial stave cells that line the sinusoids in red pulp are long cells
oriented lengthwise along the sinusoids. (a) SEM clearly shows the parallel
alignment of the stave cells (S), as well as many macrophages (M) in the
surrounding red pulp (R). (X500) (b) A silver-stained section of spleen shows dark
reticular fibers in the splenic cords (C) and wrapped around the sinusoids (S). The
sinusoidal basement membrane is highly discontinuous and open to the passage
of blood cells. (X400) (c) Diagram showing these components of splenic sinusoids,
with the structures resembling a loosely organized wooden barrel. In the open
circulation mode of blood flow, blood cells dumped into the splenic cords move
under pressure or by their own motility through the spaces between stave cells,
reentering the vasculature and soon leaving the spleen via the splenic vein. Cells
that cannot move between the stave cells, mainly effete erythrocytes, are
removed by macrophages.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Histology- Male Reproductive System

Systems-based Histology- Male Reproductive System 1

The Sertoli cell and its relationship to adjacent spermatogenic cells.
This drawing shows the Sertoli-to-Sertoli junctional specialization between adjacent Sertoli cells and the Sertoli-to-spermatid junctional
specialization between the Sertoli cell and late spermatids. The Sertoli-to-Sertoli junctional complex is an adhesion device that includes a tight
junction that contributes to the blood-testis barrier. The junctional specialization between the Sertoli cell and late spermatids residing in deep
recesses within the apical cytoplasm is an adhesion device only. Lateral processes of the Sertoli cells extend over the surface of the
spermatocytes and spermatids. Note the ultrastructural features of the Sertoli cell, including the microtubule arrays and characteristic shape
of the nucleus and its karyosome.
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Explanatory Figure: General Embryology- Third week of development

Ectoderm

Formation of trilaminar germ disc. Trilaminar germ disc.

Showing invagination of epiblast cells. The first cells to move inward Formation of all three germ layers. Prenotochordal cells migrate

displace the hypoblast to create the definitive endoderm. Once
definitive endoderm is established, inwardly moving epiblast forms
mesoderm.
General Embryology- 6
through the primitive streak, become intercalated in the endoderm
to form the notochordal plate, and finally detach from the endoderm
to form the definitive notochord. Because these events occur in a
cranial-to-caudal sequence, portions of the definitive notochord are
established in the head region first.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Embryology- Reproductive System

Systems-based Embryology- Reproductive System 1

Development of gonads showing cortical and medullary cord.
A. Transverse section of the ovary at the seventh week, showing degeneration of the primitive (medullary) sex cords and formation of the
cortical cords. B. Ovary and genital ducts in the fi fth month. Note degeneration of the medullary cords. The excretory mesonephric tubules
(efferent ductules) do not communicate with the rete. The cortical zone of the ovary contains groups of oogonia surrounded by follicular cells.
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Explanatory Figure: Systems-based Embryology- Reproductive System

Systems-based Embryology- Reproductive System 2

Genital ducts in the sixth week in the male A and female B.
The mesonephric and paramesonephric ducts are present in both. Note the excretory tubules of the mesonephros and their relation to the
developing gonad in both sexes.
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